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Women, Gender Equality and Sports

My name is Danielle Wilson; I am 17 years old and a senior at North Buncombe High School. I
am the youngest of 3 girls born to Connie and Daniel Wilson. I grew up in a military community
and family, where in the early years, women were not a loud to go into combat and were given
jobs that were considered less strenuous. Later on in my dads military career, women became
a more significant figure and were allowed to go into combat and were more accepted in
government and higher military positions. I am not a feminist by any means but a firm believer
that everyone should be accepted for their abilities and given the same opportunities as their
counterpart. For my senior graduation project, I learned to play the game of golf. I choose this
sport because it is typically a male dominated sport and has also been involved in several gender
equality well documented suits.
Thesis Statement
Womens participation in the sports has a long history marked by division and discrimination but
also one filled with major accomplishments and important advances for gender equality and the
empowerment of women and girls.

Societys role is gender stereotyping

Society expects males and females to abide by and fulfill specific gender roles. In
general, males are expected to be strong, independent and athletic, and females are expected to
be quiet, obedient and loving. Society demands us to adhere to the gender order but when the
norms are challenged, labels are given, questions are asked and people are ridiculed. While the
traditional gender stereotypes have remained constant over the centuries, they have also been

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challenged by many women and feminist. One specific area where this has been evaluated and
analyzed is in sports. We are bombarded with gender stereotypes from birth until death. Once a
babys sex is revealed, they are dressed in either pink or blue, given toys: trucks or dolls, and are
referred to a strong and alert or soft and delicate (Malszecki 166, Zimmerman). Males are
expected to demonstrate certain characteristics and behaviors that are masculine, while females
are told to be feminine. Females are expected to wear dresses, cook and clean, raise children,
and remain passive, moral and pure (Zimmerman, Griffin, Sherrow, Wollum). We are deemed
to be the weaker sex physically, mentally and emotionally but are expected to live up to
these specific gender roles that are held by both men and women in society. This expectation
often results in women being dissuaded from lifting weights, sweating, grunting, and competing
is sports and physical activities. Society expects women to be lady-like and not demonstrate
characteristics that are defined as being masculine. When women cross the line and exhibit
these manly traits, their gender identity, sexual orientation and values are questioned (Griffin).
Negative stigmas are often attached to athletic women and are used as a way to control and limit
womens participation in sports. In their works, Woolum and Sherrow highlight how sports have
evolved over time for women. It was not until the 1800s that women started accompanying
their male relatives to sporting events and began to participate in mild exercise sports such as
dancing and ice-skating. After the Civil War, women were finally given the opportunity to
participate in organized sports. Golf and croquet were the first sports to be played by females.
Sweating, physical contact and competition were not considered lady-like and of more concern
was the fact that their reproductive systems had to be protected and these sports were deemed
safe to play (Sherrow, Woolum). With the invention of the bicycle, women had to learn to adapt
to a freer style of dress so they could enjoy cycling, horseback riding, gymnastics and skating.

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This was a major change that not only allowed women to consider pursuing athletics but it also
liberated them in other areas such as attire, roles and profession (Sherrow). By the 1930s,
Mildred Babe Didrikson demonstrated that women could successfully participate in
competitive athletics (Rappoport) and after World War II womens competitive collegiate sports
began to emerge.

From 1960 70s, the womens movement created new attitudes and

demanded equal opportunities, funding and facilities for collegiate women in sports. It was
during this period that Billie Jean King defeated Bobby Riggs, former mens champion, in a
tennis match called the Battle of the Sexes. In the early 1980s, she also admitted to a 7 year
lesbian relationship. Her motivation for both of these significant actions was to prove that
female athletes deserve respect (Rapport). This helped pave the way for Martina Nevratilova
(another American tennis champion), to become the first professional female athlete to publicly
embrace her lesbian identity (Griffin). More recently, increasing number of girls and women are
participating in traditional male sports (Zimmerman). It has been reported that the number of
girls and women participating in recreational and competitive football, boxing and wrestling has
risen some 40% (NCAA). Researchers have also seen a rise in female participation in extreme
sports such as snowboarding, skateboarding and inline skating. Researchers believe that this is
because the generation of those participating in the extreme sports is not as concerned about the
traditional definitions of femininity. Another factor might be that the presence of females in the
extreme sports category has given way for females to break a lot of the stereotypes and barriers,
allowing girls and women the courage and esteem to participate in a wide range of sports and
physical activities.

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Physical and mental benefits of physical activity

Although many of the clinical trials and studies in health research have excluded women,
the data suggest that women derive many health benefits from an active lifestyle. In younger
girls, much emphasis is often placed on physical appearance. It has been reported in sports and
exercise literature that physical prowess is essential in the development of self esteem and
children who consistently found to be obese have a harder time developing self-esteem.
Physical appearance in adolescents is often a determinate in peer acceptance in pre-adolescent
girls. (Boyd).

For older women, it can contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease

which account for one third of deaths among women and half of all deaths amount women over
the age of 50 (Woolum). Physical activity also helps to reduce the effects of osteoporosis, which
women have a higher risk of developing than men. Participation in physical activity aids in the
prevention and/or treatment of other chronic and degenerative diseases associated with aging i.e.
type 2 diabetes, hypertension, arthritis, osteoporosis and cardiovascular disease. It also helps in
the management of weight and contributes to the formation and maintenance of healthy bones,
muscles and joints.
An important role of physical activity in the life of older women lies in prolonging
independence. Much of the physical decline that was presumed an inevitable consequence of
aging is now thought to be the result of inactivity. While no one can guarantee that exercise will
prolong life, it can enhance the quality of life for women who value their independence. Along
with independence, it has also been well researched that participation in sport provides
affirmation of self-empowerment. Participation in sport develops skills such as teamwork, goalsetting, pursuit of excellence in performance and other achievement-oriented behaviors. The
participation of women in sports can therefore be an avenue to promote gender equality and the

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empowerment of women and girls. Today women in sports related leadership roles can mold
attitudes and promote women as leaders and decision-makers in what would traditionally be
male domains. Gender stereotyping has come a long way but there is still more that needs to be
done. Female athletes have a subordinate position in the sports world, thereby perpetuating the
idea that sports and athletics are more suited for the male participant. Gender discrimination will
continue to be challenged but by encouraging women and girls to be physically active, involved
with sports at all levels, and willing to confront traditional femininity, they will overcome.
Inequalities and discrimination of women in sports
One area of sport that best shows the inequality and discrimination of women is in Golf.
In 2012, on the PGA tour, the purse values for the 49 tournaments ranged from $1.5 to 9.5
million with the average purse being $6,054,234 (Shmanske). Comparatively, women in the
same year competed in 28 official LPGA events; their purse values ranged from $1 million to
$3.25 million and averaged $1,746,428. The leading money winner on the PGA tour was Rory
McIlroy who netted yearly earnings of $8,047,952 and the lead money winner on the LPGA tour
made $2,287,080. Are men just better players? Just looking at these figures, one would have a
good case for gender bias in the sport of Golf. One would have to argue that the growth of more
popular players on the PGA tour and the publicity behind each player has contributed to the
growth of interest in mens golf, thus adding more to the purse values for each tournament. On
the other hand, when looking at womens golf, there has not been a stand out women golfer on
the LPGA tour in years, decreasing the following of supporters and therefore lower the purse for
each tournament (Denham).

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Jordyn Weiber, Sarah Robles, Gabrielle Douglas, Missy Franklin, Dana Vollmer are just
a few female athletes have already become household names during the 2016 Olympic Games.
But dont expect their names to come up in advertisements the way Michael Phelps and Ryan
Lochtes will. The Journal of Brand Strategy, believes that the reason female athletes get less
endorsements is for 2 reasons: They arent featured in a way that effectively appeals to the
brands audiences and because many of these elite athletes are only really seen during the
Olympics. Co-author Professor John Antil of University of Delaware described in a press
release the cycle of failure that occurs with female athletic endorsements, The way female
athletes are being used as endorsers negatively impacts their effectiveness and reduces wider
opportunities for other female athletes (Gray). One way that advertisers go wrong is by adding
in the sex factor to female athletes. Research has shown that women, the identifying object for
womens sports and the products that they are to help sell, do not respond well to overlysexualized portrayals of womens sports stars (Gray). Antil, Robinson and Burton pointed to a
2009 Got Milk! ad featuring Olympic medalist Dana Torres in a bikini, as an example of
advertising gone wrong. Respondents suggested this was a poor image for an outstanding
athlete who achieved so much while being a single parent," the researchers wrote. "Featuring
Dana Torres as a middle-aged single mother, able to balance family with work commitments,
might be more effective than highlighting her physical attractiveness at age 40." Another major
barrier to female athletes getting big sponsorships is their lack of visibility during most of the
year. As reported in USA Today, only 1.6 percent of womens sporting events were broadcast in
2010. Broadcasting of womens teams is passed over for mens, which garner more attention and
better ratings. This means that female athletes are generally less recognizable than male athletes,
even though the number of female athletes has substantially increased since Title IX went into

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effect in 1972, and this year the U.S. sent more female Olympians than males to the Rio Olympic
Games. Unfortunately, the lack of attention that these women get during the year means that
their faces just arent as profitable. Today, broadcasts of national events such as the NCAA
Womens Basketball Tournament and the US Open Tennis Championship communicate a
significantly higher level of respect for women and their accomplishments as athletes (Gray).
Announcers, in general, portray women athletes in more positive terms. Production values of
womens sport events have improved and the sexual objectification of women has become less
frequent. Unfortunately, problems still remain. Women are underreported and underrepresented
in sports as evidenced by the fact that 94% of air time is devoted to male dominate sports
whereas 5% is devoted to womens sports.
Evidence based account of gender inequality
Womens golf in the US has been dogged by an image problem for years. Why this
obsession with sex, sexuality and image in womens sport, when quite different standards apply
in mens sports? Money and power are the key components. Golf is expensive to play, more so
to promote and play at a professional level. Sexiness and femininity are commercial assets
according to most, hence preoccupations with image. Players images must be changed to appeal
to corporate executives preconceptions, or to what individuals believe their market wants. This
was well documented in the case of Annika Sorenstam and her being the first women in 58 years
to play in an all-male golf tournament known as The Masters. Persistently asked about the
significance of her decision to play against the 113 men, Sorenstam repeated at a televised press
conference, "I have said all along and I will say it again, that Im just here to test myself because
I love challenges." She compared it to her own personal Mount Everest (Reisinger).

She said

she would not have accepted the invitation "if I was trying to prove something here. Theres no

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way I would like to have the weight of all the women on my shoulders. But, she added, "If I am
a role model for little girls, little boys, men, ladies, whatever, thats great." While Sorenstam
denied the Masters was a battle of the sexes, the event became sensationalized on its own. Some
media compared it to Billie Jean Kings tennis match with Bobby Riggs in 1973. "This is the
largest sporting event that will happen this year," CBS golf producer Lance Barrow told the
press. "Well be talking about this for years." The USA network, expecting soaring ratings,
made arrangements to cover every golf shot on the first 36 holes Thursday and Friday. CBS, with
full weekend coverage, added an hour to its Saturday schedule to review Sorenstams first two
rounds. Nearly 600 journalists from around the globe were credentialed to cover the tournament,
about twice as many as usual, and more than three times what Sorenstam said she is used to on
the LPGA tour. Laura Neal, LPGA manager of communications, said in a phone interview from
the Augusta National Golf Club media center that Sorenstams play was a significant milestone
for womens golf. Neal said Sorenstam deserves all the attention, adding "in fact, I think she
deserves it every week" as an LPGA champion. Asked about the so-called battle of the sexes,
Neal referred to a statement by LPGA Commissioner Ty M. Votaw, who said, "Regardless of
what may be written in the weeks and months to come, this is about Annika challenging herself
and breaking down barriersnever stopping in her quest to improve and test her abilities. "This
sends an empowering and inspiring message to young women and girls everywhere, to set new
goals, to have no boundaries or limitations and to be the very best they can be," Votaw added.
Bob Combs, senior vice president for communications for the PGA Tour, said in a phone
interview from the Masters that his organization strongly supported Sorenstams entry, in part
because of the extra attention it brought to professional golf. "There are more spectators in
general and more women spectators than usual," Combs added. "That exposure has to be good

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for both mens and womens golf." Sorenstams play gave the PGA Tour a chance to display its
gender fairness, after womens rights activists heavily criticized it for sanctioning the Masters
Tournament earlier this year. The Masters is played at the private Augusta National Golf Club,
which does not allow women members. Martha Burk, head of the National Council of Womens
Organizations and leader of the Masters protest, said, in a telephone interview, that she thought
the PGA Tour was "extremely hypocritical. The Masters is much more critical to womens
equity than one woman playing in one tournament." Despite the PGA Tours support, some
PGA players criticized Sorenstams decision. Most vocal was Vijay Singh, ranked seventh in the
world, who said it was "ridiculous" for her to play the Masters. He added that he hoped she
missed the cut and that he would withdraw if he were paired with her. He was not paired with
her, but he withdrew from the tournament anyway, saying he simply wanted a break after
winning his last tournament.

Defending Masters Champion Nick Price also criticized

Sorenstams appearance, calling it publicity stunt (Reisinger). But he later modified his stance,
telling reporters, "She has a big heart. Ill give her that. I dont think I would be able to do (it)."
Sorenstam was paired with rookies Aaron Barber and Dean Wilson, who wore a "Go Annika"
pin during practice rounds. Both commented they were excited to be playing with her, despite
the intense media attention. Her goal was to score around 70 each day in order to make the first
cut and play into the weekend finals. The LPGAs Votaw has said that regardless of how well
Sorenstam performs at Augusta National, her appearance will encourage female players. "Fans
will be created by the fact that she has competed like a lady and carried herself in a respectful
way." Sorenstam had her own definition of success: "In my mind, a successful week is if I can
play the best golf that I know how."

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What is being done today to promote women athletes?

What is being done today to increase female participation in sports?

Josh Petersen,

Assistant Coach with the University of North Carolina at Asheville, Womens Basketball team
states Title IX has allowed women to go from being almost totally excluded from a thletics to
having a disproportionately small but important share of athletic opportunities. When Congress
passed Title IX in 1972, fewer than 32,000 women competed in intercollegiate athletics
(Mahoney). Women received 2% of schools athletics budgets and athletic scholarships (Daley).
Title IX has made a huge difference in female participation in intercollegiate sports. The number
of college women participating in competitive athletics is now five times the pre-Title IX rate. In
2008-09, a record number of 182,503 women competed, representing 43% of college athletes
nationwide (Daley). Despite important advances made under Title IX, women have not yet
achieved equity in athletics. Unfortunately, Title IXs promise of equality remains unfulfilled.
Although women are over half of the undergraduates in our colleges and universities, female
participation in intercollegiate sports just recently caught up to pre-Title IX male participation:
While 170,384 men played college sports in 1971-1972 (Title IX was passed in 1972), female
intercollegiate athletes did not pass 170,000 until 2005-2006 (Daley). Women in Division I
colleges, while representing 53% of the student body, receive only 45% of the participation
opportunities, 34% of the total money spent on athletics, 45% of the total athletic scholarship
dollars, and 32% of recruiting dollars (Rhode). There is no shortage of interest by women and
girls in participating in athletics. Since 1972, when Title IX first opened up opportunities for
women and girls, female participation in high school athletics has skyrocketed by almost 900%,
disproving claims made by opponents of Title IX that the lower numbers of female athletes are
due to lack of interest as opposed to lack of opportunities.

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Sports and the sports world have been tied with the male domain, and there is a history of
bias against female athletes. Negative and limiting ideas have been confronted and challenged
over the years and girls and women are pushing through those ideas that women should not
participate in sports, sweat or show aggression. As a result, traditional stereotypes for females
have changed and are always evolving. While there is still a long way to go, females can be
proud of the breakthroughs that they have made in gender equality.

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Work Cited

Boyd, Karin R., and Dennis W. Hrycaiko. "The effect of a physical activity intervention
package on the self-esteem of pre-adolescent and adolescent females." Adolescence 32.127
(1997): 693.

Daley, Ashton. "Fourth Quarter of Title IX: Forty Years of Misrepresentation and How to
Get Back to Equal, The." Fed. Cts. L. Rev. 5 (2011): 247.

Denham, Greg, and Peter Krupka. "I am woman, fear my score."

Gray, Emma. "Female Athletes' Endorsement Opportunities Hindered By Sexualization And

Lack Of Visibility, Say Researchers." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, n.d.
Web. 03 Nov. 2016.

Griffin, Pat. Strong Women, Deep Closets: Lesbians and Homophobia in Sport. Champaign,
IL: Human Kinetics, 1998. Print.

Mahoney, Donald C. "Taking a Shot at the Title: A Critical Review of Judicial and
Adminstrative Interpretations of Title IX as Applied to Intercollegiate Athletic Programs."
Conn. L. Rev. 27 (1994): 943.

Malszecki, Greg, and Tomislava Cavar. "Men, masculinities, war, and sport." Feminist
issues: Race, class, and sexuality (2001): 166-192.

"NCAA Publications - 2013-14 NCAA Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report."
NCAA Publications - 2013-14 NCAA Sports Sponsorship and Participation Rates Report.
N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Nov. 2016.

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Rappoport, Ken. Ladies First: Women Athletes Who Made a Difference. Peachtree, 2010.
Reisinger, Sue, Samantha Kimmey, and Martha Burk. "Golfs Sorenstam Breaks the Green
Barrier." Womens ENews. N.p., 05 Apr. 2010. Web. 03 Nov. 2016.
Rhode, Deborah, and Christopher J. Walker. "Gender equity in college athletics: Women
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Sherrow, Victoria. Encyclopedia of women and sports. Abc-Clio Incorporated, 1996.

Shmanske, Stephen. "Gender, skill, and earnings in professional golf." Journal of Sports
Economics 1.4 (2000): 385-400.

"Women in Sport: Gender Stereotypes in the Past and Present." N.p., n.d. Web. 3 Nov. 2016.

Woolum, Janet. Outstanding women athletes: who they are and how they influenced sports in
America. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998.

Zimmerman, Jean. Raising our athletic daughters: How sports can build self-esteem and
save girls' lives. Main Street Books, 2011.