Cell Respiration

Glucose
Glucose is a ready source of energy, since its carbon atoms are easily oxidised (burnt) to form
carbon dioxide, releasing energy in the process. However, unlike other hydrocarbon fuels, which
are insoluble in water, the numerous OH groups in glucose allow it to readily hydrogen-bond
with water molecules, so making it highly soluble in water. This allows the glucose fuel to be
transported easily within biological systems, for example in the bloodstream of animals or the
sap of plants. In fact the average adult has 5-6 grams of glucose in the blood (about 1 teaspoon),
which will supply the body's energy needs for only about 15 minutes, thereafter the levels must
be replenished from compounds stored in the liver. Because glucose is found in ripe fruits, the
nectar of flowers, leaves, sap and blood, over the years it has been given various common names,
such as starch sugar, blood sugar, grape sugar and corn sugar.

Linking Subunits
Glucose is called a monosaccharide, since it is made up of only one unit, but it is possible to join
individual sugar units together to form a chain, in much the same way as monomer units are
linked up to form a long polymer. If two units are joined together we form a disaccharide,
examples of which are maltose (malt sugar), lactose (milk sugar, found only in the milk of
mammals), and sucrose (table sugar, cane sugar or beet sugar).

Polysaccharides - Starch (Amylose), Cellulose and Glycogen

It is possible to link three glucose units together to make trisaccharides, or 4 to make
tetrasaccharides, or a very large number to make polysaccharides. These complex carbohydrates
are polymers that are used for both storing energy, and as part of the structural tissues of living
organisms. An example is starch, which is the storage form of glucose used by plants. It is found
in granules in their leaves, roots and seeds.

Amylase

Amylose

Maltase

Maltose

Glucose

The goal of cell respiration is to break down glucose to CO2. The

bond energy released is used to glue a third phosphate onto ADP,
forming ATP - the energy currency of the cell. The covalent bond
linking the third phosphate is "high energy" and is easily broken to
power other chemical reactions in the cell.

Step One: Glycolysis

This involves breaking one glucose (6-carbon) into two
pyruvates (3-carbon). 2 ATPs and 2 NADHs are produced.
NADH is a carrier of high energy electrons and is necessary for
the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation
(making ATP by chemiosmosis).

Step two: Krebs Cycle (Citric Acid Cycle)

This involves breaking the pyruvates down to carbon dioxide
(CO2), generating 2 ATP, 2 FADH2, and 8 NADH (FADH2, like
NADH, is a high energy electron carrier involved in making
ATP by chemiosmosis)

Step three: Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative

Phosphorylation
In this step, NADH and FADH2 donate their high energy
electrons to the electron transport chain. As electrons are passed
from carrier to carrier, protons are moved from one side of the
mitochondrial inner membrane to the other. This forms a proton
gradient.
The protons move by facilitated diffusion through the membrane
ATPase enzyme channel. As they do this, they power the
enzyme (like an electric motor) to make ATP.

Fermentation: Occurs when oxygen is in short supply

Its purpose is to replenish NAD+ needed for glycolysis.
A. Yeast Alcoholic fermentation

B. Muscle Lactic Acid fermentation