Structuremechanical property relationship

in fused deposition modelling

H. Rezayat1, W. Zhou2, A. Siriruk3, D. Penumadu*3 and S. S. Babu1
The relationship between the filament scale phenomena and the macroscopic properties of parts
manufactured by fused deposition modelling (FDM) of thermoplastic polymers has been
investigated using planar geometry dog bone samples, representing layer by layer lamina in an
additively manufactured part. Finite element simulations of the response of the FDM part(s) at
multiple length scales (filament to macro) are compared with full field strain data obtained
experimentally for different raster angles and filament gaps. The strain field, strain energy density,
and effective Youngs modulus are evaluated. Principal strains resulting from the applied axial
loading shifted from the inner rasters to the contours of the FDM planar sample at certain raster
angles as the air gap increased, which significantly decreased the effective usage of the material
leading to strain localization and premature part failure. The research presented provides a
pathway to an effective multiscale approach to optimise the raster contour fill pattern.
Keywords: Additive manufacturing, Strain energy, Polymers, Digital image correlation, Finite element simulation

This paper is part of a special issue on Additive manufacturing

Introduction
Since its invention in the early 1990s, fused deposition
modelling (FDM) has become one of the most popular
additive manufacturing techniques, involving extrusion
of plastic filaments1 to give layer by layer deposition.
Extensive efforts have been devoted to construct the
relationship between the process parameters and the
mechanical properties of the FDM part. The typical
process parameters that determine the geometrical
structure of the filaments include raster angle, raster
width, air gap, layer thickness and build orientation.
A series of build rules was proposed for improved
mechanical properties of FDM parts from acrylonitrile
butadiene styrene (ABS) P400 material using a design of
experiments approach.2 The concept of locally controlled
properties using optimised deposition density and orientation was also proposed for FDM3 and a laminate theory
developed for fibre reinforced composites was implemented for FDM using the analogy of macroscale represented
by laminate layers consisting of bonded laminas and the
microscale represented by the filament and gaps/voids
resulting from the space filling algorithms and interfaces.
The dynamics of bond formation between polymer
filaments with thermal analysis and sintering experiments under different conditions have been reported.4
The cooling conditions play an important role in the
1

Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Biomedical Engineering, The

University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Arkansas,
Mechanical Engineering Building, Fayetteville, AR 72701, USA
3
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of
Tennessee, Knoxville, TN 37996, USA
2

*Corresponding author, email dpenumad@utk.edu

2015 Institute of Materials, Minerals and Mining

Published by Maney on behalf of the Institute
Received 4 October 2014; accepted 14 January 2015
DOI 10.1179/1743284715Y.0000000010

bond formation. This work demonstrated that the FDM

parts are basically composites of partially bonded parent
thermoplastic, with the natural implication that predictive mechanical properties simply based on void
fraction and orientation is not sufficient. The same
group performed a more in-depth study on the
mechanisms that control the bond formation under
different process conditions.5 Creep deformation was
found to be a dominant factor in bond formation in
addition to small time scale sintering temperature. Using
ANSYS FEM program, numerical model to simulate
the FDM extrusion process by considering the coupled
heat and mass transfer phenomena was performed to
identify factors affecting part distortions and layer
thickness values.6,7
Although the progress made in establishing an
empirical relationship between the process parameters
and mechanical properties of the FDM part (i.e. the
processproperty relationship) has practical significance
in improving and optimising the FDM process, a
fundamental understanding of the processproperty
relationship has been elusive. In addition, no direct
experimental evidence of spatially resolved deformations
has been undertaken to probe the processproperty
relationship which is inherently heterogeneous for FDM
process. This paper focuses on the influence of the
filament scale structure on the macroscopic property of
the FDM part considering planar geometry, so that the
lamina analogy for laminate can be studied carefully
first. A simplified elastic finite element (FE) model of a
FDM part was considered and the distribution of strain
energy in the FDM part under mechanical load was
evaluated. FDM dog bone (coupon) samples were made
with various raster angles and air gaps with the

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Structuremechanical property relationship in fused deposition modelling

1 a illustration of FDM process parameters in FEA model; b 3D illustration of lament scale structure with negative, zero
and positive air gaps respectively; c example cross-section of extruded lament obtained from computed tomography
scanning image of dissected FDM part

dimensions identical to those used in FE model. Strain

rate controlled tensile tests integrated with 3D-DIC
technique was utilised to evaluate displacement and
strain fields. The outcomes from numerical (FE)
and experimental work were subsequently analysed
and compared to investigate the multiscale phenomenon
dominant for FDM samples.

FE method
FE model
To investigate the relationship between the filament
scale structure and the macroscopic property, the
following simplifying assumptions were made:
(i) the extruded filaments have homogeneous and
isotropic properties with no defects
(ii) the extruded filaments are uniform and have the
same constant cross-section profile that is
determined by the extrusion parameters
(iii) the bonds between filaments are perfect and have
the same mechanical properties as the filament
(iv) the FDM part is loaded in the elastic regime of
the materials and the applied mechanical load
did not lead to plastic deformations

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(v) the FDM part is assumed to be under plain

stress condition.
With these assumptions, an FE model using COMSOL
was used to simulate the response of the FDM part
under tension as illustrated in Figs. 1 and 2. The FDM
part is constructed from filaments using a common fill
pattern available for the commercial FDM machines
(i.e. draw a contour first and fill the contour with various
raster patterns) based on the specified process parameters as shown in Fig. 1a. The process parameters that
determine the geometry of the filament scale structure
included the raster angle, the air gap, the raster width,
the layer thickness and the cross-section profile of the
extruded filaments. Figure 1b illustrates the model of the
FDM part with negative, zero, and positive air gaps. In
this study, the cross-section of the filaments used in the

2 Illustration of boundary conditions: geometric constraints on left end with uniformed distributed load on
right end

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Structuremechanical property relationship in fused deposition modelling

FE model, as demonstrated in Fig. 1c, is obtained from

the observations of reconstructed images using a high
resolution X-ray computed tomography of FDM
parts manufactured using a Stratasys Fortus 250mc
3D printer. Therefore, the raster width, the layer thickness and the cross-section profile are kept constant for
various samples considered in this study. The raster
angle and the air gap are varied as indicated in Table 1
to change the geometry the filament scale structure so
that a systematic study to investigate the relationship
between the filament scale structure and the macroscopic
property of the FDM part can be conducted.
Boundary conditions and meshing

The boundary conditions are set up to simulate the

FDM part under tension with uniform geometrical
constraints (i.e. a roller constraint) on one end in the
axial direction and a uniformly distributed load on the
other as illustrated in Fig. 2. Fixed constraints are added
in the two corners to prevent the part from rotation or
translation to fully constrain the problem. Tests of
meshing independence have been conducted by comparing simulation results with three different mesh sizes
using the 3D tetrahedral elements.
Materials

ABS is a thermoplastic polymer which is widely used in

FDM process. Mechanical properties for ABS P430
provided by the manufacturer, Stratasys, which is used
in this study, are presented in Table 2. It should be
noted that although the properties of extruded filaments
will differ from those of the original filaments before
extrusion, the difference is neglected for this analysis.

Method of analysis
Materials respond to external mechanical load by
converting the mechanical work into strain energy under
isothermal conditions (i.e. the heat produced by the
external work is assumed to be negligible in a tensile
test). Therefore, we can examine the strain energy
distribution in the materials to measure the local
contribution of the materials in sharing the external
load, for elastic loading conditions. In the ideal case, the
load should be uniformly shared and the strain energy
distribution should be homogeneous throughout the
FDM part. However, it is expected that for FDM
process the irregular geometry of the filament scale
structure will change the local behaviour of the materials
(i.e. the local strain energy stored in the materials) and
Table 1 Process parameters used in this study for layer
made by FDM
Build parameter

Values

Raster angle/u
Air gap/mm

0
20.05

Table 2 Properties of
simulations

ABS

45
0.00

P430

used

Property

Value

Unit

Tensile yield stress SY

Youngs modulus E
Poissons ratio n
Shear modulus G
Glass transition temperature

37
2.32
0.35
0.83
108

MPa
GPa
GPa
uC

lead to non-uniform distribution of the strain energy.

Intuitively, the local utility of the materials should have
strong influence on the capability of the FDM part
in bearing external load, which can be measured by
macroscopic properties, such as effective tensile modulus
and failure strength. As a result, we can build an
intuitive understanding of the multiscale relationship
between the local filament scale material behaviour and
the global effective property of the FDM part by
studying a simple parameter such as the strain energy
density for small or elastic deformations of a FDM part
before failure. While the intuitive understanding of the
multiscale relationship is simple, it is quite difficult to
study the filament scale material behaviour due to
numerous filament scale geometric features, which play
a significant role in changing the local material
behaviour. In this paper, two most apparent geometric
features, the rasters and the contours, were studied in
detail, to correlate the change of a scalar such as strain
energy distribution or a spatial strain tensor variation
with external tensile loading for a FDM part.

FE results

90
z0.05

lament

3 a effective Youngs modulus (left) and its inverse

(right) as function of air gap with different raster
angles: from FE solution, and b porosity as function of
air gap with different raster angles

in

The response of the FDM part under tension using the

developed FE model with different raster angles and air
gaps listed in Table 1 was conducted. One indicator that
has been often used in the literature and practice is the
porosity associated with a printed part to correlate
with its mechanical response. The intuitive sense is to
minimise the porosity to get better performance (i.e.
closer to bulk material property). The porosity of the
FDM part for each simulation case is shown in Fig. 3b.
The porosity generally increases with larger air gap and
there is very little difference between different raster
angles, with a slightly larger porosity for the 45u raster

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Structuremechanical property relationship in fused deposition modelling

4 Strain energy density distribution in FDM part for different raster angles and air gaps

angle. The effective Youngs modulus in the load

direction as a function of air gap is shown in Fig. 3a.
As can be seen from these simulations, there is a large
divergence between the case of 0u and the cases of 45 and
90u. As the air gap increases, the effective Youngs
modulus in the case of 0u raster angle has very little
decrease and stays close to the Youngs modulus of bulk
ABS, while there is a significant drop for the cases of 45
and 90u.
The results suggest porosity cannot be used in its
isolation to predict the performance of a FDM part.
Figure 4 shows the strain energy density distribution on
the filament scale for each simulation as the air gap
increases, the strain energy localises significantly especially for the raster angles of 45 and 90u. If we zoom into
the filament scale, we can find the concentration of work
done during deformation process mostly is in the region a
of the FDM part that includes non-negative air gaps for
cases corresponding to raster angles of 45 and 90u. As
expected, the strain energy is uniformly distributed for the
raster angle of 0u at different air gaps. This filament scale
phenomenon explains why porosity cannot be a good
indicator of the part performance associated with FDM
at a lamina scale.
To further understand the observations, the total
strain energy stored in the FDM part and the respective
share in the rasters and the contour as a function of air
gap is shown in Fig. 5. The total strain energy generally
increases with larger air gap and there is an apparent
jump when the air gap becomes positive for the raster
angles of 45 and 90u. The larger total strain energy
means the FDM part is deformed more and thus more
compliant, which corresponds well to the decrease of the
effective Youngs modulus as shown in Fig. 3b. The
share of the strain energy in the rasters drops from 80 to
20% when the air gap goes from negative to positive for
the raster angles of 45 and 90u.
Considering the volume of the materials contributing
to the portion used in the rasters and the contours to be

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around 80 and 20% respectively, it can be seen that the

utility of the materials in the rasters is nearly negligible
compared to the load carrying ability of the portion of
the material in the contour region for the raster angles of
45 and 90u with positive air gap. The material usage can

5 a share of strain energy stored in rasters and contours

respectively; b total strain energy stored in FDM part
as function of air gap

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Structuremechanical property relationship in fused deposition modelling

interest, i.e. strain energy density and effective Youngs

modulus were obtained.

Design, fabrication and preparation of samples

Tensile dog bone single layer planar samples having
dimensions specified by ASTM D638, (Type IV)
were fabricated using parameters shown in Table 3 by
utilising Stratasys Fortus 250mc FDM machine. ABS
P430 and SR-30 provided by Stratasys were used for the
part and water soluble support material, correspondingly. Stratasys predefined raster and contour deposition
strategy with single contour was chosen for all the
samples to ensure the geometric similarity with the
models used in the FE simulations described earlier.
The nozzle temperature and the envelope temperature
were set by the manufacturer. The aforementioned
support material was later removed from the main
structure by submerging samples in the solution bath.

Servohydraulic testing and DIC set-up

6 Strain energy density distribution for samples with various raster angles and air gaps

therefore be optimised for positive gap build settings for

FDM process using simulations as introduced in this
paper with more realistic constitutive properties for the
extruded filament and bond strength. The compliance of
the FDM part also shown in Fig. 3b corresponds well to
the change of the share of strain energy in the contours
indicated in Fig. 5b. This provides direct evidence to
support the hypothesis that the load shift phenomenon
on the filament scale is the cause of the change of the
compliance, affecting the macroscopic mechanical property of the FDM part.
The results from FE models presenting the variation
of strain energy density distribution over the considered
domains are plotted in Fig. 6. Increasing the raster angle
increases the regions of the part with higher amount of
strain energy density. Moreover, the number of points
having higher amounts of strain energy density for
layers made with positive air gap is higher than those for
zero and negative air gap. Since the points with the
higher amounts of strain energy density are more prone
to reach the failure energy of the material, these points
can be the failure initiating regions.

Tensile testing with full field strain

mapping of FDM parts
Experiments were conducted to evaluate the mechanical
properties including true strain behaviour and spatially
resolved strains for the constructed samples geometrically identical to those used in FE models. Tensile tests
integrated with three-dimensional digital imaging correlation technique were performed on these samples under
carefully controlled conditions and parameters of

Final parts made by FDM machine were utilised with a

custom developed grip system that ensures alignment in
and out of the loading plane and facilitates simultaneous
full-field displacements and related strain tensor using
3D Digital Image Correlation technique by tracking a
random black speckle pattern on white surface. VIC-3D
DIC system from Correlated Solutions was utilised for
this set of experiments. The DIC method tracks the grey
value patterns using a small subset of pixels to track
surface deformations and is an established and proven
technique. For current experiments, the size of this
tracking region corresponded to a square whose side was
20 pixels or 0?2 mm. Figure 7 demonstrates the experiment set-up used for this study.

Experimental results
Effective Youngs modulus

The results obtained from experimental study for the

effective Youngs modulus are presented in Fig. 8. The
trend of modulus dependency with raster angle measured from experiments is found to be similar from
numerical simulations using simple linear elastic based
FE methods as shown earlier in Fig. 3. An increase in
raster angle resulted in a decrease in the value of the
effective Youngs modulus under tensile loading for all
the samples. This rate of decrease in effective properties
from FDM becomes significant when the air gap
changes from negative to positive amount. However,
this sharp change in effective properties was not in
numerical simulations due to the simplified assumptions
used for representing bonding between adjacent filaments. Experimental data resulted in effective Youngs
modulus values lower than those obtained using FE
method. This is likely associated with inability to model
progressive failure and will require non-liner local
properties for representing observed behaviour in the
Table 3 Samples build parameters used for experimental
work
Parameter

Design value

Layer thickness/mm
Raster/contour width/mm
Raster angle/u
Raster to raster air gap/mm
Contour to raster air gap/mm

0.2540
0.3806
0, 45, 90
20.05, 0.00, z0.05
0

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7 a, b demonstration of test set-up: tensile test machine and DIC system; c sample set-up and speckle patterns

numerical simulations. Effective Youngs modulus

strongly depended on raster angle and air gaps used in
FDM process as expected and values in the range of 10
90% of the modulus of the bulk material were observed
for varying raster angles and gaps between fused
deposition filaments in the FDM process.

Strain energy density distribution

Full field strain distribution

where E and G are the Youngs and shear moduli of the

material.
By considering a constant thickness for the singlelayer and using the contour to raster volume ratio
(80 : 20) obtained from the FE models, comparisons can
be made between the strain energy density in features of
the layer, i.e. contour and rasters. Therefore the amount
of strain energy density on the surface can be considered
to represent the strain energy density in volume of
the features. Figure 10 demonstrates the strain energy
density distributions over the surface of the FDM
samples. The non-uniform distribution of strain energy
density and its concentration on the contour is obvious.
The result from the DIC tests shows that when this
energy density exceeds a certain amount of energy,
contour fails at the first point followed by progressive

In Fig. 9, the full -field strain distribution along the

loading direction for each sample is presented. The
results correspond to the case for axial applied force of
2 N so that a relative comparison on deformation
evolution as a function of FDM process parameters can
be made. Strain field was observed to be relatively
uniform in the horizontal direction for most of the
samples made with different build parameters except for
parts made with 45u raster angle where the strain
localisations are clearly evident at the bonding between
adjacent rasters. Increasing the air gap from a condition
of overlap (20?05 mm) to the presence of a gap
(z0?05 mm), the amplitude of axial strain is substantially increased with clearly visible areas of deformation
localisation, leading to premature failure. For a fixed
amount of air gap, increasing the raster angle from 0 to
90u leads to similar observations. If one were to interpret
such results as a function of axial load or strain value,
high strain concentrations were observed initially on the
contour region of a deforming sample followed by strain
localisations extending into the raster area leading to
sample failure. Based on these observations from single
layer FDM part, it is expected that for those additively
manufactured or 3D printer complex parts made with
several layers having different raster angle or air gaps,
those layers with higher raster angle or air gap may
initially reach higher values of the localised strain and
could act as the failure initiation points, reducing the
overall mechanical integrity of the part. This observation demonstrates the importance of developing rational
observations on a filament scale (mesoscale) process for
a lamina based understanding and analysis, to be
extended later to a 3D printed FDM part scale which
is often built in layers, to predict performance under
complex loading conditions.

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The strain energy density (u) for the surface of each

sample is related to axial, lateral and shear strains can be
written as below in equation (1).


u~0:5|E| e2xx ze2yy z0:5|G|e2xy
(1)

8 Experimental effective Youngs modulus versus air gap

for various raster angles

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Structuremechanical property relationship in fused deposition modelling

9 Axial strain eld (in direction of applied load) obtained from experiments for samples with various raster angles and
air gaps

failure and modelling of FDM parts need to accommodate such complex failure criterion. For all samples
excluding the one with raster angle of 45u and air gap of
zero, increasing the raster angle or the air gap increased
the strain energy density on the surface especially on the
contour regions of the samples. The regions with highest
amount of strain energy density are observed to be at the
contours with a high difference in energy density when
compared with the rasters area. This indicates contour
region experiences a significantly higher amount of
energy density when compared with the raster area.
Energywise, the ratio of energy to mass for contours has
a higher amount in comparison to that of the raster area,
meaning that the material utility of the features of FDM

single layer, i.e. rasters and contours, is varying

by altering the targeted build parameters giving the
designer the opportunity to optimise the mechanical
properties of the FDM parts with optimising the
filament scale mechanical properties.
Mechanical strength

Engineering stress versus strain obtained for various

FDM based tensile coupon samples are shown in
Fig. 11. As can be seen, the failure strength decreases
as the air gap increases from overlap condition to a
positive value. As it can be seen in this figure, increasing
the air gap or raster angle for all samples leaded to
reduce in the strength of the single layer. The effect of air

10 Strain energy density distribution from experimental study for samples with various raster angle and air gaps

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11 Engineering stress versus apparent strain in loading direction obtained from experiments for samples with various
raster angle and air gaps

gap on the strength is more drastic for layer made with

90u raster angle as it can be seen from the difference
between strength for various air gaps. It can be said that
by increasing the raster angle increases the sensitivity of
the layers strength to the air gap between adjacent
rasters. In other words, for higher amounts of the air
gap since the angle between rasters axes and the load
direction increases, the capability of the rasters to carry
the load decreases and the bonding between adjacent
filaments play a bigger role to carry the load. By
changing the air gap the strength of these bonds changes
and therefore the strength of the layer lies more on this
bonds when compared with layers which have less
amount of raster angle and material of raster area holds
more load. The sensitivity and role of the bonds
increases as the raster angle increases.

Numerical and experimental methods

comparison
The simulations of the change of effective Youngs
modulus have been extensively investigated by several
research groups in the past.3,812 Although the numerical
model is not quantitatively validated by the experiments
due to the simplifying assumptions used in modelling to
represent the material state as homogeneous, qualitative
comparisons can be inferred at this stage. The effective
Youngs modulus increase as the air gap reduces from
positive to negative and the improvement is most
evident when the raster angle is 90u, which qualitatively
agreed with our simulation results. In the future work,
we can take into account of the imperfect filament bonds
by treating the filament bond as an artificial material
with experimentally calibrated material properties so
that the multiscale relationship between the inhomogeneous material property at the filament scale and the
macroscale property of the FDM part can be systematically studied as a function of key manufacturing
process variables. In addition, plasticity and failure

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criteria need to be taken into consideration to enable

the formation of progressive failure based on strain
localizations clearly observed using the full field strain
mapping approach introduced first time for additively
manufactured material through the current study.
Moreover, the stochastically distributed defects can be
incorporated for studying the influence of the stochastic
characteristics of the FDM process by integrating high
resolution and non-invasive damage diagnostics using
X-ray computed tomography.

Summary and conclusions

A study of the multiscale relationship governing the
mechanical properties of fused deposition modelled
planar parts has been conducted for a commonly used
thermoplastic (ABS). A simplified finite element model
was used to examine the response of the fused deposition
modelled part to tensile loading, considering filament
scale. A novel experimental method was implemented to
study full field deformation patterns of tensile samples
while subjected to deformation, to relate spatial variation to material location and process variables and to
evaluate the insights gained from the finite element
simulations.
At the filament scale, it was found that the load
transfer mechanism shifted from the rasters to the
contour when the air gap was changed from a negative
value, corresponding to overlap in the fusion zone of
filaments, to a positive value for varying raster angles of
0, 45 and 90u. At the full (part) scale, the effective
compliance of the fused deposition modelled part
followed similar trends to those observed at the filament
scale. The findings suggest that an opportunity exists to
improve the mechanical properties of fused deposition
modelled parts by redesigning the raster contour
patterns that are currently employed in the polymer
additive manufacturing field.
The proposed multiscale study, combining cleverly
designed specimens and an innovative experimental

Rezayat et al.

procedure, provides a new approach to develop fundamental understanding of the processproperty relationships during fused deposition modelling. This approach
is potentially much more effective than the knowledge
gained from the expensive and limited results available
through the currently used empirical approach.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Dr Matthew Young,
Eastman Professor or Practice at the University of
Tennessee, for assistance in making the FDM samples
used in the analyses, as well as Dr. C. Duty and Dr V.
Kunc of Manufacturing Demonstration Facility at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory for helpful discussions related
to design issues with polymer additive manufacturing.

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