Fiber Optic Imaging PDF

An Introduction to
Fiber Optic Imaging

by SCHOTT North America
Second Edition
An Introduction to
Fiber Optic Imaging
Second Edition
SCHOTT Fiber Optics offers customized high-tech solutions in markets such as

automotive, lighting, medical, industrial, and defense. By mastering glass, fibers,
LEDs, and processes for the production of fiber optic and LED components, we
develop outstanding, market-oriented products. With our leading technological
know-how and innovative ideas, we ensure the success of our customers
around the world, around the clock.
An Introduction to
Fiber Optic Imaging
SCHOTT North America, Inc.Southbridge, MA, USA
Published by SCHOTT North America, Inc.

122 Charlton Street
Southbridge, MA 01550-1960, USA
www.us.schott.com/fiberoptics
Revised February 2007
SCHOTT North America would like to recognize the following employees who
contributed their time and expertise to this publication:
Patricia Alter, Colleen Bayrouty, Jennifer Benoit, Kapil Bhura, Mike Dargie, Gary
DiGregorio, Brigitte Esposito, Ann Kutsch, Rick Miller, Katie Pepler, Kevin Tabor,
Jim Triba, Evans Waldron, Michael Weisser, and Roberta Zacek
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Copyright SCHOTT North America 2007

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise without prior written
permission of the publishers.
Contents
Preface ................................................................VII
Introduction .........................................................IX
Foreword ..............................................................XI
What You Need to Know .....................................XV
Chapters
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
Mono Fiber Drawing..............................................1

Multi Fiber Drawing.............................................11
Multi-Multi Fiber Drawing....................................17
Boule Fusing ........................................................21
Material Quality ..................................................27
Faceplates ...........................................................31
Image Inverters ...................................................35
Tapers .................................................................39
Wound Image Bundles.........................................47
Leached Image Bundles .......................................49
Applications.........................................................51
Appendix:
Historical Milestones ............................................62
About SCHOTT ....................................................65
Bibliography ........................................................68
Index...................................................................70
An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging
Tapers
Flexible Image Guides
Clad Rods/Image
Conduits
Faceplates
VI
Preface
Fiber optic components for image transfer have found extensive use
in military, commercial, and scientific applications. As new ideas
develop, questions arise regarding the manufacture and design of
these imaging components. This book has been written to answer
many of these questions, as well as provide a solid overview of the
manufacturing processes and products offered by SCHOTT North
America.
The details in this text have been obtained from extensive research
of articles and documents available from the scientific community.
Information on the manufacture of fiber optics, as well as specific
products offered by SCHOTT, was obtained through discussions
with various members of the SCHOTT North America manufacturing/engineering team.
We hope this textbook provides you with a basic understanding of
the fundamentals of fiber optic technology and imaging components. We also hope that the contents will ignite new ideas for the
use of fiber optic components in new imaging applications.
SCHOTT North America
VII
Fiber Optic Faceplates
VIII
Introduction
When one mentions the subject of fiber optics today, telecommunications fiber optic applications come immediately to mind.
However, these represent only one use of fiber optic technology.
Fiber optic technology was initially developed for use in light
and image transfer applications. During the past several decades,
fiber optic light guides have been applied to such varied applications as optical inspection, architectural illumination, medical and
dental lighting, retail and museum display lighting, and traffic
and changeable message signs.
Fiber optic technology has also found widespread use in image
transfer applications. Imaging fiber optics have been used in night
vision, medical, dental, commercial, industrial, and scientific applications. These technologies continue to find homes in many new
fields, such as X-ray crystallography, machine vision, and projection
displays.
The following text explains the fundamentals of fiber optics,
and describes the design and manufacture of imaging fiber optics
to encourage their use in new applications. In addition to a
general glossary of terms, there is a detailed discussion of the
manufacturing process, design considerations, quality characteristics, and present applicationsas well as a summary of SCHOTTs
fiber optics products.
IX
Glass Melting
Foreword
A Historical Overview
Although the earliest observations of light conduction in transparent rods must predate scientific literature, the first recorded
demonstration of this principle appears credited to John Tyndall in
1854, before a meeting of the Royal Institution of London. Tyndall
showed that light was conducted by internal reflections in a curving stream of water. However, it was not until 1927 that J.L. Baird1
of England and C.W. Hansell2 of the United States defined a similar
principle, and independently filed patents covering the basic idea
of conducting images through bundles of fibers. The first attempt
to produce an image-transmitting fiber bundle appears to have
been made by H. Lamm3, of Germany, in 1930. His results were disappointing, however, and fiber optic development was not widely
pursued. A number of patents relating to this technology were
issued in the intervening period, but it was not until the early
1950s when C.S. van Heel4 of Holland and Dr. Brian OBrien5 of
the United States began investigating the problem of optical insulation that the principle of fiber optics was placed on a practical
foundation.
In 1953, an article appearing in the Dutch technical journal De
Ingenieur described a new method of transmitting optical images
without the use of lenses. It described a new form of image encoding device that used delicately scrambled bundles of fibers. It reawakened the optical concept of fiber optic technology, in which
images could be relayed through precisely aligned bundles of glass
fibers.
The De Ingenieur article attracted the interest of the American government. At that time, the only American scientist who had worked
on this idea was Dr. Brian OBrien, V.P. of Research for American
Optical (AO) Corporation in Southbridge, Massachusetts. These
entities merged and formed a contract to develop a fiber optic
image encoding device. Work began in 1954 in AOs research
laboratory under a cloak of confidentiality. First, it was necessary to
produce glass fibers to efficiently transmit light.
XI
For two years, progress was disappointingly slow. In 1957, using

several optical glasses from SCHOTT Glas in Mainz, Germany,
there were a series of technical breakthroughs that formed the
basis for much of todays technology. The glass-coated, glass-core
fiber concept was implemented, providing the useful transmission efficiency previously lacking. The second breakthrough was
the invention of the optical multi fiber. This made possible large
assemblies of either flexible or rigid fibers of very small diameters.
Taken together, the all-glass fiber made in the form
of multi fibers led to a wholly new category of fiber optic components for use as windows in electronic image intensifiers
namely, fused faceplates. The third major breakthrough was
the invention of the hoop winding and assembly process for
making precisely aligned, flexible fiber image bundles in greater
lengths.
Also during that time, the American Optical researchers did, in
fact, develop an image encoder based on the early Dutch journal
concept. However, it proved to be difficult to make, awkward to
use, and not as secure as originally assumed.
Since its development, fiber optic technology has grown from a
laboratory curiosity to a critical enterprise. Today, it continues to
be used worldwide to produce many thousands of components,
flexible bundles, products, and systems for fiber optic imaging
applications in endoscopy, medicine, science, industry, night
vision, law enforcement, telecommunications, and computer
imaging.
Walter P. Siegmund, Ph.D.
See Appendix for The History of SCHOTT North America.
1. Baird, J.L., British Patent Specification No. 20,969/27 (1927)
2. Hansell, C.W., United States Patent 1,751,584 (1930)
3. Lamm, H., Biegsame Optische Gerte, Z. Instrumentenk,
Vol. 50, pp. 579-581, 1930
4. Van Heel, C.S., Optische Afbeelding Zonder Lenzes of
Afbeeldingsspiegels Aanoulzing, De Ingenieur, Vol. 65, p. 25, 1953
5. OBrien, B., United States Patent 2,285,260 (1958)
XII
Foreword
Steps in Fabrication
XIII
Taper Arrays
XIV
What You Need to Know
What You Need to Know: Glossary

Before we begin a discussion of the design and manufacture of fiber optic
components for imaging applications, we must give an overview of some of
the fundamental fiber optic terms that we will use throughout our discussion.
I Coherent Fiber Optics
I Clad Rod
A component consisting of many

individual fiber optic elements, all
precisely aligned so they can
faithfully transmit an image.
I Fiber Optic Taper
A rigid, single clad step index

fiber that can successfully transmit and homogenize light, but
not images.
I Leached Fiber Bundle
A coherent fiber optic plate that

transmits either a magnified or
minified image from its input
surface.
A large number of double clad

glass multi-multi fiber optic rods
fused together, bathed (leached)
in an acid bath, which results in a
single bundle with rigid coherent
ends and a flexible middle.
I Fiber Optic Faceplate

A fused coherent fiber optic window that precisely transmits an
image from its input surface to its
output surface.
I Wound Fiber Bundle

A bundle formed by winding individual flexible fibers into layers on
a drum and assembling the layers
into a single, flexible component.
I Image Inverter
A coherent fiber optic plate that
inverts an image from its input
surface to its output surface.
I Capillary Array
A single array consisting of
precisely aligned hollow glass
tubes of various sizes assembled
into a linear or micro-channel
plate format.
I Image Conduit
A rigid coherent fiber optic rod
containing thousands of individual fiber elements that transmit
an image from an input surface to
the output surface.
XV
What You Need to Know:

Fused Fiber Optic Manufacturing Process
I Mono Fiber
The first stage of the fused fiber optic manufacturing process. Includes assembly of the
core bar and cladding tube, as well as mono
fiber draw ing the process in which the
core glass and cladding glass are drawn
down in size, and the cladding is fused to
the core.
I Multi Fiber
The second stage of the fused fiber optic
manufacturing process. Includes the assembly of many mono and black fibers (extramural absorption, or EMA, fibers that absorb
stray light) into an array that is drawn down
to a single fused fiber rod with hundreds of
elements.
I Multi-Multi Fiber
The third stage of the fused fiber optic manufacturing process. Includes the assembly of
many multi fibers into an array that is drawn
down to a single fused fiber with thousands
of individual (mono) fibers.
I Fusing
The final stage of the fused manufacturing
process. Includes the assembly of thousands
of multi-multi fibers in a stainless steel die
that is heated and pressed, fusing together
each of the multi-multi fibers to create a
fused boule of fiber optic material containing millions of individual (mono) fibers.
XVI
What You Need to Know:

Fiber Optic Theory
I Fiber Optic Wave Guide
I Core
A fiber optic material designed to

confine and direct light along its
length.
The transmitting glass in a fiber

optic wave guide. The core has a
higher index of refraction than
the cladding.
I Step Index Wave Guide
I Cladding
A fiber containing a sharp change

in index of refraction between the
core and cladding.
The outer layer of glass in a fiber

optic wave guide. The cladding
has a lower index of refraction
than the core.
I Gradient Index
Wave Guide
An optical fiber with a gradual
change in index between core
and cladding, commonly used in
telecommunications applications.
XVII
I Index of Refraction
The ratio of the velocity of light in a
vacuum to the velocity of light in a
refractive material. nd is the symbol
for the index of refraction at a wavelength of 587 nm.
I Snells Law
When light crosses the boundary

between two materials, it is bent
(refracted) as determined by the relative indices of refraction of the two
materials.
I Total Internal Reflection
The optical mechanism by which fiber

optics are made to work. If the angle
of incidence of light attempting to
cross from a high-index to a lowindex medium is in excess of the critical angle, no refraction occurs and
the light is totally reflected.
XVIII
I Numerical Aperture
Numerical aperture is the key concept that illustrates how fiber optics
work as an optical wave guide. Snells Law gives us the relationship
between the angle at which light enters the fiber and the angle at
which the light travels down the fiber 1. Simple geometry gives us the
relationship between 1 and 2. The rule of total internal reflection
shows that the angle 2 must have a minimum value in order for reflection to occur. When total internal reflection occurs, it is 100% reflection.
If 2 is smaller than this minimum value, the light will not be totally
reflected; it will be lost out the side of the wave guide.
From the three relationships, we can relate the requirements for total
internal reflection back to the angle . There is a maximum angle for
which light can be transmitted down the fiber. Light will be lost out of
the sides of the fiber for the angles larger than . The limiting angle is
called the acceptance angle of the fiber.
Standard core glasses are available with indexes of refraction near 1.8
and cladding glasses near 1.5. With the index of refraction of air being
1.0, the equation for numerical aperture results in an acceptance angle
of nearly 90.
Numerical Aperture
XIX
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Mono Fiber Drawing

CHAPTER
Mono Fiber Drawing
With the fundamental terms of fiber optics defined, we are now prepared to discuss the manufacturing of coherent fiber optic bundles. The following assembly,
drawing, and fusing processes are designed to ensure that multiple fibers are
assembled and fused in a precise stack that will allow for coherent image
transfer. The first stage of this process is mono fiber drawing; it consists of
the assembly of the core and cladding, as well as the drawing of these materials
into a single clad fiber. The process begins with the selection of a core and
cladding glass.
Core Glass
Core glasses vary, based on the specific needs of the finished product. The standard core glass used in tapers and faceplates has an index of about 1.8. When
combined with the standard cladding glass, which has an index of about 1.48,
the resulting mono fiber has a numerical aperture, or NA, of 1.0 (the standard NA
for most coherent fiber applications).
Some of the key properties that help to differentiate core glasses include:
I Index of Refraction
Discussed earlier; see page XVIII.
I Transmission
Internal spectral transmittance may need to be considered in the design of a
fiber optic product. Most SCHOTT core glasses have excellent transmission
from 500 to 800 nm. However, because there is some variability in the transmission performance from 380 to 500 nm, the spectral transmission of each
glass should be considered.
I Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

The coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) of a glass is defined as the measure of the rate at which the glass will change dimensions when exposed to
temperature changes. The core glass expansion is important because, when
combined with the cladding, it will produce a certain expansion for the fiber
optic product. The CTE of a fiber optic product is an important consideration
when the product is going to be bonded or coupled with another product.
Fiber Drawing
Mono Fiber Drawing
Core Glass Materials

Below is a summary of the lanthanum borate and lead-based core glasses manufactured by SCHOTT, as well as the properties that differentiate them. Other
core glasses, with other numerical apertures, are available from SCHOTT upon
request.
I CG-1
SCHOTTs standard taper core glass. This glass has thermal properties that
make it more forgiving during the additional heat cycle required for tapering
(see diagram showing the difference in working temperatures for faceplates
and tapers). CG-1 is also a phosphor compatible glass. nd = 1.81.
I RWY47
SCHOTTs standard faceplate core glass. Does not contain cadmium oxide or
lead oxide, making it both phosphor and photocathode compatible. This glass
is used primarily in input plates for night vision devices. RWY47 also has
excellent X-ray attenuation properties, making it an excellent choice for X-ray
imaging applications. nd = 1.81.
Glass Melting
Mono Fiber Drawing
Core Bar Configurations

SCHOTT manufactures core glasses of various configurations. Most SCHOTT core
glasses are proprietary glasses manufactured at our facility in Duryea,
Pennsylvania. The five-sided core bar allows for easy insertion of the black extramural absorption, or EMA, fibers into the multi fiber structure, which will be
discussed in more detail later. Round and square core configurations are also
manufactured for some applications.
Cladding Glass
The standard cladding glass used in SCHOTTs fiber optic materials is a borosilicate tubing glass with an index of refraction of about nd = 1.48. The cladding
glass is purchased in the form of a tube, into which the core is inserted. Most
SCHOTT tubes are manufactured at SCHOTTs facility in Germany.
Mono Fiber Assembly

The core and cladding materials are carefully
inspected and cleaned in order to ensure the
highest-quality material will be used in the production of the mono fiber. The cladding glass
tube has one end closed in a special glass-blowing procedure. The core glass is inserted into
the cladding tube, which has been carefully
matched to the core to ensure a tightly toleranced fit between the core and cladding. The
assembly is completed with the insertion of a
stopper into the open end of the tube. The
stopper has a threaded screw that will be used Mono Assembly Cross Section
to affix the assembly to the drawing machine.
The standard mono assembly length is about one meter, with a cross section
of about 45 mm in diameter.
Transmission
In addition to defining the numerical aperture of the fiber, the selection of a core
and cladding will also impact the fiber optic material transmission. In general,
SCHOTTs fiber optic products are designed for use in the visible or near infrared
(IR) spectrum. Transmission is generally expressed in terms of collimated
transmission and lambertian transmission.
I Collimated Transmission
Collimated transmission is relevant where the input light is relatively
collimated (where the input light rays are parallel to one another and
perpendicular to the input surface), as in the case of an objective lens.
I Lambertian Transmission
Lambertian transmission is relevant where the input light is diffuse as in the
case of a phosphor screen deposited on the surface of a fiber optic.
The transmission of fiber optic products
that contain EMA fibers can not be greater
than the cross sectional percentage of core
glass, as a large percentage of the light
entering the cladding will be absorbed by
the EMA. In the case of products without
EMA, a higher percentage of transmission is
attainablebecause there is no EMA to
absorb the light that enters through the
cladding. However, the additional transmitted light is not useful, having been
scattered randomly within the fiber optic
material.
Lambertian Transmission
Several factors impact fiber optic transmission; each is described briefly in the
following section.
Mono Fiber Drawing
Numerical Aperture Angles
Numerical Aperture
The numerical aperture, or NA, defines the angle of acceptancebeyond which
light is lost out the sides of the fiber. The greater the NA of the fiber, the better
the light transmission of the fiber.
Packing Fraction
The packing fraction, or PF, is defined as the ratio of core area to total area in the
cross section of a fiber. Light entering the core will experience total internal reflection, whereas light entering through the cladding will be scattered and lost to the
EMA in the fiber. Therefore, the transmission of the fiber optic can be seriously
affected by varying the percentage of cladding present in the mono fiber.
Fresnel Reflection Losses

Fresnel reflection is defined as the reflection of a portion of light, occurring when
light is incident upon a surface. The Fresnel reflection of the fiber optic refers to
the light loss due to reflection at the input. (Tf = transmission after Fresnel losses.)
Core/Clad Ratio/
Packing Fraction
Fresnel Reflected Light
Internal Transmittance of the Core

Internal transmittance (Ti) refers to the transmission properties of the core glass.
Typical transmittance of core glasses used in fiber optics is about 98-99% for a
75 mm length of material.
Therefore, the lambertian transmission for fiber optics containing EMA can be
expressed as follows:
Tlamb = (NA)2 x PF x Tf x Ti
.
where Ti=el, with l = length of the component and = the absorption coefficient
of the core. In general, this formula is fairly accurate, with actual values being only
slightly lower than calculated.
The Mono Fiber Drawing Process

In the mono fiber drawing process, the finished assembly is placed on the drawing machine and fed into a special clean furnace. The assembly is heated until the
core and cladding begin to soften. Once soft, the glass can be pulled down into
a small strand, which is inserted into a pulling mechanism. The assembly is
fed into the furnace very slowly, while the fiber is pulled from the furnace very
quickly. The difference in input and output speeds results in a major reduction of
the overall cross section, or diameter, of the fiber. Vacuum is pulled inside the
tube to ensure that the cladding collapses uniformly around the core during this
operation. The size of the fiber can be carefully controlled by varying the rate at
which the assembly is fed into the furnace, as well as the rate at which the puller
mechanism draws the fiber.
One key aspect of the fiber drawing operation is faithfully maintaining the fiber
shape during drawing. In order to achieve this, the fiber is drawn under tension.
Drawing under tension ensures that the glasses are drawn at relatively low
viscosities. Drawing at lower viscosities allows the core glass to maintain its
original shape, without having to use a forming die in the furnace.
The drawn mono fiber has a cross-sectional dimension of about 2 mm square,
or 2 mm in diameter and 2 m in length. These mono fibers will be assembled
together to form a multi fiber in the next drawing stage.
Mono Fiber Drawing
Mono Fiber Drawing Process
Mono Fibers
10
Multi Fiber Drawing

CHAPTER
Multi Fiber Drawing
The second stage of fiber optic manufacturing is called multi fiber drawing. In
multi fiber drawing, many mono fibers are precisely assembled and drawn into a
multi fiber, consisting of many fibers fused together.
Multi Assembly Configurations

In order to create a coherent image, each fiber must be precisely positioned and
aligned in the multi assembly. The resulting assembly must then be drawn in such
a way that each fiber maintains its relative position as it is being drawn and fused
into a multi fiber. In order to ensure precise fiber alignment, several different
assembly configurations are employed.
I Square Pack
SCHOTTs standard fiber configuration is a square pack with five-sided or
round monos and interstitial EMA (see diagram below, as well as those on
page 13). The square pack multi provides the benefit of interstitial EMA, while
also providing ease of assembly.
White Transmitting
When EMA is not required, a
Fiber
square core is used in place of the
five-sided or round core, and the
Small White Fiber
EMA is omitted.
Black Fiber
I Rectangular Close Pack

For assemblies requiring a round
fiber format, SCHOTT uses a rectangular close packed multi with
interstitial EMA (see diagram on Round Mono Square Multi Pack
page 13). Although more complicated to assemble, this assembly still allows the benefits of interstitial EMA
to be realized.
I Hexagonal Pack
Hexagonal multi assemblies are simply another variation of the rectangular
close pack format. They are used by most fiber manufacturers in the
industry, and can be produced with both interstitial and statistical EMA
configurations.
11
Multi Assembly
12
Multi Fiber Drawing
Extra-Mural Absorption (EMA) Fibers

In addition to the mono fiber elements, a second fiber is used in the construction
of the multi fiber. Extra-mural absorption (EMA) fibers are special black absorbing
fibers, inserted between (or in place of) mono fibers, which will absorb stray (scattered) light in the fiber optic material.
As discussed earlier, light entering the cladding is scattered rather than experiencing total internal reflection. If left unaddressed, this light acts as cross talk
between fibers, which ultimately results in a serious reduction in image contrast
at the output surface.
13
Interstitial EMA
In order to absorb the stray light in the fiber optic, small black fibers are placed
interstitially between the fibers. The uniform interstitial distribution of the EMA
material ensures that most of the stray light will be absorbed before reaching the
output surface of the fiber optic. The standard EMA packing structure of SCHOTT
materials is interstitial, for both round and square stacking.
Alternative EMA Configurations

In addition to interstitial stacking, several alternative EMA structures are also
possible. Each is briefly described below.
I Statistical EMA
Statistical EMA has been used as a standard throughout most of the fused fiber
optic industry. Statistical EMA refers to the substitution of a black EMA fiber for
a mono fiber in the multi assembly. Although the modulation transfer function
(MTF) and resolution performance of statistical EMA is not as good as interstitial EMA, its ease of assemblyand its compatibility with most black glasses
make it an attractive alternative for many fiber optic manufacturers.
I Annular EMA
EMA can also be introduced as a thin outer cladding which surrounds each
mono fiber. This annular EMA construction ensures the most uniform EMA
distribution within the fiber structure, and results in very high MTF and resolution performance. The introduction of annular EMA has been used successfully in several applications. Due to the need for highly absorbent black glass
and thermal properties that facilitate the fusing of fibers together, annular
EMA has found only limited use at this time.
14
Multi Fiber Drawing
Multi Fiber Assembly

The mono and EMA fibers are carefully cleaned, inspected, and assembled into
the appropriate assembly configuration under Class 100 clean conditions. The
finished multi assembly is bundled to ensure that no dislocation of the assembly
structure occurs, and is then stored in Class 100 clean conditions until it is
ready for drawing. Typical multi assembly configurations result in square cross
sections of about 45 mm x 45 mm (65 mm diagonal). Typically, 150-200 mono
fibers are assembled into a single multi assembly.
Multi Assembly Cross Section
15
The Multi Fiber Drawing Process

The finished multi assembly is then drawn into a multi fiber about 2 mm square,
approximately 2 m in length. The multi fiber drawing process is nearly identical
to the mono fiber drawing process discussed previously. Fiber size is controlled by
careful adjustment of the input and output speeds, and fiber shape is controlled
by careful control of the viscosity through tension draw.
The finished multi fiber is actually a composite of several hundred mono fibers, all
precisely positioned, and forms the building block for the third drawing stage:
multi-multi fiber drawing.
Multi Fiber Drawing
16
Multi-Multi Fiber Drawing

CHAPTER
The third stage of fiber optic manufacturing is called multi-multi fiber drawing.
It is the final drawing stage. In multi-multi fiber drawing, many multi fibers are
precisely assembled, and drawn into a multi-multi fiber consisting of many thousands of fused fibers.
Multi-Multi Assembly
The multi-multi assembly is fairly easy to construct. Since the EMA has already
been inserted into the multi assembly, the multi-multi assembly process consists
strictly of stacking square multis into a square multi-multi configuration. As with
the multi assembly, all processing is conducted under Class 100 clean conditions.
The finished multi-multi assembly is bundled similarly to the multi assembly, and
is stored in Class 100 clean conditions to await drawing. Typical multi-multi
assemblies have a square cross section of about 45 mm (65 mm diagonal).
The Multi-Multi Fiber Drawing Process

The finished multi-multi assembly is then drawn into a multi-multi fiber about
2 mm square. The multi-multi fiber drawing process is nearly identical to the
mono and multi fiber drawing processes. The assembly is fed slowly into the
furnace and is pulled quickly. Fiber size is controlled by careful adjustment of the
input and output speeds. Since this will be the final drawing sequence, the fibers
are cut to proper lengths, depending on the fusion design. SCHOTT uses an
automated process to cut fibers to the desired length and load them into trays in
preparation for fiber cleaning.
The finished multi-multi fiber is actually a composite of several thousand mono
fibers, all precisely positioned. The final element (fiber) size is established as a
result of the multi-multi draw. The final element sizein combination with the
material type, core/clad ratio, and EMAcreate a distinct SCHOTT material type.
Image Resolution
Image resolution through a fiber optic component is largely a function of
fiber sizeand is generally stated in terms of limiting resolution (in lp/mm). The
resolution does not have an exact mathematical value, but depends upon the
random sampling of the object by the fiber pattern. As a rule of thumb for many
components, the resolution may be taken as R = 500/df, where df is the element
size in m. Thus, a component with 10 m fibers will resolve about 50 lp/mm.
17
18
Industry standard materials provide resolutions ranging from 20 lp/mm up to

181 lp/mm. Typical SCHOTT faceplates are manufactured with fiber sizes as
small as 2.5 m. This results in a resolution as high as 203 lp/mm in SCHOTTs
highest-quality material (2.5 m fiber), with typical faceplate resolution of
102 lp/mm (6 m fiber) and 128 lp/mm (4 m fiber).
Fiber Optic Material Types (Material Designation)

SCHOTT uses many material types, differentiated by the characteristics listed
below. For most of SCHOTTs glass types, the actual material designation is made
using a number/letter combination to identify each characteristic.
I With or Without EMA

Materials containing EMA have an A designation. Materials without EMA
(clear) have a C designation.
I Shear Distortion Level

Materials specially processed with a minimal level of shear distortion have an
S designation.
I Element Size
The final characteristic differentiating SCHOTT materials is element size.
SCHOTT produces materials with element sizes ranging from 2.5 m to
25 m. Larger and special element sizes can be manufactured to meet special
customer needs.
19
Material Summary
Following is a summary of the different materials and their specifications.
GLASS TYPE
Typical
Performance
Parameters
47A
47ARH
(Radiation-
24A
24AS
24C
75A
75C
27/23
6/102
55A
55C
Hardened)
Fiber Size
(m) /
Resolution
(lp/mm)
6/102
4/128
6/102
Numerical
Aperture
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.58
0.58
0.35
0.35
Stray Light
Control (EMA)
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
No
Collimated
Transmission
White Light:
10 mm Thick
(normal)
70
68
61
61
85
68
80
68
80
Coefficient of
Thermal
Expansion
(x 10 C 2@
20 - 300 C)
68
68
68
68
68
61
61
78
80
Lead-Free
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Phosphor
Compatible
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Twist/Stretch
Capability
No
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
No
No
No
Maximum
Diagonal
Dimension
6.0
6.0
6.0
<1.25
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
6.0
20
25/23
8/72
10/64
10/64 6/102 6/102
8/72
4/128 4/128
6/102 2.5/203
60/10 60/10
Boule Fusing
CHAPTER
Boule Fusing
Once the multi-multi fiber has been drawn, a coherent image bundle can faithfully transmit an image. However, it is relatively small (2 mm) and is not practical
for most imaging applications.
The next stages of the fiber optic manufacturing process turn these multi-multi
fibers into a large block of coherent fiber optic material that can be used to produce larger components. The multi-multi fibers are cut to length, cleaned, and
assembled into a large boule, or block. The fusion assembly is then placed in a
stainless steel die, heated, and pressed. The resulting boule is a fused block of
fibers that can be cut and machined into any number of different components.
Definition of Terms
In order to understand this manufacturing process, it is helpful to define two key
terms:
I Pressing (Fusing)
These two words are used interchangeably to refer to the act of heating and
squeezing the fibers together, in order to form one solid block of fibers.
I Boule (Fusion)
These two words are used interchangeably to refer to the block of fused
material resulting from the pressing operation.
Finished Boule
21
Boule Fusing
Fiber Cutting
The first step in the boule fusing process is fiber cutting.
The drawn multi-multi fibers are typically about 1 m long. This length has
been chosen to make handling easier, as well as to minimize fiber damage.
Based on the particular fusion to be made, these multi-multi fibers are cut to
300 mm, 250 mm, 200 mm, or 100 mm lengths.
The standard fusion length is 300 mm. In order to cut fiber, a special machine has
been developed. This machine allows SCHOTT to quickly and safely transfer
60-70 multi-multi fibers to the cutting machine and then simultaneously cut each
fiber to length, with minimal chip generation. All cut fibers are placed in a
special handling basket that allows each fiber to be carefully cleaned before fusion
assembly.
22
Boule Fusing
SCHOTT Proprietary Cleaning Process
Fiber Cleaning
The cut fibers proceed next to a special cleaning operation, to remove contaminants trapped between fibers that would otherwise result in damaged fibers
during the fusion pressing operation. To ensure that no contaminants are trapped
between fibers, a special two-stage cleaning process is used. The first stage of
cleaning consists of an ultrasonic cleaning process, which acts to remove most
contaminants from the fibers. The second stage incorporates a high-pressure
spray, to ensure that any remaining contaminants are completely removed. The
resulting clean fibers are then ready for fusion assembly.
Fusion
Assembly
Configurations
23
Fusion Assembly
Fusion Assembly
The cleaned multi-multi fibers are then carefully inspected and stacked to
form a large assembly of fibers. Fusion assemblies can take on any number of
configurations, depending on the type of parts that will be cut from the fusion.
A typical fusion size is 100 mm wide x 50 mm high x 300 mm in length.
A fusion of this type can be cut to make square or rectangular faceplates, as
well as various diameter faceplates, inverters, and tapers.
24
Boule Fusing
Extreme care is taken during the fusion assembly operation to ensure that only
the highest-quality fibers are placed in the quality areas of the fusionand that
no fiber damage is incurred during the assembly operation.
Fusion Assembly Transfer

The fusion die is then transferred to a preheat oven, where it is heated to press
temperature. Once the assembly has reached a uniform temperature, the die is
transferred to the fusion press to be fused.
Fusing
The fusing press is designed to allow for independent pressing from the sides,
top, and ends of the boule. Heater blocks are located within the press chamber
to allow for heating from all sides of the boule. The fusion die is carefully placed
on the bottom heater block, and all other heater blocks are brought into close
proximity with the die. The press is then closed, and the cylinders are positioned
for pressing.
After the press is closed, the assembly is given time to reach a stable temperature.
Then a controlled-temperature cycle is initiated, which heats the assembly to the
final pressing temperature. The pressing chamber contains 14 heat zones, each
independently computer-controlled to within 1 F.
Once the assembly reaches pressing temperature, pressure is built up slowly and
uniformly in all three axes, until a maximum glass loading pressure of 5000
pounds per square inch (PSI) is achieved. This high pressure guarantees that the
best possible vacuum-tight fusion is obtained.
In the pressing operation, the glass is heated to the point where the cladding
softens, without causing damage to the fibers. The pressure then fuses together
the cladding at the outer edge of each multi-multi fiber. Careful control of the
pressing operation must be maintained in order to ensure that fibers are not damaged in this process. In addition to the careful computer control of temperature
during this operation, computer controls have been developed to carefully gauge
and control pressure build-up and material movement rates. Through these
careful controls, SCHOTT is able to minimize material defects such as chicken
wire, shear, and gross distortion (see Material Quality section, page 27).
25
Once the boule has been pressed, it is transferred to a special annealing oven,
where the boule is carefully cooled to ensure that all stress is relieved from
the glass. The finished boule is then removed from the die, and it is ready to be
processed for inspection and further processing into various fiber optic
components.
26
Material Quality
CHAPTER
Material Quality
Although the material quality of fused boules is defined based on many parameters, there are two main categories of defects: blemishes and distortion. Blemishes
are categorized in two ways. Spot blemishes refers to groups of non-transmitting fibers, and line blemishes (or chicken wire) refers to blemishes at the
multi-multi boundary. Distortion manifests itself in two forms: shear distortion
and gross distortion. Below is a summary of these four major defects, as well as a
brief description of some other material defects.
Blemishes
The first type of defect we will discuss is blemishes, which occur in two forms.
I Spot Blemishes
Spot blemishes are defined as small areas (or groups of fibers) within the faceplate with reduced transmission. Spot blemishes are caused by contaminants
trapped between the fibers during the drawing operations. The trapped
contaminants do not reduce in size during drawing operations, and eventually they impact one or more fiberscausing light to scatter, and resulting
in non-transmitting fibers. Typical spot blemish sizes range from as small as
25-50 m to as large as 200 m in the outer zones of standard quality
material.
27
Material Inspection
28
Material Quality
I Line Blemishes (Chicken Wire)

Line blemishes are defined as a pattern of dark fibers that is two to four fibers
wide at the multi-multi fiber boundary. Line blemishes are caused by damage
to the fibers at the outside edges of multi-multis. This damage can be caused
by contamination especially if the multi-multi fibers are improperly
cleaned or by improper temperature or pressure control in the pressing
operation. Line blemishes are defined in terms of length and quantity. Typical
line blemishes range from limited instances of two-fiber wide defects in the
best materials to as many as four instances of 4-5 mm long defects in the
outer zones of standard quality material.
Distortion
The second most common defect in fused boules is distortion, which occurs in
two forms.
I Shear Distortion
Shear distortion is defined as a lateral displacement that causes a straight line
to be imaged as a break. Shear distortion is caused by the misalignment of
multi-multi fibers along the length of a fusion. This results in a small break in
the coherency of the image, when viewed through the finished fiber optic
component. Shear distortion ranges from as small as 15 m to as much as 125
m, depending on the application.
I Gross Distortion
Gross distortion is defined as a distortion that causes a straight line to
be imaged as a continuous curve. Gross distortion is caused by material flow
during the fusing operation. Proper control of temperature and pressure
during pressing minimizes gross distortion. This defect is measured as the
maximum displacement from a straight line, and it ranges from less than
1% up to 2% of the clear aperture of the finished component.
29
Other Material Defects

Other defects can occur during fiber optics assembly though, in general, all
SCHOTT materials are manufactured to be free of these defects.
I Multi Fiber Shading

Multi fiber shading is a variation in multi fiber transmission within the multimulti fibers. It is usually caused by mixing multi fibers produced during
different runs in the same multi-multi assembly.
I Herringbone
Herringbone is a predominant pattern of low-transmitting mono fibers,
usually caused by an increased thermal history of the affected monos.
I Banding
Banding refers to rows, large areas, or patterns of multi-multi fibers with
varying transmission levels. This is typically caused by mixing multi-multi
fibers from different production runs in the same fusion assembly.
Material Inspection
After pressing, fusions are cut to length as determined by the final parts dimensions, as well as being inspected for overall material quality. Once the parts are
deemed acceptable for all material specifications, the material can begin the
process of being finished into fiber optic components.
30
Faceplates
CHAPTER
Faceplates
Fiber optic faceplates are manufactured from fused boules for applications such
as night vision image intensifier input and output windows, as well as charged
coupled device (CCD) couplers.
Faceplate Finishing Process

Fused boules are sliced, inspected, generated, and then ground and polished into
finished faceplates of almost any configuration. The following is a brief description of a typical faceplate finishing process.
I Fusion Slicing
The faceplate finishing process begins
with the fusion being sliced into
wafers of appropriate thickness.
Several types of saws can be used to
cut fusions. The saw used most often
for faceplates is an inside diameter (ID)
saw, which has diamonds on the
inside diameter of its blade. The
material is inserted into the center of
the blade, and a slice is taken. The ID
saw results in a minimal amount of
material loss due to the saw blade,
improving material yields.
I Grinding and Inspection Polishing

Next, the fusion slices are ground and polished for inspection. SCHOTT uses
standard Lapmaster and Speedfam grinding and polishing equipment to
perform these operations.
I Material Inspection
The slices are then inspected for material defects such as blemishes, distortion, and fiber shading defects. Slices that meet material specifications are
passed on to the next processing step. Unacceptable material is salvaged for
other faceplate requirements, or scrapped. Inspection for dimensional
requirements is conducted by the operators themselves during each of the
subsequent machining operations. A final inspection is conducted to ensure
that critical dimensions have been achieved.
31
Faceplate Polishing
32
Faceplates
Fusion Slicing With ID Saw
I Faceplate Generation
Acceptable slices are then generated according to their basic profile, as dictated by customer requirements. Computer numerical control (CNC)
machines have been programmed to generate faceplates with almost any
profile. Whether the part is a simple plano-plano or it has complicated steps,
radii, or bevels, the CNC machine can generate parts with extreme precision.
Faceplate Configurations
SCHOTTs CNC machines ensure very precise and repeatable part generation.
Each faceplate is generated so that its generated dimensions are close to its
final dimensions. To complete the finished part, the faceplate only requires
polishing and cleaning.
33
Faceplate Cleaning
I Faceplate Polishing
The generated part is then polished using standard technologies, as well as
some specially designed equipment. SCHOTT has capabilities to polish all
surfaces of the faceplate, including plano surfaces, radii, bevels, edges, and
corner radii. The finished part is then ready for final cleaning and inspection.
I Faceplate Cleaning
Faceplates are cleaned in a specially designed ultrasonic cleaner using water,
special detergents, and hot air. The cleaning process consists of five stages,
including immersion in ultrasonically agitated baths, spray rinsing, and hot air
drying. The cleaned plates are free of any polishing compound or residue
and are ready for shipment to the customer following final inspection.
I Final Inspection
Cleaned parts are inspected one final time to ensure that critical dimensions
are correct, and that the parts are free of chips or fractures. The finished parts
are then packaged for shipment.
34
Image Inverters
CHAPTER
Image Inverters
Fiber optic image inverters are used primarily in night vision image intensifier
tubes. The image inverter allows for the correction of an inverted image, while
providing a compact intensifier package. The inverter manufacturing process is
similar to the faceplate process, with one major exception. Rather than going
from a slice to part generation, a longer slice (or billet) is cut and generated to
diameter. The billet is then heated and twisted prior to being generated.
Billet Preparation
Cylindrical billets are prepared by slicing the fusion on the ID saw, and then edging the fusion to the cylindrical billet diameter. Standard billet diameters range
from 18 mm to 25 mm. The billet is inspected for material defects, and acceptable billets are passed on to the twisting operation.
Twisting
Special equipment has been designed to perform the twisting operation with
minimal distortion. The cylindrical billet is inserted into the twist machine and
held at each end, using a matched set of collets. A thin furnace heats a central
zone of the billet up to twisting temperature. The heated billet is then rotated
180 to create the inverted image. Angles of rotation other than 180 are
possible as well.
Image Inverter
35
Inverter Inspection
36
Image Inverters
Inspection
The twisted billet is then reinspected for material defects, as well as rotation angle
and S-distortion.
Material Defects
Material defects can be enhanced during the additional heating and twisting
process. Therefore, an additional material inspection is conducted to ensure
that the parts are still acceptable.
Twist Angle
The standard tolerance for image rotations is 2 (but can be held as tightly
as 1).
S-Distortion
S-distortion is a form of gross distortion introduced when the fibers are
heated and twisted. S-distortionmeasured as the maximum deviation from
a straight lineis typically less than 75 m for standard inverters. Special
processing can improve this to less than 30 m for applications with critical
distortion requirements.
S-Distortion
37
Image Inverters
38
Tapers
CHAPTER
Tapers
Fiber optic tapers are unique fiber optic components, used either to magnify or
minify an image. In the taper manufacturing process, a cylindrical billet is prepared, the central zone of the billet is heated, and the taper is stretched. The
resulting hourglass-shaped piece is cut into two pieces and machined into tapers.
Fiber optic tapers offer some unique and compact solutions to applications such
as CCD coupling, medical imaging, and scientific imaging.
Taper Manufacturing Process

There are a number of steps in the taper manufacturing process.
I Billet Preparation
First, cylindrical billets are prepared by slicing the fusion to billet length,
and then edging the fusion to the cylindrical billet diameter. Billet
diameters can range from 1 or 2 mm in diameter up to 75 mm, with standard
billet diameters being 18 mm, 25 mm, 50 mm, and 75 mm. The billet is
inspected for material defects, and acceptable billets are passed on to the
tapering operation.
39
Taper Inspection
40
Tapers
Taper Finishing (before and after stretching)
Tapering
The fiber optic billet is then tapered in a special machine that precisely heats
and stretches the boule. The cylindrical billet is inserted into the taper
machine and held at each end, using a matched set of collets. The furnace
heats a central zone of the billet up to tapering temperature. The heated
billet is then stretched to introduce the image reduction. The resulting
magnification is directly related to the length of stretch. Therefore, heating
and temperature parameters must be carefully controlled, in order to
ensure high quality and repeatability in the stretching operation.
Finishing
The resulting hourglass-shaped component is symmetrical, and is cut into
two tapers which may be either identical or cut to different magnification
ratios, as required. The taper faces are then ground and polished, either flat
or curved, as desired. Finished tapers can also be machined with square or
rectangular islands to facilitate coupling to a CCD chip or other device.
41
Taper Magnification Ratio
Taper Design Considerations

When designing tapers to meet specific customer needs, there are several
important considerations.
I Magnification Ratio
The image magnification ratio is simply the ratio of the diameters of the large
and small ends of the tapered boule. Since light can pass through the taper in
either direction, it serves equally well as both a minifier and magnifier.
Typical magnification ratios for SCHOTT tapers range up to 5:1.
I Numerical Aperture (NA)

As discussed earlier, numerical aperture is a measure of the light-gathering
power of a fiber. Unlike the case of parallel fibers, however, the effective NA of
tapered fibers varies along the length of the taper, and decreases as the
diameter increases. Thus:
NAeff = NAmax x Dmin/D
where Dmin is the smallest diameter. The reduced effective NA of the large end
of the taper is an important factor in the transmission of the taper.
42
Tapers
I Transmission
To obtain maximum transmission, the input NA to the large end should not
exceed the effective NA of the taper. Any light beyond this escapes through
the fiber walls as it travels down the taper, approaches the cut-off critical
angle, and is absorbed by the EMA. As a result, viewing the large end of a
taper at an angle beyond cut-off, it appears black. In the case of tapers, the
lambertian transmission is related to the effective numerical aperture (NAeff):
Tlamb= Tcoll x (NAeff)2
For example, in a 3:1 magnification taper, if the collimated transmission is
60%, then:
NAeff = 1.0 x (1/3) = .33
Tlamb = 60% x (.33)2 = 6.5%
I Taper Size
The size of available tapers varies from a few millimeters up to a current
maximum of 75 mm in diameter. Common sizes are designed to couple to
standard sizes of image intensifier tubes and CCD chips. Depending on the
application, this coupling may be to either the large or the small end of the
taper. The length of a taper can be varied to some degree in the manufacturing process, but is generally about equal to the large-end diameter.
Taper Configurations
43
I Taper Configurations
Tapers can be machined into various configurations in order to facilitate coupling to devices such as CCD chips. SCHOTTs machining capabilities make it
possible to manufacture these tapers into shapes ranging from simple roundto-round tapers to the machining of complex curves.
I Taper Distortions
The heating and stretching of a fiber optic billet results in the introduction
of additional distortion. The distortion introduced during the tapering operation is a form of gross distortion called pincushion/barrel distortion.
Pincushion/barrel distortion results when a square image input from one end of
the taper is imaged as a distorted square on the other end. Pincushion/barrel
distortion can be minimized through careful control of the temperature and
rate of movement during stretching. Pincushion/barrel distortion in SCHOTT
tapers is less than 3% deviation from a straight line, with typical distortion in
the 1.5-2% range.
I Other Considerations
Fresnel reflection losses can be minimized by coating the end faces of the taper.
Since the taper is made of solid glass, it can be evaporation-coated. Losses can
also be minimized by using an immersion medium when the taper is directly
coupled to another component. Silicone grease is often used for this purpose.
44
Tapers
Taper Arrays
Taper Arrays
In applications requiring large-area digital imaging, tiled and slot taper arrays
have been used.
A tiled taper array utilizes several tapers assembled together, each coupled to a
CCD to produce a large-area image. The tapers are machined square or rectangular, then epoxied together to form the array. Typical bonding gap width
between tapers is 50-100 m. Tiled taper arrays have found use in both
scientific and medical imaging applications.
In the case of a slot taper array, several tapers are assembled side by side, each
being coupled to a CCD. The slot taper array then scans across the desired
viewing area to create a large-area digital image. In this case, the bonding gap
can be held even tighter, due to the ability to hold the tapers around the outer
edge. A slot scanning unit for radiographic imaging applications provides
improved control of scatter, improved resolution, and full-field viewing.
45
Anamorphic Tapers
Anamorphic Tapers
Recent research and development efforts at SCHOTT have resulted in a unique
tapering process that allows for different magnification levels in the X and Y axes.
This process stretches and forms the taper in such a way that the resulting
anamorphic image can then be electro-optically processed.
46
Wound Image Bundles

CHAPTER
Wound Image Bundles
Wound image guides are coherent, flexible fiber optic bundles used in applications
where images must be transferred from remote locations. These bundles are used
in a wide range of applications, including industrial remote vision systems,
ordered array detectors, hazardous environment imaging, defense, and research.
Their numerical aperture is typically 0.60, and standard lengths range from
610 mm to 4500 mm.
SCHOTT can also produce custom image guide assemblies in any vertical or
horizontal format required to meet nonstandard imaging applications.
Wound Image Bundle Manufacturing Process

Wound image bundles are produced by winding a multi fiber, one layer at a time,
on a drum and then assembling the desired number of layers in a separate
laminating operation. The final flexible image bundles are composed of individual
multi fibers, bound only at the ends and flexible in the middle.
Wound Image Bundle Design Considerations

When designing wound image bundles, there are a number of characteristics that
must be taken into consideration.
I Format Size
Image bundle format size reflects the physical cross-section measurements of
the image bundle. SCHOTTs capabilities can produce image bundle formats
from 2 mm x 2 mm up to 40 mm x 35 mm, for lengths of 1.2 m and longer.
Formats may be divided intoor made up ofmultiple branches transmitting
to a single output, or input.
I Quality Area
This term refers to a marginally smaller area within the bundles format size, to
which the image bundles quality specification is applicable.
I Flexible Length
A bundles flexible length is determined by measuring the flexible
portion of the image bundle, between the bundles rigid ends.
47
I Fiber Count
This term refers to the number of independent imaging fibers within the
wound bundle. Fiber count is a function of the size of the fibers, as well as
the overall bundle size.
I Fiber Size
Fiber size reflects the dimension of individual fibers, including
the core and clad, and
is equivalent to the
center-to-center distance of the imaging
fibers within a multi
fiber. Wound image
bundles are typically
fabricated using 10 m
fibers in a 6 x 6 multi
fiber.
Wound Image
Bundles

Numerical aperture is a fixed value,
determined by the materials used
for the core and cladding glasses.
The NA determines the light
acceptance angle of the fibers. By
definition, numerical aperture is a
function of the square root of the
difference between the squares of
the optical indices of both materials.
I Transmission
This term refers to the relative transmission of a wound fiber bundle at different
wavelengths. Transmission varies by material, as well as by overall bundle length.
48
Leached Image Bundles

CHAPTER
10
Leached Image Bundles
Leached fiber bundles (LFBs) are flexible, coherent image guides. They are built
by multiple draws of a high index core, with a lower index clad and an acidsoluble clad jacket. After the fibers have been drawn to the size needed, the
acid-soluble glass is dissolvedand the fibers become loose and flexible. There is
no adhesive holding the fibers together.
LFBs are used primarily in endoscopes for both medical and veterinary applications, as well as in some industrial applications.
Leached Image Bundle Design Considerations

A number of product characteristics should be taken into account when designing leached fiber optic image bundles.
I Bundle Size
This term refers to the outside diameter of the fiber optic bundleas well as
the total length of the image bundle in a free state, from image surface to
image surface.
I Fiber Count/Pixel Count

The fiber countalso called the pixel countreflects the number of independent, discrete imaging fibers within a given bundle.
I Fiber Size/Pixel Size

This measurement is the diameter
dimension of the core and clad, taken
together. Fiber sizeor pixel sizeis
specified in microns.
I Distal/Proximal Endtip Length

This term refers to the length of the
endtip/ferrule on each end of the
leached fiber optic image bundle.
Leached Image Bundle
49
I Distal/Proximal Endtip Outside Diameter

This is a measurement of the outside diameter (OD) of the endtip/ferrule at
each of the bundles ends.
I Quality Area
A bundles quality area is the diameter of the quality zone to be used for the
imaging application. A specific bundles quality area can have multiple zones,
each with different specifications.
I Image Bundle Protrusion

This term refers to the length of the
fiber optic bundle that protrudes
beyond the endtip.

The numerical apertureor acceptance angle is a fixed value that is
determined by the materials used
for the core and
cladding glasses. The
numerical aperture
determines the light
acceptance angle of
the fibers.
50
Leached
Image
Bundles
Applications
CHAPTER
11
Applications
Fused fiber optic components are used in many imaging applications.

Among these are CCD coupling, input and output windows for imaging
intensifier tubes, faceplates, medical and dental imaging, and special
scientific applications. Each application is discussed briefly in this chapter,
along with the special considerations that accompany each application.
Complete Assembly of Image Intensifier, Taper, and CCD
CCD Coupling
Both faceplates and tapers are used as couplers for charged coupled device (CCD)
chips. In the case of faceplates, the fiber optic is used as a cover window for the
CCD surface, performing the following functions:
I
I
I
I
I
Protects the CCD surface from physical damage

Provides an X-ray absorption layer to protect the CCD from X-ray damage
Allows for direct 1:1 coupling with other optical devices
Provides a surface for direct coating (such as a phosphor screen)
Provides for more efficient coupling than with a lens
51
Argonne National Lab Taper/CCD Array
52
Applications
Taper Bonded to CCD

In addition to the benefits mentioned on the previous pages, fiber optic tapers
offer these benefits:
They provide a large active area, which is reduced in
size to match the CCD dimensions
They allow many tapers/CCDs to be combined
together, to form a large viewing area
As opposed to the options of direct coupling and lens coupling
to the CCD, fiber optics offer some attractive alternatives.
In addition, with its high-quality and low-shear materials,
SCHOTT has the capability to meet the requirements
of the CCD coupler industry.
53
CCD Coupling Design Considerations

There are a number of important considerations in CCD coupling design.
Fiber Size and Structure

When coupling fiber optic components to CCD chips, the ideal coupling
would be one fiber per detector pixel. Unfortunately, the fiber pattern of the
faceplate or taper can not be manufactured as precisely as the CCD pixel
pattern. Therefore, it is very difficult to create a one-to-one matching of fibers
to pixels. The lack of precision would result in some rather large variations in
pixel-to-pixel sensitivity, which is undesirable.
In order to address this issue, it is necessary to choose a fiber size that is
significantly smaller than the CCD pixel size, to ensure that there are multiple
fibers for every CCD pixel. However, since the arrangement of fibers is nearly
but not exactly regular, and the CCD pixel placement is precisely regular,
there will not always be the same number of fibers per pixel. This slight
mismatch in two nearly regular patterns results in a moir pattern in the image.
But, because there are many more fibers per CCD pixel, the relative change in
fibers per pixel is much smaller than with a one-to-one matching.
To address the moir problem, it makes sense to adjust the fiber structure so
that the fiber and CCD pixel patterns do not correspond so closely. By placing
the fiber axis of the faceplate or taper at an angle relative to the CCD surface,
moir is minimized.
54
Applications
For these reasons, a fiber size that is three to four times smaller than the CCD
pixel size is typically chosen. In faceplates and tapers that are machined
square or rectangular to match the CCD surface, a fiber orientation of 45,
relative to the CCD surface, is chosen to minimize moir. Angles other than
45 can be machined especially if multiple fiber optic components will be
coupled together, and then coupled to the CCD chip.
I CCD Type
When specifying blemish and chicken wire quality levels, it is important to
consider the type of CCD chip that will be used, as well as how it will function in the customers application. For example, if a CCD chip with time-delay
integration (TDI) will be used, the impact of blemishes and chicken wire on
image quality will be significantly diminished, and the need for very low shear
and gross distortion in the fiber optics will be increased. Each application has
slightly different needs; it is important to consider the mode of operation and
the resulting quality requirements in order to provide the product with the
best value.
I CCD Flatness
CCD manufacturing results in some variation in the flatness of the CCD
surface. In order to obtain the highest-quality coupling of the fiber optic to
the CCD surface, it is extremely helpful to match the fiber optic surface to the
CCD as closely as possible. For CCDs with surface irregularities (bowing) that
approximate a spherical curve, the fiber optic surface can be machined to
closely match the CCD surface. The resulting coupling will provide improved
performance and resolution.
I Image Correction
For applications using software programming for image manipulation, many

fiber optic defects such as blemishes, chicken wire, and gross distortion can
be corrected. One such process is called flat field correction, or flat fielding.
In flat fielding, a complex mathematical formula is used to manipulate the
image and remove defects introduced by both the CCD chip and the fiber
optic.
55
Mammovision Mammographic Digital Imaging Center
Medical and Dental Imaging
One of the main areas for which fiber optic tapers and faceplates have found
widespread use is medical and dental imaging applications. Some of these
applications are described below.
Medical Radiography
In most medical radiography applications, a phosphor or gadolinium oxy
sulfide screen is deposited on the large end of the taper, in order to convert
an X-ray image to visible light. The light is then transferred and reduced
through the taper, and coupled to a CCD chip for digital image processing.
56
Applications
Fiber Optic Based Digital

Mammography System
In digital mammography, for example, the unit reduces X-ray exposure to the
patient, as well as attending medical personnel. It allows for real-time feedback
by way of digital image processing, improves detectability through image
enhancement, enhances biopsy procedures, and replaces X-ray film reducing
environmental waste. The use of tapers in medical imaging applications is not
limited to digital mammography applications. With the use of tiled taper and
slot taper arrays, the potential for the use of tapers in all areas of digital radiography is now a reality.
I Dental Radiography
Another fiber optic application is dental radiography. In this case, a small rectangular taper or faceplate is used to couple an X-ray image formed on a
radioluminescent screen in contact with the input surface of the fiber optic to the CCD. This is encapsulated in a plastic housing small enough to fit in the
mouth, and image one or two teeth. The image is
instantly available on a cathode ray tube (CRT), and a
permanent print can be made in a few seconds.
Alternative units using faceplates and tapers are being
made for external panoramic imaging of the entire
Dental Faceplates
jaw or skull.
Once again, the efficiency of the taper and the sensitivity of the CCD array
sensor reduce patients X-ray exposure, as well as enabling real-time imaging.
57
X-Scan 1000 Portable/Mobile Fluoroscope Unit
I Fluoroscopy
In this application, a fiber optic taper is used to reduce the image from
a 76.2 mm (3) diameter radioluminescent (X-ray) screen to a 25.4 mm (1)
image intensifier tube.
The amplified image from the intensifier can then be directly viewed with a
biocular eyepiece, or digitally processed by coupling the image intensifier to
a CCD camera.
The intensified digital image allows for fluoroscopic imaging that reduces
X-ray exposure to the patient, while improving image quality. This results in a
completely portable unit, which has found use in a variety of medical and industrial areas, including sports medicine, office procedures, and surgical centers.
58
Applications
Gen III Anvis

System
Night Vision
Fiber optic faceplates, image inverters, and tapers have had their most widespread use in night vision image intensifier tubes. SCHOTT has emerged as the
worlds leading supplier of fiber optic components to this marketplace.
I Image Intensifier Tubes

Two of the most important applications for
fused fiber optic components are secondand third-generation image intensifier tubes.
In the third-generation tube, the input window is a special anti-glare blackened faceplate. In the second-generation version of
this tube, the input window is a high-resolution fiber optic step plate.
Gen III Image Intensifier Tube
59
In both instances, the output of the intensifier is a fiber optic image inverter.
Since the objective lens of the night vision device inverts the primary image,
the fiber optic inverter is used to turn this image right side up for viewing via
the eyepiece. An inverter is made by reshaping a billet with a critically
controlled heating and torquing cycle that twists the billet through 180.
I Night Drivers Viewer

In each of the previously described applications using tapers, the fiber optic
taper was used as an image reducer, to efficiently couple light to a focal plane
sensor.
As stated originally, tapers are also magnifiers. One important application of
a taper as a magnifier is in the VVS-2 Night Drivers Viewer, used in Army
tanks. Light enters through a prism and objective lens, and is intensified by a
25 mm image intensifier which also provides biocular viewing. A fiber optic
taper is coupled directly to the intensifier output, and then lenses are used to
obtain the overall unit magnification of the system.
In this case, where maximum light transmission is desired even at some loss
of contrast the taper is made without EMA. To obtain maximum light distribution to permit biocular viewing, the output face of the taper is finely
ground, rather than polished.
Other Applications
Fiber optic faceplates and tapers can also be found in any number of scientific,
medical, and commercial applications. Thin faceplates are used as diffusing
screens with low granularity and enhanced contrast as view finders on reflex
cameras and can also be found as light valve plates in large-screen projector
systems. Tapers are frequently used in scientific applications such as intensified
cameras, astronomy applications, and other advanced imaging applications.
60
Appendix
SCHOTT
North America
61
The History of SCHOTT North America

Historical Milestones
SCHOTT North Americas fiber optics business is the direct descendent of a 1954
American Optical (AO) research project. AOs early inventions and experiments
have been steadily refined and expanded to form SCHOTTs technological base
for its current manufacturing operations. Continuous research and development
have resulted in 14 patents currently issued in various countries around the world,
with an additional 25 patents pending around the world. Those SCHOTT patents
apply to fiber manufacturing processes, components, assemblies, and instrumentation for medical, industrial, military, commercial, and scientific applications
worldwide. Historical milestones include:
1950s
I Developed glass coating/glass core techniques

I Invented multi fiber concepts
I Invented hoop winding and assembly
1960s
I Awarded U.S. Army contract to develop fused faceplates for image

intensifiers
I Developed method to draw and assemble flexible multi fibers into
coherent image bundles
I Began production of faceplates for night vision devices
I Expanded methods to draw and assemble flexible multi fibers into
coherent image bundles
I Introduced inspection instruments for industrial applications
I Constructed main manufacturing facility at American Optical
1970s
I Developed leached bundle technology that, in turn, expanded the

range of medical and industrial instrumentation
I Introduced the first medical laryngoscope
I Introduced the first flexible sigmoidoscope
62
Appendix
1980s
I American Optical sold by Warner Lambert

I Company purchased by SCHOTT Group, Germany
I Name became SCHOTT Fiber Optics, Inc.
I Developed fiber optic tapers for dental X-ray imaging
I Began Gen III retrofit of fused fiber optic faceplates for 25 mm
image intensifier tubes
I Developed radioluminescent glass for aviation and medical markets
I Developed tiled taper arrays for large-area X-ray imaging
I Developed slot taper arrays for scanning applications
I Introduced low-distortion inverter
I Developed radiation-resistant faceplates
I Developed <10 m fiber diameter flexible image bundles and
20,000 element leached bundles
I Introduced ureteroscope and immersible sigmoidoscope for medical endoscopy, VFS-5 veterinary endoscope for animal medicine,
and FS-200 jet engine inspection fiberscope
1990s
I Introduced Saturn faceplates

I Developed and implemented UltraClean clean-room manufacturing process, improving blemish and chicken wire quality for commercial market applications
I Introduced UltraRes fiber optic material to market
I Introduced 4 m low-distortion inverter
63
1990s
(cont.)
I Developed VVS-2 twisted taper

I Developed, introduced, and patented anamorphic taper
I Introduced 125 mm, 135 mm, and 150 mm tapers for mammography and large-area imaging applications
I Developed coherent capillary arrays for atom tracking by CERN,
Switzerland
I Introduced four-way articulating endoscopes, flexible hysteroscopes
for OB/GYN market, neuroscopes, and Candela Miniscope Plus to
market
I Developed, patented, and introduced high refractive index (HRI)
system
I Developed, patented, and introduced Garrent Guide Tubes for
Allied Signals Garrett TFE731 engine
I Received ISO 9001 registration
I Introduced faceplates for digital dental X-rays
2000s
I Earned ISO 9001 upgrade

I Expanded manufacturing into Mexico
I Produced IR imaging bundles for cardiac applications
I Developed products for biotech applications
I Produced low-NA material displays
I Developed lead-free productsROHS-compliant
64
Appendix
Looking to the Future:

SCHOTT North America
Little did the founders of American Optical realize how important their development of fiber optic technology would become over the ensuing yearsa technological revolution for the future!
Today SCHOTT North America, AOs descendent, is renowned as a world-leading
developer, custom designer, and producer of fused flexible and rigid fiber optic
imaging products for medical, industrial, commercial, military, and scientific
applications. SCHOTT North Americas 90,000-square-foot manufacturing space
is located on 20 acres adjacent to the original American Optical site in
Southbridge, Massachusetts. The company employs over 250 individuals in
developing, designing, engineering, manufacturing, and selling the
companys custom fiber optic components and systems.
The companys vision for the future includes expanding its already strong
presence in the specialty fiber optic product and component markets; SCHOTT
North America has made a commitment to new product line expansion and
process development to attain these goals. The company has recently completed
a multi-million dollar expansion in personnel, facilities, and equipment.
SCHOTT North America will continue on the path established by our AO
forefathers by responding to the increasing demand for our broadening line of
fiber optic productsand will demonstrate our commitment to the marketplace
with innovative, high-quality solutions.
65
Global Reach:
SCHOTTs Worldwide Capabilities
SCHOTT North America is part of SCHOTTs worldwide Fiber Optics business unit,
with locations spanning the globe. SCHOTT Fiber Optics offers customized, hightech solutions for automotive, lighting, medical, retail, industrial, defense, and
other applications.
SCHOTT Fiber Optics employs more than 600 employees worldwide at these
locations:
I Southbridge, Massachusetts, USA. This location custom designs and
manufactures state-of-the-art fused, flexible, and rigid fiber optic imaging
components for automotive, lighting, industrial defense, medical, and
scientific applications.
I Mainz, Germany. This facility offers outstanding capabilities in fibers
and cables, automotive datacom and lighting products, and medical and
industrial illumination. This location is also home to a world-leading LED
competence center.
I Auburn, New York, USA. The core capabilities of SCHOTT North Americas
Auburn facility include machine vision, microscopy, and medical and
industrial illumination.
I Valask Mezirc, Czech Republic. SCHOTTs Czech location produces
high-quality standard light guides, microscopy components, signage, and
lighting products for both automotive and architectural applications.
I Veracruz, Mexico. At its Mexican facility, SCHOTT focuses on subassemblies
for medical applications.
I Tokyo, Japan. SCHOTT serves the Japanese market through a central location
in Tokyo, providing a range of products for varied fiber optics applications.
While SCHOTTs global facilities may span five countries and three continents,
the companys worldwide employees share the same commitment to delivering
high-quality, innovative fiber optics solutions that meet or exceed customer
expectations.
66
Appendix
Global Contact Information for

SCHOTT Fiber Optics
Fiber Optics
SCHOTT North America, Inc.
122 Charlton Street
Southbridge, MA 01550-1960
USA
Phone: +1 508 / 765 9744
Fax: +1 508 / 764 6273
E-mail: fiberoptics.southbridge@us.schott.com
Fiber Optics
SCHOTT AG
Otto-Schott-Str. 2
55127 Mainz
Germany
Phone: +49 (0) 6131 / 66-0
Fax: +49 (0) 6131 / 66 77 05
E-mail: fiberoptics.info@schott.com
www.schott.com/fiberoptics
Fiber Optics
62 Columbus Street
Auburn, NY 13021
USA
Phone: +1 315 / 255 2791
Fax: +1 315 / 255 2695
E-mail: fiberoptics.auburn@us.schott.com
Fiber Optics
SCHOTT Nippon
7, Honshio-cho, Shinjuku-ku
Tokyo 160-0003
Japan
Phone: +81 (0) 3 / 5366 2548
Fax: +81 (0) 3 / 3358 2960
E-mail: fiberoptics.tokyo@schott.com
www.schott.com/japan
67
Bibliography
Baird, J.L., British Patent Specification No. 20,969/27 (1927)
Cuny, John J., The Development of Proximity Focused X-Ray Intensifier Tubes,
ITT Electro-Optical Products Division, 1988
Galileo Electro-Optics Corp., Technical Memorandum 100, Fiber Optics:
Theory and Applications, 1986
Galileo Electro-Optics Corp., Technical Memorandum 200, Fiber Optics:
Multi-Mode Transmission, 1986
Gruner, Sol M., et al., Characterization of Polycrystalline Phosphors for Area
X-Ray Detectors, Princeton University, 1993
Hansell, C.W., United States Patent 1,751,584 (1930)
Karellas, Andrew, et al., Charged Coupled Device Detector: Performance
Considerations and Potential for Small-Field Mammographic Imaging
Applications, University of Massachusetts Medical Center, 1992
Karellas, Andrew, et al., Digital Mammo Delivers Quick, Reliable Images,
Diagnostic Imaging, February 1994
Lamm, H., Biegsame Optische Gerte, Z. Instrumentenk, Vol. 50,
pp. 579-581, 1930
OBrien, B., United States Patent 2,285,260 (1958)
OMara, Daniel, et al., Design Criteria and Development of Components for a
Modular CCD-Based Detector for X-Ray Crystallography, Brandeis University
and Argonne National Laboratory, 1992
Photometrics Ltd., Using Coherent Fiber Bundles for CCD Imaging,
Photometrics CCD News Brief, Winter 1994
68
Appendix
Roehring, H., et al., Prototype Performance of a High-Resolution X-Ray

Imaging System for Use in Coronary Angiography, University of Arizona, 1988
Schempp, William V., Fiber Optic Imaging: An Introduction (1994); OE/LASE 94,
Los Angeles, Jan. 23, 1994; publication by SPIE can be obtained through SPIE
SCHOTT Fiber Optics, Fused Fiber Optic Tapers, April 1994
SCHOTT Fiber Optics, Fused Fiber Optic Faceplates, August 1994
Siegmund, Walter P., Chapter 1: Fiber Optics, Applied Optics and Optical
Engineering, Vol. IV, Edited by R. Kingslake, Academic Press, 1967
Siegmund, Walter P., Fiber Optic Tapers in Electronic Imaging, available from
SCHOTT Fiber Optics, May 1989
Toker, Emre, and Piccaro, Michele F., Design and Development of a Fiber
Optic TDI CCD-Based Slot-Scan Digital Mammography System, Fischer
Imaging Corp., 1993
Van Heel, C.S., Optische Afbeelding Zonder Lenzes of Afbeeldingsspiegels
Aanoulzing, De Ingenieur, Vol. 65, p. 25, 1953
69
Index
Anamorphic Tapers ....................46
Annular EMA ........................13-14
Applications..........................51-60
Assembly, Fusion...................24-25
Assembly, Mono..............XVI, 1-10
Assembly, Multi .............XVI, 11-16
Assembly, Multi-Multi....XVI, 17-20
Banding .................................... 30
Bibliography .........................68-69
Blemishes, Line ..........................29
(Chicken Wire)
Blemishes, Spot..........................27
Boule Fusing..................XVI, 21-26
(Fusing, Pressing)
Capillary Arrays..........................XV
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT)............57
CCD Coupling ......................51-58
CCD Flatness .............................55
CCD Types ................................55
Chicken Wire...(see Blemishes, Line)
Clad Rods .............................VI, XV
Cladding Glass ............XVII, 1, 5, 6
Cleaning Faceplates ...................34
Cleaning Fibers ..........................23
Coefficient of Thermal Expansion ..1
Coherent Fiber Optics ...............XV
Collimated Transmission ..............6
Configurations, Core Bar..............5
Configurations, Faceplate ..........33
Configurations, Fusion Assembly
................................................23-24
Configurations, Multi............11-15
Configurations, Taper ...........43-44
Core Glass ........................XVII, 1-8
Distortion, Gross/S...............29, 37
Distortion, Pincushion/Barrel......44
70
Distortion, Shear..................19, 29
Element Size ...........(see Fiber Size)
Expansion ..........(see Coefficient of
Thermal Expansion)
Extra-Mural ............XVI, 13-15, 19
Absorption (EMA)
Faceplates...........VI, VIII, XV, 31-34
Fiber Size.............19, 48-49, 54-55
Finishing Faceplates ..............31-34
Finishing Tapers .........................41
Flat Field Correction...................55
Flexible Image Bundles ...XV, 47-50
Fluoroscopy ...............................58
Fresnel Reflection Losses ........7, 44
Fusing................(see Boule Fusing)
Herringbone ..............................30
Image Conduits .........................XV
Image Corrections (CCDs) .........55
Image Intensifier Tubes...51, 59-60
Image Inverters...............XV, 35-38
Image Resolution ..................17-19
Index of Refraction .............XVIII, 1
Inspection .27-31, 34, 36-37, 40, 44
Interstitial EMA .....................11-14
Lambertian Transmission..............6
Leached Fiber Bundles ....XV, 49-50
Magnification Ratio....................42
Mammography.....................56-57
Material Type, Cladding...............5
Material Type, Core .....................3
Material Type, Fiber Optic ....19-20
Medical/Dental Imaging .......56-58
Moir....................................54-55
Mono Fibers ....................XVI, 1-10
Multi Fiber Shading ...................30
Multi Fibers ...................XVI, 11-16
Appendix
Multi-Multi Fibers ..........XVI, 17-20

Night Drivers Viewer.................60
Night Vision..........................59-60
Numerical Aperture
..............................XIX, 7, 42, 48, 50
Packing Fraction ..........................7
Pressing .............(see Boule Fusing)
Quality Area.........................47, 50
Quality, Material ...................27-30
SCHOTT, About .........................65
SCHOTT, Contacting..................67
SCHOTT, Global Locations .........66
SCHOTT, History of...............62-64
Slicing Fusions .....................31, 33
Snells Law ..............................XVIII
Statistical EMA ......................13-14
Taper Arrays ........................XIV, 45
Tapers........................VI, XV, 39-46
Total Internal Reflection ..........XVIII
Transmission.............1, 6-8, 43, 48
Transmittance of Core, Internal....8
Twist Angle ................................37
Wave Guides............................XVII
Wound Fiber Bundles......XV, 47-48
71

By SCHOTT North America
Second Edition
SCHOTT North Americas An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

provides an overview of unique fiber optic product applications
outside the telecommunications market. Many SCHOTT products
have been used extensively in imaging markets and applications,
including:
I
I
I
I
Medical and dental devices

Display and scientific imaging
Military night vision aids
Novel commercial and industrial applications
Written to be easily understood by technical and non-technical

readers, An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging explains the
fundamentals and terminologies of fiber optics, design and manufacturing processes, quality considerations, and current applications of
imaging fiber optics.
In supporting the publication of this text, SCHOTT North America
hopes to promote the understanding, application, and expansion of
this unique technology in new products and markets.

122 Charlton Street
Southbridge, MA 01550-1960, USA
Phone: 508-765-9744
800-343-6120
Fax:
508-764-6273
E-mail: fiberoptics.southbridge@us.schott.com

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An Introduction to

Fiber Optic Imaging

Fiber Optic Imaging

SCHOTT Fiber Optics offers customized high-tech solutions in markets such as

Published by SCHOTT North America, Inc.

Copyright SCHOTT North America 2007

Mono Fiber Drawing..............................................1

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Flexible Image Guides

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Fiber Optic Faceplates

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

For two years, progress was disappointingly slow. In 1957, using

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

What You Need to Know

What You Need to Know: Glossary

I Coherent Fiber Optics

A component consisting of many

I Fiber Optic Taper

A rigid, single clad step index

I Leached Fiber Bundle

A coherent fiber optic plate that

A large number of double clad

I Fiber Optic Faceplate

I Wound Fiber Bundle

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

What You Need to Know:

What You Need to Know

What You Need to Know:

I Fiber Optic Wave Guide

A fiber optic material designed to

The transmitting glass in a fiber

I Step Index Wave Guide

A fiber containing a sharp change

The outer layer of glass in a fiber

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

When light crosses the boundary

I Total Internal Reflection

The optical mechanism by which fiber

What You Need to Know

Mono Fiber Drawing

Mono Fiber Drawing

I Coefficient of Thermal Expansion

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Mono Fiber Drawing

Core Glass Materials

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Mono Fiber Drawing

Core Bar Configurations

Mono Fiber Assembly

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Mono Fiber Drawing

Numerical Aperture Angles

Fresnel Reflection Losses

Fresnel Reflected Light

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Internal Transmittance of the Core

The Mono Fiber Drawing Process

Mono Fiber Drawing

Mono Fiber Drawing Process

An Introduction to Fiber Optic Imaging

Multi Fiber Drawing