THEORY

1.1

Mechanism of Condensation

Condensation of a vapor to a liquid and vaporization of a liquid to a vapor both involve a change
of phase of a fluid with large heat-transfer coefficients. Condensation occurs when a saturated
vapor such as steam comes in contact with a solid whose surface temperature is below the
saturation temperature, to form a liquid such as water.
Normally, when a vapor condenses on a surface such as a vertical or horizontal tube or other
surface, a film of condensate is formed on the surface and flows over the surface by the action of
gravity. It is this film of liquid between the surface and the vapor that forms the main resistance
to heat-transfer. This is called filmwise condensation.
Another type of condensation, dropwise condensation, can occur, where small drops are formed
on the surface. These drops grow and coalesce, and the liquid flows from the surface. During this
condensation, large areas of tube are devoid of any liquid and are exposed directly to the vapor.
Very high rates of heat-transfer occur on these bare areas. The average heat transfer coefficient
for dropwise condensation is five to 10 times larger than the filmwise coefficients.
Dropwise condensation can be promoted by making the surface nonwetting (via coating). However, dropwise condensation is difficult to maintain in
industrial applications due to oxidation, fouling and degradation of coating, and
eventually film condensation occurs. Therefore, condenser designs are often
based on the assumption of filmwise condensation.

1.2

Film-Condensation coefficients for vertical surfaces

Film-type condensation on a vertical wall or tube can be analyzed analytically by

assuming laminar flow of the condensate film down the wall. The film thickness

is zero at the top of the wall or tube and increases in thickness as it flows
downward because of condensation. Nusselt assumed that the heat-transfer from
the condensing vapor at Tsat, through this liquid film, and to the wall at Tw was by
conduction. Equating this heat-transfer by conduction to that from condensation
of the vapor, a final expression can be obtained for the average heat-transfer
coefficient over the whole surfaces.
In Figure 1 (a), vapor at Tsat is condensing on a wall whose temperature is
Tw. The condensate is flowing downward in laminar flow. Assuming unit
thickness, the mass of the element with liquid density l in Figure 1 (b) is (-y)
(dx1) l. The downward force on this element is the gravitational force minus the
buoyancy force, or (-y)(dx)(l-) g, where is the density of the saturated
vapor. This force is balanced by the viscous-shear force at the plane y of l
(dv/dy) (dx1). Equating these forces;

d
dx
dy

y dx l g l

(1.2-1)

Integrating and using the boundary condition that = 0 at y = 0;

g l

y y 2 / 2

(1.2-2)

Figure 1: Film condensation on a vertical plate: a) increase in film thickness with

position, b) balance on element of condensate.

The mass flow rate of film condensate at any point x for unit depth is;

m ldy l

g l
y y 2 / 2 dy
l

(1.2-3)

Integrating;

l g l 3
m
3 l
(1.2-4)

At the wall, for area (dx1) m2, the rate of heat transfer is as follows if a linear
temperature distribution is assumed in the liquid between the wall and the vapor;

q x k l dx 1

dT
dy

k l dx
y 0

Tsat Tw

(1.2-5)

In a dx distance, the rate of heat transfer is qx. Also, in this dx distance, the
increase in mass from condensation is dm. Using Eq. (1.2-4);

l g l 3
l g l 2d

3 l
l

dm d

(1.2-6)

Making a heat balance for dx distance, the mass flow rate dm times the latent heat
hfg must equal the qx from Eq. (1.2-5):

l g l 2d
T T
hfg
k l dx sat w
l

(1.2-7)
Integrating, with = 0 at s = 0 and = at x = x;
4 l k l x Tsat Tw

gh fg l l

1/ 4

(1.2-8)

Using the local heat-transfer coefficient hx at x, a heat balance gives;

h x dx 1Tsat Tw k l dx 1

This gives

Tsat Tw

(1.2-9)

kl

hx

(1.2-10)

Combining Eqs. (1.2-8) and (1.2-10);

l l gh fg k l 3

hx

1/ 4

4 l x Tsat Tw

(1.8-17)

By integrating over the total length L, the average value of h is obtained as

follows;
h

1 L
4
h x dx h x L

L 0
3

l l ghfg k l 3

(1.2-11)

h 0.943

l LTsat Tw

1/ 4

(1.2-12)

However, for laminar flow, experimental data are about 20% above Eq.
(1.2-12). Hence, the final recommended expression for vertical surfaces in
laminar flow is shown as Eq. (1.2-13):
N Nu

l l ghfg L3
hL

1.13

kl

T
l l

1/ 4

(1.2-13)

where l is the density of liquid in kg/m3 and that of the vapor, g is 9.8066 m/s2,
L is the vertical height of the surface or tube in m, l is the viscosity of liquid in
Pas, kl is the liquid thermal conductivity in W/mK, T = Tsat-Tw in K, and hfg is
the latent heat of condensation in J/kg at Tsat. All physical properties of the liquid
except hfg are evaluated at the film temperature Tf = (Tsat + Tw)/2. For long vertical

surfaces the flow at the bottom can be turbulent. The Reynolds number is defined
as;

N Re

4m
4

D l l

(vertical tube, diameter D)

N Re

(1.2-14)

4m 4

W l
l

(vertical plate, width W)

(1.2-15)

where m is the total kg mass/s of condensate at tube or plate bottom and =

m/D or m/W. The NRe should be below 1800 for Eq. (4.2-13) to hold. The reader
should note that some references define NRe as /. Then this NRe should be below
450.

For turbulent flow for NRe 1800;

g l L3
hL

0.0077
2
kl
l
2

N Nu

1/ 3

N Re 0.4
(1.2-16)

Solution of this equation is by trial and error, since a value of NRe must first be
assumed in order to calculate h.

RESULT
Experiment 1: Demonstration of filmwise and dropwise condensation
Pressure
(bar)
1.02

Tsat steam
71.8

Tsurf(Filmwi
se)
90.0

Tsurf(Dropwi
se)
92.3

Tin(T1)

Tout(T2)

Power (w)

33.5

63.0

294

Experiment 2: The filmwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient
determination of constant pressure
Flowra

Power

Tin

Tout

Tsat

Tsurf

Tsat - Tsurf

Tm

te
(LPM)
0.1

(w)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

(C)

124

33.6

56.0

71.5

33.4

38.1

0.2

181

34.2

44.5

71.1

33.1

38.0

0.3

198

34.0

41.0

71.0

33.5

37.5

0.4

214

34.1

38.2

71.2

33.2

38.0

0.5

250

35.3

36.0

70.6

33.2

37.3

25.0
5
31.4
7
33.3
8
35.0
1
34.9
5

(W/m2
)
38.71

(W/m2.
K)
1.55

35.60

1.13

36.29

1.09

28.34

0.81

6.05

0.17

Experiment 3: The dropwise heat flux and surface heat transfer coefficient
determination at constant pressure
Flowra
te
(LPM)
0.4

Power
(w)

Tin
(C)

Tout
(C)

Tsat
(C)

Tsurf
(C)

Tsat - Tsurf
(C)

Tm
(C)

198

32.2

39.7

70.9

45.9

25.0

0.8

211

32.4

37.4

71.6

44.6

27.0

1.2

236

33.1

36.2

71.2

43.1

28.1

1.6

251

33.3

37.0

71.1

43.2

27.9

2.0

282

32.8

36.5

71.3

43.3

28.0

34.8
2
36.6
4
36.5
3
35.9
2
36.6
2

(W/m2
)
51.85

U
(W/m2.
K)
1.50

69.13

1.89

64.29

1.98

102.3
1
127.8
9

2.85
3.49

Experiment 4: The effect of the air inside chamber

A) Filmwise condensation
Flowra
te
(LPM)
0.1

Power
(w)

Tin
(C)

Tout
(C)

Tsat
(C)

Tsurf
(C)

Tsat - Tsurf
(C)

Tm
(C)

126

33.6

46.9

70.1

33.8

36.3

0.2

152

32.9

44.2

68.9

32.7

36.2

0.3

187

33.4

41.4

68.1

32.3

35.8

0.4

210

33.8

40.1

67.3

32.1

35.2

0.5

229

33.5

36.5

66.4

32.4

34.0

29.3
5
30.0
0
30.5
3
30.2
4
31.3
8

(W/m2
)
22.98

U
(W/m2.
K)
0.78

39.06

1.30

41.48

1.36

43.55

1.44

25.92

0.83

(W/m2
)
2.07

U
(W/m2.
K)
0.06

16.59

0.52

41.48

1.35

27.65

0.90

B) Dropwise condensation
Flowra
te
(LPM)
0.4

Power
(w)

Tin
(C)

Tout
(C)

Tsat
(C)

Tsurf
(C)

Tsat - Tsurf
(C)

Tm
(C)

156

33.8

34.1

68.1

41.0

27.10

0.8

180

33.4

34.6

65.9

39.7

26.2

1.2

211

33.3

35.3

65.1

39.1

26.0

1.6

238

33.5

34.5

64.7

37.5

27.2

34.1
5
31.9
0
30.7
9
30.7

2.0

241

33.1

34.2

64.5

37.1

28.3

0
30.8
5

Flowra
te
(LPM)

Power
(w)

Tin
(C)

Tout
(C)

Tsat
(C)

Tsurf
(C)

Tsat - Tsurf
(C)

Tm
(C)

38.02

1.23

(W/m2
)

U
(W/m2.
K)