Study sheet for test

Perform and analyze a punnett square.

Organisms have two alleles for each gene.

organisms randomly pass on only one.
gametes posses 1 allele for every gene an organism has.
there are two types, monohybrid and dihybrid crosses.
when given something that resembles this: TtBb, (two genes) do a 16 box punnett
square.
when given only half or this: Tt (one Gene) do a four box punnett square.

Explain Mendels laws of segregation and independent assortment.

Mendels Principles

Law of segregation: the two alleles of any gene are on homologs that separate from
each other during anaphase 1 of meiosis. Half the sex cells get one allele and the other
1/2 get the other allele.
Example: for your eye color, you get a blue allele from mom and a brown from your dad.
In turn half your sex cells have moms alleles, the remaining ones get dad’s

Law of independent assortment: Homolog arrangement in metaphase 1 is random, so

that the passing on a maternal allele from one homolog doesn’t determine the passing
of maternal alleles on separate homologs.

Ex: the allele for eye color you pass on does not control the alleles for hair color,
bloodtype..... etc. You will pass on.

Analyze how DNA easily makes copies of itself.

DNA REPLICATION/ COPYING

In the S stage of interphase, the enzyme Helicase untwists and unzips DNA.

This causes the hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous base pair(Bases) to break.
the enzyme DNA polymerase attaches to the unzipped site.

polymerase attaches complementary bases to each half of the unzipped DNA.

Due to the base pairing rules, each new DNA strands is an exact clone of the original.

Each chromosome has now added a chromatid!!!

Explain the processes of translation and transcription.

transcription- untwisting and unzipping of a certian portion of a strand of DNA by

helicase to make a protien. after it is unzipped RNA polymerase runs along it and
throws free nucleotides at it, and what sticks sticks.

translation- MRNA goes to ribosome, and is translated codon by codon, and tRNA grabs
an amino acid, its amino acid, and returns it to the ribosome. The three anti codons on
the end of the tRNA try and stick on the end of the certian strand of the mRNA and if it
sticks, tRNA will stick to the mRNA. That mRNA with it’s amino acids will now twist into
a protien that will then become a gene.

Analyze the Central Dogma

DNA---->RNA-->PROTEIN--->PHENOTYPE

THE CENTRAL DOGMA ANALOGY

Think of a cells nucleus as a library.

Think of chromosomes as cookbooks
Think of genes as recipes in the cookbooks.
A gene is defined as: a section of DNA with a code to produce a single protein.

Think of alleles as different versions of the same recipe to make a protein.

It is the protein that you make that gives you the phenotype for any gene!!!

Explain how genes are regulated so that they are not always expressed.

In every cell in your body, you have on and off switches, called promoters. They control
whether a cell expresses a certain trait. TATATA are the most common switches.

Genes are off when they are covered in methyl groups, and cannot attach to the RNA
polymerase.
Exons: Areas that code for proteins 1%

Introns: Areas that don’t code for protein 99%

Analyze the effects of chromosomal mutations and gene mutations.

Two general forms of mutations

-gene- getting the recipe wrong
-chromosomal-getting the whole cookbook wrong

GENE MUTATIONS

Gene mutations are changes in base pairs that alter a single recipe.

There are three types of gene mutations

Missense: substitutions that change one amino acid for another

Nonsense: substitutions that invoke a stop codon.

Frameshift: altering the genetic reading frame to change a series of codons.

CHROMOSOMAL MUTATIONS

these mutations change the number or structure of whole chromosomes.

Multiple set of genes and hence proteins, are usually affected.

Types of chromosome mutations:
Number: Aneuploidy or polyploidy
Structure

Deletions ABCDEFG------> ABCFG

Duplications ABCDEFG----> ABCDEDEFG
Inversions ABCDEFG--------> ABCDEDFG
Translocations ABCDEFG---> JKLMNDE

Discuss the biology behind stem cells and cloning.

Cloning- more of a good thing?

Natural cloning

Twinning
Mitosis
Asexual reproduction

DNA Cloning- Creates copies of individual genes.

Therapeutic Cloning- Creates copies of tissues, organs, or embryos that are genetically
identical.

Reproductive cloning- Creates copies of entire organisms that are genetically identical.

IMPORTANT!! remember that stem cells come from embryos, because those cells
haven’t had any of their promoters f**ked with yet, so they don’t have a job yet. This
makes them perfect for use in stem cell research.

Compare Darwin and Lamarck in regards to evolution.

Lamarkian inheritance:
Use and Disuse
In population of giraffes there is little variability.
To obtain a higher energy input, giraffes regularly use and stretch their necks,
As the population uses their necks to reach elevated food sources, their necks continue
to stretch.
their offspring possess longer necks as well.
The population continued to develop longer necks over time

The Darwinian View

Natural Selection

In a population of giraffes there is much variability

Some giraffes are born with slightly longer necks.

These giraffes are able to increase their energy intake.
Increased energy level results in a higher reproductive output.
Their offspring possess longer necks as well.
The populations shift over time.
The Lamarkian Inheritance:
Use And Disuse

DISCREDITED: Organisms cannot change their own genes. You can’t pass on
intentional modifications to your offspring.

Darwinian View
Natural Selection

ACCEPTED: Organisms inherit variations which make them more or less biologically
successful.

Explain how natural selection could change a population.

NATURAL SELECTION

Both Lamark and Darwin recognized the environment caused a change in traits, BUT

Darwin claimed that individuals are born with different traits to begin with, AND

Traits which increase survival and reproduction will be passed on at greater rates and
eventually replace less advantageous traits - THIS IS NATURAL SELECTION!!!!

Survival of the fittest. Fitness is a biological term that refers to the number of offspring. If
you are fit, you are having children.

If the person next to you is more “fit”, or has more kids than you do, there are more
copies of his genes floating around in the population, therefore causing a change in the
population.

Use H-W to analyze changes within a population.

H-W Principle

Assume % of dominant (p) alleles and recessive (q) alleles add to 100% of the gene
pool.

p+q=1

Then
 p^2 + 2pq+q^2=1

Thats the H-W Principle

Where

P^2 is the frequency of homozygous dominant individuals

27400

Dominant= 1400
Recessive=26000

Recessive= .95
Dominant=.05

H-W principle continued

in 2009

Dominant=2360
recessive=52,100

Total=54460

Dominant= 0.04
Recessive=0.96

.0016 + .0768+.922=1
16% 7.7 92.2%
HD HET HR

Analyze kin selection.

Kin selection (altruism) Sacrificing self for the benefit of others.

Hamiltons rule: rB>C

C: reproductive cost(potential offspring * risk of death)
B: reproductive benefit(potential offspring)
r: Relatedness coefficient (ex. Sibing os .5)

Describe how the process of speciation. macro evolution works.

Macroevolution: Emergence of new species descended from ancestral species

(generally over longer periods of time)

Speciation:
Macroevolution/ in Action

New species descend form ancestral species through a series of Microevolution events:

1. Variation must already exist in the original population.

2. Sub-populations move to new areas and are reproductively isolated from each other.
3. Each new area has environmental pressures unique to it.
4. Natural selection favors different alleles in each environment and microevolution
occurs.
5. if sub-populations are reunited, they are prevented form interbreeding through several
barriers.
-habitat
-behavioral
-biochemical
-temporal
-mechanical
-hybrid infertility/inviability

List several hominid ancestral species and some relative timelines.

kenyanthropus platyops- 3.8 million

australopithecus africanus 2.9 million

australopithicus aethiopicus-2.5 million

australopithecus gahri- 2.5 million

homo rudolfensis- 2.4 million

homo habilis -2.3 million

australpithecus boisei-2.1 million

australopithecus robustus-1.2 million

homo ergaster-2.3 million

homo erectus-1.9 million

homo antecessor-.8 million

homo heidelbergensis-.4 million

homo sapiens-.25 million

homo neanderthalensis.22 million

Use the taxonomic hierarchy to draw conclusions regarding evolutionary

histories.

KPCOFGS

Kings Play Chess On Folding Glass Squares

Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species

Discuss the major goals of the digestive system.

The major goals are:

Ingestion- Bring materials into the organism

Digestion- Break down polymers into monomers through hydrolysis (enzymes essential
in enhancing this process)

Absorption-Monomers absorbed into bloodstream for distribution throughout body

Elimination- Undigested materials are removed from organisms

Associate digestive enzymes with the biomolecule they work upon.

Pepsin breaks protein (polymer) into AA (monomers/amino acids), but only works in low
pH.

Hydrochloric acid lowers pH to 2

Release of sodium bicarbonate raises the pH to prevent denature of enzymes and

tissue damage.

Amylase-continued carb digestion

Protease-continued protein digestion, and
Nuclease- digestion of nucleic acids

Analyze the importance of villi and microvilli in the digestive system.

They are basically used to allow nutrients to enter our capillaries.

large folds called villi increase surface area.

in turn, cells of the villi are lined with micro-villi.
depending on the type of monomer, nutrients will cross through the micro villi through
active or passive transport.
these monomers are then absorbed into capillaries if the bloodstream and distributed
throughout the body (for energy and structure).

Compare the structure and function of blood vessels.

Structure: Tubelike

Function: to transport blood around the body

Explain how a heart in systole differs from a heart in diastole.

Heart in systole: pumping blood out

Heart in Diastole: Relaxing to allow blood to fill the heart in preparation for the next
contraction.

Know the biological functions of each major class of biomolecules.

know lipids and protiens ect

Analyze the interdependence of cell respiration and photosysthesis.

Both are used to generate ATP, but the energy sources and waste products are
different.

Analyze the relationship between the cell life cycle and tumors.

Tumors are caused by a lack of contact inhibition. There are a series of genes that
control or regulate the cells ability to split. When these genes screw up and loose their
ability to regulate, cells form large masses of tissue called tumors.

Analyze how vaccines work to protect the body from future infections.

Vaccines provide the body with a weakened version of the virus being treated for and
that in turn causes the body to create antibodies that will fend off the virus in case the
person being vaccinated gets it for real. The bodies memory B cells take some of the
receptors from the virus, and hold on to them, so that in the future the response to the
virus will be faster and more efficient. The body can then release the proper antibodies
and the virus will be rendered inactive.