E-Journal of Geological Resource and Engineering (Vol. 4, No. 6, 2016)

Journal of Geological
Resource and Engineering

Volume 4, Number 6, June 2016 (Serial Number 15)
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Journal of
Geological Resource and

Engineering
Volume 4, Number 6, June 2016 (Serial Number 15)
Contents
Techniques and Methods
251
Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

Jos Medina, Nicols Sau and Jess Quintana
257
Estimation of Evapotranspiration Using SEBAL Algorithm and Landsat-8 DataA Case Study:
Tatra Mountains Region
Ayad Ali Faris Beg, Ahmed H. Al-Sulttani, Adrian Ochtyra, Anna Jarociska and Adriana
Marcinkowska
271
Identification of Soil, Rock and Tecto-Volcanism on Landslides in Tondano Watershed

Muchtar S. Solle and Asmita Ahmad
Theoretical Research
283
Petrological and Geochemical Constraints on the Evolution of El-Kahfa Alkaline Ring Complex,
South Eastern Desert, Egypt
A. M. Bishady, A. M. El-Sherif and M. E. Darwish
Journal of Geological Resource and Engineering 6 (2016) 251-256

doi:10.17265/2328-2193/2016.06.001
DAVID
PUBLISHING

Jos Medina, Nicols Sau and Jess Quintana
Department of Civil Engineer and Mining, University of Sonora, Hermosillo, Sonora 83000, Mxico
Abstract: When Rankine or Coulomb theories to design of retaining wall are used, it is accepted beforehand that the retaining wall will
experience a lateral displacement. This displacement is normally not calculated when a retaining wall is designed. This paper describes
a method to estimate the lateral displacement of retaining walls. A practical example in the lateral displacement of a gravity retaining
wall is presented.
Key words: Lateral displacement, retaining wall, passive earth thrust, active earth thrust, Rankine theory, Coulomb theory.
1. Introduction
When Rankine or Coulomb theories are used to
design a retaining wall, it is accepted beforehand that
the retaining wall will experience a lateral
displacement. By allowing the wall to move laterally,
the earth pressure decreases on the active side of the
wall and earth pressure increases on the passive side,
and therefore more economical walls can be obtained
when the lateral displacement is allowed. This lateral
displacement is usually not calculated when designing
a retaining wall. This article describes a method that
estimates the lateral displacement of retaining walls.
2. Passive Side Reaction Equilibrium

When the wall slides laterally the active earth thrust
develops and the frictional strength is mobilized at the
base of the wall. The reaction on the passive side is
determined from the balance of forces in the horizontal
direction, by the Eq. (1), Fig. 1:
REH = EAH FF
(1)
where, EAH is the horizontal component of active earth
thrust, FF is the friction force that develops at the base
of the wall and REH is the equilibrium reaction that
takes place on the passive side of the wall.
Soil-retaining wall contact pressure on the passive
side is obtained from Eq. (2):
Corresponding author: Jos Medina, M. Eng., professor,
research field: foundation and geotechnical engineering. E-mail:
jose.medina@prolas.com.mx.
QE = REH / DF
(2)
where, QE is soil-wall contact pressure on the passive
side wall and DF is the depth of the retaining wall
foundation.
3. Calculation of the Lateral Displacement

The lateral displacement of the retaining wall is
obtained from Eq. (3), Zeevaert [1]:
n
h M hi hi x
(3)
i 1
where, h is the lateral displacement of the retaining

wall, Mhi is the soil horizontal deformation module in
section i, x is the width of the sections considered,
hi is the increase in the horizontal stress at the
center of section i and n is the number of sections
considered in the calculation of the horizontal
displacement (Fig. 2).
The increment in the horizontal stress, at the center
of the retaining wall and at one half of DF is obtained
with Eq. (4), Medina [2]:
Fig. 1
Horizontal reaction on the passive side of the wall.
252
Fig. 2
Lateral displacement of the retaining wall.
h QE IFH
I FH
3
3 C1
sen 0 sen 0
2
3
1 2 ) sen (1 2 ) cos 1 2
sen 3'0
3 C2
sen '0
2
3
'1 '2 ) sen (1 '2 ) cos '1 '2
L
1 D F
1 D F
0 tan 1
; 1 tan 2 x ; 2 tan

2x
2 x
L
'0 tan 1
2
2
2 D F x
3 D
D
'1 tan 1 F ; '2 tan 1 F
2x
2 x
where, h is the increase in the horizontal stress, IFH is

the influence value at the center of the retaining wall
and at one half of DF, L is the retaining wall length, x is
the horizontal distance from the origin of the X axis to
the center of the corresponding section (Fig. 2), C1 and
C2 are coefficients depending on Poissons ratio of the
material and are obtained from Fig. 3.
4. Example
4.1 Problem Statement
For the retaining wall shown in Fig. 4, calculate:
(1) Lateral displacement at the center of the wall;
(2) Lateral displacement at the edge of the wall;
(3) Lateral displacement at the center of the wall for
the passive earth thrust;
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(4) Lateral displacement at the edge of the wall for

the passive earth thrust.
Consider the following:
B = 3.40 m, b = 2.20 m, H = 6.50 m, DF = 1.20 m;
Wall with vertical drain over an impervious
material;
Retaining wall with a unit weight of 21.60 kN/m3;
Uniform overload, q = 15 kN/m2;
Unit weight of saturated soil, msat = 20.85
kN/m3;
Angle of internal friction of soil, = 36;
Soil cohesion, C = 0 kN/m2;
Soil Poissons ratio, = 0.30;
Soil-wall friction angle, = 12;
Supporting soil-wall friction coefficient, = 0.36;
253
0.50
0.45
C1
C2
C1, C2
0.40
0.35
0.30
0.25
0.20
0.15
0.00
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
Poissons ratio
Fig. 3 Coefficients C1 and C2 as functions of the Poissons ratio.
Soil deformation modulus, Mh = 0.0006 m2/kN,

considered constant;
Retaining wall length, L = 20 m.
4.2 Solution
4.2.1 Active Earth Thrust
The earth thrust against the retaining wall, for the
active case, is given by Eq. (8), Lambe and Whitman
[3]:
Ea
Fig. 4
Example retaining wall.
( W U cos ) tan( ) Usen

sen tan( ) cos
(8)
where, Ea is the earth thrust against the retaining wall

for the active case, W is the weight of the wedge which
includes the load q on it, U is the porewater force
acting against the sliding surface, P is the resultant of
the friction force on the failure plane and normal force
on this plane, is the angle of internal friction of soil,
is the angle between the failure plane and the horizontal,
and is the angle between the thrust Ea line of action
and the vertical (Fig. 5).
The weight of the wedge plus the overload q on it, is
obtained from Eq. (9):
Fig. 5 Wedge free body diagram, active case.
H
H
W m q
2
tan
(9)
254
where, m is the soil unit weight, H is the height of the

retaining wall and q is the charge per unit area due to
the overload acting above the active fill.
The porewater force U is obtained from Eq. (10),
Medina et al. [4]:
U k H2
(10)
where, k is a coefficient depending on the angle

(Table 1).
Table 1 shows the calculation of active earth thrust
against the retaining wall.
From Table 1, the active earth thrust, EA is:
EA = 161.591 kN/m
The horizontal component of the active thrust is:
EAH = EA cos = 158.059 kN/m
4.2.2 Passive Earth Thrust
The earth thrust against the retaining wall, for the
passive case, is given by Eq. (11) obtained from the
balance of forces in the vertical and horizontal
direction of the failure wedge shown in Fig. 6:
Ep
W tan ( )
sen tan ( ) cos
REH = 10.938 kN/m;

QE = 9.115 kN/m2
4.2.5 Lateral Displacement at the Wall Center
In the calculation of the lateral displacement, 8
sections of the same width, x = 2.40 m were
considered. Table 3 shows the calculation of the lateral
displacement at the center of the retaining wall.
From Table 3, the lateral displacement at the center
of the retaining wall is the following:
hc
hi 0.90 cm
i 1
Table 1 Calculation of active earth thrust.

i
()
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
Wi
(kN/m)
405.379
390.848
376.681
362.856
349.353
336.152
323.237
ki
(kN/m3)
1.657
1.578
1.496
1.446
1.367
1.301
1.266
Ui
(kN/m)
70.021
66.658
63.207
61.100
57.753
54.957
53.468
Eai
(kN/m)
160.289
160.840
160.987
161.591
161.127
160.668
160.678
(11)
Table 2 shows the calculation of passive earth thrust.

From Table 2, the passive earth thrust, EP is:
EP = 91.279 kN/m
The horizontal component of the passive thrust is:
EPH = EP cos = 89.284 kN/m
4.2.3 Friction Force at the Base of the Wall
The frictional force at the wall base is obtained from
Eq. (12):
FF = Wm
(12)
where, FF is the frictional force at the wall base, Wm is
the weight of the wall and is the friction coefficient
between the wall and the supporting soil.
Wm = 408.672 kN/m
FF = 147.122 kN/m
4.2.4 Equilibrium Reaction Passive Side
The equilibrium reaction on the passive side of the
wall is obtained from Eq. (1); and the soil-wall
contact pressure on the passive side is obtained from
Eq. (2):
Fig. 6 Wedge free body diagram, passive case.

Table 2 Calculation of the passive earth thrust.
i
()
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
Wi
(kN/m)
49.102
46.202
43.598
41.245
39.108
37.156
35.366
Epi
(kN/m)
92.790
91.898
91.401
91.279
91.522
92.129
93.113
255
Table 3
Lateral displacement calculation at the center of the retaining wall.
Section
Xi (m)
0 (rad.)
1 (rad.)
2 (rad.)
0' (rad.)
1' (rad.)
2' (rad.)
IFH
hi (kN/m2)
hi (cm)
Table 4
1
1.2000
1.4514
0.4636
-0.4636
1.4027
0.9828
0.4636
2.8269E-01
2.5766
0.3710
2
3.6000
1.2252
0.1651
-0.1651
1.2081
0.4636
0.1651
1.3759E-01
1.2541
0.1806
3
6.0000
1.0304
0.0997
-0.0997
1.0217
0.2915
0.0997
8.5547E-02
0.7797
0.1123
4
8.4000
0.8721
0.0713
-0.0713
0.8672
0.2111
0.0713
5.9235E-02
0.5399
0.0777
5
10.8000
0.7470
0.0555
-0.0555
0.7439
0.1651
0.0555
4.3334E-02
0.3950
0.0569
6
13.2000
0.6483
0.0454
-0.0454
0.6464
0.1355
0.0454
3.2852E-02
0.2994
0.0431
7
15.6000
0.5700
0.0384
-0.0384
0.5687
0.1149
0.0384
2.5598E-02
0.2333
0.0336
8
18.0000
0.5071
0.0333
-0.0333
0.5062
0.0997
0.0333
2.0405E-02
0.1860
0.0268
6
13.200
0.9874
0.0454
-0.0454
0.9855
0.1355
0.0454
3.9711E-02
0.3619
0.0521
7
15.600
0.9084
0.0384
-0.0384
0.9069
0.1149
0.0384
3.2854E-02
0.2994
0.0431
8
18.000
0.8380
0.0333
-0.0333
0.8369
0.0997
0.0333
2.7663E-02
0.2521
0.0363
Lateral displacement calculation at the center of a 40 m long wall.
Section
xi (m)
0 (rad.)
1 (rad.)
2 (rad.)
0' (rad.)
1' (rad.)
2' (rad.)
IFH
hi (kN/m2)
hi (cm)
1
1.200
1.5109
0.4636
-0.4636
1.4861
0.9828
0.4636
2.8272E-01
2.5769
0.3711
2
3.600
1.3927
0.1651
-0.1651
1.3833
0.4636
0.1651
1.3830E-01
1.2605
0.1815
3
6.000
1.2793
0.0997
-0.0997
1.2739
0.2915
0.0997
8.7932E-02
0.8015
0.1154
4
8.400
1.1732
0.0713
-0.0713
1.1695
0.2111
0.0713
6.3580E-02
0.5795
0.0834
4.2.6 Lateral Displacement at the Edge of the Wall

For the calculation of the lateral displacement on the
edge of the retaining wall, first the lateral displacement
is calculated in the middle of a wall twice as long; i.e. a
wall of 40 m in length. In the calculation of the lateral
displacement, 8 sections of the same width, x = 2.40
m were considered. Table 4 shows the calculation of
the lateral displacement at the center of a 40 meters
long wall.
From Table 4:
hi 0.95 cm
i 1
Therefore, the displacement on the edge of a 20 m

length wall will be half the displacement at the center
of a 40 m length wall:
ho = 0.48 cm
4.2.7 Lateral Displacement at the Middle due to
Passive Thrust
The lateral displacement at the edge of the wall for
5
10.800
1.0757
0.0555
-0.0555
1.0731
0.1651
0.0555
4.9245E-02
0.4488
0.0646
the passive earth thrust, is obtained from Eq. (13):
hcp hc
E PH
R EH
(13)
EPH is the horizontal component of passive earth

thrust, i.e.:
EPH = EP cos = 89.284 kN/m
From Eq. (13):
hcp = 7.36 cm
4.2.8 Lateral Displacement at the Edge due to
Passive Earth Thrust
The lateral displacement on the edge of the retaining
wall for a contact pressure equal to that provided by the
passive thrust is obtained from Eq. (14):
hop ho
E PH
R EH
From Eq. (14):

hop = 3.87 cm
(14)
256
4.3 Discussion of Results

The displacement on the edge of the retaining wall is
about half the displacement at the center of the
retaining wall.
The displacement at the center of a 40 m length wall
is slightly larger than the displacement of a wall of 20
m long.
Considering
the
example
discussed,
the
it moves in a horizontal direction, decreasing the earth

pressure on the active side and increasing the pressure
of on the passive side, and therefore a more economic
wall is obtained when lateral displacement is allowed.
As the wall moves in the horizontal direction, the
earth pressure decreases on the active side and
increases on the passive side, so that the balance of
forces in the horizontal direction is reached.
displacement of the retaining wall, for a contact
References
pressure equal to that provided by the passive thrust, is
[1]
approximately eight times greater than the lateral

displacement of the wall for a contact pressure equal to
that provided by the active thrust.
[2]
5. Conclusions
It is discussed a procedure for estimating the lateral
displacement of a retaining wall, which is an aid to
determine the dimensions B an b (Fig. 4) and depth of
foundation for wall design.
When a retaining wall is designed, if the project
permits, it is very convenient to design the wall so that
[3]
[4]
Zeevaert, L. 1983. Foundation Engineering for Difficult

Subsoil Conditions. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold
Company.
Medina, J. 2010. Esfuerzo horizontal producido por una
carga rectangular horizontal uniforme aplicada en el
interior de un slido. In Proceedings of XXV Reunin
Nacional de la Sociedad Mexicana de Ingeniera
Geotcnica 3: 871-6.
Lambe, T. W., and Whitman, R. V. 1979. Soil Mechanics
SI Version. New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Medina, J., and Mendoza, N. Sau y E. 2014. Clculo
de la Fuerza de Presin del Agua en el Anlisis de
Muros de Contencin. XVIII Reunin nacional de
Profesores de Ingeniera Geotcnica, Puerto Vallarta,
Jalisco, Mxico.

doi:10.17265/2328-2193/2016.06.002
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Estimation of Evapotranspiration Using SEBAL

Algorithm and Landsat-8 DataA Case Study: Tatra
Mountains Region
Ayad Ali Faris Beg1, Ahmed H. Al-Sulttani2, Adrian Ochtyra3, 4, Anna Jarociska3 and Adriana Marcinkowska3
1. Department of Geography, College of Education, University of Mustansiriyah, Baghdad, Iraq
2. Department of Regional Planning, College of Physical Planning, University of Kufa, Najaf, Iraq
3. Department of Geoinformatics, Cartography and Remote Sensing, Faculty of Geography and Regional Studies, University of
Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
4. College of Inter-Faculty Individual Studies in Mathematics and Natural Sciences, University of Warsaw, Warsaw, Poland
Abstract: ET (Evapotranspiration) is one of the climate elements, which plays an important role in water balance, and effects on the
ecosystem of any region. Therefore, many mathematical equations and algorithms have been found and designed to calculate and
estimate values of evapotranspiration. Calculation methods are either based on data from meteorological stations or using other sources
of data where the area is lacking from meteorological stations. Remote sensing data are one of the important sources and techniques to
estimate many climate elements including evapotranspiration. The selected study area is located in Tatra Mountains on the borders
between Poland and Slovakia. Tatra Mountains are the most valuable areas in Poland and Slovakia. The main objective of current study
is to estimate the spatial variation of ET using SEBAL algorithm and Landsat-8 imagery. The analysis is carried out using Landsat-8
(OLI/TIRS) data, ASTER GDEM and reference weather parameters. Sixteen ERDAS models are prepared to calculate the various
parameters related to solar radiation. The models are prepared to calculate the values of surface radiance surface reflectance, surface
albedo, NDVI, LAI, surface emissivity, surface temperature, net radiation, soil heat flux, sensible heat flux, latent heat flux, which are
consequently used to calculate the hourly and daily evapotranspiration in study area. Results of pixel wise calculations show the values
of surface temperature which are varied from 6.2 oC at mountain shadow areas to 34.6 oC at bare rocks and bare land area, while the
spatial variation of ET at different land covers shows the hourly ET ranged from 0 to 0.72 mm/hr, while the daily ET varied from 0.0 to
17.0 mm/day. Results show clear relation between land use/land cover and solar radiation parameters and impact of vegetation cover on
the ET values in pixel wise domain.
Key words: Landsat-8, remote sensing, evapotranspiration, solar radiation, SEBAL, NDVI.
1. Introduction
With growing attention to climate elements and
climatic changes and their effects on the environment
and ecological systems, the interesting of
evapotranspiration estimation is increased as well,
especially with the emergence of various measuring
techniques for assessment of climate elements.
Recently, the remote sensing becomes one of the
valuable data sources and analysis technique for
implementing such studies. Accurate estimation of
Corresponding author: Ayad Ali Faris Beg, Ph.D., Asst.
Prof., research fields: hydrogeology, remote sensing and GIS.
evapotranspiration is considered as the key factor in

water management [1]. ET (Evapotranspiration) is a
climate element being an important factor for energy,
hydrologic, carbon and nutrient cycles and a key item
of the water balance in the soil-vegetation-atmosphere
continuum [2]. The major advantage of applying
remote sensing is the water consumed as ET can be
derived directly without needing for quantifying other
complex hydrological processes [3]. Merlin et al. [4]
referred to the importance of ET in predicting soil
water availability, flood forecasting, rainfall
forecasting and projecting changes in occurring heat
258
waves and droughts.

Nowadays, many researches have been conducted to
gather spatially distributed ET over large scales by
using surface energy balance and remote sensing data.
These techniques provide spatial information from the
earths surface by measuring reflected and emitted
electromagnetic radiation. The measurements of
thermal infrared, infrared and visible bands of remote
sensing data are the inputs for the parameterization of
the energy balance components in the calculation of ET
[5]. The SEBAL (Surface Energy Balance Algorithm
for Land) is used for estimating various land surface
parameters i.e., surface albedo, surface temperature,
and energy balance parameters, from different spatial,
spectral and radiometric resolutions of satellite data.
Consequently, the consistency of ET estimation from
different satellites by SEBAL needs to be certified [6].
Venturini et al. [7] and Courault et al. [8] categorized
the methods used in surface flux i.e., empirical direct
methods where remote sensing data are introduced
directly in semi-empirical models to estimate ET,
residual methods of the energy budget combining some
empirical relationships and physical models. Most
current operational models such as (SEBAL, and
deterministic methods generally are based on more
complex
models
such
as
SVAT
(Soil-Vegetation-Atmosphere Transfer) models),
which calculate the different components of the energy
budget. Many methods and models are designed for
estimating the evapotranspiration using remote sensing
data. SEBAL is an ET estimation approach based on
satellite images via computing a land surface energy
balance. The model is developed by Bastiaanssen et al.
[9] and has been validated at many locations around the
world [10]. The model represents the most promising
algorithm that needed minimum input data of ground
based variables and it has been widely applied abroad
the world accurately to estimate actual ET [1]. The
surface energy balance provides through latent heat
flux a direct assessment of actual ET [11]. SEBAL
method uses multispectral remote sensing data
associated with complementary meteorological data to

estimate instantaneous surface energy balance
components [12]. The overall accuracy of ET from
SEBAL is around +/15%. Accuracy can be improved
by space and time integration, while the seasonal
differences ranged from 1% to 5% due to a reduction in
the random error component [11]. Bastiaanssen et al.
[11] proved the importance of SEBAL method in
establishing a variety of measurements and
assessments, including land use and water use for river
basin planning, impact of water conservation,
environmental impact assessment, hydrological
modeling and more other application.
In Tatra Mountains region, the reliance on
meteorological
stations
in
collecting
of
evapotranspiration reading is impossible, because no
local weather stations measure evapotranspiration, so
the remote sensing data will be the most quick and
trusted source to estimate evapotranspiration. The
main objective of current study is to use Landsat-8 data
and SEBAL method for estimating the distribution of
evapotranspiration pattern in study area based on
building several analysis models using ERDAS
imagine software.
2. Scope of Study Area

Study area is located in the middle-east of Europe
and in the south of Poland on the borders between
Poland and Slovakia in Tatra mountains. The area is
bounded by latitudes 49o 8-49o 22 N and longitudes
19o 38-20o 16 E, and extended over 1,280 square
kilometers (Fig. 1). Tatras are the highest mountains
and relatively young because they are from Alpine
orogeny [13]. It can be divided into four parts: Western
Tatra Mts., High Tatra Mts., Bielskie Tatra Mts. and
Siwy Wierch massif [14]. The tectonic uplift
movements of Tatras cause mixing igneous rocks,
metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks. The
High Tatras are constructed of igneous rocks,
mainly granites. Western Tatras are mostly built
of metamorphic rocks (gneisses and schists), igneous
Estimation of Evapotranspir
E
ration Using SEBAL
S
Algorrithm and Lan
ndsat-8 Data
A Case Stu
udy:
R
Fig. 1
2599
Locattion map of Taatra Mountains region.
(granites) and in certain parts

p
of the seedimentary roocks.
The Bielskiee Tatra Mts. and the Siw
wy Wierch maassif
are built of limestone
l
[155, 16]. The annalyzed regioon is
characterized by verticaal zones of climate
c
(diffeerent
temperaturess and precipiitation), soilss and vegetattion.
five
In Tatras, it is posssible to distinguish
d
climatic-veggetation beltts: lower montane,
m
uppper
montane, dw
warf pine, allpine and subbnival [17]. The
lower monttane (700-1,2200 m a.s.l.) is coveredd by
spruce-fir-beeech forests; upper montaane (1,200-1,550
m a.s.l.) is also
a covered mainly
m
by sprruce (Piceaabbies)
forests in dwarf
d
pine belt (1,550--1,800 m a.s.l.);
dominating species arre mainly the
t
dwarf pine
(Pinusmugo). Alpine beelt (1,800-2,300 m a.s.l..) is
covered by different
d
grasses or dwarf shrubs,
s
and inn the
highest bellt-subnival (2,300-2,655
(
m a.s.l.) are
bryophytes, lichens and bare
b rocks.
3. Method
d of Analysiis
Spatial vaariation of ET
E depends on
o land use//land
cover in anyy area. To esttimate ET vallues several solar
s
radiation paarameters neeed to be calcuulated. The main
m
source of data is reprresented by Landsat-8 data
OLI/TIRS with Path 188/Row 26, acquired on
08-SEP-2013, and one arc-second
a
reesolution AST
TER
GDEM witth some refference weaather parameeters
nearby the arrea are used. Land use/landd cover classees in
stud
dy area are classified using SAM (sp
pectral anglee
map
pper) classifiication methood with specctral angle off
0.3 using ENVI v.5.3 softwarre.
To
T calculate the ET usinng SEBAL method, thee
requ
uired matheematical equuations for building
b
thee
algo
orithms of processing
p
aand analysis models aree
colllected. Sixteeen spatial anaalysis models are preparedd
usin
ng ERDAS imagine sooftware i.e. atmosphericc
corrrection moddels for calcculating the reflectance,,
surfface albedo, emissivity, surface temp
perature, andd
elem
ments of sollar radiations balance, in
ncluding nett
radiiations, soil heat
h flux, sensible heat flu
ux, latent heatt
flux
x, and finally calculating thhe instantaneo
ous and dailyy
evaapotranspiratioon values.
3.1 Atmosphericc Correction oof Landsat-8 Data
D
Atmospheric
A
correction for solar radiations
r
iss
imp
portant in reemote sensing analysis; its necessityy
dep
pends on the objectives off the analysiss. In general,,
land
d cover idenntification exeercises that are
a based onn
sing
gle-date imaages do noot require atmosphericc
corrrection, as pixels
p
are beiing compared with otherr
pixeels within an image in term
ms of similarity [18].
Estimation
E
off the groundd target refleectance startss
with
h convertingg the pixel value to raadiance [18]..
Acccordingly, Laandsat-8 OLII/TIRS bandss data can bee
con
nverted to TO
OA spectral raadiance using
g the radiancee
260
rescaling factors provided in the metadata of images

[19]:
L = ML*Qcal + AL
(1)
Where
L
=
TOA
spectral
radiance
(Watts/(m2*srad*m));
ML=
Band-specific
multiplicative rescaling factor from the metadata
(RADIANCE_MULT_BAND_x, where x is the band
number); AL= Band-specific additive rescaling factor
from the metadata (RADIANCE_ADD_BAND_x; x is
the band number); Qcal = Quantized and calibrated
standard product pixel values (DN).
To compute the top of planetary reflectance based on
spectral radiance at the sensor aperture is by following
the equations given by Refs. [20, 21]:
(2)
TOA planetary reflectance
Where ESUN = Exoatmospheric spectral solar
irradiance on a surface perpendicular to the suns ray
(Wxmxm) as given by Ref. [19] (Table 1).
Cos = solar zenith = (90-solar elevation)
Is in decimal degree need to be converted into
radians as follows:
in radians
in decimal degrees (3)
d r 1 0.033 cos( Julian day
2
)
365
(4)
dr = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical.
Where Si = Solar irradiance constant, Refi =

Refectance of band I and = Band range.
So, the equation will be as follows:
TOA 0.356 ref 2 0.326 ref 3 0.138 ref 4

0.084 ref 5 0.056 ref 6 0.041 refl 7
(8)
Where TOA is the weighted albedo and rfl 2 , 3,...7
are the planetary reflectance values for each band.
The weighted albedo is converted to surface albedo
based on the following equation [21, 24-26]:
Where
incoming shortwave radiation flux reflected back to the

sensor (ranged from 0.025 to 0.04), in SEBAL the
value of 0.03 is used.
sw is the atmospheric transmissivity, it is
calculated as:
sw 0.75 2 10 5 z
ESUN
ESUN
(6)
Where = constant value of weighting coefficient.
Table 1
S
S
(7)
(10)
Where z is an elevation of area where is defined by

ASTER GDEM Data.
3.3 Calculation of Emissivity and Land Surface
Temperature
To calculate the surface temperature, first the black
body temperature at satellite must be calculated [20,
27]:
Tb
According to the equations mentioned in Refs. [21,

23, 24], the values of albedo for the top of atmosphere
are calculated as:

(5)
(9)
2
sw
is surface albedo; path radiance is the
3.2 Calculation of Surface Albedo
( TOA pathradiance )
K2
K
ln( 1 1)
L
(11)
Where Tb is black body temperature at satellite in

Kelvins, K1 and K2 are calibration constants for
Landsat-8 OLI/TIRS thermal band-10, their values are
K1 774.89 W .m 2 .ster 1 .m 1 , and K 2 1321.08
in
Kelvin,
is spectral radiance
in
W .m .ster .m , and is calculated by the following
equation [27]:
1
Exoatmospheric spectral solar irradiance (ESUN) of Landsat-8 OLI bands [22].
Band
TOA-ESUN
2
2,067
3
1,893
4
1,603
5
972.6
6
245.0
7
79.72
9
399.7
261
L 0.0370588 DN 3.2
(12)
To compute the land surface temperature, the black

body temperature is corrected with respect to the
surface emissivity ( ) values. The surface
emissivity is a factor that describes the efficiency of an
object radiates energy in comparing with black body
[28]. The values of emissivity are estimated from
NDVI and LAI as follows:
1.009 0.047 ln( NDVI )
(13)
Where NDVI > 0, otherwise, emissivity is assumed

to be zero (e.g. water) [21, 26].
0.97 0.0033 LAI
(14)
For LAI < 3.0, = 0.98 when LAI 3;

For water, NDVI < 0 and surface albedo < 0.47, =
0.985, for snow, NDVI < 0 and surface albedo 0.47,
= 0.985 [25].
NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index),
and LAI (Leaf Area Index), are calculated by visible
and near infrared bands [25, 28].
For Landsat-8,
NDVI = (B5-B4)/(B5+B4)
(15)
To calculate the values of LAI, and SAVI (soil

adjusted vegetation index) need to be calculated first.
SAVI
(1 L) (TIR Re d )
( L TIR Re d )
(16)
Where L is a constant, which depends on the area

is used, then the LAI is
properties, L 0.5
calculated from the empirical equation [25]:
LAI (1 / a 2) ln(a 0 SAVI / a1) (17)

Where a0, a1, a2 are 0.84, 0.65 and 0.6 respectively
(these values are used to be compatible with study area
conditions), then the corrected land surface
temperature ( Ts ) is calculated [27]:
Tb
Ts
1 ( Tb / ) ln
(18)
Where is the average of limiting wavelengths of

band 10 of Landsat8-TIRS ( 10.895m)
h c / a (0.01438 m.K)
(19)
a Boltsmann cons tan t (1.38 10 23 j.k )

h = Planks constant ( 6.626 10
34
J .s )
c velocity of light(2.998 108 m / s)
3.4 Calculation of Solar Radiations Elements and ET

Estimation of ET by SEBAL is a model to calculate
ET from the remote sensing images. It depends on the
thermo-dynamic equilibrium between turbulent
transport process in the atmosphere and laminar
process in the sub surface. This process called the land
surface energy balance [9], also Ref. [5] refers to the
energy exchange which governs the ET process at the
vegetation surface can be expressed mathematically as:
Rn G H ET
(20)
2
Where Rn is the net radiation in Watt/m . G is the

soil heat flux in Watt/m2. H is the sensible heat flux in
Watt/m2. ET is the latent heat flux ( is the latent
heat of vaporization, and ET is evapotranspiration),
which represents the heat loss from the surface due to
ET and calculated as a residual of surface energy
balance [9, 29].
Net radiation is the actual radiant energy available at
the surface. It is computed by subtracting all outgoing
radiant fluxes from all incoming radiant fluxes [25,
30]:
Rn (1 ) Rs RL RL (1 ) RL (21)
Where RS incoming shortwave radiation (Watt/m2),
is the broadband surface albedo (dimensionless),
RL is the incoming longwave radiation (Watt/m2),
RL is the outgoing longwave radiation (Watt/m2) and
is the surface emissivity (dimensionless).
The incoming shortwave radiation
is
computed from the available climatic parameters such

as sunshine hours, relative humidity, maximum and
minimum temperature cloud cover and geographic
location [25, 31].
Rs GSc cos d r sw
(22)
Where GSc is solar constant (1,367 W/m ), is the

2
262
solar incidence angle
90 , where = sun
elevation angle, given in the header data file of the

LANDSAT_8 imagery, dr = Earth-Sun distance in
astronomical, and sw is the atmospheric
transmissivity.
The outgoing longwave radiation ( RL ), is
computed at each pixel using Stefan-Boltzmann
equation as Refs. [25, 26]:
RL Ts4
(23)
Where is the surface emissivity, is

Stefan-Boltzmann constant ( 5.67108 W / m2 / K4 )
and Ts is surface temperature in K.
To compute the incoming longwave radiation
( RL ), the hot and cold pixels must be selected as
anchor pixels. Cold pixel is selected from the area of
High density of vegetation cover with LAI > 3 from
irrigated crops, at which the surface temperature and
near surface air temperature are assumed to be similar.
H = Rn-G-1.05*ETr
(24)
Where, ETr is the rate of ET from reference.
The hot pixel is located at bare soil or rock outcrop
with LAI ranged between 0 and 0.4.
H=Rn-G-ET bare soil [10, 25]. The parameters for
hot and cold pixels are calculated as procedure
mentioned in Ref. Waters et al. [25].
The surface temperature of cold pixel is used as near
surface air temperature (Ta) to calculate the incoming
longwave radiation ( RL ) using the following
equation:
RL a Ta4
Where Ta =Ts for selected cold pixel in K,
(25)
is air
emissivity computed from the following empirical

equation given by Waters et al. [25] and Opoku-Duah
et al. [26].
a 0.85 ( ln sw ) 0.09
(26)
The ( Rs ) and ( RL ) values are calculated using

Spatial modeler of ERDAS software.
Soil heat flux is the rate of heat storage in the soil as
a result of the temperature gradient between the soil
surface and the underlying top most soil layers [10, 25,
26].
G / Rn
Ts
(0.0038 0.0074 2 ) (1 0.98 NDVI 4 )
(27)
First the ratio of G/Rn is computed and checked for
the condition of NDVI < 0; then the ratio of G/Rn will
be assigned equal to 0.5. The result image will be
converted to soil heat flux (G) in W/m2 by multiplying
the ratio G/Rn by Rn by using ERDAS modeler [25].
Sensible Heat Flux (H) is the rate of heat loss to the
air by convection and conduction, due to temperature
gradients [32, 33].
H C p dT / rah
(28)
Where H is sensible heat flux, is air density

(kg/m3), Cp is air specific heat (1,004 J/kg/K), dT is
near surface temperature differences in K, and rah is
aerodynamic resistance to heat transport (m/s). To get
the stability in rah value, the two anchors hot and
cold pixels are used at two heights z1 and z2, to
facilitate the computation of near surface temperature
differences. Near surface temperature difference is
calculated from the linear relationship between dt and
Ts [10, 25].
dt =aTs + b, where a and b are the correlation
coefficients which are calculated iteratively from the
data of hot and cold anchor pixels using
xls-spreadsheet prepared for that purpose.
The aerodynamic resistance to heat flux rah is
computed for neutral stability as:
z2
)
z1
rah
u k
ln(
(29)
Where z1 and z2 are heights in meter above the zero

plane displacement of vegetation. The used values are
2.0 m, 0.1 m respectively. u is the friction velocity
(m/s), k is Von Katmans constant (0.41).
u k u x ln(z x / z om )
(30)
Where ux is the wind speed (m/s) at height zx [33].

The momentum roughness length for each pixel is
calculated as a function of LAI [25]:
z om 0.018 LAI
(31)
The atmospheric conditions of stability have a large
effect on the aerodynamic resistance (rah). The stability

conditions are defined by using the Monin-Obukhov
length (L), and computed as follows:
C p u 3 Ts
kgH
(32)
and Cp, Ts, k and H are defined previously, g is

the gravitational constant (9.81 m/s2).
The stability correlations for momentum and heat
transport (and h ) are computed iteratively depending
on the atmospheric conditions by using xls-spread
sheet designed based on equations mentioned by
Waters et al. [25]. The values of cold and hot pixels are
adjusted to their elevations and calculated iteratively
and then the last iteration values of a, b and rah are used
in computing the sensible heat flux (H).
Latent heat flux is the rate of latent heat loss from the
surface due to evapotranspiration [25].
* ET Rn G H
ETinst
* ET
3600
(33)
(34)
Where is the latent heat of vaporization in J/kg.
2.501 (Ta 273) 0.002361 (35)

Where, Ta is the mean air temperature (K).
Then the reference ET fraction (ETrF) computed as
follows:
ETrF ETinst ETr
263
estimating the evapotranspiration on pixel wise, all the

mathematical equations are used in building the
algorithms of sixteen analysis models. The models are
prepared by using ERDAS 2014 software (Fig. 2).
4. Results and Discussion

To outline pattern and behaviour of and surface
landsurface interaction with solar radiation elements,
land use/land cover classification is carried out. The
classification results of land use/land cover in the Tatra
mountain region show seven classes (Fig. 3). The
majority of the land cover which is controlling the solar
radiation and ET regime is represented by coniferous
forests with coverage of 51.6% of the total area,
followed by grasslands with fields of vegetation covers
about 34.9%, then the rock outcrops with 8.0%, and the
remains with 5.5% including built up mixed with rocky
area, hill shadows and water bodies.
Moreover, the analysis results (maps, statistics and
graphs) show the spatial variation of solar radiation
elements (Fig. 4) and evaptranspiration of pixel wise
(Fig. 5). To define the distribution and dispersion
amounts in solar radiations, ET and the causes of the
variations,
measuring
of
descriptive
statistic
parameters are carried out as shown in Tables 2 and 3

and Fig. 6. The spatial variation of the main solar
(36)
radiation elements is analysed. The principle statistic
Where, ETr is the reference ET at the time of the

image.
Daily values of ET24 are computed by assuming that,
the computed instantaneous ETrF is the same as the
24-hour average. Therefore, the ET24 (mm/day) can be
computed as:
measurements i.e., minimum, maximum, range, mean
ET24 ETrF ETr 24
(37)
behaviour within each class of landcover. The results
Where, ETr-24 is the cumulative 24-hour ETr for the

day of the image [25].
of surface albedo show the bare lands and rock
24
ETr 24 ETr h
(38)
3.5 Building of Spatial Modeling

To achieve the requirements of SEBAL method for
and standard deviation values are used to give

indications about the characteristics of land cover
classes. Mean values are the most important statistic
parameters, which reflect the characteristics of most
pixels that are controlling the solar radiations
outcrops are having the highest albedo with average

values of 0.18 and 0.17 respectively, this because of the
low absorption and scattering from such land cover
types, while the forests, grasses and water bodies which
are recognised by high absorption properties are having
low average albedo values from 0.05 to 0.08.
264
Fig. 2
E
ration Using SEBAL
S
Algorrithm and Lan
ndsat-8 Data
A Case Stu
udy:
R
Calcu
ulations of solaar radiation paarameters and evapotranspirration from Laandsat-8.
Fig. 3 Land use/land coverr in Tatra regiion.
E
ration Using SEBAL
S
Algorrithm and Lan
ndsat-8 Data
A Case Stu
udy:
R
Fig. 4
2655
Spatial variation off solar radiation parameters in Tatra region.
Dealing with NDVI and LAI, the biomasss of

vegetation covers
c
have been represeented by forrests,
grasslands and
a vegetationn fields can be
b recognizedd by
higher averaage values of
o NDVI andd LAI, whilee the
rocks and water
w
bodies give low to negative vallues.
The values of
o emissivityy for all the laand cover claasses
are relativelyy close. How
wever, the barre lands, buillt-up
and mixed with
w rocky arreas show thee minimum raange
values of em
missivity abouut 0.006 and 0.013
0
respectively,
of the landcoovers
which are reeflecting the homogeneity
h
and low incclusions pixeels of other classes.
c
The land
surfface temperatture shows hiigh variationss in the meann

tem
mperature valuues ranged frrom 14 oC in hills shadow
w
o
areaa to 28.5 C in bare lands. Thee maximum
m
o
tem
mperature valuues in the baare land area are 34.6 C,,
whiile the minim
mum values inn the hills shaadows on thee
Tatrras mountains about 6..2 oC. Abou
ut the solarr
radiiation balannce which is summarissed by thee
disttribution paattern of innstantaneous and dailyy
evaapotranspiratioon values in T
Table 3 and Figs.
F
5 and 6..
Norrmally, the minimum vvalues of instantaneous
i
s
evaapotranspiratioon in the builtt-up area and rock
r
outcropss
266
Fig. 4
E
ration Using SEBAL
S
Algorrithm and Lan
ndsat-8 Data
A Case Stu
udy:
R
Contiinued.
Fig. 5 Spatiaal variation off hourly and daaily ET in Tatrra region.
and the maxximum ET coome from thee shadow areea in

the top of the
t Tatras mountainss
m
whhich reach up
u to
0.721 mm per hour follow
wed bygrassllandss and forrests
area. The grrassland, rocck outcrops and
a built-up area
show high ranges
r
of ET
T, that due too the presencce of
pixels of diffferent landcoovers within these
t
classes. The
results of thee mean valuess of ET in thee shadow areaa and
forests give the highest values
v
of 0.5504 and 0.43 mm
per hour respecttively. The loowest mean values

v
of ET
T
com
me from the bare land areea. The shad
dow area andd
foreests are the main
m
landcovvers which arre controllingg
the ET pattern inn the study arrea. In the sam
me sequence,,
the pattern of daily
d
ET com
mes with hig
gher averagee
valu
ues at shadoows and foreest areas witth 12.09 andd
10.2
25 mm per day,
d
respectivvely, bare lan
nds show thee
low
west ET values with 4.48 m
mm per day on
nly.
Table 2
Statistics of emissivity, albedo, NDVI, LAI and surface temperature (oC) for different land use/land cover in Tatra region.
Land use/Land cover
S-Albedo
Class name
ID
Rock outcrops
Grass land with field of
vegetation
Forests
Bare lands
Hills shadows
Water bodies
Built-up mixed with rocky
area
LAI
ID
Min
Max
1
-0.304
2.654
2
-0.304
4.177
3
-0.304
3.187
4
-0.133
1.995
5
-0.304
1.112
6
-0.304
0.002
7
-0.304
3.539
8.0
Area
(km2)
102.0
34.9
3
4
5
6
NDVI
Min
Max
Range
Mean
Std
Min
Max
Range
Mean
Std
0.038
0.48
0.44
0.17
0.05
-0.056
0.537
0.593
0.203
0.092
446.8
0.033
0.44
0.40
0.13
0.03
-0.103
0.602
0.705
0.361
0.086
51.6
0.2
2.4
0.1
659.8
2.7
31.3
1.0
0.037
0.080
0.036
0.042
0.23
0.28
0.13
0.06
0.19
0.20
0.10
0.02
0.08
0.18
0.05
0.05
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.00
-0.061
0.063
-0.061
-0.062
0.567
0.483
0.370
0.108
0.628
0.420
0.431
0.171
0.279
0.204
0.051
-0.029
0.076
0.062
0.064
0.009
2.8
36.2
0.049
1.04
0.99
0.15
0.03
-0.052
0.582
0.634
0.281
0.096
Range
2.958
4.481
3.491
2.127
1.416
0.306
3.842
Mean
0.363
1.130
0.677
0.345
-0.149
-0.303
0.709
Std
0.363
0.481
0.367
0.260
0.181
0.015
0.465
Nb-emissivity
Min
Max
0.969
0.990
0.969
0.990
0.969
0.990
0.970
0.977
0.969
0.990
0.969
0.990
0.969
0.982
Range
0.021
0.021
0.021
0.007
0.021
0.021
0.013
Mean
0.971
0.974
0.972
0.971
0.975
0.981
0.972
Std
0.001
0.002
0.001
0.001
0.009
0.010
0.002
Surface temperature ()
Min
Max
Range
8.3
34.2
25.9
8.1
34.3
26.2
9.9
30.6
20.7
22.5
34.6
12.1
6.2
22.4
16.2
12.9
20.1
7.2
13.4
31.8
18.4
Mean
23.2
23.7
20.5
28.5
14.0
15.7
25.9
Std
3.8
3.3
1.8
2.2
3.0
1.4
1.2
Table 3
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
ID
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Statistics of solar radiation elements and ET for different land use/land cover in Tatra region.
Net radiation
Min
Max
220.4
611.5
232.3
610.1
403.0
600.9
313.4
503.4
492.2
620.9
545.0
583.6
170.7
559.5
Latent heat flux
Min
Max
1.6
485.4
3.6
492.1
106.8
468.9
32.6
232.1
162.6
500.6
161.5
376.3
10.5
405.4
Range
391.1
377.8
197.9
190.0
128.7
38.6
388.8
Mean
446.1
473.8
526.2
416.4
581.4
569.4
450.9
Std
48.3
35.4
21.4
24.6
15.9
7.1
25.0
Range
483.9
488.5
362.0
199.5
338.1
214.8
394.9
Mean
207.2
222.9
296.8
129.7
350.1
200.4
181.4
Std
72.0
60.1
35.9
37.1
77.5
19.6
25.7
Soil heat flux

Min
Max
Range
56.8
305.7
249.0
59.0
305.0
246.1
69.2
300.5
231.3
102.7
148.2
45.5
57.1
310.4
253.4
97.6
291.8
194.2
49.9
264.0
214.1
ET-instantaneous (mm/hr)
Min
Max
Range
0.002
0.699
0.697
0.005
0.708
0.703
0.154
0.675
0.521
0.047
0.334
0.287
0.234
0.721
0.487
0.232
0.542
0.309
0.000
0.584
0.584
Mean
110.7
119.4
116.1
128.1
154.8
282.8
125.7
Std
15.6
12.4
7.3
5.5
92.9
18.8
7.8
Mean
0.298
0.321
0.427
0.187
0.504
0.288
0.261
Std
0.104
0.087
0.052
0.053
0.111
0.028
0.037
Sensible heat flux

Min
Max
44.3
190.2
43.5
190.9
53.4
170.1
124.3
192.8
32.8
124.0
70.3
111.0
73.1
176.9
ET-24 (mm/day)
Min
Max
0.05
16.77
0.12
17.00
3.69
16.20
1.12
8.02
5.62
17.29
5.58
13.00
0.00
14.00
Range
145.9
147.4
116.8
68.5
91.2
40.7
103.8
Mean
128.2
131.5
113.3
158.5
76.5
86.2
143.7
Std
21.5
18.4
10.4
12.2
17.1
7.9
7.0
Range
16.72
16.88
12.51
6.89
11.68
7.42
14.00
Mean
7.16
7.70
10.25
4.48
12.09
6.92
6.27
Std
2.49
2.08
1.24
1.28
2.68
0.68
0.88
269
Range Plot of MEAN , MAX , MIN
MEAN
MEAN
0.8
18
0.7
16
14
0.6
12
0.5
Et-24(mm/day)
ET Instant.(mm/hr)
Range Plot of MEAN , MAX , MIN
0.4
0.3
0.2
10
8
6
4
0.1
0.0
-0.1
-2
1
Land cover class ID
Land cover class ID.
Fig. 6 Plots of min., max., mean values of ET for land use/land cover in Tatra region.
5. Conclusions
Estimated
results
of
hourly
and
daily
evapotranspiration based on SEBAL method and

Landsat-8 imagery show a distinct pixel wise variation
[2]
in the pattern of ET. The variation of ET for different

land cover shows the hourly ET ranged from 0 at bare
land and rock outcrops to 0.504 mm per hour at forest
area, and the daily ET varied from 0.0 to 12.09 mm per
day at the same land cover classes. The main land
[3]
covers controlling the ET characteristics is the forests,

which is covering about 51.6% of the study area. The
least range of variation in the hourly ET values is
appeared in the bare land area which is characterized
[4]
by the absence of vegetation cover. The results show

clear relation between land use/land cover and solar
radiation parameters and impact of vegetation cover on
the ET values in pixel wise domain.
[5]
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to University of Warsaw, Faculty of
Geography and Regional Studies for their support in
supplying research requirements. Thank you for the
staff of Department of Geoinformatics Cartography
and Remote Sensing for completion field validation for
land use/land cover data.
[6]
[7]
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doi:10.17265/2328-2193/2016.06.003
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Identification of Soil, Rock and Tecto-Volcanism on

Landslides in Tondano Watershed
Muchtar S. Solle and Asmita Ahmad
Department of Soil Science Hasanuddin University, Jl. Perintis Kemerdekaan KM 10, Makassar 90245, Indonesia
Abstract: This research was aimed to identify the soil, rock, and tecto-volcanism in their association with landslides intensity in
Tondano watershed. The methods were survey method (soil, rock, and geomorphology), joint data processing with stereonet 8, X-ray
diffractometers for clay mineral identification, and earthquake data processing with GIS 10.2 Software. The magnitude of earthquake
was 4-5.4 mb that resulted from tecto-volcanism activity. The earthquake caused the instability of soil and rock, especially in fault
zones. The rock has been strong deformed with the highly developed intensity of fractures (advanced stage). Soil dominated by
Kaolinite and vermiculite minerals causes the instability conditions when it is saturated, while the nature of the bedrock with massive
open fracture pattern causes the shear strength of the rocks decreases and on the contrary, the shear stress increases. Rainfall intensity is
73-145 mm/day that becomes a major factor of increased soil mass and burdening factor of the unstable rock. Slope is a factor that
supports the intensity of mass movements of rock and soil in the form of shallow landslides.
Key words: Soil, rock, slope, rainfall, tecto-volcanism, shallow landslides.
1. Introduction
On January 15, 2014, landslides on the slopes of the
hills along the Tondano River initiated the dammed
flow of the river. On the same day, the natural levee
collapsed leading to a destructive flash flood. As the
result, 32 people were confirmed dead, 2 were missing,
and 40,000 were evacuated [1].
Prior to the landslides and flash floods on January 15,
2014, an earthquake of 4.1 mb in magnitude occurred
in Manado (Table 1). The earthquake has disrupted the
stability of the soil and rocks. While the increased rain
intensity a week before the disaster (Table 2) had
triggered landslides in the area outside the outlet of
Lake Tondano that filled up the river channels and
slowed down the flow of water to downstream areas.
High intensity rain upon the occurrence of disaster in
almost all regions of the Manado Province, particularly
the runoff flowing into the Tondano Lake, resulted to
an over discharge of water to the outlets due to the
shrinkage of the lakes surface area as the impact of
Corresponding author: Muchtar S. Solle, Dr., research
fields: landslide and land degradation.
land-use for agricultural areas, settlements and

embankments. Runoff discharge over Lake Tondano
increased the turbulent flow of river water and brought
in the landslides materials that had previously covered
the river body. The downstream river areas endured the
runoff in the form of flash flood that definitely caused
both material and non-material loss.
The lithology is an important factor in the landslide
due to its potential as a trigger factor and a huge impact
to the landslide. Therefore, the mapping of areas prone
to landslides as carried out by Refs. [2-4], entailed the
parameters of lithology as the most important part in
the study of landslides, since diverse units of lithology
have different degrees of vulnerability to landslides
[5-10]. Lithology has been accepted massively and
significantly for the effect on the landslides.
Furthermore, variations in lithology frequently lead to
various strengths of slope and permeability of the rock
and soil [3].
Several researches have conducted study on
landslide and acknowledged that the parameters of
slope and lithology are the main factors of landslides
[10, 11] while the main triggers are rainfall and earthquakes.
272
Table 1
The intensity of earthquake in Manado.
Time
Latitude
2014-01-30T20:06:04.940Z 0.4023
Longitude
125.5347
Depth
90.16
Mag
4.5
2014-01-25T05:41:35.960Z 2.0018
124.6186
239.41
4.5
2014-01-17T06:14:49.370Z 2.542
2014-01-03T05:12:54.040Z 1.3488
125.8191
125.8906
116.97
64.3
4
4.1
Mag type Place

Mb
121 km SSE of Bitung, Indonesia
62 km NNW of Manado,
Mb
Indonesia
Mb
140 km NNE of Bitung, Indonesia
Mb
79 km E of Bitung, Indonesia
Type
Earthquake
Earthquake
Earthquake
Earthquake
Source: BMKG, 2014.

Table 2
The daily rainfall in January 2014.
Date
Station
1/1/2014
2/1/2014
3/1/2014
4/1/2014
5/1/2014
6/1/2014
7/1/2014
8/1/2014
9/1/2014
10/1/2014
11/1/2014
12/1/2014
13/1/2014
14/2/2014
15/1/2015
16/3/2014
17/1/2016
18/4/2014
19/1/2017
20/4/2015
21/1/2018
22/4/2016
23/1/2019
24/4/2017
25/1/2020
26/4/2018
27/4/2019
28/4/2020
29/4/2021
30/4/2022
Bitung
Rainfall
mm
2.2
13.5
6.2
0
0
13.4
28.8
12.9
0.5
2.6
10.9
0
73.3
41.2
0.2
0.7
2.5
3.2
0
7.7
10.9
15.4
0
0
Station
Kayuwatu
Rainfall
mm
1
0
1.5
0.6
0.6
65.4
54.2
67.9
6.3
40.3
4.5
39
87.2
133.8
46.7
4.5
2
15
18.8
12
32
31.6
Station
Samratulangi
0.5
0.1
Rainfall
mm
0.6
8.1
2.4
5.8
43.1
64
78.2
6.1
43.8
10.6
0.2
145
16.5
5.6
2.6
19.1
5.4
4.4
22.2
42.9
1.2
0.9
Description: Red indicated the increased rainfall intensity and Blue indicates the rainfall during the disaster (Source: BMKG, 2014).
However, study on the mineral content of rocks and

soil as one determinant of the rock physical property on
landslide vulnerability is very rare. Therefore, the
purpose of this study was to analyze the mineral
content of rocks and soil in Tondano watershed and its
relationship with tecto-volcanism on shallow landslide

that frequently occurs in Tondano watershed.
2. Research Methods
The methods used in this study were the analyses of
surface geology, namely: (1) Lithology included

analysis of the physical appearance of rocks, minerals,
and rock layers; (2) Structural Geology included
analysis of seismic data, gas leakage from volcanism,
joint and structural symptoms of the landform
morphological appearance; (3) Geomorphology
included the physical characteristics of watershed,
landform, river morphology, river flow patterns, and
stadia area.
Tools and materials used in this study were the ARL
Quant X (EDXRF Analyzer) for XRF and Shimadzu
XRD-7000 for XRD, map of the region geology (scale
of 1: 250,000), RBI map (scale of 1: 50,000), seismic
data (BMKG of 2014), GIS 10.2 software, and
geological compass and hammer, GPS, and Stereonet 8
software.
3. Results and Discussion

Indisputably, natural disasters are highly associated
with the environmental factors, particularly the land
utilization and the allocation. Unsuitable allocation of
objects regarding with an area carrying capacity will
result on land degradation and landslides. Therefore, it
is very important to analyze the carrying capacity of
Tondano watershed in North Sulawesi. There were
several central aspects of the study, one of them was
273
and (3) Structural landform (T). In conjunction with the

landslides, the volcanic and structural landform will be
explicated briefly.
Volcanic Landform (V): Landform was formed
from the volcanic activity within the Plio-Pleistocene
to Resen period. Ancient volcanic activity is
characterized by the formation of ancient caldera lake,
which is Tondano Lake. Basaltic lava flow with a slope
of N1oE/16 at the position of N1o 24 23.70 and 124o
52 19.30, and the emergence of hot spots are the
evidence of seepage magma (Fig. 1). Active volcanic
activities trigger shallow volcanic earthquakes that
adversely affect the rocks stability at steep slopes and
consequently, lead to soil and rock slides.
Structural Landform (T): Plio-Pleistocene tectonic
activity caused the uplift that occurred on the east side
of Tondano watershed and formed structural
mountains. Tectonic processes also constructed strike
slip fault in the northern part of the study site and
formed structural hills and mountains, with a slope of
20-30% (Fig. 2). According to Ref. [11], slope
becomes a very essential factor in the occurrence of
landslides. Vulnerability zonation is considerably
related to the slope. The slope of > 15 requires serious
alert to the possibility of landslides surely by
considering other supporting factors.
the aspects of geology consisting of the aspects of

geomorphology, lithology/formations, soil mineralogy,
and geological structure.
4. Geomorphology
The development of geomorphology of Tondano
North Sulawesi is inseparable from the processes of
Resen
active tectonics and volcanic
and
Plio-Pleistocene ancient tectonics [12, 13]. Resen
climate activities with rainfall ranged from 2,000
mm/yr-> 4,000 mm/yr, also became an external factor
in shaping the current landform. Based on Desaunettes
classification [14], the geomorphology (landform) of
Tondano watershed can be divided into three, namely:
(1) Alluvial landform (A), (2) Volcanic landform (V),
Fig. 1 The appearance of jets of gas (A), and basaltic lava

flows (B and C).
274
Fig. 2 The appearance of the structural mountains (A) at

the eastern part of Tondano Lake, and the appearance of the
structural hills and mountains in the northern part of
Tondano watershed (B).
of the research site distributed from the north to the

south and occupies approximately 35% of the research
site. Lava at the research site, in general, is in a
condition of strongly jointed and some are ruptured
(Fig. 5). Nevertheless, it is a direct impact of intense
seismic activity taking place in the research site, both
volcanic and tectonic earthquakes. Earthquake has
lowered the shear strength of rocks and increased the
shear stress. Area which constituted of Qv formation
should be gained serious concern in its development
since mass movement simply occurs in most of the
source rocks.
Qtv and Qtvl (Volcanic Tondano Quarter and Lava
Volcanic Tondano Quarter): consist of coarse clastic
sedimentary rocks especially composed of andesitic,
5. Lithology
The lithology of Tondano watershed used in the
study of landslide referred to the Geological Sheet of
Manado [15]. In addition, the lithology constituent is
derived from five formations: (1) Alluvium Quarter
(Qa), (2) Lakes and Rivers Quarter (Qs), (3) Volcanic
Quarter (Qv), (4) Volcanic Tondano Quarter (Qvt) and
(5) Volcanic Miocene Tertiary Quarter (Tmv).
Qa (Alluvium Quarter): consists of boulders, gravels,
Fig. 3 The appearance of sediment unit of Qs formation,

which is utilized as paddy fields.
pebbles, and mud, found in the northern part of Tondano

watershed and occupies 2% of the research site.
Qs (Lake and River Quarter): consists of sand, silt,
and conglomerate, and marly clay, found at the center
of Tondano watershed and occupies approximately
10% of the research site. Depositions are spread around
Tondano Lake located in the plateau area and utilized
as paddy fields (Fig. 3).
Qv (Volcanic Quarter): consists of young volcanic
rocks; lava, bombs, lapilli and volcanic ash; forming
young stratovolcanoes, one of them located in the
research site, which is the Lokon Mountain. Lava
released by Lokon Mountain is constituted mainly
from basalt (Fig. 4). The quarter is at the western part
Fig. 4 The appearance of igneous basalt unit of Qv

formation.
Fig. 5 Igneous basalt unit of Qv formation undergoes

strong joint leading to destruction.
constituted of the angled to moderate angled

components, characterized by numerous pieces of
pumice; lapilli pumice, breccias, high solid overlies,
structured flow (Fig. 6). The units are located in the
area adjacent to Tondano Lake in the northern part of
Minahasa; forming a low wavy ridge. Pyroclastics
deposition is allegedly to originate from and occurred
as a result of a vast eruption in the formation of
Tondano Caldera. Formation is exposed in the local
section of the north and south of the research site and
occupies 28% of the research site. High rainfall (ranges
between 2,000-3,000 mm/yr and total rainy days
between 90-139 days) contributed to the soil formation
in which Qtv Formation reached 3 meters in thickness
(Fig. 6).
Rainfall intensity with instable rocks due to the
tecto-volcanism process, in addition to steep slope are
the roots of the rock mass prone to a movement.
Tmv (Volcanic Miocene Tertiary): consists of
volcanic rocks; mainly constituted of breccias, lavas,
and tuffs. Lava flows are generally constituted of
andesite to basalt. Very coarse grained breccias
composed of andesite (Fig. 7), partly conglomerate,
with tuff, sandstone, and claystone content. The
formation found at the western part of the research site
275
Fig. 6 The appearance of breccias volcanic unit of Qtv

formation (A), with andesitic fragments (B). High rainfall
intensity accelerates the weathering (C) that leads to easy
defragmentation (white arrow). The formation of soil solum
reaches a thickness of 3 meters (D).
Fig. 7
The appearance of breccias (A) of the Tmv
formation, with the components of andesitic fragments (C).
(B): The appearance of the andesite lava unit of Tmv
formation (black arrow).
spread from the west and occupied 15% of the research

site.
Rock mass has undergone a process of early
tectonism, thus, it becomes more massive and the
weathering process is slower. However, the source
276
rocks triggered by the activity of Resen

tecto-volcanism can endure the movement through
the previous ruptures. The movement will be
intensified if it is supported by topography and steep
slopes.
6. Mineralogy of Soils and Rocks

The results of mineralogical analysis of a number
of samples in the sites indicated that the type of clay
mineral content of 1:1 is more dominant than clay
type 2:1 and clay type 2:2. The content of clay
minerals can reduce the stability of the slope in a
saturated condition [16, 17]. Clay mineral type 1:1 of
Kaolinite type tends to swelling, while the Halloysite
type tends to be limited swelling, and type 2:1 of
Vermiculite type also has a propensity to be limited
swelling. The three types of mineral in saturated
conditions can enhance the weight of the soil mass
that will burden the parent rock underneath and
trigger landslides.
Several points of the site indicated of fairly Kaolinite
Fig. 8
mineral content up to 43% of total clay content (Fig. 8).

In Kali village and Kembes village, Vermiculite and
Halloysite mineral contents are higher than Kaolinite
mineral content. Nevertheless, it is potential to set off
the higher intensity of the landslide than other villages.
It is mainly due to the capacities of Vermiculite and
Halloysite mineral to absorb water which are higher
Kaolinite mineral (Fig. 9), thus, it will add the soil
mass in saturated condition.
Result of XRF test for Resen pyroclastic materials
demonstrated two distinct characteristics of silica
content (Fig. 10). High silica component is layered
between the layers of soil and low silica component.
High silica component is loosened if the water content
in the soil is in saturated condition.
Source rocks that come from pyroclastic material
with sufficiently high silica content coupled with soil
masses that can limit swelling and water saturated
resulting in high potential intensity of land and rocks
slides occurrences in Tondano watershed, North
Sulawesi.
Kaolinite mineral content reaches 43%.
Fig. 9 Vermiculite and Halloysite mineral content are higher than Kaolinite content, the potential of landslides increased
2-fold.
277
Fig. 10 Soil morphology with the source materials of incoherent pyroclastic material (A). There are two types of pyroclastic
material, e.g., andesitic (B) and basaltic (C).
6.1 Structural Geology
6.2 Earthquake
Geological evolution of Minahasa is closely related

with control factors of the structure of volcanic arc
basin late Tertiary-Quaternary North Sulawesi and
Sangihe [18]. The area has experienced the recurrence
phase of eruption and active tectonics, which can be
identified by the formation of pull-apart basin. It
continued with the development of volcanism in the
area marked by the establishment of Tondano Caldera
at 2 + 0.4 j.t.l. [13, 19], which developed into the
Tondano Lake as it is today.
In fact, the seismic intensity of volcanism and
tectonism persists and has a very significant effect on
the occurrence of disasters in Tondano watershed.
Along the year, the areas in Manado Province

endure seismic activity both earthquakes centered on
land and under the ocean (Fig. 11). Frequently, they are
seismic activities with the magnitude of 4 to 4.5 mb
[20]. Vibrations generated from these activities lead to
declined stability of rock and soil and trigger the
movement as well as the landslide.
6.3 Joint
Joint found in the research site is the direct impact of
seismic activity, both of the current or the Tertiary
activities. Most of lithology has been fractured in
several orders of joint, but merely some of them can be
278
Fig. 11
Seismicity map of North Sulawesi which affects the stability of the soil and rocks in Tondano watershed.
279
Fig. 12 The pattern of structural geology formed the fault in Tondano watershed. Accumulation of joint data in a rosette
diagram showed the main straightness direction of NW-SE as indicated by 1 pattern [24]. It is in line with the regional
tectonic map [12, 15].
280
Fig. 13 The condition of lithology that has endured increased shear stress and declined shear strength. (A) The area adjacent
to Tondano Lake, Eris district, (B) the area adjacent to Lokon Mountain, Tomohon, (C) Tinoor, (D) Eris district, (E) Air
Madidi, East Tondano district.
measured directly in the site, particularly due to: (1)

The volcanic activity has covered most of the objects in
the site; (2) Joints occurred on pyroclastic rocks are
hardly recognized and identified as the result of their
fragmented and matrix physical characteristics which
make the joint straightness hardly identified.
The results of joint measurement on the unit of
andesitic lava of Tmv Formation of TMV, showed the
data of the main sharpness direction ( 1) with relative
trend of NW-SE (northwest-southeast) (Fig. 12). It is
similar with the direction of the regional rock block of
Sulawesi with a trend of NW-SE [21-23].
6.4 Fault
According to Ref. [12], the process of active
tectonism after the formation of Sulawesi Island was
commenced in Plio-Pleistocene, with the formation of
fault uplift on on NE-SW direction in the northern part
of Sulawesi, which lifted up the old rocks of Tmv
formation to the top of Qv and Qtv. The impact of the
fault uplift was the stretching at the northeast part of

the fault uplift that led to the formation of horst (the
raised fault block bounded by normal faults or graben)
of Qtv Formation above Qv Formation (Fig. 12).
The results of the ancient tectonism had influenced
the rock structure through the fractures of rock, either
of major or minor scale. The fractures of the fault
process became increasingly unstable due to the
intensity of the circum-Pacific seismic through North
Sulawesi. It activated the volcanic activity that
exacerbated the stability of the rock through volcanic
earthquakes and volcanic eruptions process, eventually,
leading to the increased shear stress and declined shear
strength of the rocks in Tondano watershed (Fig. 13), in
addition to avalanche in several parts.
7. Conclusions
(1) The occurrence of an earthquake with a
magnitude of 4-4.5 mb in Bitung Manado and the
increased intensity of rainfall within week in prior to
the disastrous flash flood approximately 145 mm/day.

The vibrations caused by volcanic and tectonic
earthquake activity lead to declined stability of rock
and soil, which makes them vulnerable to movement
and landslide;
(2) Direction of the main tectonic sharpness (1) is
with relative trend of NW-SE;
(3) Soil contains higher Vermiculite and Halloysite
in comparison with Kaolinite minerals. It triggers the
increased intensity of the landslide in the form of
shallow landslides.
[9]
[10]
[11]
Acknowledgement
The authors would like to express their gratitude to
the Directorate of Higher Education (DIKTI) and
Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat
(LP2M) Hasanuddin University for the research grant,
thus, the entire activities of study could be
accomplished.
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doi:10.17265/2328-2193/2016.06.004
DAVID
PUBLISHING
Petrological and Geochemical Constraints on the

Evolution of El-Kahfa Alkaline Ring Complex, South
Eastern Desert, Egypt
A. M. Bishady1, A. M. El-Sherif2 and M. E. Darwish2
1. Geol. Dept., Fac. Sci., Menoufiya Univ., Shebin El-Kom, Egypt
2. Nuclear Materials Authority, Cairo, Post Office Box No. 530 Maadi, Egypt
Abstract: El-Kahfa complex locates at the intersection of Lat. 24818 N and Long. 343855 E, South Eastern Desert of Egypt. It
comprises an outer ring composed of alkaline syenites, ranging from barren- to quartz-bearing syenites, an inner ring which varies in
composition from leucocratic to melanocratic syenites, and a central stock formed essentially of alkali gabbros. These alkali gabbros
are cut by small bodies of alkaline syenites, which occasionally grade into nepheline syenites. The country rocks are represented mainly
by metavolcanics and epidiorites. El-Kahfa syenites lack any primary hydrous mafic silicates indicating that their magma was
anhydrous. Major and trace elements geochemistry of El-Kahfa rocks reflects the crystallization of early plagioclase followed by Fe-Ti
oxides. Salic members in the complex are co-magmatic and related to crystal liquid fractionation. The REE (rare earth elements)s
tetrad is obvious on the primitive mantle normalized pattern of El-Kahfa rocks. The M-type tetrads clearly appear in the more evolved
rocks. These tetrad effects are either a feature of magma-fluid system before crystallization or inherited from external fluid during or
after the emplacement of the magma. Generally, El-Kahfa rocks parental magma was probably derived from Nb-enriched or at least
under-plate mantle source within the continental East-Africa rift zone, where it may be subjected to minor contamination through their
fractional crystallization.
Key words: Ring complex, El-Kahfa, tetrad effect, South Eastern Desert.
1. Introduction
Hunting Geology and Geophysics [1] introduced for
the first time El-Kahfa as a ring complex. It is located
at the intersection of Lat. 24818 N and Long.
343855 E, with its peak rising 1,018 m above sea
level.
Lockwood [2] surveyed a segment of Egypt
including
El-Kahfa
area
magnetically
and
radiometrically and revealed a radioactive anomaly
that attains an amplitude of 200 cps.
El-Ramly et al. [3, 4] and El-Ramly and Hussein [5,
6] gave some details about the geology and
petrography of El-Kahfa ring complex. They grouped
the Egyptian ring complexes into five groups on the
basis of their magmatic differentiation and the degree
Corresponding author: Ahmed Bishady,

research fields: mineralogy and petrology.
professor,
of development of the ring nature in addition to the

complexity of their structure. El-Kahfa ring complex is
encountered in a variety characterized by well-defined
ring structure, wide range of rock types and the
occurrence of nepheline.
The genesis of this ring complex had been discussed
in association with the other Egyptian and African ring
complexes by several workers; El-Ramly et al. [3, 4]
suggested two branches of magmatic differentiation.
The first branch would be the result of an original
trachy-basalt magma, while the second trend
supposedly resulted from the fusion of sialic crust
under the influence of the high temperature of the
basaltic magma. They confirmed also that the ring
complexes of the Egyptian Eastern Desert (Fig. 1)
represent the northward continuation of the belt of ring
complexes associated with the East African rift system.
284
Petrological and Geochemical Constraints on the Evolution of

El-Kahfa Alkaline Ring Complex, South Eastern Desert, Egypt
Fig. 1 Key map showing the distribution of the main ring complexes in the South Eastern Desert, Egypt (after El-Ramly [7]).
The distribution of these ring complexes follows either

NW or NE trends, where the largest ring complexes are
those found as the two trends intersect. Garson and Krs
[8] suggested that the distribution of the ring
complexes in Egypt is controlled by N60E crustal
block faults and shear zones, and N30W deep-seated
tectonic zones related to the opening of the Red Sea.
Serencistes et al. [9] mentioned that the immediate
cause of the intrusions of the Egyptian ring complexes
may be a heat source in the mantle. This heat may be
the same, that cause swelling and updoming in the
upper crust, leading to fracturing and rifting. They
added that the genesis of the Paleozoic complexes is
more likely to be linked to the large-scale faulting
pattern of Eastern Africa. These complexes appear to
predate any activity connected with the development of
the modern Red Sea. They also suggested that the

shallow emplacement and short time span of
emplacement indicate that the differentiation probably
occurred in a magma chamber deep in the crust or
upper mantle, rather than in situ.
Hashad and El-Reedy [10] mentioned that the
anorogenic alkalic rocks in the South Eastern Desert of
Egypt (including El-Kahfa) reflect within-plate
tensional environment. Hhndorf et al. [11] on the
other hand mentioned that the Egyptian ring complexes
have been intruded through the oceanic crust of the
Nubian Shield.
Vail [12] referred to three groups of complexes in
Egypt based on their ages. The oldest and more
saturated massifs 229 5 Ma (El-Gezira) to 221 12
Ma (Silaie), the second and more alkaline ring

complexes between 148 12 Ma (Mishbeh) and 132

10 Ma (Mansouri) and the youngest at 95 5 Ma
(El-Kahfa) to 89 16 Ma (Abu khruq). Vail [12]
through his investigation of the ring complexes and
related rocks in Africa, concluded that none of these
complexes seem to be directly connected with the
present African rift systems, although that pattern of
faulting is itself related to earlier Precambrian
structures. He added that the heterogeneous nature of
the ring complex provinces, with the exception of the
Cretaceous meridional group, does not support the
view of Razvalyayev and Shakhov [13, 14] that the
locations of most of the NE Africa and Arabia were
controlled by submeridional rift faults associated with
east African rift structures.
Abdel Khalek et al. [15, 16] concluded that the inner
ring syenites in El-Kahfa ring complex is more alkaline
and shows a higher differentiation status than those of
the outer ring. Their study revealed also that the
syenodiorites
composition
locates
between
the
examined diorites and syenites of the outer ring, where

they are formed by the assimilation of the country
diorite-masses by the firstly ascending syenite magma.
Ragab et al. [17] concluded that the trace elements
contents in El-Kahfa alkali syenites indicate that they
were derived from an enriched mantle source in the
sub-continental lithosphere, where they originated in
an extensional region in a within-plate environment.
From the previous work, it is clear that the origin of
El-Kahfa syenites and their geological, geochemical
and tectonic implications are not fully understood.
In the present article we present comprehensive
petrological and geochemical data, from the different
rock unites of El-Kahfa complex in a trial to resolve the
inner ring and a central stock (Figs. 2 and 3a). The ring
ridge is not complete and open to the south in the form
of a horse shoe ridge. Near its entrance there is a central
stock which rises for about 180 m above the level of the
ring wadi.
El-Kahfa country rocks encounter various rock types.
The epidiorites surrounded the outer ring. The contact
between these epidiorite rocks and the syenites
encloses gray rhyodacite xenoliths embedded in
generally homogenous syenitic matrix (Fig. 3b).
Metavolcanics are fine-grained, hard and compact
basic, intermediate and acidic varieties, exhibiting
various colours. They are dissected by some trachytic
dykes.
The outer ring is composed of alkaline syenites,
which gradually vary from leucocratic syenites barren
of quartz to quartz enriched syenites. These rocks are
associated and invaded by numerous trachytes.
The inner ring seems to possess a complicated
structure and its rocks vary in composition from
leucocratic to melanocratic syenite varieties. In
equigranular alkaline syenites with quartz and a
relatively high percent of dark minerals form its
western and northern parts. The inner contacts are
covered by wadi alluvium, but highly cataclased and
ferruginated rocks are developed at the very foot of its
slope.
The central stock is formed essentially of
alkali-gabbros. Relics of volcanic cones represented by
alkali basalts and their pyroclastic equivalents are
preserved in the eastern part of the stock. The
alkali-gabbros are cut by small bodies of alkaline
syenites, which may occasionally grade into nepheline
syenites.
controversy on their petrogenesis.
3. Petrography
2. Geologic Setting
3.1 Country Rocks
The geologic setting of El-Kahfa ring complex is

dictated from the present authors investigations and
El-Ramly et al. [3].
El-Kahfa ring complex comprises an outer ring, an
285
The country rocks of El-Kahfa ring complex are

represented by metavolcanics and epidiorites.
3.1.1 Metavolcanics
El-Kahfa metavolcanics are represented mainly by
286
Fig. 2

Geological map of El-Kahfa ring complex, South Eastern Desert, Egypt (modified after El-Ramly et al. [3]).
meta-basalts, meta-andesites and meta-dacites. They

are fine grained, exhibiting commonly porphyritic and
glomeroporphyritic textures. In the more basic
varieties the groundmass varies from microdoloritic to
hyalopilitic groundmass.
Plagioclase phenocrysts (mostly andesine An40) in
the porphyritic varieties are anhedral to subhedral,
zoned, cracked and relatively saussuritized. Porphyritic
kaolinized K-feldspars can be recorded in the more
acidic varieties.
The groundmass is commonly very fine-grained and
mostly trachytic (Fig. 4a). The metabasalts
groundmass is formed of devitrified glass and
spheriolitic feldspar aggregates with doloritic and
apodoloritic textures. Amphiboles and biotite
predominate among the mafic constituents. In the more
basic varieties the groundmass is turbid feldspathic
with fine laths of colorless to greenish clinopyroxene,

287
Fig. 3 Photograph of: (a) Panoramic view showing the relation between the inner (I), outer (O) rings and the central stock (C)
of El-Kahfa ring complex; (b) Dark gray rhyodacite xenolith embedded in syenitic matrix.
whereas the common amphiboles are greenish

hornblende, actinolitic amphibole and occasional
kaersutite. In the more acidic varieties the groundmass
is mostly quartzo-feldspathic, with fine grains of
greenish clinopyroxene, amphiboles and uncommon
biotite flakes.
The accessories all over these rocks are opaque
Fe-Ti oxides minerals, apatite and sphene.
3.1.2 Epidiorites
El-Kahfa
epidiorites
(meta-gabbros),
show
hypidiomorphic coarse grained texture. They are
constituted mainly of relatively saussuritized zoned
andesine plagioclases (An40). Mafics are mainly of
yellowish-green to green partially epidotized
hornblende, that mostly after augitic pyroxene, which
occur as relics crowned by that hornblende (Fig. 4b).
Few brown biotite may occur after hornblende.

Subhedral clear quartz grows on the expense of the
plagioclases and hornblende. Interstitial clear
orthoclase grains may compose 5% to 10% of the rock
constituents. Opaque Fe-Ti oxides minerals grains
dispose most of the rock constituents. Zircon and
apatite are the common accessories.
3.2 Ring Complex Rocks
3.2.1 Ring Volcanics
The extrusives associating El-Kahfa ring complex
varied from porphyritic trachytes, alkali trachytes to
trachy-andesite (latite).
Trachytes are dense (aphanitic) holocrystalline rocks,
which are often porphyritic (Fig. 4c). The phenocrysts
are mostly of the sanidine alkali-feldspar, whereas
288

Fig. 4 Photomicrograph of: (a) Metavolcanic showing very fine-grained doleritic groundmass; (b) Epidiorite thin section
showing hornblende after pyroxene (sheller texture); (c) Phenocryst of zoned plagioclase in a trachytic groundmass in the
porphyritic texture; (d) Trachytic texture in the ring complex trachytes; (e) Aegirine altered to arvedsonite amphibole and
aenigmatite surrounded by perthitic feldspars; (f) Syenodiorites showing hornblende altered to chlorite and scarce carbonates.
oligoclase-andesine feldspars present in the more basic

trachy-andesites (latite).
The groundmass is dominated by homogenous or
cryptoperthitic sanidine and orthoclase, which form
slender laths or microlites in parallel orientation
exhibiting the trachytic texture, or may form more stout
laths giving an orthophyric texture (Fig. 4d).
Aegirine-augite and aegirine, in addition to
arfvedsonite and aenigmatite occur in the groundmass
as interstitial needles or as fealty aggregates.
Fine interstitial clear quartz grains are uncommon,
but cryptocrystalline silica mosaics are noticed
in the trachy-andesites. Fine hornblende grains and
brown flakes are common in its groundmass,

which is disseminated by fine opaque Fe-Ti oxides
minerals, whereas accessory apatite grains are also
common.
3.2.2 Syenites
El-Kahfa syenites vary petrographically from alkali
syenites, which form the bulk of the ring syenites, to
the alkali quartz bearing syenites and mafic syenites
(syenodiorites). These varieties are generally
hypidiomorphic granular, coarse to medium grained,
whereas pegmatitic and porphyritic varieties can be
encountered.
(1) Alkali quartz bearing syenites

Subhedral microperthitic orthoclase exhibiting

micro-string perthitic blebs, represent the main alkali
feldspar (modal percent of 85-65%). Antiperthites are
less common. Feldspars are mostly subjected to
kaolinization, but relatively free from micro-inclusions.
The rarity of these micro-inclusions in the feldspars of
these hypersolvus alkaline rocks is indicative of the
very low fluid content in the liquid, and under the
thermodynamic crystallization conditions of low pressure
(less than 2 kbars), and high temperature (500 C) and
less content of F-bearing fluids [18].
Clear subhedral quartz, which represents about 5%
of the rock constituents, is interstitial or forms crystals
in microlitic cavities.
Aegerine, with a modal percent range from 10% to
30%, is strongly pleochroic of deep grass-green to
brownish-green. Nevertheless aegirine is relatively
fresh, it is generally altered to arfvedsonite, where this
alteration may continue the development of riebeckite
(Fig.
4e),
thus
forming
the
inseparable
aegirine-arfvedsonite-rebeckite
alteration
series.
Aenigmatite can also be noticed after aegirine. These
Na-pyroboles enclose poiklitically grains of the alkali
feldspars and occasionally quartz grains.
Fine-grained apatite is the main accessory, while
zircons are also recorded. Subhedral opaque Fe-Ti
oxides minerals are in common association with the
Na-pyroxenes-Na-amphiboles alteration series.
(2) Alkali syenites
Alkali syenites are generally barren of quartz.
Microperthitic to cryptoperthitic, partially kaolinized
orthoclase is the main alkali feldspar. These feldspars
show string, bleb and occasionally patch perthitization.
Antiperthites can be recorded protruding perthites,
exhibiting crenulated composition planes.
Secondary fresh, interstitial albite intergrowths grow
at the peripheries of the alkali feldspars, which may be
formed by the unmixing of the primary high
temperature alkali feldspars or by late magmatic
albitization [19].
Aegirine with the pleochroic formula (X = deep
289
green, Y = grass green, Z = yellowish green), is the

main recorded pyroxene, whereas aegirine-augite is not
uncommon. Acmite with its brownish to greenish
yellow colors, can hardly been noticed especially in the
more alkalic varieties.
These alkali pyroxenes are mostly altered to
arfvedsonite, which may uncommonly be altered to
riebeckitic.
Aenigmatite represents another main alteration
product after the aegirine and may acmite.
Kataphorite with the pleochroic formula (X = pale
brown, Y = deep brown, Z = greenish brown), is
recorded in the rarely present nepheline-bearing
syenites.
Scarce nepheline mostly altered to sodalite can be
detected associating the perthitized potash feldspar.
Apatite and opaque Fe-Ti oxides with the less
common zircon prevail specially in association with
the mafic constituents.
(3) Mafic syenites (syenodiorites)
Mafic syenites or syenodiorites according to Le
Maitre [20] are subsolvus syenites intermediate
between syenites and diorites. They are constructed of
orthoclase, plagioclase, augitic pyroxene, scarce
hornblende, biotite and accessories.
Microperthitic orthoclase represents about 45% of
the rock constituents. It is mostly kaolinized. Andesine
plagioclase (An30-32) is uncommonly zoned with
corroded margins. Greenish augitic-pyroxene, with
occasional aegirine-augite are the main mafics, which
are maybe altered to greenish brown hornblende and
yellowish-brown biotite. Chlorite and scarce
carbonates represent the main alteration products of
these mafics (Fig. 4f).
Scare interstitial secondary clear quartz can be
recorded. Epidote and opaque Fe-Ti oxides minerals
are the main accessories, in addition to some sphene
and zircon.
Generally, El Kahfa syenites lack primary hydrous
mafic silicates. This petrographic observation clearly
indicates that the syenite magma was anhydrous [21].
290

3.2.3 Alkali Gabbro

The nomenclature of this rock variety is after Ref.
[22]. In the literature, it was identified as essexite
gabbro, which is a miss nomenclature where no
nepheline can be noticed in El-Kahfa alkali gabbro,
which is essential in essexite gabbro [22]. The rock is
medium to coarse grained, hypidiomorphic granular.
Plagioclases (An45-55) compose 45-60% of the rock
constituents. They are stumpy, tabular, fractured
strained, zoned grains, which are generally
saussuritized with occasional carbonitization. Second
phase of plagioclase (An50-60), more fresh, exhibiting
definite lamellar twinning and zoned can be
encountered.
Microperthitic orthoclase, which hardly reach up to
20% of the rock feldspars, are interstitial, partially
kaolinized and enclose poiklitically plagioclases.
Mafics representing 40% of the rock constituents
are represented mostly by Ca-rich augite (salite), which
shows pale-green to violet tinted varieties.
Aegirine-augite can occasionally be noticed on the
peripheries of the Ca-rich augites. This is in accordance
with what mentioned by Ref. [22] that the initial stage
of Na-Fe3+ enrichment is represented by violet tinted or
pale green soda augites (Na2O > 1.5%; [23-25]) either
rimming more diopsidic cores or forming discrete
crystals which may be rimmed by aegirine-augite or
aegirine.
These pyroxenes are uncommonly mantled by
uralitic green amphibole, with bluish tint, and partially
disposed with opaques. This amphibole is associated
with a yellowish cryptocrystalline to microcrystalline
undefined. Bonin [18] noticed that the calcic and ferric
clinopyroxenes
are
frequently
altered
to
cryptocrystalline substance that shows a clear
green-yellow pleochroism, which is always enclosed in
green calcic amphibole. Bonin [18] added that in the
wake of the work of the subcommision on Amphibole
of the IMA (Leake, 1978), the optical variation within
the amphiboles is revealed to be so complicated and so
little linked to compositional changes.
Madhaven et al. [21] referred that hedenbergite

pyroxene frequently alters (Topotaxial alteration) to an
orange-yellow coloured montronite, which is formed
by the oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+ with the simultaneous
release of Ca as observed by Eggleton [26] in the
Australian skarns:
Ca2Fe+22Si4O12 + 2H Fe+3Si4O10(OH)2+ + 2Ca
Barkevikite, with the pleochroic formula (X =
yellow, Y = yellowish-brown and Z = brown), is
recorded as subhedral to anhedral grains, which are
disseminated with opaques.
Medium to coarse grained apatite is a ubiquitous
accessory mineral. It is mostly intermixed with the
pyroxenes alteration products.
4. Geochemistry
Total seventeen representative samples from
El-Kahfa ring complex and its country rocks were
analyzed for major elements (Table 1) at NMA
(Nuclear Materials Authority) laboratories, using
conventional wet chemical techniques of Shapiro and
Brannock [27] with some modifications given by
El-Reedy [28]. Ten representative samples of the
syenites and associated trachytes were investigated for
their trace elements and REE at ACME analytical
laboratories, Vancouver, Canada, using the ICP-Ms
techniques (Table 2).
4.1 Major and Trace Elements
The distribution of the major oxides and the trace
elements of El-Kahfa ring complex (Tables 1 and 2)
indicates that El-Kahfa rocks are represented by
undersaturated alkaline varieties. It can steadily report
that, the silica content in El-Kahfa complex exhibit a
distinct gap separating the undersaturated alkali-basalts
(47.88%) and alkali gabbros (49.16%) from the alkali
trachytes (57.91%) and alkali syenites (64.44%).
Bryan [29] and Wilkinson [25] have pointed out that
silica-gaps are characteristic of differentiated
intrusions, which provide some of the best evidence for
fractional crystallization.
291

Table 1 Chemical analyses of major oxides (wt.%) and computerized CIPW-normative minerals for El-Kahfa ring
complexes samples.
Rock type
S. No.
SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
FeO
FeO*
Fe2O3*
MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
L.O.I
Total
Alk. Basalt
K14
47.88
1.32
15.34
1.82
8.02
11.46
12.73
0.12
4.01
14.00
2.97
0.31
0.24
0.16
96.19
Alk. Gabbro
K11
49.16
2.22
17.43
7.26
7.19
13.72
15.25
0.16
2.82
9.23
2.02
1.15
0.37
0.61
99.62
Mg#
Q
C
Or
Ab
An
Ne
Lc
Ac
Ns
Di
Wo
En
Fs
Hy
HyEn
HyFs
Ol
OlFo
OlFa
Mt
Hm
Il
Ap
47.13
0.00
0.00
1.87
23.88
28.12
0.93
0.00
0.00
0.00
34.11
17.24
8.59
8.27
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.35
1.14
1.21
5.65
0.00
2.56
0.53
41.15
10.16
0.00
0.87
17.24
35.39
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.12
3.67
2.24
1.21
7.51
4.88
2.63
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.63
0.00
4.26
0.82
Epidiorite
K1
K10
60.63
66.22
0.96
0.40
15.52
12.96
1.92
1.50
4.71
2.30
6.44
3.65
7.15
4.06
0.12
0.06
3.02
0.32
7.89
1.56
2.15
7.65
0.63
2.41
0.21
0.04
0.30
1.11
98.14
96.52
CIPW-normative values
13.15
19.88
24.33
43.41
0.00
0.00
3.81
14.67
18.59
0.00
31.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.46
0.00
14.32
5.98
11.54
3.05
5.71
1.67
2.06
1.26
3.78
10.61
0.00
6.05
0.00
4.56
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.85
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.87
0.78
0.47
0.09
K13a
69.41
0.51
19.56
0.73
1.63
2.29
2.54
0.10
0.32
1.56
2.46
1.19
0.60
0.48
98.55
Trachytes
K13b
63.18
0.24
15.40
2.58
2.81
5.13
5.70
0.09
1.02
2.80
6.52
3.18
0.04
0.46
97.86
K3
61.26
0.36
19.07
2.96
3.12
5.78
6.43
0.15
1.60
2.68
4.03
2.02
0.20
0.84
98.29
K7
57.91
0.73
18.59
3.04
4.25
6.99
7.76
0.12
0.40
2.57
4.97
3.79
0.50
1.03
97.90
25.93
48.41
12.92
7.18
21.20
4.30
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.58
0.82
1.76
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.08
0.00
0.99
1.34
39.29
6.84
0.00
19.22
56.30
3.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.75
4.40
2.09
2.25
1.07
0.51
0.55
0.00
0.00
0.00
3.79
0.00
0.54
0.09
47.76
21.69
5.95
12.26
34.95
12.45
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.15
4.10
3.04
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.40
0.00
0.70
0.45
14.37
7.99
2.78
23.14
43.36
10.14
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.47
1.03
4.44
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.55
0.00
1.43
1.13
292

(Table 1 to be continued)
Rock type
S. No.
K15
SiO2
63.81
TiO2
0.41
Al2O3
14.51
Fe2O3
3.02
FeO
2.06
FeO*
4.78
Fe2O3*
5.31
MnO
0.15
MgO
1.10
CaO
2.80
Na2O
7.20
K2O
3.35
P2O5
0.03
L.O.I
0.15
Total
98.59
K30
60.68
0.80
16.40
4.08
2.52
6.10
6.88
0.13
1.90
2.80
7.20
1.86
0.18
0.09
98.64
Mg#
Q
C
Or
Ab
An
Ne
Lc
Ac
Ns
Di
Wo
En
Fs
Hy
HyEn
HyFs
Ol
OlFo
OlFa
Mt
Hm
Il
Ap
57.34
4.62
0.00
11.16
61.75
7.02
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.69
2.51
2.11
0.08
2.81
2.71
0.10
0.00
0.00
0.00
6.00
0.00
1.54
0.40
48.77
35.02
0.00
20.13
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.86
12.05
11.60
5.82
2.60
3.19
0.44
0.20
0.24
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.79
0.07
Syenite
K30a
61.35
0.48
15.00
3.88
3.40
6.89
7.66
0.12
2.02
2.80
7.20
2.41
0.23
0.09
98.98
51.44
3.17
0.00
14.41
61.53
1.49
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
9.05
4.67
2.94
1.44
3.22
2.16
1.06
0.00
0.00
0.00
5.69
0.00
0.92
0.51
K5
K9
60.20
60.80
0.44
0.40
11.31
16.80
3.72
4.82
3.62
3.81
6.97
8.15
7.74
9.05
0.11
0.15
3.02
0.83
4.20
2.24
6.97
6.74
4.69
3.10
0.10
0.08
0.42
0.12
98.80
99.77
CIPW-normative values
59.8
28.46
19.95
3.65
0.00
0.00
28.20
18.17
0.00
57.08
0.00
6.41
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.92
0.00
11.06
0.00
16.90
3.55
8.59
1.78
4.59
0.79
3.72
0.98
5.58
2.99
3.08
1.34
2.50
1.65
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
7.00
0.00
0.00
0.85
0.76
0.22
0.18
Le Maitre [30] referred that the paucity of

intermediate lavas in basalt-trachyte sequences may be
due to a discrimination in the eruptive process, and not
to the scarcity of intermediate magma, i.e. which
trachy-andesitic magma formed at depth has not been
erupted at the surface as readily as more basic and more
Syenodiorites
K1a
K25
62.05
59.76
0.31
0.80
16.32
17.05
1.16
3.08
4.59
3.51
5.63
6.28
6.26
6.98
0.23
0.08
6.07
3.18
3.36
6.56
3.65
2.04
1.33
0.84
0.20
0.60
0.64
0.39
96.23
97.89
Alkaline syenite
K26
K32
65.46
64.44
0.02
0.19
17.92
16.98
0.73
1.65
1.61
3.19
2.27
4.67
2.52
5.19
0.08
0.05
1.20
1.40
2.84
2.40
1.46
2.31
1.26
2.06
0.05
0.18
0.84
0.12
93.47
94.97
70.22
16.74
3.21
7.92
31.08
15.62
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
22.71
15.29
7.43
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.69
1.69
0.00
0.59
0.44
57.06
46.72
9.81
8.05
13.32
14.90
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.90
3.24
2.66
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.14
0.00
0.04
0.12
61.76
26.82
2.18
5.10
17.68
29.79
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
10.95
8.15
2.79
0.00
0.00
0.00
4.58
0.00
1.56
1.34
43.90
36.28
7.34
12.85
20.58
11.45
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
8.19
3.69
4.50
0.00
0.00
0.00
2.52
0.00
0.38
0.41
salic magma.
MacDonald [31] mentioned that these gaps may
reflect the following:
(1) Some sort of physical control in which rise to the
surface is prevented by high viscosity and/or density
[32, 33].
293

Table 2
Trace elements (ppm) and some elemental ratios of El-Kahfa rocks.
Rock type
Epidio.
Alk. Gab.
Trachyte
S. No.
K1
K11
K13a
K7
K3
Ba
Rb
Sr
Y
Zr
Nb
Th
Pb
Ga
Zn
Cu
Ni
V
Hf
Cs
Ta
Co
Be
U
W
Sn
Mo
Au
Th/U
Zr/Nb
Sr/Rb
240.00
32.80
401.60
25.40
195.30
6.60
3.80
3.10
18.30
56.00
51.10
24.30
156.00
5.60
0.80
1.30
19.70
1.00
3.80
3.20
2.00
0.60
0.30
1
29.60
12.24
52.00
4.60
209.70
25.60
48.10
2.40
0.30
0.80
17.90
47.00
28.00
5.00
404.00
1.60
0.20
13.00
32.50
0.80
0.90
1.20
0.70
0.20
0.30
0.33
20.04
45.59
342.00
59.20
36.60
66.90
1,144.4
213.40
22.60
11.60
31.9
24.00
7.10
1.50
19.00
27.30
0.20
15.69
0.60
4.00
8.00
6.80
8.00
3.70
0.80
2.83
5.36
0.62
153.00
179.00
46.50
123.80
2,128.7
383..3
42.90
22.30
41.90
105.00
2.20
1.90
8.00
47.70
0.50
21.10
1.70
11.00
10.90
2.30
17.00
1.20
3.00
3.94
5.55
0.26
4.26
111.60
20.60
128.70
1,342.40
37.10
30.50
6.40
37.40
48.00
0.80
0.80
7.50
34.00
1.00
19.40
0.40
8.00
9.50
3.70
15.00
0.80
0.60
3.21
36.18
0.18
k26a
Alk.
155.0
133.10
15.10
55.30
1,543.60
170.70
16.40
4.30
45.50
13.00
1.60
14.00
6.00
33.30
0.50
14.50
0.90
8.00
7.60
4.70
8.00
1.20
3.0
2.16
9.04
0.11
Syenite
K32a
Alk.
228.00
47.80
37.10
14.50
230.80
26.60
3.40
2.00
47.40
28.00
1.20
1.300
6.00
6.60
0.20
4.10
11.00
4.00
3.60
2.20
3.00
1.30
0.80
0.95
8.68
0.78
Syenodiorite
K9
K1a
K25
466.00
82.70
25.20
44.70
597.00
120.00
11.80
4.90
32.30
21.00
2.20
0.70
7.00
14.20
0.40
10.60
2.20
4.00
5.00
3.30
4.00
2.50
n.d.
2.36
4.98
0.30
91.00
15.70
26.10
74.20
868.00
174.20
16.30
4.70
38.20
28.00
11.20
3.40
17.00
21.40
0.10
10.50
1.30
5.00
5.40
4.00
7.00
1.10
3.70
3.02
4.98
1.66
115.00
73.50
417.08
44.90
712.00
134.70
12.80
2.40
28.70
64.00
9.90
0.80
7.00
16.30
5.30
9.01
4.70
4.00
7.00
3.00
5.00
4.30
n.d.
1.83
5.29
5.67
n.d.: not detected.
(2) A control is related to the crystallization process

itself, where the intermediate composition range is seen
as one of rapid crystallization over a narrow
temperature interval producing low volumes of melt
[34]. The appropriate compositions are then
foundperhaps exclusivelyas margins to the major
crystallizing phases within the magma chamber.
Weaver [34] added that one untested possibility is that
the onset of crystallization of Fe-Ti oxides produces
rapid changes in major element composition,
especially SiO2.
Weaver [34] and Clague [35] related also the SiO2
jump to Fe-Ti oxidation proportion. The position of the
composition gap in a magmatic series would then be
critically dependant on the point at which oxides began
to precipitate, which is perhaps a function of pO2.

(3) A real absence of intermediate materials, plus the
relatively high ratio of salic-to-mafic products, have
encouraged the idea that the basalts and trachytes have
different sources.
Gasparon et al. [36] concluded that crustal anatexis
nicely explains the large volumes of acid rocks and the
scarcity or absence of basaltic counterparts.
Bishady [37] through his investigation of the two
ring complexes El-Gezira and Mansouri, proposed that
the more salic varieties were derived from the
alkali-basalts by fractional crystallization, but with
minor continental crust contamination as Norry et al.
[38] preferred for Kenya lavas.
The plots of the trachytes and syenites on the TAS
294

(total alkalis-silica) diagram of Le Maitre [20] (Fig. 5a)

are mostly fall in the fields of syenites (trachytes),
syenodiorites (trachyandesites), whereas some of them
locate around the granodiorite (dacite) fields. The
epidiorites are close to the syenodiorite samples, while
the alkali-gabbro and alkali basalts are in the field of
gabbro (basalt). In terms of the normative mineralogy,
the syenites and trachytes occupy the different fields of
granites on the QAP diagram of Strekeisen [39] (Fig.
5b), from the quartz-rich granitoids, through
alkali-feldspar granites to the field of alkali-syenites.
Epidiorites and syenodiorites plot in the field of
monzogranites, whereas alkali-gabbros plot in the field
of quartz-monzonites, and the alkali-basalts in the field
of monzonite.
Harker type diagrams (Fig. 6) show that there is an
overall decrease in MgO, CaO, FeOt and TiO2. These
oxides essentially enter the composition of the
coloured minerals, which are abundant in the
mesocratic undersaturated rocks, rather than the
leucocratic saturated varieties. This can reflect the
crystallization of early plagioclase followed by Fe-Ti
oxides minerals and finally alkali feldspars.
Bonin and Lameyre [40] and Bonin [18] explained
the abrupt fall in MgO (nearly zero) and Fe2O with
points of inflection at about 60% silica content, that is
essentially due to the ferriferous nature of the mafic
minerals in syenites.
Fig. 5
The variably high MgO, FeOt and Ni in

alkali-gabbros and alkali-basalts (Tables 1 and 2) are
consistent with their derivation evolved from mantle
melts [21].
A weak trend of the iron enrichment in the early
stage of differentiation is clear on the AFM diagram,
(Fig. 7a). This could be designed as that these rocks are
of the alkali-basalt series [41].
The alkaline nature of the syenites and trachytes is
noticed on the variation diagram SiO2 versus total
alkalis of Irvine and Baragar [42] (Fig. 7b). The
alkali-gabbro and alkali-basalt plot in the subalkaline
field close to the alkaline field border, which can be
due to their low SiO2, low K2O and very low
K2O/Na2O (Table 1).
Based on the ratios (A/CNK) and (A/NK)
[Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O) and Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O)]
(Table 1), most of the trachytes and syenite samples are
peraluminous (A/CNK varies from 1.81 to 2.81),
except one syenite sample are peralkaline (A/CNK =
0.71). The epidiorites are also peraluminous, while the
alkali basalts is metaluminous (A/CNK = 0.89).
MacDonald [43] suggested that the degree of
peralkalinity achieved by a given magma series will
depend, not only on the initial composition of the
basaltic parents, but also on the magma crystallization
history. For example fractionation from basaltic melts
of unusually large amount of calcic-plagioclase relative
(a) TAS diagram of Le Maitre [20]; (b) QAP diagram of Strekeisen [39].

295
Fig. 6 Harker type diagrams between SiO2 and (a) MgO; (b) CaO; (c) Total iron as Fe2O3; (d) TiO2; (e) Ni.
The plotted trends are visual estimates. Symbols as in Fig. 4.
to olivine and or pyroxene, would rapidly deplete Al

relative to alkalis and promote the passage to
peralkaline residual liquids.
The examination of the composition trends in the
rocks of El-Kahfa complex is illustrated by
SiO2-Al2O3-(Na2O+K2O) ternary diagram of Bailey
and MacDonald [44]. El-Kahfa rocks are plotted on the
Al side following the metaluminous-peralkaline trend
from the silica apex to the feldspar point (Fig. 7c),
suggesting feldspar fractionation. MacDonald [43]
referred that the development of peralkaline residue is

possible in any suite where feldspar is fractionating and
where there is a deficiency of Al2O3 (expressed as
normative diopside and/or wallastonite). Woolley and
Jones [45] added that the differentiation towards more
peralkaline composition, almost certainly by alkalifeldspar fractionation (the plagioclase effect) as no
other crystallizing phase would enhance the
alkali-to-alumina ratio in liquid.
Mg-numbers in El-Kahfa rocks show distinctive
296

Fig. 7 (a) AFM diagram (Wager and Deer [46] and Irvine and Baragar [42]); (b) SiO2total alkalis diagram of Irvine and
Baragar [42]; (c) SiO2-Al2O3-(Na2O+K2O) diagram (Bailey and MacDonald [44]); (d) Spider diagram of trace elements.
Symbols as in Fig. 4.
differentiation from basic to the high evolved varieties.

The lower Mg-number values (<30) of the sialic
varieties are consistent with the pronounced
fractionation of mafic minerals and feldspars [47].
Corundum occurrence in some syenite and trachyte
norms is probably due to the loss of alkalis resulting
from the action of magmatic fluids during their
emplacement [48]. The appearance of acmite (Ac) and
sodium meta-silicate (Ms) in two syenites and one
trachyte sample, can be a characteristic trait of
alkaline-peralkaline rocks [21].
El-Kahfa syenites and trachytes are enriched in
LILE, Rb and Ba between 10 to more than 700 times
against primitive mantle (Fig. 7d). The high
concentration of these incompatible elements and their
enhanced concentration in the felsic members by
fractionation are typical of continental alkaline
complexes [49]. The notable increase of HFSE (Nb, Zr

and Y) in these rock varieties can also be comparable
with the within-plate basic sodic magma [41, 50].
The obvious increase in the HFSE (Zr, Hf, Ta and
Nb) can be attributed to the fractionation of feldspars,
pyroxenes and magnetite [51-54] mentioned that the
high content of volatiles in the late stage of alkali
magma differentiation leads to a decrease in the
polymerization
of
magma
and
subsequent
concentration of elements such as Zr, Nb, Ta and Hf.
Zr/Nb ratio (Fig. 8a) declares that El-Kahfa complex
rocks appear to be related to their parental
alkali-basaltic magma by crystal fractionation. Weaver
et al. [55] and Baker [56] referred that in bimodal series
Zr/Nb ratio has been used to argue that the mafic and
salic members are co-magmatic and related by
crystal-liquid fractionation.

On the Nb/Y versus Zr/TiO2*0.0001 classification

diagram of Winchester and Floyed [57] (Fig. 8b),
El-Kahfa syenites and trachytes plot in the trachyte
field, whereas the epidiorite and alkali-gabbro in the
andesite and sub-alkaline basalt fields respectively.
Using the trace elements Hf/3-Th-Ta diagram of
Wood [58] (Fig. 8c), shows that El Kahfa syenites and
trachytes are affiliated to the alkaline within-plate
basalts, whereas epidiorite is close to the volcanic arc
297
basalts.
The within-plate tectonic setting of the syenites and
trachytes are confirmed on the Nb-Y diagram (Fig. 8d)
of Pearce et al. [59], while the alkali-gabbro and
epidiorite are related to volcanic arc granites and the
syn-collision granites.
4.2 REEs (Rare Earth Elements)
On the primitive-mantle normalized REE pattern
Fig. 8 (a) Zr-Nb variation diagram. The plotted trend is visual estimate; (b) Nb/Y-Zr/TiO2*0.0001 classification diagram of
Winchester and Floyd [57]); (c) Hf/3-Th-Ta diagram of Wood [58]; (d) Nb-Y variation diagram of Pearce et al. [59]; (e)
Primitive mantle normalized REE pattern. Symbols as in Fig. 4.
298
Table 3

Rare earth elements (ppm) and some ratios of El-Kahfa ring complex.
Rock type
Epidiorite
Alk. gabbro
S. No.
La
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
REE
K1
15.80
38.20
5.35
24.40
5.37
1.30
5.07
0.86
4.67
0.91
2.58
0.40
2.42
0.36
107.69
K11
2.70
8.40
1.52
9.10
3.19
1.46
4.42
0.81
4.92
1.00
2.87
0.43
2.61
0.38
43.81
LREE
HREE
MREE
LREE/HREE
Eu/Eu*
La/Yb
t.1
t.3
t1.3
t.4
83.75
5.76
18.18
14.54
0.81
4.41
1.027
1.014
1.021
1.058
21.72
6.29
15.80
3.45
0.83
0.23
1.017
1.032
1.025
1.052
Trachyte
Alk. syenite
Rare earth elments (ppm)
K13a
K7
K3
K26a
103.00
182.90
131.00
57.30
172.80
350.90
268.80
125.00
25.90
38.41
32.96
14.63
92.92
138.40
128.00
55.10
15.77
25.75
26.07
11.32
1.87
3.32
4.87
1.21
11.40
24.10
25.50
10.60
1.84
4.00
4.36
1.92
10.70
22.80
24.80
10.50
2.37
4.50
4.65
2.09
7.68
13.10
12.90
6.16
1.29
2.03
1.89
0.966
7.97
12.19
11.19
6.05
1.20
1.71
1.52
0.89
456.17
824.11
678.51
303.73
Some elemental ratios
393.82
710.61
560.76
252.03
18.14
29.03
27.5
14.06
43.95
84.47
90.25
37.64
21.71
24.47
20.39
17.93
0.44
0.28
0.61
0.59
8.73
10.14
7.91
6.40
0.965
1.029
1.025
1.074
0.928
0.997
1.038
1.037
0.946
1.013
1.032
1.055
1.095
1.099
1.077
1.070
(Fig. 8e), and from Table 3, all of syenites and

trachytes samples are enriched in LREE where
LREE/HREE for syenites range from 17.93 to
38.86 and 20.39 to 24.47 in trachytes respectively.
They exhibit negative Eu anomalies attributed to the
breakdown of their Ca minerals, where Eu/Eu* for
syenites varies from 0.48 to 0.68 and for trachytes from
0.44 to 0.61 with (La/Yb)n values which are positive.
The epidiorites are less enriched in LREE (83.75),
while the alkali-gabbro is relatively poor in LREE
(21.72) and exhibit relative positive anomalies with
Eu/Eu* 0.83 and 0.81 respectively. The high
percentages of Sr in the alkali gabbro samples with
positive Eu anomalies can refer to their enrichment
with plagioclases, which is confirmed from the
petrography.
Syenite
Syenodiorite
K32a
37.00
76.70
9.23
36.00
6.07
0.82
4.75
0.67
3.13
0.57
1.56
0.26
1.92
0.35
179.03
K9
59.80
126.50
15.11
58.50
11.40
2.27
10.10
1.62
8.48
1.61
4.53
0.72
4.10
0.66
305.4
K1a
114.40
231.10
26.93
100.10
18.64
2.62
16.20
2.59
14.20
2.70
7.67
1.21
7.08
1.08
546.52
K25
85.50
171.80
19.82
74.80
13.99
4.53
12.30
1.87
9.43
1.69
4.39
0.64
3.76
0.54
405.06
158.93
4.09
16.01
38.86
0.52
13.03
1.028
0.957
0.992
0.991
259.91
10.01
35.48
25.97
0.68
9.40
1.043
0.999
1.021
1.030
472.53
17.04
56.95
27.73
0.48
10.92
1.040
0.997
1.018
1.054
351.91
9.33
43.81
37.72
0.83
21.96
1.029
1.001
1.015
1.054
The pronounced feature that potentially influences

the distribution of the REEs in most studied samples is
the obvious lanthanide tetrad effect in all individual
tetrad segments (Table 3) and Fig. 8e. The tetrad effect
has progressively recognized particularly for all the
rocks in studied ring which have undergone high
degree of fractional crystallization [52, 60].
Monecke et al. [61] argued that the tetrad effect was
either a feature of the magma-fluid system before
magmatic crystallization or which the tetrad effect in
the whole rock samples was inherited from external
fluid during or after the emplacement of the magma.
5. Radioactivity
A total number of 10 rock samples representing the
gabbro, syenite as well as trachyte were analyzed to

299
Fig. 9 (a) U-Th variation diagram (b) U-Th/U variation diagram (c) Th-Th/U variation diagram. The plotted trends are
visual estimates. Symbols as in Fig. 4.
study the distribution of uranium and thorium

(Table 2).
The geochemical behavior of U and Th within the
studied rock samples are investigated by plotting their
contents as well as Th/U ratios on variation diagrams.
The U versus Th diagram (Fig. 9a) shows positive
correlation and increasing trend from gabbro, syenite to
the trachytic samples. The variation diagram between
U content versus Th/U ratio (Fig. 9b) clears that the
studied rock samples fall along increasing trend from
gabbro to syenite and trachyte indicating enrichment in
U content relative to Th in the trachytic samples.
Moreover, the increasing trend observed on Th versus
Th/U diagram (Fig. 9c) is attributed to some depletion
in Th more than U. From the mentioned relationships,
the trachytic samples are relatively enriched in both U
and Th which can be attributed to the existence of U
and Th only within the resistate accessory minerals
such as zircon, sphene, allanite, apatite, epidote and
iron oxides which control the fractionation of U and Th

in the studied rocks of El-Kahfa area.
6. Discussion
The general constant Zr/Nb ratios in El-Kahfa rocks
(Fig. 8a), and the constant Sr/Rb ratios in the trachyte
and syenite (Table 2) imply similar bulk distribution
co-efficient (D-values) for these element pairs, which
are related to fractionating mineral assemblages. Zhao
et al. [52] referred that these constant ratios reflect the
compositions of the parental magma and trend to
mitigate against wall rock assimilation having played a
significant role.
Bailey [62] and Woolley and Jones [45] explained
the bimodality with the occurrence of large volumes of
felsic rocks in Shilwa alkaline complex province,
Malawi, and other alkaline provinces by a model for
the generation of syenitic and more evolved felsic
magmas include parental melting of metasomatized
300

upper mantle. Bailey [62] noticed on the basis of

experimental data that felsic minerals are stable up to
30 kbar, implying the possibility of felsic melt
generation in the upper mantle. He proposed that a
combination of volatile flux and well percolation along
geotherms melt along geotherms that intersect the
solidus at depths less than 80 Km would lead to
enrichment and metasomatism providing distinct
mantle sources for felsic magmas. This model explains
the large LREE/HREE ratios commonly observed in
the voluminous felsic alkaline suites, which implies a
garnet bearing source and the intimate association of
both Si-saturated and Si-undersaturated phases.
The relatively low Pb contents (Table 2) in El-Kahfa
syenites compared with that mentioned by
Geramovsky [63] for different types of syenites are
consistent with a strictly mantle derived magma, since
mantle derived magmas contain only minor Pb
contents [64].
MgO is generally high in El-Kahfa syenites (Table 1)
(average of MgO is 0.96 of the alkali syenites after
Nockods [65] for their parental magma to be derived
directly by crystal fractionation of an alkali-basalt
magma, where syenites known to be derived by
fractionation of alkali-basalt magmas usually have
much lower MgO [66-68, 52]).
Zhao et al. [52] concluded that mixing with crustal
melt combined with minor crystal fractionation of
mafic minerals is a more plausible model for the
generation of the meta-syenitic magma from an initial
mantle derived alkali-basaltic melt.
Alkaline magmas can be generated in almost all
tectonic settings. The alkaline suites formed in
subduction related magmas or those derived from a
source which has been previously modified by
subduction processes, usually show a distinctive
negative Nb anomaly on the trace-element spider
diagrams (e.g. [69, 70]), whereas those from
continental rift zones or oceanic island settings display
no or slightly positive Nb anomalies (e.g. [71, 72]).
Subduction related potassic alkaline magmas are
considered to be derived from metasomatized mantle

wedges above the deepest part of the subduction zone
[56, 73], or the subcontinental lithospheric mantle
which has been previously modified by subduction
processes [69]. In either case, metasomatic phlogopite
was considered to have been present in the source
region, but not necessarily residual during partial
melting [70, 73, 74]. In contrast, the rift- or hot
spot-related alkaline magmas are interpreted as being
related to garnet-present low-degree partial melting of
upwelling asthenosphere mantle induced by
lithospheric thinning or plume activities [72, 75].
Therefore, the parental magma of El Kahfa complex
was probably derived from an Nb enriched or at least
under-plated mantle source within the continental
East-Africa rift zone.
7. Summary and Conclusions

El-Kahfa complex locates at the intersection of Lat.
24818 N and Long. 343855 E, South Eastern
Desert, Egypt. It comprises an outer ring composed of
alkaline syenites, ranging from barren- to
quartz-bearing syenites, an inner ring varied in
composition from leucocratic to melanocratic syenites,
and a central stock formed essentially of alkali gabbros.
These alkali gabbros are cut by small bodies of alkaline
syenites, which occasionally grade into nepheline
syenites. The country rocks are represented mainly by
metavolcanics and epidiorites. El-Kahfa syenites lack
any primary hydrous mafic silicates, indicating that
their magma was anhydrous.
Rock classifications refer that the syenites and
trachytes are in the trachyte fields, the syenodiorites
and epidiorites affiliate mostly the trachyandesites,
whereas alkali gabbros are in the basalt field.
Geochemically, the overall decrease in MgO, CaO,
FeOt and TiO2 against SiO2 can reflect the
crystallization of early plagioclase followed by Fe-Ti
oxides minerals and finally alkali feldspars. The
variably high MgO, FeOt and Ni in the alkali basalts
and alkali gabbros are consistent with their derivation

evolved from mantle melts.

The differentiation trend of rock alkalinity from
peraluminous towards more peralkaline composition
can certainly be due to alkali feldspar fractionation (the
plagioclase effect).
The affiliation of El-Kahfa complex to the
continental and within-plate alkaline complexes is
clear through the enrichment of the complex rocks in
the LILE (Rb and Ba) and the HFSE (Zr, Hf, Ta and Nb)
through their differentiation process from a basic sodic
magma.
Zr/Nb ratio declares also that El-Kahfa complex
rocks are related to their parental alkali-basalt magma
by crystal fractionation. The bimodal character of this
ratio shows that the mafic and salic members in this
complex are co-magmatic and related by crystal-liquid
fractionation.
On the primitive-mantle normalized pattern, the
tetrad effects in the lanthanides are obvious in El-Kahfa
rocks. They are represented mainly with the M-type in
the more evolved rocks. These tetrad effects are either a
feature of the magma-fluid system before magmatic
crystallization, or inherited from external fluid during
or after the emplacement of the magma.
As a conclusion El-Kahfa rocks parental magma was
probably derived from an Nb-enriched or at least
under-plate mantle source within the continental
East-Africa rift zone. This magma can be subjected to
minor crustal contamination through their fractional
crystallization.
The radiometric study of El-Kahfa rocks revealed
that the trachytic samples are relatively enriched in
both U and Th and this is attributed to the existence of
U and Th only within the resistant accessory minerals
such as zircon, sphene, allanite, apatite, epidote and
iron oxides which control the fractionation of U and
Th.
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Geological Resource and

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

Identification of Soil, Rock and Tecto-Volcanism on Landslides in Tondano Watershed

Journal of Geological Resource and Engineering 6 (2016) 251-256

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

2. Passive Side Reaction Equilibrium

3. Calculation of the Lateral Displacement

where, h is the lateral displacement of the retaining

Horizontal reaction on the passive side of the wall.

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

Lateral displacement of the retaining wall.

'1 '2 ) sen (1 '2 ) cos '1 '2

where, h is the increase in the horizontal stress, IFH is

(4) Lateral displacement at the edge of the wall for

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

Soil deformation modulus, Mh = 0.0006 m2/kN,

Example retaining wall.

( W U cos ) tan( ) Usen

where, Ea is the earth thrust against the retaining wall

Fig. 5 Wedge free body diagram, active case.

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

where, m is the soil unit weight, H is the height of the

where, k is a coefficient depending on the angle

REH = 10.938 kN/m;

Table 1 Calculation of active earth thrust.

Table 2 shows the calculation of passive earth thrust.

Fig. 6 Wedge free body diagram, passive case.

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

Lateral displacement calculation at the center of the retaining wall.

Lateral displacement calculation at the center of a 40 m long wall.

4.2.6 Lateral Displacement at the Edge of the Wall

Therefore, the displacement on the edge of a 20 m

the passive earth thrust, is obtained from Eq. (13):

EPH is the horizontal component of passive earth

From Eq. (14):

Lateral Displacement of Retaining Walls

4.3 Discussion of Results

it moves in a horizontal direction, decreasing the earth

displacement of the retaining wall, for a contact

pressure equal to that provided by the passive thrust, is

approximately eight times greater than the lateral

Zeevaert, L. 1983. Foundation Engineering for Difficult

Journal of Geological Resource and Engineering 6 (2016) 257-270

Estimation of Evapotranspiration Using SEBAL

evapotranspiration is considered as the key factor in

waves and droughts.

associated with complementary meteorological data to

2. Scope of Study Area

Locattion map of Taatra Mountains region.

(granites) and in certain parts

rescaling factors provided in the metadata of images

in decimal degrees (3)

d r 1 0.033 cos( Julian day

dr = Earth-Sun distance in astronomical.

Where Si = Solar irradiance constant, Refi =

TOA 0.356 ref 2 0.326 ref 3 0.138 ref 4

incoming shortwave radiation flux reflected back to the

Where = constant value of weighting coefficient.

Where z is an elevation of area where is defined by

According to the equations mentioned in Refs. [21,