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ESDEPWG10
COMPOSITECONSTRUCTION

Lecture10.9:CompositeBuildings
OBJECTIVE/SCOPE
Togiveanintroductiontocompositebuildingstructurestodescribetheelements,theconnections,thefabricationandtheinteractionofthe
elementsandtodiscussthestructuralsystemsused.
PREREQUISITES
Lecture10.1:CompositeConstructionGeneral
RELATEDLECTURES
Lecture10.2:BehaviourofBeams
Lecture10.3:SingleSpanBeams
Lecture10.4:ContinuousBeams
Lecture10.6:ShearConnection
Lecture10.8:CompositeColumns
SUMMARY
Thislectureprincipallydiscussesthetypesofcompositebuildingstructuresgenerallyused,andtheirmethodsoferection.Theoptimum
arrangement(accordingtocurrentpractice)forbeamsandcolumns,isgiven.Differentshapesofbeams,andtheconnectionsofdeckstobeams,
andofbeamstocolumnsandtowalls,arediscussed.Somestructuraldetailsaregivenwhichexploittheshapeofthestructuralelement.The
behaviourofthecompositeelementsunderseismicconditionsorsubjecttovibrationsisdiscussed,andthepotentialforfurtherresearchinthis
fieldishighlighted.

1.INTRODUCTION
Thestructuralsystemofabuildingisacomplexthreedimensionalassemblyofinterconnecteddiscreteorcontinuousstructuralelements.The
primaryfunctionofthestructuralsystemistocarryalltheloadsactingonthebuildingeffectivelyandsafelytothefoundation.Thestructural
systemisthereforeexpectedto:
Carrydynamicandstaticverticalloads.
Carryhorizontalloadsduetowindandearthquakeeffects.
Resiststressescausedbytemperatureandshrinkageeffects.
Resistexternalorinternalblastandimpactloads.
Resist,andhelpdampvibrationsandfatigueeffects.
Inadditionanystructuralsystemisusuallysubjecttothefollowingconstraints.Itshould:
conformwiththearchitecturalrequirementsandthoseoftheuserorowner,orboth.
facilitate,asappropriate,theservicesystems,suchasheating,ventilationandairconditioning,horizontalandverticalcabling,andother
electricalandmechanicalsystems.
facilitatesimpleandfasterectionofthebuilding.
haveadequateresistancetofire.
enablethebuilding,foundationandgroundtointeractproperly.
beeconomical.
Steelconcretecompositesystemsforbuildingsarecomposedofconcretecomponentsthatinteractwithstructuralsteelcomponentswithinthe
samesystem.Bytheirintegralbehaviour,thesecomponentsgivetherequiredattributesofstrength,stiffnessandstabilitytotheoverallsystem.
Compositemembers,asindividualelementsofasystem,havebeeninuseforaconsiderablenumberofyears.Theyconsistofcompositebeams
ortrusses,encasedorfilledcompositecolumns,andsteeldeckreinforcedcompositeslabs.Thesemembersaregenerallyusedinsteelstructures,
andtheirdevelopmentascompositemembersisbasedonutilizingtheconcretethatwouldnormallyberequiredforfloorslabswithsteelbeams,
orthatwouldberequiredforfireprotectiveencasementswithsteelcolumns.

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Inmostinstances,thecontributionofacompositemember,whichisdevelopedtosupportonlygravityloads,hasbeenignoredintheoverall
systemresistanceforlateralwindorearthquakeloads.Thedevelopmentofanoverallsystemapproach,wherereinforcedconcreteandstructural
steelcomponentscanbeusedaseffectivecontributingpartsofthewholesystem,isrelativelyrecent.Considerablepotentialexistsforevolvinga
varietyofnewstructuralsystemsinthisway.
Fortypicalstructuralsystemsusedinbuildingconstruction,whethertheyaresteel,concreteorcomposite,thereareseveralsubsystems,or
components,commontoall.Thesesubsystemscanbegroupedasfollows:
1.Floorsystems.
2.Verticalloadresistingsystems.
3.Horizontalloadresistingsystems.
4.Structuralconnections.
Section3discussesthesesystemsindetail,concentratingonhorizontalloadresistingsystemsandstructuralconnections.Thesetopicsarenot
coveredbypreviouslectures.
Thechoiceofasteel,concrete,orcompositesystemforanyparticularprojectdependsnotonlyonsystemefficiency,materialavailability,cost,
constructionmethods,andlabour,butalsoonplanning,architectural,andaestheticcriteria.Itisthusimpossibletoreachdefinitiveconclusions
solelyonthebasisofastructuralsystemevaluation.Section2describesseveralcompositestructuralsystemsthathaveusedsuccessfullyon
commercialbuildingprojects.

2.COMPOSITEACTIONBETWEENSTRUCTURALELEMENTSINBUILDINGS
Compositeactionbetweenthevariousstructuralelementsinastructurealwaysexistswhentheyarecontinuous(monolithicorconnectedby
shearconnectors).Dependingonthesizeofthebuilding,certainsimplificationsmaybemadetoapproximatetheirinteraction,asisolated
structuralcomponents,inaconservativemanner.Theuseofhigherstrengthmaterialsandcompositeactionareimportantfactorsinmaking
entiresystemsworkeconomically.Tallbuildingsrequireadditionalconsiderationssuchasslenderness,flexibility,andsensitivitytodifferential
effects(heightisnottheonlycriterionfor"tallness").
Steelandconcretearethemajormaterialsusedincompositesystems.Althoughtheyhaveseveraldissimilarphysicalcharacteristics,itis
possibletousethemtogether,beneficially,indifferentways.
Anumberofsystemshavebeendevelopedinthelastfewdecadeswhichsuccessfullycombinesteelandconcrete.Thefollowingcomposite
systemshavebeenusedforawiderangeofbuildings:
1.Framestructure:Framestructurescanbeeitherrigidorflexible,dependingontherelativerigidityofbeamswithrespecttocolumns.In
thecaseofarigidsystem,boththeseelementsareconnectedtoeachotherrigidlytotransmitlateralloadstothefoundation.Inaddition,
slabsprovidetransversestiffnesstotheentiresystematthefloorlevels.
2.Shearwallstructure:Withintheprecedingframestructure,asystemofshearwallsmaybeprovidedinthedirectionoflateralforcesto
helptransmitthemtothefoundation.Theshearwallstypicallysurroundcertainservices,suchaselevatorsorstairs,andsoserveadoubly
usefulpurpose.Asuitablecombinationofshearwallandframesystemcanserveasaveryusefulloadtransmittingsystemforbothvertical
andhorizontalforces.However,forcertaincases,theneedforadequateductilitymustbeinvestigated.
3.Staggeredshearwallsystem:Shearwallsinthissystemarestaggeredfromfloortofloor.Thewallssupportfloorsbothaboveandbelow,
andbyvirtueofstaggeringtheycanhelpcreatethelargeopenareasneededinacommercialbuilding.
4.Tubularsystem:Thetubularsystemcombinescharacteristicsoftheprecedingthreesystems.Itactsasarigidbutperforatedtube,which,
bymeansofitsmonolithicactionandrigidity,transmitsboththetransverseandverticalforcestothefoundation.Dependingontheheight
ofthebuilding,theshearwall(asacore)maybecombinedwiththeexternaltubestructure.Thisisknownasa"frametube"structure.

3.BUILDINGCOMPONENTS
Everybuilding,whetheritislargeorsmall,musthaveastructuralsystemcapableofcarryingallkindsofloadsvertical,horizontal,
temperature,etc.Inprinciple,theentireresistingsystemofthebuildingshouldbeequallyactiveunderalltypesofloading.Inotherwords,the
structureresistinghorizontalloadsshouldbeabletoresistverticalloadsaswell,andmanyindividualelementsshouldbecommontobothtypes
ofsystems.

3.1FloorStructures
Floorstructuresareresponsibleforalargepercentageofthecostofbuildings.
Floorstructurescanbebuiltusingelementsofsteelandreinforcedconcreteinvariouscombinations.
Structuralfloorsystemsare,ofcourse,influencedbythematerialused,butinallcasestheyareacombinationofslabsandjoistsorsecondary
beams(floorbeamsinthecaseoflargerspacing).Thecharacteristicelement,forthewholefloorstructure,isthefloorslabwhosethicknessand
reinforcementisdependentuponthespan,theloadingandthesupportconditions.
Incategorizingtypesoffloorslabs,thefollowingstructuralsystemsmaybedistinguished:twowaysystemsonewaysystemsandbeamand
slabsystems(Figures13).

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3.1.1Floors
Floorstaketheformofconcreteslabsofvarioustypes,spanningbetweenfloorbeams.Thetypesgenerallyusedare(Figure4):
a.Precastconcreteslabswhicharenotcompositewiththebeams.
b.Insituconcreteslabsonconventionalremovableshuttering,actingcompositelywiththefloorbeams.
c.Insituconcreteslabscastoverthinpermanentformwork/precastconcreteslabs,toformacompositeslabwhichalsoactscompositelywiththe
floorbeams.
d.Insituconcreteslabscastontopermanentmetaldecking,actingcompositelywiththefloorbeams.

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Internationally,themostwidelyusedtypeincludesmetaldecking,inwhichthecompositeactionwiththebeamisprovidedbyshearconnectors
weldedthroughthemetaldeckingontothebeamflange.Themainadvantagesofthisformoffloorconstructionarethelightweightofthemetal
deckingenablingittobemanhandledeasilyonsite,anditshighstiffnessandstrengthallowingittosupporttheweightofthewetinsitu
concretewithoutpropping.
Thespanningcapabilityoftheconstructioncanbeextendedbyincreasingtheslabdepth,butthisincreasestheweightofconstruction,andthe
depthofthefloorbeams.Theoveralldepthofthefloorsystemisthereforedeterminedbyabalanceoffactors.Experiencehasshownthatthe
mostefficientfloorarrangementsarethoseusingmetaldeckingaspermanentshutteringspanning2,53,5m,betweenfloorbeams.Forthese
spansthemetaldeckingdoesnotnormallyrequireproppingduringconcretingandtheconcretethicknessesarenearthepracticalminimumof
120to150mm(Figure5).

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3.1.2Floorbeamarrangement
Themostefficientfloorplanisrectangular,notsquare,inwhichmainbeamsspantheshorterdistancebetweencolumnsandcloselyspacedfloor
beamsspanthelongerdistancebetweenmainbeams.Thespacingofthefloorbeamsiscontrolledbythespanningcapabilityoftheconcrete
floorconstruction(Figure5).
3.1.3Compositebeams
Compositebeamsareusuallydesignedassimplysupported,i.e.noaccountistakenofthemomentcontinuityprovidedbythebeamtocolumn
orbeamtobeamconnections.Thisapproachisusedmainlybecauseitgiveseaseofdesignandconstruction.Itisalsoadoptedpartlybecause
adequatestructuralperformancecanbeachievedreadilybydevelopingcompositeactionalone.Thisresultcertainlyholdstrueforbeamspansof
6mto10m,whichformthebulkofthosecurrentlyspecified.
However,thereisnowastrongdemandforlongercolumnfreespansinbuildings,eitherforopenplanningortooffergreaterflexibilityinoffice
layout.Forlongerspans,theselectionoftheappropriatestructuralformismoredifficult.Conventionalsimpleconstructionmaystillbeused,
butoftenthesizeofthebeamsissuchthatthefloorzoneisexcessivelydeep.Thisproblemiscompoundedbytheneedtoincorporateahigh
degreeofservicinginmodernbuildings,mostofwhichislocatedbeneaththestructuralfloorzone.
Variousdesignsolutionsarefeasible(seeTable1),withintwobasicoptions:eitherthestructureandservicesareintegratedwithinthesame
horizontalzone,orthestructuralzoneisminimisedsothattheservicesarepassedbeneath.Thesesolutionsaredescribedasfollows:
a)Rolledsections
Forspansintherangeof6to10m,themostpopular,andinmanycasesthemostappropriateformofconstructionisrolledsections
andsimple,shearonlyconnections.Secondarybeamsat2,4mor3,0mcentressupportlightweightcompositefloorslabs,between
115and130mmthickness,andspanontoprimarybeamswhichinturnframedirectlyontothecolumns.
Thesameformofconstructionmayalsobeusedforlongerspanfloorsbutbeamweightsandcostsincreasetothepointwhereother
formsofconstructionmaybecomemoreattractive.
InFigures6and7twoexamplesaregivenformediumandlongspan.

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Inthelongspanschemethebeamsareofsufficientdepthfortheservicestorunthroughthemasshown.Whilethedesignofsuch
openingsdoesnotpresentanydifficulty,theopeningsaddsignificantlytothecostofconstruction.Ofincreasingconcernto
developersisthefactthatwebopeningsareaninflexiblewayofaccommodatingservices,andcancreatedifficultiesinfitoutfor
specifictenantsorinsubsequentreservicingduringthelifeofthestructure.
b)Fabricatedsections
Thepotentialforweightsavingarisesfromthefreedom,withinpracticallimits,totailorthesectiontosuititsbendingmomentand
shearforceenvelopes.Depth,taperandshape,flangesizeandwebthicknessmayallbeselectedindependentlybythedesigner.
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Fabricatedsectionsaremostlikelytobeeconomicforspansabove12mabovethisspanrolledsectionsareincreasinglyheavy,and
afinetunedfabricatedsectionislikelytoshowsavingsonbothflangesizeandwebthickness.
Wheregirdersofconstantdepthareusedmajorservicesmayhavetopassthroughwebopenings.
Thevariousstructuraloptionsforachievingthetwinaimsoflongspans,andreadyincorporationofserviceswithinnormalfloor
zones,include:
Beamswithwebopenings
Inthismethodofconstruction,thedepthofthesteelbeamisselectedsothatsufficientlylarge,usuallyrectangular
shaped,openingscanbecutintotheweb(Figure8).Forgeneralguidance,itissuggestedthattheopeningsshouldform
nomorethan70%ofthedepthoftheweb,withhorizontalstiffenersweldedaboveandbelowtheopening.Typically,
thelengthoftheopeningsshouldbenotmorethan2timesthebeamdepth.Thebestlocationfortheopeningsisinthe
lowshearzoneofthebeam.Astepbystepmethodofdesignhasbeendevelopedtocopewiththelocalproblemswhich
arise.

Fabricatedbeamswithtaperedwebs
Thetaperedwebbeamisdesignedtoprovidetherequiredmomentandshearresistanceatallpointsalongthebeam.
Thevoidscreatedadjacenttothecolumnscanbeusedformodestlysizedserviceruns.Typically,taperedbeamsare
mosteconomicforspansof13to20m.Theplatesizescanbeselectedforoptimumstructuralperformance.Theplates
areweldedinanautomaticsinglesidedsubmergedarcprocessthickerwebsareweldedbydoublesidedfilletwelds.
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Webstiffenersareoftenrequiredatthechangeofsectionwhentaperanglesexceedapproximately6o.Typicaltapered
beamsareshowninFigure8b.

Stubgirders
Architecturaldemandforsquarecolumngridswithspacingsof10to12mledtothedevelopmentofstubgirder
construction.Thestubgirdercomprisesabottomchord,whichactsintension,andaseriesofshortbeamsections(or
stubs)whichconnectthebottomchordtotheconcreteslab.Secondarybeamsspanacrossthebottomchordandcanbe
designedascontinuousmembers.Voidsarecreatedadjacenttothestubsforservices.Thisformofconstructionis
illustratedinFigure8c.

Themajordisadvantageoftheconventionalstubgirderisthatitrequirestemporaryproppinguntiltheconcretehas
gainedadequatestrengthforcompositeaction.However,itispossibletointroducealightsteeltopchord,suchasaT
section,whichactsincompression,todeveloptherequiredbendingresistanceofthegirderduringexecution.
Castellatedbeams
Castellatedbeamscanbeusedeffectivelyforlightlyservicedbuildingsorforaestheticreasons,wherethestructureis
exposed.Compositeactiondoesnotsignificantlyincreasetheresistanceofthebeamsbutincreasestheirstiffness
(Figure9).
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Castellatedbeamshavelimitedshearresistanceandarebestusedaslongspansecondarybeamsorwhereloadsare
relativelylow.
Theirprimaryusehasbeenaslongspanroofbeams,theirattractiveshapeoftenbeingexpressedarchitecturally.Their
combinationofhighbendingstiffnessandstrengthperunitweight,withrelativelylowshearresistance,isidealfor
carryinglightloadsoverlongspans.Ascompositefloorbeams,theirusageislimitedbyshearresistance.Itisvery
unlikelythattheycouldbeused,forexample,astheprimarybeamsinagrillagebecausetheassociatedshearswould
leadeithertostiffeningorinfillingoftheendopenings.Bothtypesofstrengtheningincreasecosttothepointwhere
othertypesofbeamwouldbemoreeconomical.
Compositetrusses
Compositetrusses,anestablishedformofconstructioninNorthAmerica,arebeginningtobeusedmorewidely
elsewhere.Althoughfabricationcostsaresignificantlygreaterthaninmanyotherformsofconstructiontheydohave
thefollowingadvantages.
theydonotrequireanyspecialfabricationequipment.Anyreputablefabricatorcan,therefore,beinvitedtotender,
thusimprovingcompetitionandcosts.
theyofferplentyofspacetoaccommodateservices,particularlyiftheWarrenormodifiedWarrenlayoutisadopted
(Figure10).

theycanbedesignedwithaVierendeelpanelatmidspan(whereshearsarelowevenundernonsymmetricloading)
thispanelcanaccommodateanairconditioningduct.
Theprincipaldisadvantage,otherthantheincreasedfabricationcost,isthattheyaredifficulttoprotectfromfire.
Sprayedprotectionsystemsaremessywhilethealternativeofwrappingislabourintensive.
Compositetrussesareonlylikelytobethepreferredsolutionforspansinexcessof12m.Theycanreadilybedesigned
forunproppedconstruction.Wherethetrussissupportingbeams,thereisnolocalbendinginthetopchordanditcan
usuallybesizedjustfortheconstructioncondition,makingitconsiderablylighterthanthebottomchord.Wherethe
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trusssupportsthecompositefloorslabdirectly,thetopchordalsohastobedesignedforbendingunderlocalloads.For
economyoffabricationitisessentialthatthechordsectionsarechosensothatgussetscanbeavoided.EitherTeeor
RHSsectionsareusuallychosenwithsingleordoubleanglesaswebmembers.
c)Parallelbeamapproach
Incontrasttomanyoftheothersolutions,itisthesecondarybeamthatspansthegreaterdistanceintheparallelbeamapproach.A
verysimpleformofconstructionresultsassecondarybeamsrunovertheprimarybeamsandachievecontinuitywithoutcomplex
connections.Theprimaryorspinebeamsalsoachievecontinuitysimplybybeingusedinpairs,eachpassingeithersideofthe
columnsshearistransferredintothecolumnsbymeansofbrackets.This"offset"construction,showndiagrammaticallyinFigure
11,wheremembersarelaidoutinthethreeorthogonaldirectionsdeliberatelytomisseachother,enablescontinuityofthebeamsto
beachievedwithoutthehighcostofmomentresistingconnections.Thisarrangementimprovesstructuralefficiencyand,of
particularimportanceforlongspanconstruction,stiffness.Beamlengthsarelimitedonlybyhandlingandtransportation
requirements.Thenumberofcomponentsissignificantlylowerthanforconventionalconstruction.Asaresultbotherectiontime
andcostaresaved.Becausecontinuityissuchanintegralpartoftheapproach,itisprimarilyapplicableformultibaylayouts.

Superficially,thisapproachappearstoleadtodeeperconstruction.However,becauseofcontinuity,theprimaryandsecondary
beamscanbothbeveryshallow,relativetothespans,andoveralldepthsarecomparabletothoseinconventionalconstruction.Most
importantly,theseparationofthetwobeamdirectionsintodifferentplanescreatesanidealarrangementfortheaccommodationof
services.Bothmajorandminorservicescansharethesameportionofthefloorzoneasthebeamstowhichtheyareparallel,with
verticalcrossoversbetweenthetwodirections.Amplespaceisobtained,evenfortotalairconditioning,withacomfortableloosefit
betweenstructureandservices.
d)Haunchedbeams
Intraditionalmultistoreysteelframes,theconventionalwaytoachieveeconomyistouse"simple"design.Beamsareabout20%
heaviercomparedtoarigidlyjointedframebutcolumnsaretypically40%lighter,andconnectioncostsaresignificantlyreduced.
This"heavybeam/lightcolumn"structuremakeseconomicsensewhentheweightofthebeamsissimilartothatofthecolumns.
Haunchedbeamsaregenerallydesignedbyformingarigidmomentconnectionbetweenthebeamsandcolumns.Thedepthofthe
haunchisselectedprimarilytoprovideaneconomicmethodoftransferringmomentintothecolumn.Thelengthofthehaunchis
selectedtoreducethedepthofthebeamtoapracticalminimum.Theextraservicezonecreatedbeneaththebeambetweenthe
haunches,offersflexibilityinservicelayout.

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Atedgecolumns,itwouldnotbenormalpracticetodevelopadditionalcontinuitythroughtheslabreinforcementthis,however,is
anoptionatinternalcolumns.Thisformofconstructioncanbeusedforswayframes,i.e.whereverticalbracingorconcreteshear
wallsorcoresarenotprovided,andispracticalforbuildingsupto5storeysinheight.Examplesofhaunchedcompositebeamsare
showninFigure12.

Wherethestructureisbracedagainstsidesway,and"plastic"sectionsareused,itispossibletoanalysethestructureplasticallyfor
theultimatelimitstate.Beamscanbesizedonthebasisofnegativemomenthingesattheinnerendsofthehaunches,whichshould
beminimisedinlengthtoreducecolumnbending.Wherehaunchedbeamsarebeingusedaspartofaswayframe(aformof
constructionforwhichtheyareideal)elasticglobalanalysisshouldbeused.Theartofdesignofelastic/plasticswayframeshasstill
notadvancedtothestagewhereitcanbecarriedoutinthedesignoffice.Useofelasticanalysiswillincreaseweightssubstantially
comparedtoaplasticanalysis.Theresultingincreasedstiffnesswillassistswaystiffnessandcriticalloadfactoraswellasvertical
stiffness,deflectionandfloorvibrationresponse.
e)Prestressedsteelbeams

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Essentiallythesebeamswork,incompositeconstructionontheprincipleofinducinganinitialprestressconditionwhichlater
counteractsthatduetotheserviceload.
Prestressingcanbeachievedinthreeways:prestressingcomponentswithhighstrengthtendons,"preflex"beams,andhybridbeams
prestressedinternally.
Prestressingofsteelbeamsisachievedwithhighstrengthtendonsorcablesintwoways:(1)byplacingthembelowthecentreof
gravityofthebeamandattachingthemtothebeamatitsend,whichresultsinconstantprestressor(2)bydrapingthetendons
alongthelengthofthebeam(Figures13and14).

Figures15and16illustrateamethodofprestressing,wherebyasteelbeamisfirstdeflected,afterwhichaconcreteslabiscast
againstthebeam.Inthetopviewthejackingforcesareappliedinadownwarddirection,toasteelbeamwhichhasbeencambered
upward.Inthebottomview,aconcreteslabiscastcompositewiththelowerportionofthebeam,andfollowingcuringthejacking
forcesareremoved.Thisactioninducescompressiveforcesintheconcrete.Thismethodhasbeenpatented(preflexsystem).

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Inthecaseofprestressedsteelhybridbeams,thetensionisappliedtoahighstrengthcoverplatetoinducethedesiredprestressinto
theremainingportionofabeammadeofmediumgradestructuralsteel.Theprestressisappliedbyweldingthehighstrengthplate
afterstressingitdirectlyorbydeflectingtheremainingbeam.Bothtechniquescausethebeamtobeprestressedafterreleaseof
externalload.Themainadvantageofsuchprestressingisthatitpermitsmoreefficientuseofhybridsections,withintheCode
limitationsandspecificationsforelasticdesignofhomogeneousmembers(Figures17and18).

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ThereisnoCodeofPracticeforthesetypesofprestressedbeams.
3.1.4Thestructuraldepth
Themaintenanceofoverallstructuralfloordepthwithinabuilding,isanimportantobjectiveinsimplifyingthecoordinationofthemechanical
andelectricalservicesandthebuildingfinishes.Fortherangeofstructuralgridsusedinconventionalbuildings,traditionalsteelfloor
constructionisgenerallydeeperthantheequivalentreinforcedconcreteflatslab.Thedifferenceisgenerally100200mmforfloorstructures
whichutilizecompositeactionandgreaterfornoncompositefloors.Theincreaseddepthisonlyatthebeamposition:elsewhere,between
beams,thedepthismuchlessandthespacebetweenthemisusableforservices,particularlyifthebeamscanbepenetrated.Thegreaterdepthof
steelconstructiondoesnotnecessarilyresultinanincreaseinbuildingheightiftheservicesareintegratedwithinthebuildingzoneoccupiedby
thestructure.However,integratedsystemsrequiringnumerousandirregularpenetrationsthroughthebeams,maycostmoretofabricate.Figure
19showspossiblesolutionsforintegratedsystemswhichovercomethisdifficulty.

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Depthmaybereduced,however,byutilizingrigidorsemirigid,ratherthansimpleconnectionsattheendofthebeams.Suchconnectionsallow
thebeambendingmomentstobemoreuniformlydistributedandthebeamdeflectiontobereduced.
Thedepthmayalsobereducedbyusinghigherstrengthsteel,butthisisonlyofadvantagewheretheelementdesigniscontrolledbystrength.
Thestiffnesscharacteristicsofbothsteelsarethesame.Hence,wheredeflectionorvibrationgovern,noadvantagewillbegainedbyusing
higherqualitymaterials.
3.1.5Assessmentcriteria
Table1givessomeassessmentcriteriafortheprincipalstructuralschemesthatusecompositebeams.Mostofthesecriteriaarebasedondirect
experienceortheyaretheoutcomeofdesignstudies.Thustheyarenotexclusiveanditispossibletoworkoutsidetheseranges.

3.2FramingSystemstoResistHorizontalLoads
Animportantcharacteristicofabuildingistherelativeimportanceofthelateralloadresistingandstabilisingsystems.Thenormallateralloads
arethoseduetowindandearthquake.Thecolumnsofatallbuildingmustbestabilised,orlaterallysupported,byalateralbracingsystem.The
lateralbracingsystemmustresistdeformationsassociatedwiththeoutofstraightnessandoutofplumbofthestructuralmembersandthe
deformationassociatedwithlateralforces(PDeffect).
Forlowandmediumrisestructures,analysisanddesigngenerallyinvolvescheckingtheverticalloadresistantsystemforitsabilitytoresist
lateralforces.
Inbroadtermstherearethreefundamentaltypesoflateralresistingelements:
1.Momentresistantframes
2.Bracedframes
3.Shearwalls
Thethreefundamentalelementsaregenerallyinverticalplanesandmaybeplacedinoneormoreofthreelocations:(1)Exterior(perimeter)
(2)interiorand(3)core.Mostbuildingstructuresincludeseveraloftheseelements.Thefirsttwotypesarerelevanttocompositeconstruction,
andarenowdiscussed:
CompositeMomentResistantFrames

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Compositeframesmayconsistofsteelbeamsrigidlyconnectedtoconcretecolumns,orconcretebeamsrigidlyconnectedtosteel
columns.However,thetermcompositehasnormallybeenappliedtoframeswherethebeamsorcolumns,orboth,asindividual
members,areofcompositeconcreteandsteelconstruction.
Inasteelframesystem,thegirdersalongcolumnlinesfunctionaspartofacontinuousframe,sothatreversebendingand
consequentlynegativemomentsduetogravityandlateralloadsareincluded.
Amorefeasibleformofanunbracedcompositesteelframeusesthenormalconstructionofarigidframe,withuncasedcomposite
beams,andreinforcementinthenegativemomentareas.Shearstudsareprovidedovertheentirebeamlengthtodevelopmoment
resistanceinthepositiveandnegativemomentregionsofthebeam.
CompositeBracedFrames
Compositebracedframesmaybeoftwotypes:(1)Steeldiagonalbracingmaybeaddedtoaconcreteframeor,muchlessoften,
concretediagonalbracingmaybeaddedtoasteelframeand(2)compositesteelandconcretelinearmembersmaybeusedas
elementsoftheframe.Theflexibilityofabracedframeincludesthedeformationofthecolumnsandbeams,aswellasdiagonal
bracesthatarepartoftheframe.Ifasteelcolumnisencasedinconcrete,areductionindeflectionofthebracedframemaybe
achieved.Ifconcreteiscastaroundthebeam,orifthebeamismadecompositewiththefloorslab,thereduceddeformationofthe
beamwillreducethedeflectionofthebracedframe.Concreteencasementofbothcolumnsandcompositefloorbeamshasbeen
commonlyused.
Compositecolumns
Compositecolumnsmayconsistofeither:(1)Concreteencasedstructuralsteelshapesor(2)Concretefilledtubularsteelsections.
Concreteencasedsteelcolumnsarecommon.Theconcreteencasementhasoftenbeenconsideredasonlyfireandcorrosion
protectionforthesteel.However,inrecentyears,lateralandsometimeslongitudinalreinforcementhasbeenaddedtotheconcrete
encasement,andtheresultantstrengthofthesteelandconcreteinteractinghasbeenusedforstructuralpurposes.Asteelshape,
encasedinconcrete,maybethoughtofasreinforcementfortheconcrete.
Concretefilledtubularsteelcolumnshavebeenpopularforuseasindividualcolumnelements.Theconfinedconcretefillincreases
theaxialloadresistancebuthaslittleeffectontheflexuralresistance.Forthatreason,itisunlikelythatthesecolumnswouldbea
goodchoiceforamomentresistingframe.

3.3Connections
Thebeamtocolumnconnectionsplayanimportantpartintheoverallstabilityofanyframe.Theyshouldbesimple,withasmuchworkas
possibleperformedintheworkshops,therebyminimisingsitework.Foreconomicreasonstheseconnectionsaregenerallymadewithbolts.On
rigidframesthebeamtocolumnconnectionsaremadeusinghighstrengthfrictiongripbolts,oralternativelytheyarewelded.
Ingeneral,theseconnectionshaveevolvedfromconnectionsdevelopedforsteelframedstructuresandaredesignedusingsimilarprocedures.
Compositebeamtosteelcolumn
Themainproblemindesigningacompositebeamtosteelcolumnconnection,isinassessingthebehaviourandcontributionofthe
slabtoajointthatismainlyunderhorizontalloading.Whengravityloadingaloneisappliedtoaframe,positivebendingmoment
usuallydevelopsatmidspan,andnegativemomentattheendsofthebeams.Therefore,itiscustomarytoassumethatcomposite
actiontakesplaceonlyinthepositivemomentregionofthebeam.However,whenlateralloadsaresubsequentlyapplied,thetotal
bendingmomentatthewindwardendofabeammaychangeitssign,andthestructuralbehaviourofthebeammaysuddenlychange
atthecolumnline.Whensuchapositivemomentregiondevelopsnexttoacolumn,thecompressionintheconcretesideofthe
compositebeamistransmittedprimarilybybearingonthecolumnfaceandpartlybytorsionofthetransversebeams.
Johnsonandhiscolleaguesreportedresultsoftestsoncertaintypesofsemirigidjoint(Figure20).Thisjointdiffersfromconventionalsemi
rigidjointsinseveralways.Thecontinuouslongitudinalreinforcementintheslabisplacedclosetothecolumn.Highstrengthfrictiongripbolts
areusedatpointGinthejoint,toresistaforceFinlongitudinalcompression.ThejointmustbedesignednottoslipatpointGwhensubjectto
serviceloads,soifhighstrengthboltsarenotusedthenpackingmayberequiredatH.Theboltsthatconnecttheangletothecolumnflangeare
designedtocarrythetotalverticalshear.Thecompositebeamisdesignedascontinuous,usingsimpleplastictheory.Shearconnectorsare
providedtotransfertheforceFfromtheslabtothesteelbeam.Thetestsshowedthatthistypeofsemirigidjointhasawelldefinedflexural
resistanceandamuchgreaterrotationcapacitythanarigidjoint.

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Thecharacteristicsoftheseconnectionsmeetgeneralrequirementsforeconomicconstructionandaresummarisedasfollows:
a)Cheaptofabricateandstraightforwardtoerectonsite.
b)Capableofbehavingasahingeduringtheconnectingofthefloors.
c)Rigiduptoacertainpredeterminedmoment.
d)Capableofrotatingatthepredeterminedmoment.
e)Capableoftransmittingsheartothecolumnwhileundergoingthisrotation.
AnothertypeofsemirigidconnectionisshowninFigure21.Othercasesaredescribedbelow.

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Compositebeamtoencasedcolumn.
Thebehaviourofacompositebeamtoencasedcolumnconnection,appearstobethatofacompositebeamtosteelcolumn
connection.However,theconcentrationofslabstressnearthecolumnflangemaybelower.
Connectionstobothexteriorandinteriorcolumnsofbuildingframeswereinvestigated.Therolledbeamswereattachedtothesteel
columncorebyplatedandweldedjoints(Figure22).Asatisfactoryconnectionisobtainedwhenthesteelbeamisfullyweldedto
thecolumnflange.Sincethebeamsaresubjectedtonegativemoment,theconcreteslabisintensionandcracksearlyintheload
history.Abovethecrackingload,thelongitudinalslabreinforcementcontributestocompositebehaviour.

Atinteriorcolumns,satisfactorycompositebehaviourisachievedinthebeamswhenthelongitudinalreinforcementconsistssimply
ofstraightcontinuousbars.Atexteriorcolumns,slabfailuresoccurwhenthestraightbarsarecutoffattheendoftheslab.
Satisfactorybehaviourisobtainedwhenthebarsareanchoredexternallytoaheavycrossbar,orwhenthereinforcement
arrangementinFigure23isadopted.
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Encasedbeamstoencasedcolumns
Beamtocolumnjointsinbuildingsareusuallymadebywelding,becausesuchrigidconnectionsareeasilydesigned.
Diaphragmsareusuallyneededtopreventlocaldeformationneartoflangeconnections,becausetheconcreteencasementcannot
completelypreventit.Sincealargediaphragmoftenhinderspouringofconcreteintocolumns,severaltypesofstiffeners,shownin
Figure24,havebeenused.

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Intypicaldesigns,mostofthebendingmomentinabeamiscarriedbythesteelsectionandtherestbythereinforcedconcrete.Ina
column,however,theshareofmomentinthesteelsectionissmallerthanforabeam.Thisdistributionresultsinalargersteel
sectionforthebeamthanfortheconnectedcolumn.Inthiscasetherearisesthequestionofwhetherthestressesinthesteelbeam
sectioncanbetransferredsafelytotheconnectedcolumn.Accordingtotests,atleast40%to50%ofthebendingmomentina
columnmustberesistedbythesteelsection.Ifthecolumnsteelsectionistoosmalltocarrythispercentageofthemoment,aspecial
detailisneeded.
Compositebeamtoreinforcedconcretecolumn
Themainproblemwithacompositebeamtoreinforcedconcretecolumnconnectionistofindaneffectivedeviceforanchoringthe
steelbeamintothereinforcedconcretecolumn.
Aseriesoftestswascarriedoutoncompositebeamsframingintoexteriorcolumnsofreinforcedconcrete.Thesetestshaveshown
thataneffectiveconnectionbetweenacompositebeamandareinforcedconcretecolumncanbeobtained,provideddueallowance
ismadeforlargeanchoragestresses.Thehorizontalforces,formingthebeamcouple,weretransmittedtothecolumnwithvarying
degreesofsuccess:bynaturalbondbetweenthesteelbeamflangesandtheconcrete,withorwithoutshearconnectorsbyanchorage
barsandbya"hammerhead"orshortpieceofbeamembeddedinthecolumn.Theverticalshearforce,assumedtransmittedthrough
thebeamwebasaverticalforcetothecolumn,didnotappeartocontributetoanyofthefailures.
Shearconnectorswithinthejoint,shouldbeusedonlywhensufficientaxialloadispresenttocounteractthesplittingstressesthey
induce.Horizontalanchorbars,initiallyunstressed,shouldbeusedmainlyinconnectionstoacontinuouscolumn,orwhenthe
momentofinertiaofthecolumnislargecomparedtothatofthebeamthisrequirementalsoappliestoverticalanchorbars.Details
areshowninFigures25and26.

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Connectionscanalsobeachievedbycorbelsformedonconcretecolumnsorwalls,seeFigure27.

Specialattentionmustbegiventotheconnectionsbetweenthestructuralsteelandtheconcrete.Whendesigningtheseconnections
properallowancemustbemadefortheconstructiontolerancesallowedinboththesteelandconcrete.Adjustabilitymustbe
carefullyworkedouttopreventsiteproblemswithoutbecomingexcessivelyexpensive.Theuseofweldplatescastintheconcrete,
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withfieldweldedconnectionangleshasprovedmostadvantageousinmanyinstances.Pocketsareoftenusedwhenstressesare
almostpurelyvertical,buttheytendtodisruptwallreinforcementandusuallyrequirefillingwithconcrete.Inconnectingsteelto
concrete,theuseofheaderbeams,runningparallelandclosetothewall,isoftendesirabletoreducethenumberofconcretetosteel
connections.Momentconnectionsandconnectionsnotabsolutelyrequiredshouldbeavoided.
Steelbeamtoencasedcolumn
Thesameconclusionsmaybedrawnforsteelbeamtoencasedcolumnconnectionsasforcompositebeamstoencasedcolumns.
However,inthiscasethemomenttransmittedistheplasticmomentofthebaresteelsection.Therotationislimitedbybucklingof
thecompressionflange.
Steelbeamtoconcretefilledtubecolumn
Inasteelbeamtoconcretefilledtubecolumnconnection,itisimportanttopreventbrittlefracturecausedbylocaldeformation.It
wasfoundthatinfilledconcretegivesalargebeneficialeffectbyreducingthelocaldeformationofsteeltubes.Diaphragmscannot
beplacedinsidethetubebecausetheywouldinterferewithplacingtheconcrete.Therefore,thestiffenersareusuallyplacedaround
theoutsideofthetube.Theeffectivestiffenerisassumedtobearingcomposedofthestiffenerandapartofthetube.
Shearstrength
Beamtocolumnconnectionsaresubjectedtohighshearswhenamultistoreystructuralframeundergoesseverelateraltranslations
suchasthoseimposedbystrongearthquakegroundmovements.Instructuralsteelframestheconnectionpanelzonesusuallyhave
tobereinforcedtoresistshear.Inthecaseofconcreteencasedstructuralsteel,however,nospecialshearreinforcementisusually
necessaryintheconnectionpanelzone.Thisreinforcementisnotrequiredbecausetheshearstrengthoftheconcreteinthepanel
zoneiscomparativelylarge,eventhoughdiagonaltensioncracksforminthatregionatrelativelylowloads.
Connectionofprefabricatedcompositeunits
Properlydesignedconnectionsaremostimportantinensuringsafeandeconomicalprecastconcreteencasedsteelstructures.
Theforcesanddeformationstoberesistedbytheconnectionsarisefromgravityloads,andfromlateralloadsduetowindand
seismicforces.Jointsmusthaveenoughductilitytoundergotheexpecteddeformations.Theeffectsofmembervolumechangesdue
tocreep,shrinkageandtemperaturetheeffectsofdifferentialcolumnshorteningandsettlementsandtheeffectsoffabricationand
constructiontoleranceerrors,mustalsobeconsidered.
Loadsforconnectiondesignrequirecarefulconsideration.Moreover,itisrecommendedthatimportantjointshaveenough
resistancetotransmitthefullresistancesofadjoiningmembers.Thedesignforcesonjointsbetweenprefabricatedframeelements
canbeestablishedasaccuratelyasthedesignforcesonjointsofcastinsitureinforcedconcreteframes.However,thedesignforces
betweenpanelelementsarenotaswellestablished,sothelateralloadcoefficientfordesigningpanelelementsmustbelargerthan
thecoefficientforframeelements.

4.ERECTIONMETHODS
Theconstructionmethodstypicallyusedforcompositestructureshavemanyadvantages,bothintermsofeconomyandperformance,asfollows:
1.Rapidconstructiontosuitanearlyscheduleorrapidoccupancyofthestructure.
2.Suitabilityofconstructiontechnique,independentofadverseweatherconditions.
3.Minimuminterferencewithexistingfacilities,duetominimumformworkrequired.
4.Optimumcombinationofprefabricationandinsituconstructiontechnique.
5.Phasedloadingcausingstressingofthestructureatdifferenttimes.
6.Possiblesavingsinfoundationduetosimplificationandmorecompactexcavationoperations.
Inbuildings,compositeactionresultsinamorerigid,stifferstructureandtheencasementofcolumnscanhelpprovidefireprotection.
Althoughtheprinciplesofcompositeconstructiondonotvaryintermsofapplication,theconstructiontechniquesandtheappliedloads
influenceitsuse.
Agoodexampleoftheadvantagesofcompositeconstructionistheuseofprestressedsteel,especiallyinbuildingswheretherearelimitationson
depth.Insuchstructurestemporarypropsaresetupfromcolumnstocauseprestressingofthesteelbeamsabove.Thepropsareremovedafter
theconcretehardens,whichreducestheloadingonthesteelmembersallowingareductionindepthandresultingeconomy.Figure28illustrates
thisconstructiontechnique.

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AsimilarmethodwasdescribedbyDziewolski,usingthebarsactingasinclinedjacks,whichareattachedtotheupperpartofthebeam,see
Figure29.

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Manydifferentconstructionmethodsareusedindifferentcountriesandmanyofthemethodsarepatented.

5.SEISMICDESIGN
Seismicdesignofabuildingstructurerequiresthatallpartsofitrespondnearlysimultaneouslywhensubjectedtogroundmotion.Therefore,
whenearthquakeforcesmustbeconsidered,theireffectsonallbuildingcomponentsmustbeevaluated.Inevaluatingtheseeffects,itmustbe
rememberedthatearthquakemotionsarerandom,andoccurbothhorizontallyandvertically.
Theearthquakeresponseofsteelandcompositebuildingstructuresisasubjectofmuchinterest,becauselocalbucklingofthecompression
flangeisinhibited(bytheshearconnectionbetweenthesteelandconcreteslab),andresistancetolateralbucklingisgreatlyincreased.
Furthermore,concretefilledtubesandencasedrolledsectionspossessmuchhighershearresistancethanreinforcedconcretecolumnsofthe
samesize.Highshearresistanceisveryimportantforseismicstructures,asisductilityatconnections,whichcanalsobereadilyachievedusing
compositebeamsandcolumns.
Research,whichneedstobecontinuedandbroadened,hasshownclearlythatencasedsteelsectionsinreinforcedconcrete,areparticularly
beneficialforearthquakeresistantdesign.However,veryfewstudiesareavailable,atpresent,onthesuitabilityofothertypesofcomposite
structuralsystemsforearthquakeresistantdesign.

6.DYNAMICSENSITIVITY
Shallowerbeamsimplygreaterflexibility.Althoughtheinserviceperformanceofcompositebeamsandfloorsisgood,thedesignermaybe
concernedaboutthesusceptibilityofthestructuretovibrationsinducedbytheactivitieswithinthebuilding.Theparametercommonly
associatedwiththiseffectisthenaturalfrequencyofthefloororbeams.
Alowerlimitof4Hz(cyclespersecond)isacommonlyacceptedlowerboundforthenaturalfrequencyofeachfloorbeam.Thislimithasbeen
usedinDesignTables.Themassoftheflooristakenasitsselfweightandthatofceilingandfinishes,and10%oftheimposedloading.
Partitions,whichincreasethedampingofthestructure,arenotincluded.
Thenaturalfrequency,fr,ofthefloororbeammaybedeterminedfromtheapproximateformulafr=18/dwheredistheinstantaneous
deflection(mm)resultingfromtheselfweightofthefloor(includingtheaboveadditionalloads).A10%reductionindeflectionmaybemadeto
accountfortheincreaseddynamicstiffnessofthecompositebeam.
Inpractice,themassofthefloorstructureisnormallysuchthattheexcitingforceissmallincomparison,andtheresponseofthestructureis
correspondinglysmall.Inmanycircumstancesitcanbedemonstratedthatthenaturalfrequencyofthefloorsystem(primaryandsecondary
beamsandcompositeslab)couldbereducedto3Hz.

7.FIRECONDITION
Thefireresistanceofcompositebeamsisassessedinthesamemannerasfornoncompositebeams.Accordingtosomecodesofpractice,the
limitingtemperatureofthesteelsectioncanbeestablished.Thistemperatureisusedindeterminingtherequiredthicknessoffireprotection.Itis
traditionalpracticetosealthevoidscreatedbythedeckabovethetopflangeofthebeam.Sealingmaynotbenecessaryfordovetailprofiles.

8.CONCLUDINGSUMMARY
Steelandconcrete,properlycombined,resultinaneconomicstructureandthereinliesthesuccessofcompositeconstruction.Secondary
effects,suchasmovementduetoshrinkage,creepandtemperature,shouldbeconsideredwhenusingthisformofconstruction.
Compositeconstructionwasgenerallyacceptedbytheengineeringprofessioninthe1950swhenitwasusedforbridgeconstructioninthe
UnitedStatesandinmanyEuropeancountrieslateron,itsusewasextendedintothebuildingindustry.Considerableresearchonthis
subjecthasbeen,andwillcontinuetobe,carriedoutinmanypartsoftheworld.
Thereismuchscopeforresearchontheuseofcompositestructuresinseismicareas.Experienceshowsthattheypossessmanydesirable
propertiesforearthquakeresistance.Interesthasbeenshownonlyrecentlyinresearchrelatedtothistopic,mainlyinCaliforniaandJapan.
Researchinthefieldoffireresistanceofcompositestructuresisdesirabletomaximisetheirpotentialuse.
Compositestructuresusingprecastconcrete(andevenprestressedconcreteincertainapplications)andsteel,shouldalsohavegood
marketpotentialduetotheeconomythatcanbeachievedbythesecomponentsinsavingtime,labourandmoney.
Thereisnosimpleanswertothequestionofwhatisthebestsystemtobeused.Thecorrectchoicedependsonawiderangeofparameters
thatvarywiththeindividualproject.Experienceofsuchstructuresisoneofthebestguides.

9.ADDITIONALREADING
1.Lawson,R.M.,Designforopeningsinthewebsofcompositebeams,TheSteelConstructionInstitute/CIRIApublication,1987.
2.Owens,G.W.,Designoffabricatedcompositebeamsinbuildings,TheSteelConstructionInstitute,1989.
3.Lawson,R.M.andRackham,J.,Designofhaunchedcompositebeams,TheSteelConstructionInstitute,1989.
4.Brett,P.andRushton,J.,Parallelbeamapproachadesignguide,TheSteelConstructionInstitute,1990.
5.Neil,S.,Johnson,R.,Lawson,R.M.andMullett,D.L.,Designofcompositetrusses,TheSteelConstructionInstitute,1992.
LikelySpanRange

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Accommodationofmajorservices
Indicativedensityoffloor

Estimatedunit

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Scheme

SimpleConstruction
withRolledSections

Asprimary
beams

As
secondary
beams

610,5

818

Economicandpractical
maximumratiosof:
Span/Structuraldepth

Abilitytocontribute
toswayresistance

20

Possible

28

FabricatedSections

Above12

Above12

Indicativedensityoffloor
steelworkforcolumngrids

MaximumX
sectionalareafor
15mspanm2

Flexibilityoflayout
acrossspan

1,7

Good

Loosenessoffit

Poorifweb
openingsused

6mx12m

9mx15m

26

40

15

Possibleifnot
tapered

25

Estimatedunit

costindexfor
fabricatedand
erectedsteelwork

1,0
1,3withreinforced
openings

(Tapered)

(Tapered)

Fair

20

29

1,2

1,9

Nearcolumnlines
only

Anywhereaway
fromcolumnline

Good

23**

28**

1,3

Good

Good

25

38

0,9

Nearmidspanonly
ifpostsremoved

Fair

27

38

1,3

Good

Good

N/A

41

1,4

Nearmidspanonly
forVierendeelpanel

Fair

22

30

1,5

0,9
HaunchedBeams

Above12

Above12

ParallelBeam
Approach

Spinesup
to10,5

Ribsupto
15

25

Good

32

CastellatedSections

N/A

Upto16

StubGirders

1015

N/A

Above12

Above12

3,6

21*

14*

30

18

Notdeveloped

17

13

Possible

16

1,5
1,3

Possible

16
12

5,0
2,8

20

CompositeTrusses

5,3

3,0
2,5

Possible

1,5
1,0

*Secondarybeamsonly
+Includingmainbeams
**Columnweightsalsoincreasedduetoadditionalmoments

Table1:Assessmentofprincipalstructuralschemesforcompositefloors.

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