Lecture 11:

Digitising and scanning for data entry

So Far in This Course...

Weve dealt with data that has already been
classified and transformed to a coordinate system.
Its been presented to us in a form suitable for
spatial analysis.
We havent had to consider a range of issues such
as;

Where we get our data?

How do we get it into a GIS?
What are our sources of error?
How do we measure that error?
How do we minimize that error?

Data Input and Associated Issues

Data collection takes up a large proportion of the
time and expense of a GIS facility.
Four common methods of producing digital
spatial (map) data.

Digitizing maps with a digitizer (or on the screen).

Scanning existing maps or air photos.
Entry of coordinates from field measurements.
Transfer from existing digital sources (such as from
satellite imagery).

Which to Choose? When?

Input and Processing of Data to Build a

Raster Database.

Input and Processing of Data to Build

a Vector Database.
Extra steps in creating vector

1. Digitizing

Use a digitizing tablet or digitize from the screen.

Why digitize using the screen?

1. Digitizing
Why digitize using the screen?
You may have a raster coverage in digital format.
you may only want to extract a few features
may not be extractable by image processing methods - the
spectral signature of the desired objects does not differ
significantly from other features on the coverage. This can
especially be the case for panchromatic (B/W) sattelite
images.
you can use logic, pattern recognition and context to identify
features.
You may not have access to a digitizer.
Youll be doing this type of digitization later in the
semester.

Advantages of the Digitizing Tablet

Some data are available
only in paper form.
Paper map more easily
annotated to emphasise
relevant features.
More accurate than the
screen
Scanner not necessary
If vector output required

Step 1 in Digitizing: Preparation

Highlighting relevant information (especially where only
certain features from a topographic map are being
sought). Simply draw on the map or on a sheet(s) of
tracing paper. This clarifies the information that the user is
interested in.
May involve incorporating information from different map
sheets.
Amendments to maps may be required, eg. temporal
change. Road routes may have changed since the main
map was produced.
Easier to do this on paper than on the digital coverage

The Digitizer
The digitizer is an electronic tablet.
The user places a map or photograph on the digitizer.
Behind it is a device that senses the location of a pointer.
This pointer is used to trace the features on a map.
Basically digitizing is a fancy, high tech method of tracing.

Step 2 in Digitizing: Digitizing.

Then the features on the map are digitized.
Crosshairs are placed over the map, and points are
entered, either automatically or manually. The
beginning and end of lines are entered, and lines
automatically connect between points
Object ID codes can be entered during this phase or
augmented during the editing phase, depending on
the program.
Similarly, if digitizing from the computer screen, the
mouse and cursor are used to trace features.

Georeferencing the coverage

Tablet has its own independent coordinate system.
On the screen can use the coordinate system of the map.
If using a tablet,
the coordinate system is registered to a coordinate system
(eg. UTM) by cross-registering a number of coordinates on
the tablet to known coordinates on the map eg. grid
intersections, border markers, or other reliable locations on
the map.
Using these coordinates, transformation parameters are
then computed, which allow the coverage to be registered.
Georeferencing is done either prior to or after digitizing features

Transformations
Three main processes must Occur
1. translation (object movement)
2. scale alteration
3. rotation

This is called a Conformal Transformation.

All objects retain their original shapes.
Affine Transformations incorporate unequal x and y scale
alterations and unequal rotations of the x and y axes.
Affine transformations alter the shapes of objects
This compensates for unequal shrinkage of maps, and is
particularly important for digitizing from aerial photographs

Step 3 in Digitizing: Data editing

Often there is error from digitizing, such as;

gaps between lines that should meet

lines that exceed the line they should meet (dangles)
parallel lines that cross

Potential digitising
errors in the real
world!

Yet more potential

digitising errors in the
real world!

Editing the Digitized Coverage

Data usually checked on the screen.
Errors identified by the computer
(dangling arcs, unclosed polygons)
Edited by selecting the portion of arc to
omit, snapping nodes together, labelling
polygons etc.

2. Scanning Maps or Aerial Photos

Scanning maps or air photos follows the
same principles as satellite image analysis
That markings on a map reflect light differently
from areas that are blank and that
That different features on an air photo reflect light
differently from one another.

Light reflectance is recorded in a grid made

up of square pixels
In other words, a raster coverage is created

Scanning Existing Maps

Map must be high quality
Map must be clean
Must have lines 0.1mm wide or greater

In the Scanning Process

Range of issues such as contrast, brightness, and resolution
must be sorted out in the scanning process
Too little brightness = non-recognition of some features.
Too much brightness = unwanted information such as dirt
and dust may be included.
Contrast and Brightness are usually set by a mixture of trial
and error, and judgement.

Scanning Resolution
The chosen resolution depends on the width of the features,
and the scale of the map.
For example, if you have a 1:250,000 map, scanned at 300dpi
Pixel size (cm) = Resolution of scanner (inches) * 2.5 * map
scale
Pixel size (cm) = (1/300) * 2.5 * 250,000
Therefore, each pixel is 2000cm wide.
Pixel size (m) = 20m.

Post Scanning Image Analysis

Scanned maps are rarely perfect.
The image will contain smudges, defects,
mistakes where map detail is complex.
Therefore digital image analysis is necessary
to improve the image and make it useable
Can use highlighter on linework to create
separate category extractable in image
processing software (good for lineaments)

Thresholding or binarisation to classify different

ranges of pixel values to two or more categories
In this example, all cells in the image with a grey scale value less
than 80 are considered to be black, and given a value of 1. All
other cells are considered to be white, and given the value 0.

Filtering
By passing a neighbourhood filter over the
coverage, small groups of pixels (that may
represent dust specs etc.) are given the value
of surrounding pixels
Can use mean, median, modal filters
The user decides what the threshold for the
size of the group of pixels will be

To Recap on
Scanning
Any scanned map or air
photo results in a raster
image
If a vector output
coverage is required,
this raster image must
next be transformed
(vectorized)

Vectorization of Lines

Usually part of the post-scanning

editing process
A number of pixels forming a
structure are registered (b)
Skeletonization. All pixels along
the line except along the centre
are stripped off (c).
Linearization. Pixels are
connected one-by-one along the
line.
Where a line segment curve is
greater than a defined threshold,
the line segment is considered
not to be straight, and a new line
is started.
Coordinates are calculated for
the start and end points of the
straight line segment, and an arc
is then formed (d).

Original map

Skeletonization

Scanned image

Vector output

DIGITIZING VS SCANNING

Digitizing-Advantages
Equipment cheap
Doesnt require high map quality
Less post-input analysis
Already in vector format

Digitizing-Disadvantages
Very boring (quite unpleasant)
Labour intensive
Unsuitable for continuous data

Scanning-Advantages
Easy
Very fast
Suitable for continuous data

Scanning-Disadvantages
Maps must be of high quality, clean, and have
clearly defined lines
Raster output files may be very large
Cant link attribute data directly to features
Improvement of data is labour-intensive
Data may require conversion into vector format
Large format scanners are VERY expensive

3. Entry of Data From Field

Measurements
Usually in the form of point data as locational
coordinates.
May be typed in at the keyboard
May be loaded in a data file format eg. Excel, CSV.
Applications
Often represent survey locations (geology, soils,
biological surveys).
May represent ground control points for image
rectification.
With use of GPS, accurate to within 4m.
Often used for interpolation

4. Transfer from existing digital sources

(such as satellite imagery).
Data already in a digital form
In the case of remote sensing data, always comes in a
raster form
Steps in Processing Raw Satellite Data
Georeferencing to a chosen coordinate system and
rectification (affine transformation)
Orthorectification for high resolution data
Atmospheric correction
Windowing
Classification
Classification accuracy check

Next Lecture
Sources of error
Measuring error
Minimising error