Data Communication and

Networking

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

Content
Chapter 1: Medium of PHY Layer
Wired and Wireless Media
Physical layer standards: RS232, RS422, RS485
Line Coding
Digital modulation/demodulation
Channel parameters
Gaussian noise and BER

Chapter 2: Data Communication

Asynchronous data transmission
Synchronous data transmission
Channel Coding
Data Compression
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

Wired Media
Guided Media
How can signal be transmitted in wired media
(cables)?
Voltage is sometimes referred to as electromotive
force (EMF).
EMF is related to an electrical force, or pressure,
that occurs when electrons and protons are
separated

Force within a atom

Static Electricity

neutron
proton

Electrostatic discharge
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

Waves

Sine Wave

Square Wave

Repeat the same pattern at

regular intervals

Repeat the same pattern at regular

intervals.

Continuous voltage

do not continuously voltage.

occur naturally and change

regularly over time

Repeat the flat pattern on both the

top and bottom of the wave

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

Two-wire open lines

Used in short distance communication with low data
rates
Simple structure
Data rate < 19Kbps, max distance L<50m
Sensitive with Crosstalk
Sensitive with EMI

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

EMI

Crosstalk

Crosstalk between wires: a magnetic field generated

by current flowing in wire A causes an unwanted
current to flow in wire B.
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

8/24/2015

DCN-2013
HCMUT

Twisted-Pair Cable
Used in LAN and Telephone
networks
Data or voice transmission
UTP, STP, ScTP
Reduce more EMI than two-wire
open lines?
Reduce Crosstalk?
Introduce Skew: delay in video
transmission

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

UTP - Unshield Twisted Pair

Intrinsic Impedance: 100 Ohm
BW: depending on CAT
Speed: 10,100, 1000 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
Average $ per node: less expensive
Maximum cable length: 100m
Media and connector size: small

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

STP - Shield Twisted Pair

Intrinsic Impedance: usually 150 Ohm
Speed: 10,100 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
Average $ per node: moderately expensive
Maximum cable length: 100m
Media and connector size: medium to large

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

ScTP - Screen Twisted Pair

Intrinsic Impedance: usually 100 Ohm
Speed: 10,100, 1000 Mbps depending on cable
quality/category
Average $ per node: less expensive
Maximum cable length: 100m
Media and connector size: small

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

10

Most of common cables

Name
Level 1
Level 2
Cat3
Cat4
Cat5
Cat5e
Cat6
Cat6a

Type

Class F

S/FTP 600 MHz

UTP
UTP
UTP
UTP
UTP

Class Fa
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

Bandwidth
0.4 MHz
4 MHz
16 MHz
20 MHz
100 MHz
100 MHz
250 MHz
500 MHz

1000 MHz

Applications
Telephone and modem lines
Older terminal systems, e.g. IBM 3270
10BASE-T and 100BASE-T4 Ethernet
16 Mbit/s Token Ring
100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet
100BASE-TX & 1000BASE-T Ethernet
10GBASE-T Ethernet
10GBASE-T Ethernet
Telephone, CCTV, 1000BASE-TX in the
same cable. 10GBASE-T Ethernet.
Telephone, CATV, 1000BASE-TX in the same
cable. 10GBASE-T Ethernet.
DCN-2013
HCMUT

11

Cable and connectors

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

12

Cabling Types
Switch to router
Switch to PC or server
Hub to PC or server

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

Switch to switch
Switch to hub
Hub to hub
Router to router
PC to PC
Router to PC
DCN-2013
HCMUT

13

Co-axial Cable
Speed: 10-100 Mbps
Average $ per node:
inexpensive
Media and connector size:
medium
Max cable length: 500m

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

14

Co-axial Cable (1)

Applications: Computer Networks, Data Systems,
CATV, Private Video Networks
RG-6/RG-59: 75 Ohm, CATV
RG-8/ RG-58: 50 Ohm, Thick and Think Ethernet
LANs
RG-62: 93 Ohm, used in IBM Mainframe
EMI prevention
Many kinds of intrinsic impedances: co-axial cables
can be used in specific systems

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

15

Optical fiber
The light used in optical fiber networks is one type of
electromagnetic energy.
The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is
determined by how frequently the electric charge
that generates the wave moves back and forth

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

16

Reflection and Refraction

Electromagnetic waves
pointing out from the source
are called rays
When a ray of light (the
incident ray) strikes the
shiny surface of a flat piece
of glass, some of the light
energy in the ray is reflected

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

17

Total internal reflection

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

18

Multi-mode fiber

Subscriber Connector (SC) is used in

multimode
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

19

Single-mode fiber

Straight Tip (ST) connector is used single

mode

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

20

Attenuation

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

21

Optical components
A LED producing infrared light with wavelengths of either
850nm or 1310nm. LEDs are used in multimode
LASER producing a thin beam of intense infrared light usually
with wavelengths of 1310nm or 1550 nm. Lasers are used
with single-mode

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

22

 Fiber-optic cable is not affected by the sources of external

noise
Fiber in a cable does not generate interference that disturbs
transmission on any other fiber
The scattering of light, Absorption, Dispersion, manufacturing
irregularities
Expensive and complicated installation

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

23

Cabling Evolution
Telephone
Informatics
Unstructured
Structured
Universal Cabling System
Pre-engineered Cabling System

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

24

Cabling Evolution (1)

Telephony

PABX

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

25

Cabling Evolution (2)

Data networking (80 - 90)
LAN introduction
New cable media

HOST

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

26

Cabling Evolution (3)

IEEE 802.3 Ethernet .... 1980
10 BASE-5
10 BASE-2
10 BASE-Tx
10 BASE-FL

SAS
TP-PMD

FD
DI

10BASE-5

DAS

Coxial

FDDI

10BASE-2

IEEE 802.5 Token Ring

Fiber Distributed Data Interface .... 1980s

Token Ring 4 mbps .... 1985

Token Ring 16 mbps .... 1989

CAT3
UTP

IBM Type1
Token Ring

ATM
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

2-pairSTP
1-27

DCN-2013
HCMUT

27

Legacy cable systems

Unstructured.
Each system had a different
kind of transmission
medium (UTP, telephone
cable, STP, Type-1, coax,
signal cable, fiber ...)
Each installed system is
non-compatible with other
applications.
Costly moves and changes.
No overview.
Spaghetti cabling.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

WHAT A MESS

DCN-2013
HCMUT

28

Cabling Evolution (3)

Universal Cabling
Two media: copper twisted pair and optical fiber
Voice, data, video, control signals
Patching Facilities
Universal (Generic): application independent

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

29

Universal Cabling Standards

EUROPE
NORTH AMERICA
TIA/EIA
568A
Commercial Building
Telecommunications
Wiring Standard

October 1995

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

EN 50173

Customer
Premises Cabling

August 1995

INTERNATIONAL
IS 11801

Generic Cabling for

Customer Premises

July 1995

DCN-2013
HCMUT

30

Benefits of Structured Cabling

Redundancy at design stage reduces downtime &
repair time
Concealed cabling
Ease of fault location & repair
Flexibility, expandability & modular connecting
platform
Ease of moves, adds and changes
Enhanced end-use understanding and control
Continuous product support and warranty
Significant long term cost containment

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

31

Cabling structure
Campus
Backbone
Cabling

CD
ISO11801
EN50173-1

CD

Campus Distributor

BD

Building Distributor

FD

Floor Distributor

CP

Consolidation Point

TO

Telecommunication
Outlet

BD

BD

Building
Backbone
Cabling

FD

FD

FD

FD

FD

FD

Horizontal
Cabling
CP

TO

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

TO

DCN-2013
HCMUT

32

Elements of a Structured Cabling System

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

33

Building Distributor - Floor Distributor

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

34

Campus Distributor

< 1500 m

Campus
Distributor

< 1500 m
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

< 1500 m
DCN-2013
HCMUT

35

Telecom Oulet
RJ45 (ISO 8877)
P2
P3 P1 P4

Horizontal Cable

Telecom Outlet

8 pins
4 pairs
T568 A-B
Patchcord

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

8 wires
1 drain wire
4 twisted pairs

DCN-2013
HCMUT

36

Wireless media
Satellite Microwave
Terrestrial Microwave
Infrared

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

37

Microwave
Satellite and Terrestrial Microwave
Advantages :
No cabling needed between sites
Wide bandwidth
Multichannel transmissions

Disadvantages :
Line of sight requirement .
Expensive towers and repeaters .

Subject to interference -e.g. passing airplanes, rain .

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

38

Satellite systems

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

39

Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station
Receives on one frequency, amplifies or repeats
signal and transmits on another frequency.
Example: uplink 5.925-6.425 GHz & downlink 3.7-4.2 GHz

Typically requires geo-stationary orbit

height of 35,784km
spaced at least 3-4 apart

Typical uses
television
long distance telephone
private business networks
global positioning
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

40

Satellite frequency bands

Applications:
Broadcast, TV
Long-haul telephone system
Private business network

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

41

Satellites Microwave
Point-to-Point Satellite Link
Connecting remote sites

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

42

Broadcast Radio
Radio is 3kHz to 300GHz
use broadcast radio, 30MHz 1GHz, for:
FM radio
UHF and VHF television

is omnidirectional
still need line of sight
suffers from multipath
interference
reflections from land, water,
other objects
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

43

LEO systems

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

44

Terrestrial Microwave
Propagation model

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

45

Frequency Bands

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

46

Terrestrial Microwave
Applications
Long-haul voice communications
Common carriers
Private network

Characteristics:
Using sky-wave
Line-of-sight
Frequency band: 2 40GHz
Sensitive to obstacles, environment changes.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

47

Terrestrial Microwave: Example

Microwave link in
Cellular networks

Microwave link for

disaster zone

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

48

Infrared
Infrared (IR) light is electromagnetic radiation with
longer wavelengths than those of visible light
Light-of-sight
Applications:
PC-PC, PDA communication
Data communication in small networks

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

49

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

50

Physical layer Standards

Interface standard of Physical layer
Define connector
Define signal
Define protocol

Common standards
RS232
RS422
RS485

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

51

RS232
RS-232 is a popular communications interface for
connecting modems and data acquisition devices (i.e.
GPS receivers, electronic balances, data loggers, ...) to
computers.
RS-232 can be plugged straight into the computers serial
port (know as COM or Comm port).
Components of standard:
Connection must be less than 50 feet
Data represented by voltages between +15v and -15v
25-pin connector, with specific signals such as data, ground and
control assigned to designated pins
Specifies transmission of characters between, e.g., a terminal
and a modem
Transmitter never leaves wire at 0v; when idle, transmitter puts
negative voltage (a 1) on the wire
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

52

RS232
Connectors:
DB25
DB9
Male & Female

RS232 signal example:

DB-25 Female

DB-25 Male

No Parity
Even Parity
Odd Parity
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

53

RS232 Signal
Architecturally RS-232 is a bidirectional point to point link.
Two independent channels are
established for two-way (fullduplex) communications.
RS-232 can also carry additional
signals used for flow control (RTS,
CTS) and modem control (DCD,
DTR, DSR, RI).

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

(serial port - PC side)

DCN-2013
HCMUT

54

RS232 Signal
Common 25 pin D-shell connector
pinout used for asynchronous data
communications.
Pin desciption:
(serial port - PC side)
Pin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
20
22
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

Signal
PGND Protective Ground
TXD Transmit Data
RXD Receive Data
RTS Ready To Send
CTS Clear To Send
DSR Data Set Ready
SG Signal Ground
CD Carrier Detect
DTR Data Terminal Ready
RI Ring Indicator
DCN-2013
HCMUT

55

RS232 Line Driver

Unbalanced Line Drivers
Each signal appears on the interface connector as a voltage
with reference to a signal ground.
The idle state (MARK) has the signal level negative with
respect to common whereas the active state (SPACE) has the
signal level positive respect to the same reference.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

56

RS232 Line Driver

The maximum speed, according
to the standard, is 20kbit/s.
However, modern equipment can
operate much faster than this.
(i.e. Lynx can reach 115200
baud.)
The length of the cable also plays
a part in maximum speed. The
longer the cable and the slower
the speed at which you can
obtain accurate results.
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

57

DTE-DCE connection

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

58

RS232: Data Transmission

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

59

RS232: Null modem

Null modem is a
communication method to
connect two DTEs (computer,
terminal, printer etc.) directly
using an RS-232 serial cable.
Null modems were commonly
used for file transfer between
computers, or remote
operation
Types:
No hardware handshaking
Loop back handshaking
Partial handshaking
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

60

RS422
Limitation of RS232:
unbalanced signal
Short distance

RS422
Balanced signal: bits
are transmitted on
both lines: Common
noise rejection
Long distance: 1500m

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

61

RS422 Signal
Bit representation:
Bit 1: +V and V
Bit 0: -V and +V

Details:
Physical media: twisted-pair
Topology: P2P, Multi-dropped
Voltage Levels 6V to +6V
(maximum differential Voltage)
Maximum Drivers: 10 (1 driver,
10 receivers)
Bit rate: 100 kbps 10 Mbps

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

+6V
-6V

DCN-2013
HCMUT

62

RS422: P2P and Multi-dropped

Point-to-Point

Multi-dropped

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

63

RS422: extend RS322

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

64

RS485
Limitation of RS232: unbalanced signal and P2P
RS-485 is a EIA standard interface which is very common in
the data acquisition world
RS-485 provides balanced transmission line which also can be
shared in Multidrop mode.
It allows high data rates communications over long distances
in real world environments.
RS-485 was designed for greater distance and higher
baudrates than RS-232.
According to the standard, 100kbit/s is the maximum speed
and distance up to 4000 feet (1200 meters) can be achieved.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

65

RS485 Line Driver

Bus topology
Point-to-Point
Multi-drop
Multi-point

Slave devices: 255

Physical media:
Balanced
Interconnecting Cable
Full-duplex: 4 wires
Half-duplex: 2 wires

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

66

RS485 Line Driver

Balanced Line Drivers
Voltage produced by the driver
appears across a pair of signal wires
that transmit only one signal. Both
wires are driven opposite.
RS-485 driver has always the
Enable direction control signal.
Differential system provides noise
immunity, because much of the
common mode signal can be
rejected by the receiver. So ground
shifts and induced noise signals can
be nullified.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

67

RS485 Network
RS-485 provides HalfDuplex, Multidrop
communications over
a single twisted pair
cable.
The standard
specifies up to 32
drivers and 32
receivers can share a
multidrop network
Terminator resistors
avoid reflected signal

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

68

RS485 Network
RS-485 provides fullduplex: multipoint
communication

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

69

RS485 hub
Expand network

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

70

Line coding
In this section, we see how we can represent digital data by
using digital signals. The conversion involves three techniques:
line coding, block coding, and scrambling.
Line coding is always needed; block coding and scrambling
may or may not be needed.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

71

Digital Transmission
1 signal element=1
symbol
Data element: bit 1 or
bit 0
Baseband transmission
Although the actual
bandwidth of a digital
signal is infinite, the
effective bandwidth is
finite.
r is the number of data
elements carried by one
signal element
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

72

Effect of lack of synchronization

In a digital transmission, the receiver clock is 0.1 percent
faster than the sender clock. How many extra bits per second
does the receiver receive if the data rate is 1 kbps? How many
if the data rate is 1 Mbps?

Solution
- At 1 kbps, the
receiver receives
1001 bps instead of
1000 bps.
- At 1 Mbps, the
receiver receives
1,001,000 bps instead
of 1,000,000 bps.
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

73

Line coding schemes

Signal Spectrum: no high frequency components, no DC component
Clock Synchronization between Tx and Rx, external clock or self-clock
synchronization
Complexity and cost
Interference and Noise immunity

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

74

Unipolar NRZ
Non Return to Zero
Bit 1: positive voltage, bit 0: 0V
Constant voltage in bit duration
Lack of clock synchronization
Having DC component
Easy for deployment

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

75

Polar NRZ-L and NRZ-I schemes

Using 2 voltage levels: +V, -V
Bit 1: -V, bit 0: +V
NRZ-I: Bit 1: inverted voltage, Bit 0: keep same voltage as
previous level
Synchronization:
Clock-Edge: bit 1, No clock-Edge: bit 0

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

76

Polar NRZ
In NRZ-L the level of the voltage determines the value of the
bit. In NRZ-I the inversion or the lack of inversion determines
the value of the bit.
NRZ-L and NRZ-I both have an average signal rate of N/2 data
rate
Advantages:
Simple implementation
Efficiency of using bandwidth

Disadvantages:
Having DC component
Lack of synchronization

Applications: in magnetic recorder, not used in transmission

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

77

Polar RZ
Return to Zero: 3 voltage levels
Bit 1: +V0, bit 0: -V0
Voltage level changes in bit duration
Good clock synchronization
Need more bandwidth

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

78

Bi-phase
In Manchester and differential Manchester encoding,
the transition at the middle of the bit is used for
synchronization.
The minimum bandwidth of Manchester and
differential Manchester is 2 times that of NRZ.
Manchester: bit 1 V+V, bit 0: +V-V
Differential Manchester:
Same as Manchester
Next bit is bit 1: no inversion of voltage
Next bit is bit 0: inversion of voltage

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

79

Bi-phase

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

80

Bi-phase
Advantages:
Synchronization: using clock-edge at the middle of bit
No DC component
Error detection: unexpected clock-edge happens

Disadvantages:
Bandwidth: 2 times of NRZ

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

81

Bipolar schemes: AMI and pseudoternary

AMI (Alternate Mark Inversion)
Bit 0: 0V
Bit 1: Alternate Mark inversion: +V, -V

Advantages:
Do not loose the clock sync if there is a continuous sequence of bit 1s,
but loose the clock sync if there is a long sequence of bit 0s
No DC component
Require lower bandwidth

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

82

mBnL scheme
In mBnL schemes, a pattern of m data elements is
encoded as a pattern of n signal elements in which
2m Ln.
Increase data rate
Decrease required bandwidth
Definitions:
m: length of binary pattern
B: binary data
n: length of signal pattern
L: number of levels in the signaling
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

83

Multilevel: 2B1Q scheme

Used in DSL technology

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

84

Multilevel: 8B6T scheme

Number of binary patterns: 28=256
Number of signal level: 36=478
Redundant: 222
Clock synchronization
Error detection
DC balance

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

85

Block and Scrambling coding

Block coding
Block coding is normally referred to as mB/nB coding; it
replaces each m-bit group with an
n-bit group.
Error detection
Increase bit rate

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

86

Block coding
Example of block coding:
4B5B
8B10B

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

87

Scrambling
Biphase schemes that are suitable for dedicated links between
stations in a LAN are not suitable for long-distance
communication because of their wide bandwidth requirement.
The combination of block coding and NRZ line coding is not
suitable for long-distance encoding either, because of the DC
component. Bipolar AMI encoding, on the other hand, has a
narrow bandwidth and does not create a DC component.
However, along sequence of 0s upsets the synchronization. If
we can find a way to avoid a long sequence of 0s in the
original stream, we can use bipolar AMI for long distances
Two techniques: B8ZS and HDB3
Scrambling do not change the bit rate while balancing DC level
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

88

B8ZS
Bipolar with 8-Zero Substitution (B8ZS)
Replace 8 consecutive zeros by 000VB0VB
V: denoted for violation: breaks the AMI rule (opposite
polarity from the previous)
B: denoted for bipolar (follows the AMI rule)

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

89

HDB3
High-Density Bipolar 3-zero(HDB3)
HDB3 substitutes four consecutive zeros with 000V or B00V depending on
the number of nonzero pulses after the last substitution.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

90

Digital Modulation/Demodulation
Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing one of
the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data.
Types:

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

91

Digital Modulation/Demodulation
Basic principle
Why do we need modulation?
Why do we use analog signal for modulation?

Bit rate is the number of bits per second. Baud rate

is the number of signal elements per second.
In the analog transmission of digital data, the baud
rate is less than or equal to the bit rate.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

92

Example
An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If
1000 signal elements are sent per second, find the
bit rate (c=1)
Solution: In this case, r = 4, S = 1000, and N is
unknown. We can find the value of N from

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

93

Example
An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a
baud rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements
are carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?
Solution: In this example, S = 1000, N = 8000, and r
and L are unknown. We find first the value of r and
then the value of L.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

94

Binary amplitude shift keying

Waveform:

Simple implementation
Used in telematics

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

95

OOK: On-Off Keying

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

96

Binary amplitude shift keying

Implementation of Binary ASK

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

97

Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and the bit
rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d = 1?
Solution: The middle of the bandwidth is located at 250 kHz.
This means that our carrier frequency can be at fc = 250 kHz.
We can use the formula for bandwidth to find the bit rate
(with d = 1 and r = 1).

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

98

Binary ASK: full-duplex

In data communications, we normally use full-duplex links
with communication in both directions. We need to divide the
bandwidth into two with two carrier frequencies, as shown in
Figure 5.5. The figure shows the positions of two carrier
frequencies and the bandwidths. The available bandwidth for
each direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data rate
of 25 kbps in each direction.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

99

Binary frequency shift keying

Waveform:

vfsk(t) = binary FSK waveform

Vc= peak analog carrier amplitude (volts)
fc= analog carrier center frequency (hertz)
f = peak change (shift) in the analog carrier
frequency (hertz)
vm(t) = binary input (modulating) signal (volts)

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

100

Binary frequency shift keying

More complicated than ASK
Difficult in synchronization
Used in Data Communication Modems (CCITT V21, CCITT V23,
BELL 103, BELL 113, BELL 202) and digital radio
Lower BER than ASK: why?

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

101

Binary frequency shift keying

BFSK implementation
Using VCO (Voltage Controlled Oscillator)

Variations: Multi-level FSK

Using multiple frequencies for FSK

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

102

Binary frequency shift keying

BPSK demodulation using
PLL

BPSK coherent
demodulation

BPSK non-coherent
demodulation
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

103

BFSK: Example
We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans from
200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier frequency and the
bit rate if we modulated our data by using FSK with d = 1?
Solution: This problem is similar to Example 5.3, but we are
modulating by using FSK. The midpoint of the band is at 250
kHz. We choose 2f to be 50 kHz; this means

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

104

Multi-level FSK
We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3 Mbps. The
carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the number of levels
(different frequencies), the baud rate, and the bandwidth.
Solution: We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 =
1000 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies must be 1
MHz apart (2f = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B = 8 1000 = 8000.
Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of frequencies and bandwidth.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

105

Binary phase shift keying

Angel modulated signal, constant-amplitude
modulation
Waveform
vBPSK ( t )

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

A.d( t ).cos(

ot

DCN-2013
HCMUT

106

Binary phase shift keying

Medium complex circuit
Used in digital radio
BPSK implementation:

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

107

Quadrature PSK
The binary input data are combined into groups of two bits, called
dibits. In the modulator, each dibit code generates one of the four
possible output phases (+45, +135, -45, and -135).
Quadrature amplitude modulation is a combination of ASK and PSK.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

108

QPSK
Demodulation scheme:

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

109

Constellation Diagram
Description:
Error rate?

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

110

Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

Phase and Amplitude
Increase bit rate

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

111

Channel Parameters
Roundtrip Time (RTT): measured by a factor a
a= Tp/Tx
Tp : propagation time = S / V
Tx : transmission time = N / R
sender

receiver

first packet bit transmitted, t = 0

last packet bit transmitted, t = N / R

RTT

first packet bit arrives

last packet bit arrives, send ACK

ACK arrives, send next

packet, t = RTT + N / R

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

112

Delay Example
A data frame of 1000 bits is transmitted between 2
DTE. Determine RTT depending on which kind of
delay (Tp or Tx) in the following cases:
2 DTEs are connected by twisted-pair cable with a distance
of 100m, R=10 Kbps
2 DTEs are connected by co-axial cable with a distance of
10km, R=1 Mbps
2 DTEs are connected via free space with a distance of
5000km, R=10 Mbps
Given v=2.108 m/s

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

113

Channel
Dedicated medium: Baseband transmission of a digital signal
that preserves the shape of the digital signal is possible only if
we have a low-pass channel with an infinite or very wide
bandwidth.
In baseband transmission, the required bandwidth is
proportional to the bit rate; if we need to send bits faster, we
need more bandwidth.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

114

Baseband transmission
An example of a dedicated channel where the entire
bandwidth of the medium is used as one single channel is a
LAN. Almost every wired LAN today uses a dedicated channel
for two stations communicating with each other. In a bus
topology LAN with multipoint connections, only two stations
can communicate with each other at each moment in time
(timesharing); the other stations need to refrain from sending
data. In a star topology LAN, the entire channel between each
station and the hub is used for communication between these
two entities

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

115

Bandpass channel
If the available channel is a bandpass channel, we cannot
send the digital signal directly to the channel; we need to
convert the digital signal to an analog signal before
transmission.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

116

Bandpass channel
An example of broadband transmission using modulation is
the sending of computer data through a telephone subscriber
line, the line connecting a resident to the central telephone
office. These lines are designed to carry voice with a limited
bandwidth. The channel is considered a bandpass channel.
We convert the digital signal from the computer to an analog
signal, and send the analog signal. We can install two
converters to change the digital signal to analog and vice
versa at the receiving end. The converter, in this case, is called
a modem

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

117

Transmission Impairment
Signals travel through transmission media, which are not
perfect. The imperfection causes signal impairment. This
means that the signal at the beginning of the medium is not
the same as the signal at the end of the medium. What is sent
is not what is received. Three causes of impairment are
attenuation, distortion, and noise.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

118

Attenuation
Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium and
its power is reduced to one-half. This means that P2 is
(1/2)P1. In this case, the attenuation (loss of power) can be
calculated as

A loss of 3 dB (3 dB) is equivalent to losing one-half the

power.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

119

Impairment
Distortion

Noise

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

120

Example
The loss in a cable is usually defined in decibels per kilometer
(dB/km). If the signal at the beginning of a cable with 0.3
dB/km has a power of 2 mW, what is the power of the signal
at 5 km?
Solution: The loss in the cable in decibels is 5 (0.3) = 1.5
dB. We can calculate the power as

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

121

Example
The power of a signal is 10 mW and the power of the noise is
1 W; what are the values of SNR and SNRdB ?
Solution: The values of SNR and SNRdB can be calculated as
follows:

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

122

SNR
Two cases of SNR: a high SNR and a low SNR

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

123

Data rate limit

A very important consideration in data communications is
how fast we can send data, in bits per second, over a channel.
Data rate depends on three factors:
1. The bandwidth available
2. The level of the signals we use
3. The quality of the channel (the level of noise)
Increasing the levels of a signal may reduce the reliability of
the system.
The Shannon capacity gives us the upper limit

C = B.log2(1+S/N)

(bps)

The Nyquist formula tells us how many signal levels (symbols)

we need:

R = 2B.log2L
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

(bps)
DCN-2013
HCMUT

124

Example
We need to send 265 kbps over a noiseless channel with a
bandwidth of 20 kHz. How many signal levels do we need?
Solution: We can use the Nyquist formula as shown:

Since this result is not a power of 2, we need to either

increase the number of levels or reduce the bit rate. If we
have 128 levels, the bit rate is 280 kbps. If we have 64 levels,
the bit rate is 240 kbps.
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

125

Example
Consider an extremely noisy channel in which the value of the
signal-to-noise ratio is almost zero. In other words, the noise
is so strong that the signal is faint. For this channel the
capacity C is calculated as

This means that the capacity of this channel is zero regardless

of the bandwidth. In other words, we cannot receive any data
through this channel.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

126

Example
We can calculate the theoretical highest bit rate of a regular
telephone line. A telephone line normally has a bandwidth of
3000. The signal-to-noise ratio is usually 3162. For this
channel the capacity is calculated as

This means that the highest bit rate for a telephone line is
34.860 kbps. If we want to send data faster than this, we can
either increase the bandwidth of the line or improve the
signal-to-noise ratio.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

127

Bandwidth-Delay product
In networking, we use the term bandwidth in two contexts.
The first, bandwidth in hertz, refers to the range of
frequencies in a composite signal or the range of frequencies
that a channel can pass.
The second, bandwidth in bits per second, refers to the speed
of bit transmission in a channel or link.

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

128

Bandwidth-Delay product
The bandwidth-delay product defines the number of bits that
can fill the link.
Useful when sending burst data and wait for ACK

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

129

Gaussian noise and BER

Noise: always present in the transmission environment
Modeled by Gaussian distribution
Effected to the signal quality at the receiver

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

130

Types of Bit Error

Single Bit Errors:
only one bit in a given data unit (byte, packet, etc.) gets corrupted

Burst Errors
two or more bits in the data unit have been corrupted errors do not have to occur in
consecutive bits

burst errors are typically caused by external noise (environmental noise)

burst errors are more difficult to detect / correct

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

131

Gaussian noise and BER

Power Density Function (pdf) of Gaussian distribution:
m: mean (DC value)
: Standard Deviation (RMS/Effective Voltage)
2: variance (noise power)
p(x)
1

p x

x m

1
2

2
0.606
2

2
0.136
2

2
2

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

132

Gaussian noise and BER

Assuming that only baseband signal are considered and
during the transmission, the transmitted signal is added by
Gaussian noise, resulting the receiving signal
VT: threshold voltage
VD>VT: decide the received bit is bit 1
VD<VT: decide the received bit is bit 0

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

133

Gaussian noise and BER

Probability of transmitting bit 1, but receiving bit 0:
vT

Pr (vD < vT) = p(0/1) =

1
2

( x A) 2
2 2

dx

Probability of transmitting bit 0, but receiving bit 1:

x2

Pr (vD > vT) = p(1/0) =

vT

e 2 dx

Assuming that the probability of transmitting bit 1 and bit 0 is

the same: Pr(1)=Pr(0)=0.5

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

134

Gaussian noise and BER

Probability of bit error (Bayes rule):
Pe = Pr(1).Pr(0/1)+ Pr(0).Pr(1/0)
Because Pr(0)=Pr(1)=0.5, then:
Pe = Pr(0/1)=Pr(1/0)
Question: what is the value of VT so that Pe is minimum?
v

Pe =0.5(
-

1
22

-(v T -A)2

-v T2

22

22

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

-e

=0

-(x-A)2
22

dx+
vT

22

-x2
22

e dx)

(v T -A)2 =v 2T

minimum

v T =A/2
DCN-2013
HCMUT

135

Gaussian noise and BER

Finally, we need to determine Pr(1/0) or Pr(0/1):
using Q(k) function
Q(k) is a normal distribution function
m=0, =1
In this case: VT=A/2(why?)
VT/ =A/2
so:
Pe=Q(A/2 )

Area is Q(k)

Let k= A/2 :
Pe=Q(k)
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

136

Gaussian noise and BER

How to determine Q(k)
Q(k) chart for k<=7

k>7: using the formula

Q(k)

Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

1
e
2 k

k2
2

DCN-2013
HCMUT

137

Frame Error Rate

Given Pe
If a frame has n bits. What is the Frame Error Rate?
Probability of k-bit error:

Pk =CnkPek (1-Pe )n-k

P0 is the probability that there is no errors in the frame
Frame Error Rate (FER):
Pf(error) = 1-P0 = 1-(1-Pe )n nPe (because Pe<<1)

What is the probability of one frame has exact k-bit

continuous burst error?
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

138

Example
Given a PAM signal with 4
voltage levels in the figure:
Mean voltage: A=5V
Gaussian noise: =0.5V

Determine:
Threshold voltage levels
Symbol Error Probability
FER if 1 frame has 100 bits, and
the transmission channel only
causes the single-bit errors, 2-bit
burst errors, or 3-bit burst errors
Telecomm. Dept.
Faculty of EEE

DCN-2013
HCMUT

139