Evidencetechnology 2016spring

The magazine dedicated exclusively to the technology of evidence collection, processing, and preservation
Volume 14, Number 1 Spring 2016
Capturing Known Print Standards

TOPICS IN THIS ISSUE
n Digital Imaging
n Ground Penetrating Radar
n Planning a Digital Forensics Lab
n Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial
n Mobile Forensics
n Bullet Trajectory Analysis
n Forensic Speaker Comparison
n Handheld Raman for Narcotics
C O N T E N T S
Cover Story
20 Raising Your
Standards
10
Written by Donald J. Frost II
A known friction ridge print standard is

kind of the yang to the yin of latent print
evidence. Neither really has much value
without the other. The author explains the
proper technique, methods of capture, and
quality control for collecting ten prints.
40
Features
Making Informed Judgments Using Digital Images

Written by David Ski Witzke
10
Ground Penetrating Radar

Written by Sara Gale
16
Planning a Digital Forensics Lab

Written by Andr Champagne
26
Expert Q&A
With Jane Moira Taupin on using forensic evidence at trial
30
Book Excerpt: Mechanisms of DNA Transfer

From Using Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial: A Case Study Approach,
written by Jane Moira Taupin
32
Making Mobile Data Work Harder, Solve Cases Faster

Written by Sheila Gil
34
Bullet Trajectory Analysis Using Photographs

Written by Edward E. Hueske
38
NIST Corner: Your Voice is Evidence

Written by Reva Schwartz
40
Identification of Illegal Drugs with 1064nm Handheld Raman

Written by Edward Geraghty
Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

www.EvidenceMagazine.com
Departments
Editorial
Tool Kit
Letters
C4 Advertiser Index
E D I T O R I A L
Time for a Change
Volume 14, Number 1

Spring 2015
Wordsmith Publishing
PO Box 555
302 S Platte Clay Way Ste 204
Kearney MO 64060
THIRTEEN YEARS AGO, Evidence Technology

Magazine Publisher and Co-Founder Gary Gulick
wrote in the inaugural issues editorial, Its about
time somebody did this! He was referring, of course,
to the concept he and I had developed: a publication
dedicated exclusively to evidence collection, processing,
and preservation.
Telephone: 816-628-3075
Fax: 816-628-4841
Email: info@EvidenceMagazine.com
When we held that first printed edition in our

hands, we had no idea how many more issues
would follow; how many people we would
reach; and in how many countries the magazine
would be read.
As it turned out, we attended 75 more press checks; mailed more than a
million copies; and reached readers in at least 82 countries.
Thanks to the support of our readers, contributors, and advertisers, we
have kept this publication moving forward, straight through the dire times of a
recession and on into an ever-changing media landscape. However, each year
the printing and mailing costs grew more expensiveand digital media became
an increasingly dominant figure in the publishing industry. Our company has
seen enough changes in the past 13 years that now, after careful consideration,
we have decided it is, indeed, about time we did this:
In 2016, Evidence Technology Magazine is a digital-only publication.
This first issue of the year represents our first exclusively digital issue.
We have filled it with more articles and information than we ever could have
feasibly placed in the print edition. With this format, we also have the space
and ability to include interactive features: clickable links for easy reference to
outside sources, slide-shows, videos, and more. And we can deliver this digital
publication to all of our readers, free of charge, anywhere in the world.
The format of the digital magazine will look quite familiar, as we are
maintaining the digital replica format that we have utilized since 2008. In
fact, you will notice that with just a tap or a click in the menu bar, you can
access an archive of ETM digital magazines, going all the way back to the
July/August 2008 issue.
During the course of this transition, you will see an increased emphasis on
growing the Evidence Technology Magazine digital platform, and the creation
of more content than ever before. And thats the key point: Content will remain
the primary focus of this publicationjust as it has for the last 13 years.
Thank you for your support all these years. I look forward to serving you
for many more.
Kristi Mayo, editor
Evidence Technology Magazine
Editor:
Kristi Mayo
kmayo@EvidenceMagazine.com
Publisher:
Gary Gulick
gulick@EvidenceMagazine.com
Media Strategy Manager:
Kristina DesCombes
advertising@EvidenceMagazine.com
Advisory Board
of Evidence Technology Magazine
Hayden B. Baldwin
Consultant and Instructor
Director of Forensic Enterprises, Inc.
Frank R. Doyle, Jr.
DOS ATA/FBI
International Terrorist Crime Scene
Forensics Instructor
Michael Finnegan, PhD
Professor of Anthropology
Kansas State University (Manhattan, Kan.)
Dwane S. Hilderbrand, M.Ed
Owner
Forensic ITC Services
Jerry Kramper
National Sales Manager
Forensics Source
Joseph T. Latta
President
Evidence Control Systems, Inc.
Cheryl Puskarich May, PhD
Director
Arkansas Criminal Justice Institute
Evidence Technology Magazine is published quarterly by Wordsmith Publishing, an operating unit of The Gulick Corporation. Copyright 2016 by The Gulick
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Copyright 2016 The Gulick Corporation. All rights reserved.

L E T T E R S
NamUs growth, training, and outreach on track, says director
J. Todd Matthews, Director of Case

Management and Communications for
the National Missing & Unidentified
Persons System (NamUs), took issue
with statements made by George W.
Adams (Expert Q&A, September-October 2015). In the Q&A, Adamsformer national director of operations and
director of finance for NamUsstated:
...[S]tate clearinghouses have
not jumped on board with NamUs,
but have extended their work with
redesigned websites and outreach
and multiple new state statutes from
legislatures. For most of the period
from 2011 to 2014, there were only
ten registered clearinghouse users
in NamUs. Finally, registered law
enforcement NamUs users (MP and
UP) have basically remained stagnant
throughout 2014.
Matthews comments follow:
NamUs does have registered users from most

of the clearinghouses across the United States;
most are registered as law enforcement

users, as they are part of state police agencies.
The state clearinghouses are quite active in
NamUs.
Adams says that our lack of training and
outreach through proper channels has led to
stagnant and declining numbers, including
a decrease in the influx of unidentified person
(UP) cases. This is misleading, as our UP cases
have continued to increase every month and
are currently 2,065 more than what is entered
into the FBIs National Crime Information
Center (NCIC). It was completely expected that
we had a surge of UP cases in the early stages
when ME/coroners were first populating
NamUs with existing cases, followed by our
current steady stream of cases entered as they
are recovered or discovered during agency
cold case reviews.
Our count of training/outreach events in
the last two bi-annual reports is 49, which is
an average of almost one NamUs training or
outreach event every week. We have targeted

local, state, and national training or outreach

events.
We just announced the 2.0 upgrade on the
front page of our main site. The upgrade will
also include a critical incident component:
http://namus.gov/new-features.htm
And in October 2015, H.R.3653 - Help
Find the Missing Act, a.k.a. Billys Law was
introduced to Congress and the Senate:
https://www.congress.gov/bill/114thcongress/house-bill/3653/all-actions
If this bill is passed into law it would
merge information from NCIC with NamUs
and make information about more missing
person cases publicly accessible. It also
would provide grants to state and local law
enforcement to increase use of and promote
reporting to NamUs.
Finally, our media coverage from October
2015 alone included at least 30 mentions in
national trade publications and news programs,
and in local and regional news media.
T O O L
K I T
Shooting Incident Reconstruction
s The Koppa Targets Trajectory Scanning Set are

precision drilled, feather-weight 80mm spheres
that slip easily onto your trajectory rods. These
give you much greater accuracy in determining
trajectory paths and also assist in registering
scan data with both terrestrial and hand-held
scanners. Available in predefined or custom
sets, with or without accessory mounts. They are
just part of an entire line of target spheres and
accessories, available thru Faro or factory-direct
from the manufacturer. (photo courtesy ai2-3d.com)
www.KoppaTargets.com
s The UltraLite One forensic light combines the

power of UltraLite technology and a budgetfriendly price of $399. The portable unit includes
three lights in one head, allowing you to detect
99.5% of all trace evidence. You can change the
forensic light from UV to BMT (Blue) to Green
with the push of a button. An internal lithium-ion
battery can be recharged in three hours. The kit
includes the UltraLite One handle/head; amber,
yellow, and red glasses; protective bags for the
glasses; and a protective carrying case.
http://caogroup.com/ultraliteone.html
s The Kaleidoscope system comes with 3 to 36 red

and green lasers used for simultaneous field-based
shooting incident and bloodstain impact pattern
reconstruction. Lasers can be attached to solid
fiberglass dowels for back extrapolation or to tripod
mounts to achieve forward projection. The Kaleidoscope system is also unique because it uses Dr. Laura
Pettlers Tubular Dowel System, which refracts laser
light in forward projection through clear, hollow
acrylic-like dowels placed in cars, Styrofoam heads,
and forensic mannequins.
www.laurapettler.com
s The JEOL AccuTOF-DART mass spectrometer

provides instantaneous chemical analysis of samples
in open air with little or no sample preparation.
Applications include detection of trace evidence,
drugs, explosives, chemical weapons agents,
poisons, counterfeit and adulterated products, arson
accelerants, and more. A DART Forensics Library is
now publicly available from NIST and Forensicdb.
org. By eliminating the need to prepare a sample for
gas or liquid chromatography, the most time-consuming steps of chemical analysis are eliminated.
www.jeolusa.com
s With the UNITRON Comparison Forensic

Microscope, ballistics, firearms and toolmark
evidence can be observed simultaneously via
a comparison bridge that supports two sets of
matched objective sets on a 5-step magnification
changer. Images can be viewed as 100% right,
100% left, split, or superimposed. The 22mm field
of view eyepieces produce erect, unreversed images
that move in the same direction as the specimen for
ease of use. With an optional HD camera, you can
capture images directly to an SD card or computer.
www.unitronusa.com
s The Hitachi SU3500 Premium VariablePressure SEM featuring real-time 3D image

observation is equipped with electron optics and
signal-detection schemes. The user-friendly GUI
provides comprehensive image observation and
display functions. Engineered for a wide range
of applications including biological specimens,
advanced materials, and trace evidence work,
the SU3500 can be combined with technologies
and software to make it suitable for automated
gunshot residue (GSR) analysis.
http://www.hitachi-hightech.com/us/

Making Informed Judgments

Using Digital Images
WE HAVE ALL HEARD ENDLESS CLICHS about photo realism, such as, A picture is
worth a thousand words, or Photos dont lie. But in the courtroom, a very different image
often emerges because of clichs like, Can juries really believe what they see?, Digital images
can be manipulated easily, or Digital images are not photographs. These clichsand many
more like themcan be very persuasive and invoke an emotional or cognitive response.
Special procedures must be followed

with digital images so they can be
validated as a true and correct copy
that accurately and reliably depicts
the subject or scene. In addition, the
forensic analyst as well as the juror
must be able to visualize (or analyze)
the content of the image, and to reach
the correct conclusion.
The reason why lawyers (and others)
often take the position that digital
images are not photographs is because
they want to instill the idea that jurors
cannot believe what they see. This
confusion exists because digital cameras
capture images using an electronic sensor used to record light values such as a
CCD (charge-coupled device) or CMOS
(complementary metal-oxide semiconductor). These light values are then
converted into numerical values that can
be displayed or printed as an image, can
be reproduced accurately and reliably,
and do not degrade over time.
Traditional film cameras utilize a
light-sensitive emulsion containing
silver halide crystals suspended in a
gelatin coating on films of cellulose
acetate or cellulose nitrate. Once the
film is exposed and then developed, a
negative is created. The negative then
becomes the original that can be
reproduced accurately and reliably, but
suffers the effects of aging over time.
Most people forget that the quality
(clarity and contrast) of photographs
(prints) produced from negatives are the
interpretation of the person making the
print, who is often not the photographer
who actually took the picture. Anyone
who has ever had pictures developed
from film knows that there are many

things that can go wrong, and the
images do not always appear like you
thought they would or should. Photographers who develop and print their
own negatives get the most realistic
(accurate) photographs, which is most
often the case with digital imaging.
Television programs like Brain
Games have featured optical illusions
that demonstrate issues effecting
visualization as well as believability
or reliability. So whether it was a film
image or a digital image, the same
issues exist regarding visualization
or interpretation of the image.
Crime scene technicians, forensic
analysts and examiners, investigators,
prosecutors, defense attorneys, jurors,
Written by David Ski Witzke
or anyone who relies on pictures

within the criminal justice community
must make conclusions based upon
their interpretation of a visual representation (input). This process must
account for biases and other factors
that can influence their decision, such
as the proper evaluation of ridge detail
that may appear to be inverted in
photographed images of impressions
on evidence developed using cyanoacrylate fuming.
While courts have widely acknowledged that photography is the most
accurate way of documenting evidence
for more than 100 years (Singh, 2012),
the issue of accuracy (reliability) and
bias (fallibility) has been heightened in
the courts.
Figure 1Take a look at squares A and B in the checkerboard image created by Edward H Adelson, a professor of vision
science at MIT. They look like completely different shades of gray, right? Well, they are not. They are exactly the same color
and shade!

D I G I T A L
When judgments are made under
uncertainty, two general types of errors
are possiblefalse positives and false
negatives. A decision maker cannot
simultaneously minimize both errors
because decreasing the likelihood of
one error necessarily increases the
likelihood of the other. (Green, 1989)
There are a number of photographic processes that can also be used to
manipulate an image creatively. For
example, a photograph can be manipulated by changing exposure, camera
angle, or choosing the wrong (improper) lens. Someone viewing a picture
of a small hole in the ground could be
easily misled by using a wide-angle
lens, thus making the hole appear as a
large abyss.
Fortunately, digital cameras provide
data that can help identify whether
an original image has been altered
or if it is realistic. All digital cameras manufactured within the past
decade capture information about the
image pixels (also known as picture
elements) together with information
such as the date and time the image
was taken; camera make, model, and
serial number; and camera settings
such as aperture, shutter speed, ISO,
exposure compensation, lens used, and
focus distance. These data elements,
also known as exchangeable image file
format (Exif) data, are stored as part
of the image file in a collection of data
fields called the file header, or metadata.
Maintaining this data has become a
requirement for all evidentiary images,
which also provides interoperability
between digital cameras and image
processing programs, such as Adobe
Photoshop. Exif data has also proven
I M A G I N G
Figure 2Just like in the Adelson
image, ridge detail appears to be
a different color because of the
background contrast, which can
create confusion when trying to
identify ridge events.
to be very useful for accurate analysis

and reaching an accurate conclusion.
In addition, the imaging sensors in
most consumer-grade digital cameras
today can detect in excess of 265 separate, distinct shades of gray. The imaging
sensor in most professional digital
single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras can
distinguish between 4,096 individual
gradients for 12-bit dynamic range or
16,384 individual gradients for 14-bit
dynamic range.
Digital images consist of pixels
where each pixel has a specific color
value, such as teal, fuchsia, orange, or
brown, based on the hue, saturation,
and brightness values of red, green,
and blue for each pixel. Most digital
images are stored as 24-bit color (8
bits per channel), which provides 256
possible shades of red, 256 possible
shades of green, and 256 possible
shades of blue for a total of 16,777,216
possible color values for each pixel in

the image.
Some people argue that capturing
anything other than 256 shades per
color channel is a waste of file space
because the human eye cannot see that
many different shades, and many video
cards and monitors do not support the
display of that many different color
values. It should be remembered,
however, that applications like Adobe
Photoshop have the ability to process up
to 65,536 different shades per channel,
which can be crucial when trying to
suppress background noise.
Computer screens also have a pixel-based resolution, but that resolution
has no direct correlation to the pixels
in a digital image. For example, typical
monitor resolutions today range from
1024 x 768 pixels to 1920 x 1200 pixels,
and can be 17, 24, 27, or 29 inches
wide (diagonally).
Figure 3The analysis of an image (input) must account for biases and other factors (internal state) that can influence the response/conclusion. This includes the proper interpretation of
data values based on experience, skill and training as well as other external issues/pressures, such as the type of crime, etc. when reaching a conclusion.

D I G I T A L
The monitor resolution refers to the

number of color pixels that can be represented on the screen, which are also
made up using a combination of red,
green, and blue light values. Although
meaning the same thing, these light
values (a.k.a. picture elements) are
displayed using different technologies
such as liquid crystal display (LCD)
technologies, light-emitting diode
(LED) technologies, or gas-plasma
technologies.
The end result is that a combination
of red, green, and blue lights coupled
with an intensity or brightness value of
each individual light creates a display
that causes the human eye to perceive
a specific color value for the pixels
that comprise the digital image.
This perception is also based on
a resampling of the actual image
data when the image is viewed on the
screen. The resolution of digital cameras used by law enforcement agencies
vary greatly:
6016 x 4016 pixels (24 MP)
4928 x 3280 pixels (16 MP)
3968 x 2976 pixels (12 MP)
3872 x 2592 pixels (10 MP)
3072 x 2048 pixels (6 MP)
While considering the resolution
of the image, the resolution of the
monitor (as well as the video card or
video driver) must also be taken into
consideration. For example, a monitor
can be set to a resolution of 1920 x 1200
pixels, 1600 x 1024 pixels, or 1024 x
768 pixels.
In other words, resolution by
itself does not imply image quality or
output size because the same number
of pixels can be displayed as a small
area (when zoomed out) or as a large
area (when zoomed in) on a monitor
or printed image. For example, minute
detail can be overlooked when 6016
pixels horizontally are resampled to approximately 1600 pixels horizontally,
which means that one pixel displayed
on the monitor represents almost four
pixel values averaged together. When
images are resampled for printing, the
loss of image quality and detail is far
greater due to the technology limitations of todays printers.
Historically, forensic expertssuch
as latent print examiners, footwear and
I M A G I N G
tire tread examiners, and questioned

document examinershave relied
on one-to-one prints for comparison.
Regardless of the type or model of
printer used today, the image quality
is not as good as the traditional filmbased photographs used in the past.
With traditional photographic prints,
there are no dots or pixels that have to
be dithered for a clear, precise image,
especially if the image is printed as a
1:1 life-size image. Today however, if
a latent print is scanned on a flatbed
scanner with a resolution of 1200 PPI,
and the output device prints 500 PPI,
then the latent print image must be
resampled to eliminate a total of 700
pixels. This means that more than 50%
of the actual pixel information is lost
when the image is printed.
It also means that latent print examiners must either retrain their eyes to use
lower-quality images for comparison;
to do comparisons on the screen; or to
use images printed at 2, 3, or 5 times
life size.
Many forensic experts have found
that it is significantly easier to view
the images displayed side-by-side on a
computer screen where they also have
the ability to zoom in and out of the
image for a more accurate and reliable
interpretation of the actual image data.
We cannot, however, forget that
the accuracy of every analysis and
conclusion of any image begins with
accurate and reliable image capture;
therefore, the goal is to capture the
best possible image with the highest
possible resolution.
To capture an object with a digital
camera with the highest possible resolution, fill the frame with the object
and a scale. Failure to optimize image
resolution creates problems when
attempting to suppress background
patterns, such as backgrounds on
checks or money orders. As the size of
the area of capture increases, the camera must be moved further back from
the object, and a single photoreceptor
must capture a larger area, using all the
color values in the area covered by that
single sensor and the light intensity
to determine the resulting pixel value
recorded by that photoreceptor.
One major consequence of trying
to capture an area that is too large

with a digital camera is that the optics
in the camera blend multiple color
values (from multiple source elements)
together as a single pixel. In addition
to losing detail and sharpness in the
image, other problems are created,
such as moir patterns. By capturing a
smaller area, the area covered by each
photoreceptor is minimized, which
provides clearer (and sharper) image
detail, which also provides better image quality because the more accurate
color values provide greater image
detail.
Even with all the sophisticated
tools and features in Adobe Photoshop,
the image quality of a low-resolution
image cannot be improved. That only
happens on CSI... and that is television.
The most anyone can hope to accomplish with a low-resolution image is to
make it look less ugly Kind of like
putting lipstick on a pig!
The bottom line is that with the proper digital image processing standards
and guidelines in place, and with appropriate training (for the photographer,
the person enhancing the images, and
the person analyzing the images), there
should be no questions about whether
or not the original image was altered,
or that the interpretation of the image
data provided an accurate, reliable
conclusion.
About the Author
David SkiWitzke is the vice president of

program management for Foray Technologies.
He has more than 20 years of AFIS and forensic
digital imaging experience and has conducted
hundreds of digital imaging training programs
for law enforcement agencies throughout the
U.S. and Canada.
References
Singh, H., P. Kumar, R. Nanra, A. Kumar.

Why Is The Crime Scene Photographed?
There Is Not A Single Answer! The Internet Journal of Forensic Science (2012,
Volume 5 Number 1). Retrieved from:
http://ispub.com/IJFS/5/1/13735
Green, D.M., J.A. Swets. Signal Detection Theory
and Psychophysics. Los Altos, CA: Peninsula
Publishing (1989).

Ground penetrating radar

narrows forensic investigation search areas,
eliminates needless excavation, and speeds explorations
Written by Sara Gale
FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS ARE MAKING USE OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY,

especially in investigations seeking buried evidence. Among the tools being used more
and more is ground penetrating radar (GPR), which can be used to locate victims and
hidden caches of weapons or evidence, and even find the remains of soldiers and civilians
killed in war zones. In addition to finding positive evidence, GPR is a useful tool for
narrowing down or limiting areas of interest to reduce costly and disruptive excavation.
10
Comparing commonly used

crime scene investigation tools
Forensic scientists and crime

scene specialists use a variety of
technologies and tools to look for
buried evidence and clandestine
burials. Such tools include soil probes,
cadaver dogs, and metal detectors,

G R O U N D P E N E T R AT I N G R A D A R
along with expert geophysical
methods such as ground penetrating
radar (GPR) and electromagnetic
induction (EMI).
Soil probing is extremely
cost-effective in terms of initial
investment, requiring only a simple
probe and a sheet of paper to record
soil compaction results. However, the
process may require covering a large
area at a high sample density, which
takes a great deal of timeboth
time to collect data and to gain the
skills required to consistently record
compaction levels.
Metal detectors are relatively
affordable and easy to use. They
are well suited for finding buried
evidence and shallow burials that
contain ferrous metal. However, they
have a limited penetration depth
and are unsuitable for investigating
non-ferrous (metal) objectsfor
example, an older burial. Despite
these drawbacks, metal detectors
should be a part of any crime scene
investigators toolkit.
Cadaver dogs are considered
a valuable tool by some forensic
experts. The level of accuracy and
consistency is highly variable. Dogs
can only be used for buried evidence
with a human component. Some dogs
are trained to detect only those still
living or recently deceased, while
others are trained to detect older
burials, and a few are trained in both.
Electromagnetic induction is a
geophysical method that looks for
disturbed soils by finding changes
in soil conductivity. Disturbed soils
vary in conductivity from surrounding
soils. Best used in open fields or
wooded areas, EMI can be used
quickly but does not provide depth
estimates.
Ground penetrating radar is a key
tool used by law enforcement and
crime scene investigators for locating
evidence behind brick or concrete
walls, under wooden floors, or in
hidden compartments, including
clandestine burials and buried objects.
It can be used to identify disruptions
in soils, so even if the evidence
itself is difficult to resolve, simply
identifying that a hole was dug
Ground penetrating radar

is a key tool used by law
enforcement and crime
scene investigators for
locating evidence behind
brick or concrete walls,
under wooden floors, or
in hidden compartments,
including clandestine
burials and buried objects.
can point investigators in the right

direction. It can also rule out suspect
areas, which limits excavation, saving
time and money.
For forensic investigations,
GPR is typically used with a 400
MHz antenna (or one with a similar
frequency), which has a depth
range of up to 15 feet in ideal soil
conditions. This makes it perfect for
buried remains, whether formally or
expediently (hurriedly) buried. The
resolution of the 400 MHz antenna
is high enough to visualize evidence
as small as a loaf of bread in good
soils. Lower-frequency antennas reach
greater depths with less resolution,
so they can sometimes be used if the
buried evidence or remains are deeply
buried.
Rise in interest in cold cases

spurs use of GPR
The rising interest in cold case

investigation has brought with it an
increased use of advanced technology,
including geophysical methods.
For example, Steve Shiner
of the Henry C. Lee Institute of
Forensic Science, affiliated with
the University of New Haven in
West Haven Connecticut, says GPR

is being used for a variety of cold

cases. Investigators occasionally
obtain information on the location of
a clandestine gravesite and have to
go out to locate it. If the burial is old
enough, there may not be much more
than a stain or a hole left to identify.
Other cases may involve following up
on the possibility of buried evidence,
for example, a weapon, a shipping
container and in one case, artwork.
The Institute received a federal
grant for a variety of new technologies
and a mobile crime scene van, which
it makes available to Connecticut law
enforcement agencies. Equipment
with the van includes GPR systems, a
variety of imagers, X-ray equipment,
lasers, cameras, crime scene
processing equipment, and alternative
light sources.
The Institute has used GPR on
sites as consultants to the police
department, usually for cases
looking for buried bodies, weapons,
explosives, or various types of other
evidence. In one case, it was used to
look for artwork, jewelry, and other
fenced stolen items. They use a 400
MHz antenna, which Shiner says
works well in the 0 to 12 feet range.
Soils in the Northeast, Florida, and
the Northwest are very good for the
use of GPR. Once you get to the
central part of the country you get a
lot of mixed suitability. There were
several cases in Connecticut where
GPR was used to look for buried
bodies.
The Institute also provides
forensics training to University of
New Haven students, officers and
forensics scientists from around the
world and graduate students from
across the United States. Students
may participate in visiting scholar
programs, 6-month residencies,
as well as a variety of one-day,
weeklong, or specialized courses.
GPR training is one of the central
features of the Institutes courses.
To provide a real-life hands-on
training experience the Institute plants
graves with laboratory skeletons and
salts a 3-acre field with evidence,
like cartridge casings, knives, and
clothing. The evidence is planted in
11
the soil several months before the
class is scheduled so the soil can settle
naturally and the evidence can react
with the elements.
Using heavy excavation
equipment takes a lot of time and
expense and you may be ripping up a
lot of ground for nothing in return, so
using GPR helps screen areas before
bringing in the excavators, says
Shiner. We teach the students how
to use GPR to narrow down a large
area of interest to a smaller area. Once
the students identify where they think
the burials and buried evidence are
located, they excavate it.
The classes focus on showing
students how to operate the equipment
and interpret the data while in the
field. Learning how to move the
antenna over the topography and in
different survey conditions while
also interpreting the data in real time
is a skill that takes both training and
experience. Students without access
to GPR equipment are interested
in receiving hands-on instruction,

which they can take back to their own
agencies and countries.
Georgia agency uses GPR

for felony investigations
In addition to its use in training

the next generation of forensic
scientists, GPR is also employed by
law enforcement agencies in active
investigations around the country.
One example is the Georgia Bureau of
Investigation (GBI), an independent,
statewide agency that assists the
states criminal justice system with
felony investigations, forensic
laboratory services, and computerized
criminal justice information.
Eric Schwalls, a crime scene
specialist in GBIs investigative
division, explains that the division
obtained GPR a few years ago after
a local technical college closed and
its equipment (unopened and still in
boxes) was donated to state agencies.
Schwalls jumped at the chance to add
the equipment to his toolkit. Included

in the equipment cache was a system
from Geophysical Survey Systems,
Inc. (GSSI) with a 400 MHz antenna.
Training on the equipment at GSSIs
New Hampshire headquarters was
also part of the deal.
Since acquiring the system, only
two of the 30 crime scene specialists
have been trained on using the
GPR, which they have used to
search for clandestine graves, buried
vehicles, and Conex boxes (shipping
containers). We had one case where
information came in about a meth lab
underground in a Conex box buried
in a field, said Schwalls. There was
no visual above-ground evidence of
it being buried so we used the radar
to see if they had buried something.
Nothing was found there, so we could
confirm the lack of evidence rather
than having to dig out the entire field.
Schwalls confirms one of the
key benefits of GPR use that was
noted earlier: using GPR can speed
Eric Schwalls searches for buried cars and car parts using the GPR. Photo courtesy of Georgia Bureau of Investigation.
12

up an investigation by reducing or
eliminating the digging portion. If we
can tell there is nothing underground
there is no reason to dig. Scanning
a larger area tells investigators where
any anomalies may exist, narrowing
the dig site. Finding a lack of evidence
(negative data) is just as important
as finding positive data and the GPR
equipment is an important tool for this
purpose.
In one case Schwalls used the
GPR to search a vacant lot next to a
residence in North Georgia. The local
department had information that a
body may have been buried next door
to the residence or under a concrete
slab on the property. The GPR
displayed an anomaly at a depth of 4
to 5 feet but nothing was noted under
the concrete slab. The area where the
anomaly was located was dug up and
the local agency found buried asphalt
but no body. The scan saved the
local agency time and money; without
the use of GPR, the entire lot, along
with the concrete slab, would have
been excavated.
GPR has also been used in several
cases involving graveyards. In one
case, a church requested GBIs
assistance in determining whether
an open field next to the church had
previously been a cemetery. We
used the radar and discovered there
were graves in the field. There were
no headstones but we determined
it was actually a graveyard for that
church at one time. That church goes
back to about the 1800s and different
buildings have been built on and
around the property but by the time of
the request nobody knew that the field
had been a graveyard.
Schwalls also notes that GPR data
can be incorporated with data from
the GBIs Leica scanner, a measuring
tool that creates a crime scene or
structure in a 3D digital environment.
This is an exciting new development
in which subsurface radar data is
exported out of the GPR software and
goes through AutoCad into the Leica
software to tie it in with the Leica
3D model. Creative use of data like
this is becoming an important part of
forensic investigations.
Students are instructed in ground-penetrating radar theory and operation. Photo courtesy of Henry C. Lee
Institute of Forensic Science.
Still, Schwalls acknowledges that
GPR technology is expensive relative
to its niche uses. With only a dozen
cases over the past five years, he
does not think the GPR technology
is as cost effective as it could be,
especially given the cost of training
and equipment upgrades. As local
agencies discover the advantages of
using the GPR, they will avoid the
unnecessary expense of using heavy
equipment to excavate huge swaths
of land. Whenever GBI gets a crime
scene request mentioning a search for
buried bodies, they recommend the
use of the GPR rather than rushing
in to dig with a back hoe before they
arrive.
At present, the biggest hurdle
to incorporating GPR into an

investigation is having only two

trained GPR operators so leaving the
region for a case means the region is
unoccupied. We have had requests
where someone wanted us to come on
a particular day, due to search warrant
and time constraints. Both trained
operators were busy with other job
duties, so the agency had to dig up
an entire back yard for no reason.
Luckily, GBI now has approval to get
two more investigators trained and is
hoping to add funds to the budget in
the future for additional equipment.
Lessons learned from the GBI and

Henry C. Lee Institute
A few common themes emerge in the

discussions with the GBI and Henry
C. Lee Institute. First of all, it is clear
that integrating GPR with crime
13
scene investigation requires a certain
amount of expertise, which takes time
to develop. The ability to run a GPR
system, interpret the data, and provide
meaningful feedback for a crime
scene takes training and experience.
Developing expertise with any
geophysical tool may seem daunting if
the user does not know where to find
training or support.
Training is another important
theme, and Shiner and Schwalls offer
two different examples of paths that
can be taken. GPR manufacturers
offer training and support, but dont
always have someone in-house
familiar with forensic applications.
Manufacturer classes can range from
free, with the purchase of a GPR, to
several thousand dollars depending
on location and number of days.
Non-manufacturer-specific classes,
like those taught at the Henry C. Lee
Institute of Forensic Science, offer a
forensic-focused approach to learning
the geophysical methods. The cost for
14
Both training and infield use are necessary

to becoming an expert
in GPR and a crime scene
specialist should be able to
participate in both, as well
as have time in the field.
these varies highly based on location
and length of the class.
Both training and in-field use are
necessary to becoming an expert in
GPR and a crime scene specialist
should be able to participate in both,
as well as have time in the field.
There is not currently one class or
certification that a person can earn to
validate their knowledge of GPR for
use in crime scene investigation.

Another challenge is educating
the novice on how GPR and other
geophysical methods fit into the
forensics toolkit. An agency may not
solicit a geophysical investigation
if they do not understand how the
method works, or how it would
benefit their case.
Take the example Schwalls
presented of clearing areas of
suspected burials using GPR not
to make a positive identification
but to save time and money by not
having to excavate a large area.
An important part of integrating
geophysical methods into crime
scene investigation is educating
the non-users on which cases, or
circumstances, may benefit from these
tools. A more concerted effort should
be made within the industry to educate
or guide people through the process of
deciding whether use of geophysical
methods is warranted on a case by
case basis.

Finally, the last hurdle to
integrating geophysical methods,
and sometimes the biggest, is
funding. A GPR suitable for forensic
investigations will cost between
$10,000-25,000, making it an
investment. This system typically
includes a control unit that powers
the system and provides a screen
for viewing the data in the field for
real-time identification, a 400 MHz,
or similar frequency antenna that
provides a high enough resolution
image for most clandestine burials,
and a cart or survey wheel for tracking
distance.
Schwalls explained that their GPR
system is used sporadically over the
course of the year, even though they
cover an entire region and not just one
city or county. More education within
the region could increase GPR use,
but it can be challenging to support
the purchase of a system if it will
only get used a couple of times a year.
Schwalls has been called upon to use
As more case studies are

developed and shared that
show the benefits of using
geophysical methods in
crime scene investigation,
finding funding will
become less of a hurdle.
the GPR in different states and outside
of his region. Collaboration with other
agencies or universities is a good way
to not only share expertise, but also
share funding.
The use of GPR in forensic
investigations shows great promise,
but tends to remain challenging for a
local municipality or county due to
budgetary concerns. More success is

reported if there is a regional focus or

in densely populated areas, like New
York City, or Miami-Dade in Florida.
As more case studies are developed
and shared that show the benefits of
using geophysical methods in crime
scene investigation, finding funding
will become less of a hurdle. When
agencies learn about the benefits of
GPR in finding evidence and saving
money on large area excavations, its
use is sure to grow.
About the Author

Sara Gale is an Application Specialist and
Technical Trainer for Geophysical Survey
Systems, Inc (GSSI), the world leader in
ground penetrating radar. Sara has 15 years
of experience with ground penetrating radar
in the archaeology and forensic science fields,
and her Masters in Anthropology from the
University of Denver focused on the application
of geophysical methods prior to excavation.
Sara actively participates in a number of
professional archaeology and forensics groups
and volunteer associations.
15
Planning
a Digital Forensics Lab
SO, YOU WANT TO BUILD A DIGITAL FORENSICS LAB? Maybe you have been tasked
with researching how to put together a lab or maybe you have to actually do it but simply
dont know where to begin. Well, we are going to explore some options at your disposal
and give you a basic foundation on some of the issues you will need to consider.
Scope of Lab
The first step in this process should

be to define the scope of your lab.
Will this lab be a full-service digital
forensics lab that handles all types of
devices and case work, or will it be a
lab that is focused on one particular
niche such as mobile forensics? If
you first define the scope of your lab
then you will be better able to address
exactly what issues you need to
consider and to what extent they will
be relevant for your lab. In addition,
you should also consider scope creep
and the adding of services in the
future. You may want to prepare and
plan now for these things instead of
finding out that your initial lab setup
will not be sufficient down the road
when you will not be able to enhance
or expand your lab without major
effort and/or expense.
Lab Location and Space Requirements
16
Now you have a rough idea of the

scope of your lab. The next thing
to consider is space and location.
You need a location to provide
adequate space for your forensic
staff, work areas, evidence storage,
documentation, and equipment and
tool storage. Also, is the lab going to
double as the primary work area for
one or more individuals? If for more
than one, then you will likely need
additional space to handle secondary
computers, file folders, miscellaneous
office supplies, and personal items.
If possible, leave yourself additional
space even if you dont think you will
need it. Rarely do people complain
about having too much space and it
can be very painful and expensive if

you end up having to work in close
quarters or if you have to relocate
your lab at some point. These issues
will become more apparent as we
continue to discuss all the variables
that go into a fully functional and
properly equipped lab.
The location of your lab can also
be very important and it is something
that needs to be discussed. Will you
be storing evidence in the lab? If not,
where is your evidence stored and
how convenient will it be to shuttle
evidence around? Chain-of-custody
issues need to be considered as
well as the increased likelihood that
evidence could be lost, misplaced,
or damaged while in transit. You
may also want to consider who your
main clients are for your lab. Will
the lab be convenient for them and
does this matter? Location of your
lab may also have a large impact
on some of the upcoming topics we
will be reviewing, such as network
connectivity, environmental controls,
power requirements, and security
controls.
Once you have a location selected,
then the fun of designing the layout
of the lab begins. There are several
important issues to consider in
your design, which should include
the location of workstations, work
benches, power outlets, network
ports, cabinets, and storage bins.
Other things to consider may include
height-adjustable workstations, wallmounted monitors, portable clean
room, Faraday cage, and fume hood if
you are going to be doing JTAG and
chip-off processing. Also, dont forget
Written by Andr Champagne
to install a wireless phone system so

you can move freely around your lab
while talking with clients, colleagues,
and vendors.
Environmental Controls
Regulating the environment of

your lab can be a critical element
that you dont want to overlook.
Improper temperature and humidity
can cause damage to your expensive
forensic equipment as well as the
evidence that you introduce into
your lab. Implementing temperature
and humidity controls is highly
recommended if at all possible. In
addition to these controls, use proper
materials when building your lab
to include anti-static flooring and
countertops and sufficient lighting
for the entire lab and individual
workstation areas. One final item
to address is power. Plan properly
so that you have adequate power,
conditioned power, and emergency
power. Large-scale building UPS
systems are preferred but they are
expensive and likely can only be
implemented if the lab is being built
as part of a much larger facility. At a
minimum, look at rack-mounted UPS
devices for your network equipment
and stand-alone UPS units for your
workstations.
Software and Hardware Tools
Now we revisit the purpose of your

lab and what types of evidence items
you will be examining. Having the
proper software and hardware is
critical to your operations. What types
of devices will you be examining

D I G I T A L
(PCs, servers, tablets, smartphones,
USB drives, DVRs, game consoles)?
What types of operating systems and
file systems will you need to examine?
Will these include Windows, Mac/
iOS, Linux/Unix, Android, Chrome,
NTFS, FAT, YAFFS, and EXT?
On top of these things you will
need to consider even more granular
processing that may be required,
such as exploring SQL databases,
viewing PLIST files, handling EXIF
information, and capturing live
memory to name just a few. One final
area that should not be overlooked is
your ability to extract, export, search,
and convert different types of data.
Most labs need robust utilities to
handle these operations. One such
example is having the ability to search
through email files and export results
to PST, EML, or MSG file types.
Once you have a handle on the
extent of your labs capabilities
then you can start identifying the
appropriate software applications
and hardware devices you will need.
Some of your software will likely
be commercial in nature while
some of it will be open source or
freeware (many useful tools can be
downloaded for free). I would highly
recommend that you spend time
researching your software tools, talk
with others in the forensic community
for recommendations, and contact
vendors for trial versions of their
products. Software can get very
expensive so do your due diligence
before making your purchases.
A variety of hardware tools will
also need to be considered for your
lab. Some of these items will include
forensic bridges (write blockers),
forensic duplicators (imaging tools),
data wiping/sanitation devices,
forensic workstations, and media
docking stations. Of course, you will
also need a wide variety of cables,
adapters, traditional tool kits, and
specialized tool kits for working on
the variety of evidence items that you
will be subjected to. Depending on
the services your lab will provide you
may also need additional hardware for
JTAG and chip-off processing, mobile
device repair and data recovery.
F O R E N S I C S
Storage
Once you acquire your evidence

into a forensic image file then where
will this image file be stored? Who
will need to access the image files
and where will they need to be
accessed? Will you store image files
on individual hard drives, on your
forensic workstations, on a network
storage device, or some hybrid?
Storing (short term) and archiving
(long term) your data are extremely
important items for you to address.
The methods you deploy for
storing and archiving can affect the
efficiency of your lab, chain-ofcustody, security auditing, and data
integrity. Two of the most common
methods for storing data today are
the use of individual hard drives and
network storage devices. Both have
their advantages and disadvantages.
Some advantages of network storage
include the ease of access, ability to
set up automated backups, and the
ability to keep large amounts of data
accessible at any given time. Some
possible disadvantages of network
storage include security concerns
and infrastructure costs. Weigh the
pros and cons of each solution you
consider.
As we all know, the size of data
storage devices is increasing rapidly
and this means that labs need to
handle larger volumes of data. Your
storage strategy should be flexible
and easily expandable so that you
can handle future storage demands.
It is important that you research
storage options carefully before
implementing a storage and archiving
strategy.
Data Network
One item that is often debated in

forensic circles is how to approach
the implementation of data networks
within a digital forensic environment.
As with most issues we have
covered, the answer to this is going
to be specific to how you approach
your operations. Many times
your IT policies and management
philosophies will dictate the type of
network that will be implemented.

Best practice is for your digital

forensics lab to have a stand-alone
network consisting of its own cabling,
switch, and router. This lab-specific
network will allow all devices within
the lab to communicate with each
other in a secure environment while
allowing connectivity to the existing
corporate network infrastructure and
Internet through specific secured
ports and protocols. Implementing
a lab-specific network can be done
relatively inexpensively depending on
the type of hardware you choose to
implement and the installation costs
for cabling.
Another thing to consider in your
lab is the implementation of virtual
machines on your workstations.
Virtual machines can provide
you with a wealth of additional
functionality to include a rich testing
environment but they can also provide
you with additional networking
options. A virtual machine can be
configured to use the Internet, allow
you to do research, and give you
the ability to download files and
then share information to your host
workstation. The virtual machine
can have multiple layers of security
applied to it, including attaching the
virtual machine to its own network
interface card (NIC). This area can
get quite complex and you certainly
want to have someone with extensive
knowledge of networking and virtual
machines configure such a system.
The main thing to understand is that
virtual machines are an additional
option that may provide benefit for
some labs.
Security Controls
Security is a topic of great concern

in our world and it should not be
overlooked when implementing your
lab. If you plan on seeking a lab
accreditation at some point, then this
is going to be a topic of considerable
importance to you.
Security comes in many forms and
the two most important ones for your
lab will be physical security and data
security. Data security was briefly
mentioned earlier and it deals with
making sure the digital information
17
D I G I T A L
your lab processes and produces
is secured. Data security includes
securing the data on its storage
medium, securing the data while in
transport across the network, auditing
the access of this data, limiting the
access of this data to authorized
individuals, and ensuring the integrity
of the data.
Physical security is securing your
physical environment. One key part
of your physical security plan needs
to be identifying which areas are
considered secure areas. Physical
security includes limiting physical
access to the lab and evidence
items (authorized individuals only),
placing security controls on doors,
implementing man traps, maintaining
logs of all individuals entering
secured areas, and implementing
video surveillance where necessary.
When defining your secured areas, be
sure to consider areas where network
and storage devices are kept. If these
areas are accessed, then your data and
18
F O R E N S I C S
Dont be afraid and open

your mind to the concept
of accreditation in digital
forensics.
entire network infrastructure can be
compromised.
Accreditation
The dreaded word accreditation

is finally here. Many will scoff at
the mere mention of this word and
horrifying images will pop into their
heads. Dont be afraid and open your
mind to the concept of accreditation
in digital forensics. Accreditation
is certainly something that requires
effort and can get costly for some.
The cost factor can be greatly reduced
by simply designing and managing

your lab in a way that is compatible
with most accreditation standards.
If you have an existing lab then
implementing the proper standards
can get expensive depending on your
lab layout, physical location, and
current security controls.
The item that scares people most
when it comes to accreditation is the
requirement for strict policies and
procedures and making sure staff
adhere to them. Part of this process
includes validating tools, which many
labs currently do not do. To many in
the digital forensics community most
of the accreditation requirements
seem like they have no value and are
a waste of time. There certainly hasnt
been a big push for digital forensic
labs to get accredited in recent years.
Now, on to the bad news for those
of you who dont want or dont agree
with accreditation: it is coming to
your neck of the woods. Like most
things, the accreditation of digital

D I G I T A L
forensic labs will be a slow process
but over time it will likely become
a necessity for most. As attorneys,
judges, and the general public
become more educated on digital
forensics, the pressure to elevate the
standards in digital forensic labs is
going to grow. Can anyone imagine
DNA evidence being submitted to
a criminal court that didnt come
from an accredited lab? It is only a
matter of time until most, if not all,
digital forensic labs (especially in
the government sector) will need
to be accredited or have most all of
the same standards in place that are
required for accreditation.
Lab Management
Now that your lab is operational,

the key to success is dependent on
how it is managed. Some of the key
lab management issues to consider
include:
Choose a lab manager
Implement policies and procedures

for forensic analysis and reporting
F O R E N S I C S
Think of your lab as a new

home. If it is managed well
and maintained properly it
will last you a lifetime.
Implement a 1-, 3-, and 5-year
budget plan for the lab
Think of your lab as a new home.
If it is managed well and maintained
properly it will last you a lifetime
but if you leave the windows open,
let the appliances fall apart, and
ignore the leaky roof, then you are
going to have major issues. You
should take proper care of your lab by
making sure tools are maintained and
upgraded, new tools are implemented
as needed, policies adhered to, and
staff skills are kept current through a
robust training program. At the end

of the day it isnt your fancy software
applications and cool hardware
devices that will determine your
success, but rather the people who use
them.
This article is a high-level outline
and not all-inclusive. More detailed
lab guidelines and checklists can be
obtained by contacting the author
directly.
About the Author

Andr Champagne is currently a forensic
investigator for the Wright County (Minnesota)
Sheriffs Office. He has more than 20 years of
experience in public safety IT and forensics.
He holds numerous forensic certifications
(CFCE, ACE, CME, others), has served on the
Minnesota HTCIA board and currently serves
on the Century College Computer Forensics
Advisory Board (2009-Present).
andre.champagne@live.com
Adhere to policies and procedures

Implement standard naming
conventions for images, files, and
reports
Implement standard reporting
templates
Implement an evidence inventory

system
Implement a lab inventory system

for tools, hardware and software
Conduct a yearly audit on lab
inventory and track maintenance
contracts
Implement a case management
system
Implement a training policy
Implement a security review

policy
Implement a software and
hardware validation policy
Implement policies and procedures

for data storage and archiving to
include at least annual testing of
data backup systems

19
A comparison of a nail-to-nail rolled impression (left) and a rolled impression (right).
Raising Your
Standards
Capturing Known Friction Ridge Print Standards
of Best Possible Quality
Written by Donald J Frost II
LATENT PRINT EVIDENCE IS ONE OF THE MOST PIVOTAL TYPES OF EVIDENCE in crime
scene investigations. There are classes, seminars, conferences, and publications about
the nature of latent prints and about different techniques and tools for their successful
recovery and comparison. But at the end of the day, when all the tools and techniques
are applied, we should be mindful of the real reason we are recovering those latents. That
reason, of course, is so that the latent print evidence can be compared to something
and that something is known friction ridge print standards. A known friction ridge print
standard is kind of the yang to the yin of latent print evidence. Neither really has much
value without the other.
20
When latent print examiners are

working on comparisons, there is
usually little thought given to the
known friction ridge print standard.
The focus tends to be weighted to the
latent print, which traditionally is the
poorer-quality print being compared.
However, when the known print
has poor quality, lacking the clarity
and detail needed to complete the
comparison, we are reminded of the
importance of known print standard
quality.

F I N G E R P R I N T S
Think about how many times you
have started working on a comparison
of a latent print to a known print
and realized that your latent actually
has much clearer detail than the
known standard. Sometimes the
known standard quality is so poor
that you cant even make an ident,
having to declare the comparison
inconclusive. Its incredibly
frustrating; both to the point that it is
preventing you from doing your job in
solving a crime and also to the point
that it probably should almost never
happen in the first place. It is true that
there are legitimate exceptions to the
second point, such as finger, hand, or
skin deformities or injuries (or simply
an uncooperative person), all of which
are influences not in the control of
the person obtaining the known print
standard. However, many of the
poor-quality known prints are simply
the result of operator erroreasily
corrected with a little knowledge and
effort. This article will discuss some
of those factors that are within the
control of the person obtaining the
known print standard.
The Importance of Print Standards
Known friction ridge print standards

may be obtained for a variety of
reasons, including but not limited
to the booking of arrested persons
(typically a full ten-print card and
sometimes palm prints or full case
prints). Known print standards might
also be obtained for the summons and
release of offenders for less serious
Many poor-quality known

prints are simply the result
of operator erroreasily
corrected with a little
knowledge and effort.
accepts the scanned print, then it

is sufficient. This mindset can lead
to known print standards that have
dark blotches or light areas or voids
obscuring important print detail.
Many of the latents we work with
are far from perfect or complete. If a
clear, readable area on a latent print
has a corresponding poor-quality area
on the known print standard (such as
the latent print consists solely of a
clear delta but the delta on the known
print is light, smudged, or missing),
completing the comparison can be
difficult or even impossible. The
more of the known friction ridge print
that is clearly captured, the better the
chances are that it can be successfully
compared to a latent print.
Utilizing Proper Technique

charges (a single fingerprint obtained
on a specified area of a citation or
summons). Also, non-criminal
known prints might be needed for use
as the elimination prints of victims
who were in proximity to the crime
scene.
Many persons obtaining known
print standards (booking officers,
street officers, detectives) are
unfamiliar with the comparison
process and are simply unaware
of the importance of high-quality
print standards. The assumption is
often that if there is some clear ridge
detail in some or most of the print
or if the digital scanning software
The first and easiest problem to

overcome is simple technique. The
person obtaining the known print
standard is responsible to work with a
cooperative subject in such a manner
as to obtain the best possible prints.
This involves taking an extra few
seconds to explain the process ahead
of time and encourage that person to
relax and allow the booking officer
to do the work. Cooperative subjects
may be nervous and unconsciously
tense up, making it difficult to
manipulate their hands or digits,
or they may be overly helpful and
attempt to assist by rolling their own
fingers or pressing down on the print
card, both of which can actually lead
to poorer-quality prints. Moderate
A perfect example of a poor fingerprint

standard: The ten-print card failed to
capture the bottom third of almost every finger on the entire left hand. Most
notably, the left ring finger has a whorl
pattern, which means it has two deltas
below the core. On this ten-print card,
the left delta of that finger is missing in
both the rolled print and the slap print.
Unfortunately, in this case, the left delta
was the most prominent part of a latent
taken from a crime scene. Thus, the examiner was unable to either confirm or
eliminate this individual as the source of
the latent form the scene.

21
Because excessive sweat, dry skin, or soiled hands
can affect the quality of a print, a live scan station
should be stocked with paper towels (for removing
excess moisture) and pre-moistened wipes (for
cleaning and adding moisture).
pressure should be used when

obtaining the known print (to prevent
the friction ridges from flattening out
and touching each other, which can
happen under excessive pressure).
Fingers should be rolled as close to
nail-bed to nail-bed as possible
(one edge of the fingernail across
the dermis at the digital pulp to the
opposite edge of the same fingernail).
Using one of your fingers from your
free hand, apply slight downward
pressure on the fingernail of the finger
being rolled near the tip of the finger.
The additional pressure near the top
of the nail bed reduces the common
u shaped voids that can appear at
the top of some fingerprints. For inked
plain impression palm prints, the hand
should be rocked backwards slightly
towards the wrist just prior to its
removal from the print card to capture
ridge detail at the very bottom of the
palm where thenar and hyper-thenar
meet the wrist. Practicing by printing
your co-workers, interns, and police
ride-alongs may sound a little silly but
can actually be an effective means of
improving technique.
Methods of Capture
22
Now, lets look at mechanical factors
affecting known print capture. The

two most common methods of
obtaining known prints for booking
purposes are ink (analog) printing
and digital scanning (often referred
to as live scan). Live scan is edging
out ink in popularity for booking
prisoners, and some agencies may
no longer even have the capability
or equipment to book arrestees with
ink. While the live scan method is
arguably easier, faster, and cleaner,
some difficult prints can still be
captured more effectively with ink (so
dont be so quick to pitch those tubes
of ink, ink rollers, and bottles of slab
cleaner).
Standard ink printing is typically
accomplished in one of two ways:
utilizing ink rolled out into a thin
film onto a glass or metal platen,
or using a portable pre-inked pad.
(Portable ink pads are also used as
a means of ink capture at the street
level for summonses citations.)
Another version of ink capture used
for elimination prints is commonly
referred to as inkless printing. Inkless
print kits are available through
most vendors and consist of a
pre-moistened pad (treated with an
invisible fluid) and a stack of ten-print
sheets of specially treated paper. The

finger is rolled across the pad just like
normal ink capture and then rolled
onto a specially treated paper ten-print
card. The treated paper reacts with the
liquid reagent turning black in color
where contact is made, mimicking the
effects of normal inked printing.
Probably one of the least-known
and most under-utilized methods of
known analog print capture is latent
print capture. Instead of applying ink
to the persons fingers or palms, that
person simply provides a latent print
impression. Latent print capture, while
not advisable for booking prints, can
be sufficient for elimination prints
and in an emergency for summonses
if an ink pad is not available. While
known latent prints may not be the
best practice for summonses, it can
yield a high-quality known print when
processed soon after with magnetic
fingerprint powder (and is certainly
better than acquiring no print at all).
Elimination fingerprints and palm
prints from victims can be captured
by having them rub their forehead and
face with their hands and depositing
their latent prints on clean printer
paper, acetate sheets, or large hinge
lifts and processing those prints with
fingerprint powder and covering
them with lift tape or hinge lift tops.
Obtaining their known latent prints
allows them to stay clean (no messy
ink) and requires fewer supplies be
transported to the scene. One simply
has to be careful not to overlap the
latent prints since they are difficult to
see prior to processing.
Quality Control
Regardless of which method of

friction ridge print capture is used,
there are several factors that affect the
friction ridges themselves which can
influence the quality of their capture.
These factors include moisture content

Left: In lieu of a palm-roller station, a paper towel roll can be used to

assist with producing inked palm prints.
Above: Fingers should be rolled as close to nail-bed to nail-bed as
possible (one edge of the fingernail across the dermis at the digital pulp to
the opposite edge of the same fingernail).
(too little moisture with dry skin or

too much moisture with excessive
secretion), foreign contaminants, and
shallow ridges. Theyre easy factors to
address, but awareness is the numberone key.
Visually inspect the friction
ridge skin before proceeding with
any printing technique. Excessive
sweat, very dry skin, or soiled hands
can impede any of the methods
weve discussed (but are usually
easy to spot and remedy). Having
the person simply wash their hands
can often help alleviate these issues.
Contaminant and secretion removal
are obvious benefits of washing hands,
but hand washing also introduces
moisture to the friction ridges of dry
skin, and even after the hands are
dried, some moisture is retained for
a time. In cases where hand washing

is unavailable, the use of moist
towelettes or baby wipes can work
surprisingly well for cleaning and rehydrating dry skin. Having the person
clutch an article of their clothing or a
paper towel between each print rolled
can help alleviate excessive secretion.
Sometimes a person being
fingerprinted will have very shallow
ridges which can make it more
difficult to capture good prints.
Shallow or worn ridges can also
usually be identified during visual
inspection. The person being
fingerprinted may even volunteer
this information (They usually have
trouble getting my prints). There are
commercially available fluids and
lotions to help alleviate this problem
called ridge-builders. Ridge builders

temporarily raise the friction ridges

allowing them to more fully contact
the fingerprinting mediums.
If you are attempting to obtain
known print standards with standard
inking, there are a few things you
can do to ensure you get the highest
possible quality impressions. First,
make sure to start with a clean platen
and roll out a minimal amount of fresh
ink. Its a temptation to leave ink on
the platen from a previous printing
and then attempt to freshen it up with
additional ink the next time you need
to print someone. Applying new ink
over the previous ink layer can allow
the friction ridges to sink down deeper
into the new ink before stopping at the
platen, which increases the amount of
ink intruding into the valleys of the
skin between the friction ridges. Too
23
These images show three impressions of the same fingerprint under

different moisture conditions: (top)
Good detail resulted from ideal
moisture on the finger; (center) Too
much moisture resulted in a very
dark impression; (bottom) Excessive dryness resulted in a very light
impression with too little detail.
24
much ink depth can produce bleedover inking between the ridges on the
ten-print card and obscure ridge detail.
Next, whether you are taking
fingerprints or palm prints, obtain
a test print on a blank card to see if
the ink and the friction ridges will
reproduce an acceptable impression.
Once you have made any necessary
adjustments to the friction ridge skin,
and to the fingerprinting equipment
and materials, you can proceed with
the printing.
Fingerprints are often captured in
two fashions: rolled impressions and
plain impressions (sometimes called
slap prints). Inked palm prints can
also be captured in two fashions as
well: a rolled impression on a palmroller station (a fixed inked drum and
a fixed drum card holder for the print
card) and then on a flat table as a
plain or slap impression (just like the
ten-print card). If your agency lacks
a palm-roller station for the rolled
print, the hands can be inked with the
handheld ink roller and any round
cylinder of appropriate size can be
used as a card holder, such as a large
aerosol can or paper towel roll. The
plain impressions can be improved
by placing a small piece of folded
paper towel under the middle of the
palm print card. This will cause the
middle of the card to push up slightly
into the palm, increasing the amount
of friction ridge detail recorded at the
center of the palm.
If you are attempting to obtain
known friction ridge prints with a
live scan system, there are a few
things you can do to ensure you
get the highest quality possible
impressions. First, make sure to start
with a clean glass platen. A simple
spray glass cleaner and soft cloth
rag will be all you need to keep
the platen clean. You may need to
wipe the platen clean of latent print
residue between each impression.
Keep a roll of paper towels and a
container of pre-moistened wipes
or towelettes in the work area for
moisture control of the skin. The live
scan system is extremely sensitive
to the moisture in the friction ridge
skin. Too little moisture will result in

the print being too light and having
gaps in the friction ridges. Too much
moisture will result in the ridge detail
bleeding over (just like with too much
ink). Keeping the skin at the proper
moisture in a similar manner as the
inked printing takes a little effort
but is not difficult. Plus, with a live
scan system, you can see your print
impression before its captured.
About the Author

Donald J Frost II is a sworn officer with the Akron (Ohio) Police Department Crime Scene Unit. He
is a Master Evidence Technician and has worked as a full time crime scene detective for 14 years.
He was a guest instructor with the Ohio Peace Officer Training Academy for eight years and is
currently a certified instructor with the Akron Police Department Training Bureau for police
academies.
DFrost@akronohio.gov
Digital Photography for Print Capture
Finally, we should at least mention

digital photography as an option.
It would likely only be attempted
when all other techniques fail. (The
technical aspects involved in terms of
lighting and post-image production
to convert the photographic images
to usable known print standards is
very much its own animal, and would
definitely need to be addressed in
detail in a completely separate article.)
Known print standard quality is a
subject that actually transcends the
forensic community and spans nearly
the entirety of law enforcement, so
spread the word! Increased efforts
will always yield an improved work
product. No matter what capacity we
serve in law enforcement, whether
as a street officer, a case detective, a
booking officer, or a print examiner,
we have a duty to do our best work
at all times. That includes attempting
to capture high-quality known print
standards. A prosecutors objective
is to serve justice so that guilt shall
not escape or innocence suffer.
This mantra really applies to all of
us who work to bring the case to
the prosecutor. We owe it to our
community, our agency, and ourselves
to put forth our very best effort in such
a manner as we would expect from
others in our profession if we or our
loved ones were ever the victims of a
crime. When we do less than our best,
we fail justice, we fail our community,
we fail our profession, we fail our
co-workers, and we fail ourselves.
However, when we consistently put
forth our best effort, greater success
will be our new standard.

25
NEW BOOK
Expert Q&A
Jane Moira Taupin
author of Using Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial:

A Case Study Approach
Jane Taupin has worked as a forensic scientist for three decades, serving police agencies in Australia and the
United Kingdom. She began working with DNA evidence in 1999, and has worked as an independent consultant since 2011. After graduating with a science honors degree, Taupin was employed by the University
of Melbourne and an associated teaching hospital as a medical researcher in immunology and haematology
(hypertension and cancer fields). She left that position to join the Australian Federal Police where she was a
constable and then detective, seconded for a time working on neutron activation analysis on criminal cases.
Taupin was then employed as a scientist for the Victoria Police where she examined and reported forensic
biology evidence in criminal cases, attended crimes scenes for biological evidence, and testified in court.
Studying part time in the criminology field at the University of Melbourne, Taupin received a post graduate
diploma and then a Masters by research with her thesis, The Impact of DNA profiling on the criminal justice
system, one of the first in the field. During her time in England, Taupin was also a senior reporting scientist
performing similar work. Taupin has published many forensic journal papers and texts, and has given lectures in Australia, England, Ireland, Japan, Qatar, Bahrain, South Korea, and the United States. She has won
forensic science awards from the governments of Australia, Japan, and England.
EVIDENCE TECHNOLOGY: What is the greatest
strength of DNA evidence?
JANE TAUPIN: The power of discrimination. That is, the
potential to exclude individuals from donating a biological
deposit. When I first started biological casework, the scientific tests usedsuch as ABO groupinghad very low
discrimination power. The introduction of DNA profiling
revolutionized the value of biological evidence.
ETM: What is its greatest limitation?
TAUPIN: Its mystical aura that conveys the perception
of infallibility. DNA profiling is a scientific test, subject
to assumptions and limitations, and is just one part of an
investigation.
ETM: Name a couple of issues that frequently arise when
DNA evidence is brought to trial.
26
TAUPIN: Quality issues, mainly contamination. This
concern may particularly arise in the re-examination of

cold cases where items had previously been examined
in conditions not subject to the strict laboratory controls
required today.
Also, transfer issues: How did the DNA get there? Could
it have arrived via innocent means? Or even via contamination (see above)? A DNA profile alone cannot determine
when or how the DNA was deposited.
Another issue is the interpretation of low template DNA,
when there may also be partial results or mixtures of two
or more people. The interpretation of such small amounts
with a DNA profile that may not faithfully reflect the DNA
of the proposed donor has been problematic for years.
Whether and how it should be done is a matter of controversyespecially when computer programs with trade-secret commercial codes are used.
Continued on Page 29

National Institute of Justice Publishes Landmark

Report on 3D Crime Scene Scanning Devices
Jan. 26, 2016 - Today the National Institute of Justice the research, development and technology evaluation arm
of the U.S. Department of Justice published the results of its long-anticipated report titled Landscape Study on
3D Crime Scene Scanning Devices. Two years in the making, the study was conducted by RTI International, one of
the worlds leading research institutes, and was published by RTIs Forensic Technology Center of Excellence. A
total of six laser scanner manufacturers were included in the study.
While the report stops short of recommending any one particular
vendors product over another, it is noteworthy that a Leica ScanSta
ScanStation appears on the cover of the original report issued in January
(pictured here). A revised version of the report issued in March, uses
data from a Leica ScanStation on the cover. Two separate sections
of the 56-page study provide detailed insights into the authors
consensus opinion as to the most critical factors that crime and
crash scene investigators should consider when selecting scanning
equipment for use at a scenes. If compiled into a checklist, these
factors effectively describe the features and benefits found in the
Leica Geosystems ScanStation PS30 and PS40 laser scanners.
Three examples from the report are cited below:
RTIs report as issued on 26 January, 2016
Error and accuracy are critical aspects in verifying that

the scanner selected for purchase has the capabilities to
produce the survey-grade measurements using sound
methodology that will stand up against Daubert or Frye
hearings in court proceedings. [p. 41]
The report provides an example methodology for forensic surveying and emphasizes the importance of both
survey-grade measurements and scientifically accurate data. The implication is that not all laser scanners
can produce survey-grade measurements. While almost all laser scanners can produce scan data suitable as
demonstrative evidence, not all laser scanners are capable of producing scientific evidence that expert opinions
should be based upon. Its worth noting, however, that all Leica ScanStations do produce survey-grade measurements. The reference to Daubert is both telling and crucial because some manufacturers dont publish the
accuracy of their products, making it difficult to understand how investigators eventually testifying about those
scanners could survive a Daubert challenge which requires a known or potential error rate. The work of Greg
Walsh of Leica Geosystems (the system architect of the ScanStation) was cited in the RTI report for his 2015
presentation on measurement errors within point clouds at a NIST sponsored symposium on forensic error
management. Dr. Walsh was one of two Leica Geosystems expert witnesses involved in the 2013 federal trial
that resulted in United States Magistrate Judge Gregory B. Wormuth issuing this Daubert ruling on the scientific
and technical validity of Leica ScanStation evidence.
psg.leica-geosystems.us
N E W
Continued from Page 26
ETM: What can laboratories do to
avoid confirmation bias and contextual bias?
TAUPIN: The use of the scientific
method in examinations should be
emphasized. The scientific method
involves proposing a hypothesis,
experiments to test that hypothesis,
and obtaining results that support, refute, or are inconclusive. Alternative
hypotheses should always be proposednot just the one proposed by
the investigator or even the scientist.
B O O K
secondary or higher transfer of DNA

must always be considered. A number
of papers published in the recent few
years have highlighted the issue.
You can find an excerpt from Taupins new book,

Using Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial: A Case Study Approach
on Page 30 of this issue.
A recipe-based approach is unsuited

to forensic disciplines. A test result
must be based on science principles
using the scientific method, interpreted in the context of the case, and with
assumptions and limitations at the
forefront.
Peer review of the case file by another
scientist with the scientific method
as one of the core checking criteria
would assist before reporting of any
result.
ETM: In this issue, we are sharing
an excerpt on Mechanisms of DNA
Transfer from your new book, Using
Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial. Can
you talk a little about transfer from a
forensic scientists perspective?
TAUPIN: Transfer has always been

considered as one of the principle
theories used in forensic science. The
finding of visible stains such as blood
led to the discipline of blood pattern
analysis and the concept of contact/
transfer stains versus projected stains.
Direct transfer of material that results
in visible stains and deposits has
always been the consideration of biological fluid and other forensic material. Secondary and higher transfer of
fibers and other visible trace material
has been discussed in the literature.
Secondary transfer was in fact discussed in the first article that found
DNA could be detected from objects
touched by hands (van Oorschot and
Jones, 1997, Nature), where there was
no visible material. It has only been
recently recognized in the forensic
community that the possibility of

29
F O R E N S I C
D N A
Mechanisms
of DNA Transfer
An excerpt from
Using Forensic DNA Evidence at Trial
Written by Jane Moira Taupin
DNA may be deposited directly on an item which

is called direct or primary transfer. DNA may also
be deposited on an item indirectly through an
intermediary item/s (termed secondary, tertiary
or higher level transfer), where there has been no
physical contact between the original depositor
and the final surface on which the DNA profile was
located. Direct, or primary, transfer includes contact
but also includes activities within the vicinity of
an item such as speaking, coughing and sneezing
(Meakin and Jamieson, 2013).
Secondary transfer occurs when a material deposited on an item or person is then transferred to
another item or person or onto a different place on
the same item/person. There has been no physical
contact between the original depositor and the
final surface on which the material is located. Any
biological substance such as blood, semen, hair, saliva and urine can be transferred like this. Different
levels of transfer are depicted in Figure 3.1.
Click Here to learn more

or to get information on
purchasing this book.
The first study on trace DNA transfer showed

that DNA can be recovered from objects touched
by hands (van Oorschot and Jones, 1997). The
finding regarding touched objects has been much
discussed due to its investigative potential. The
other findings in this study are just as valuable. Volunteers handling tubes had their hands swabbed,
and DNA profiles were observed that matched the
previous holders of the tube the volunteers had
not contacted each other. Tubes held for a short
time by a second or third person usually provided
the DNA profile of the last holder but also provided
the DNA of previous holders. The study showed that
DNA may be transferred from hand to object
(direct transfer) and then from object to hand
(secondary transfer)
There may be no physical contact between
30

F O R E N S I C
D N A
the original depositor and the final surface on

which the DNA profile was located (secondary
transfer)
DNA yields from tubes held for varying lengths
of time (5 and 30 seconds; 3 and 10 minutes)
did not vary significantly indicating substantial
transfer during initial contact
Hands swabbed before and after a 1 minute
handshake revealed the transfer of DNA from
one individual to another in one of the four
hands tested thus DNA was not always
transferred
Genetic profiles from objects handled by several
people or from minute blood stains on touched
objects may be difficult to interpret
There is a need for caution when handling
exhibits and interpreting results
Figure 3.2 shows pathways of hand transfer of
DNA. A biological substance that has been transferred multiple times, if detectable, may appear
as components of complex DNA profiles. This is
because the vectors (such as hands or implements)
aiding the transfer, and/or the substrate from
which it is ultimately collected, may also bear DNA
(Goray et al., 2010).
Sometimes the vector may not bear DNA and
this could complicate interpretation even further. A
study (Fonnelop et al., 2015) found that there could
be tertiary transfer when there was no indication of
a previous transfer (either direct or indirect.
There is still limited knowledge concerning
conditions that may influence secondary or higher
transfer. One scientist (Champod, 2013) recently
reiterated that there is a need for forensic scientists to highlight how little is known about DNA
transfer mechanisms. Several factors may influence
secondary or higher transfer of DNA. These include
the type of biological substance deposited, the
nature of the primary and secondary substrate,
the moisture content of the deposit and the type
of contact between the surfaces. These factors are
those typically considered in the transfer of trace
material in general.
FIGURE 3.1Levels of transfer. Note: Items may transfer material back to the previous
items.
FIGURE 3.2Pathways of hand transfer. Diagram of handing a plastic tube

consecutive. The hand of person 1 touches the tube and then the hand of person 2 touches
the tube. The tube may contain DNA from person 1 plus DNA from person 2. The hand of
person 2 may contain DNA from the plastic tube and thus DNA from the hand of person 1.

31
Making Mobile Data

Work Harder,
Solve Cases Faster
Mobile Forensic Investments That Matter Now
Written by Sheila Gil

TODAY, MOST BAD GUYS dont commit
crimes using computers. Theyve all gone
mobile. Smarter, more powerful mobile
devices yield a potential treasure trove of
evidence for investigators and prosecutors
alike. Critical details from browser history
searches, messaging apps, call logs, and social media posts often reveal what suspects
and victims were doing before, during and
after a crime was committed. It has never
been more important to have the right mobile forensics tools at the ready.
This article highlights the critical
forensics needs of forensics examiners
and investigators in the Boulder (Colo.)
Police Department and Hartford
(Conn.) Police Department. These
real cases illustrate critical needs and
compelling outcomes with access to
advanced mobile forensics tools.
Mining Leads from Mobile Minded

Criminals in Boulder
32
During the first few hours or days

of an investigation, the ability to
mine leads quickly matters. Finding
additional witnesses, placing people in
the same place at the same time, and
revealing communications between
suspects and victims or corroborating
statements can mean the difference
between an investigation moving
forwardand not.
Mobile device evidence plays a
critical role in almost every investigation we conduct, helping us solve the
simplest to the most complex criminal
cases, said Det. Chuck Heidel with
the Boulder Police Department.
Within mobile device data lies the

connections that can reveal the intent
and motivation behind many crimes.
Up until a year ago, the process
to uncover them involved hours and
days of tedious and manual analysis,
and even then they could go undiscovered, he said. Today, thanks to
investing in the industrys leading
link analysis tool, we have the ability
to visualize and cross-reference data
quickly and effectively.
In just six months after its implementation, the 25-detective department
saved tens if not hundreds of hours in
investigative time by integrating the
tool into their forensics workflow.
Speeding Investigations
In one investigation involving a burglary that ended in homicide, linked

data didnt break the case, but the two
suspects involved pled out when the
data revealed the strength of the links
between them, as well as corroborated

statements from witnesses placing
the subjects together the night before,
potentially planning the crime.
While the impact of this capability
has certainly expedited time-sensitive
cases in Boulder, it has also proved
useful in longer-term investigations.
In late 2014, the city experienced a
rash of unattended deaths attributed
to heroin overdoses. After obtaining
extraction reports from the forensics
lab on each of the victims mobile devices, investigators imported the data
into a link analysis tool and quickly
discovered mutual connections to the
heroin supplier and the suppliers
supplier which led to their arrest and
charges for manslaughter and negligent homicide.
As a detective in a very busy
agency division, Im always looking
for ways to improve our collective
productivity without adding time or

M O B I L E
effort to already considerable workloads, said Heidel. Having access
to the right mobile forensics tools
translates directly to better law enforcement outcomes: cases closed in a
timely manner, public safety restored,
and justice served.
Making Mobile Device Evidence

Count in Hartford
One of the Hartford Police Departments biggest mobile device data challenges involves accessing constantly
changing mobile messaging applications. Sgt. Andrew Weaver credits the
departments mobile-forensics vendor
with keeping up with these changes, so
they dont become a stumbling block
in investigations.
When we run across a phone
thats difficult to unlock, or an application we cant parse, they are there
often well beyond normal office
hoursto walk me through the steps
required to get to the data effectively
and securely, he said. Theres not
many challenges we havent been able
F O R E N S I C S
to solve together, whether I had issues

getting around a device lock or recover data from a specific application.
Maximizing Forensic Investments
In public safety, budget dollars are

thin, according to Sgt. Weaver. While
we compete with others to add to
our forensics toolbox, having proven
solutions and ongoing support makes
it easier to justify, he said. At the
end of the day, we need one or two
excellent solutions to get the mobile
data investigators need to speed their
investigations.
Time is the enemy of criminal
investigations. Getting potential evidence out of mobile devices can shave
weeks off of the investigative process
and often lead to suspects pleading
out to avoid more severe sentences in
court.
We had a case recently where a
guy came in with his tablet, saying
his roommate was using it to access
child pornography and was worried

he could get in trouble for it, said

Sgt. Weaver. With his consent, we
dumped the tablet data and confronted the roommate with the evidence
and he pled no contest to the charges
within three weeks. Thats the kind of
force multiplier advanced forensics
capabilities can have on a case. It
simply changes the game.
Navigating a New Normal
The clock on criminal investigations

is always ticking. Every minute, mobile device generated data gets bigger
and more complex, yet the demand to
solve crimes quickly stays the same.
Investigative teams at agencies everywhere need actionable leads, faster.
About the Author

Sheila Gil serves as the senior director of
Global Forensics Product Marketing at
Cellebrite. Sheila has deep industry experience and has been working in public safety
marketing and product management for
more than 15 years.
33
Bullet trajectory
analysis using
photographs
Written by Edward E. Hueske
BULLET TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS is dependent upon a number of variables that include
bullet design, velocity (initial and terminal), angle of departure, angle of impact, distance
of travel, target composition, temperature, relative humidity, and altitude.
The trajectory specified for a
given bullet impact is actually an
approximation of the flight path of
the incoming bullet. It is only an
approximation due to the inherent
yawing, nutation, and precession of
a bullet in motion (see diagrams that
follow). Although spin stabilization
(imparted by the rifling within the
bore of the barrel of a firearm) is
working to counter the inherent
destabilization characteristics of yaw,
precession, and nutation, that job is
only accomplished to a somewhat
limited degree. Thus, a bullet seldom
impacts a target at precisely the
same orientation each time, requiring
the labeling approximate to any
trajectory specified for a fired bullet.
34
Once a bullet penetrates a

substrate (i.e. strikes a target of some
sort), it is generally subjected to
deflection, distortion, and possibly
fragmentation. If the bullet exits
(i.e. perforates the substrate), spin
stabilization has been reduced or
lost, and unpredictable, erratic
exit trajectories are frequently
encountered. Obviously, the
representation of bullet paths through
objects as straight lines is for
convenience only and in no way truly
representative of actual trajectories.
The accepted margin of error

for bullet trajectory determination
within the shooting reconstruction
community is plus or minus
5 degrees, both vertically and
horizontally, for the typical shooting
scene. That is correctly represented
three dimensionally as a conical zone
of possibility (+ 5 degrees and 5
degrees, both along the x axis and
along the y axis (Figure 1).
In order to be able to provide a

reasonable approximation of the
trajectory of an incoming bullet, it is
necessary to be able to measure and
utilize the two angular coordinates
that are required to specify a
trajectory relative to a vertically
oriented target (Figure 2).
Once these two angular
coordinates are known, scale
diagrams (either three dimensional or
two dimensional) may be created to
illustrate trajectory approximations
for shots fired (Figures 3 & 4).
Figure 1

B U L L E T
T R A J E C T O R Y
The trajectory specified

for a given bullet impact is
actually an approximation
of the flight path of the
incoming bullet. It is only
an approximation due
to the inherent yawing,
nutation, and precession of
a bullet in motion.
Figure 2
Figure 3 (left)2D drawing of shots fired into a vehicle based upon Y trajectory Figure 4 (right)2D drawing of shots fired into a vehicle based upon X trajectory
coordinates. This allows shooter position to be approximated using shooter height coordinates. Shooter position cannot be specified on the basis of these alone (nor is
and gun position.
the insertion of any triangle of possibility appropriate).

35
B U L L E T
T R A J E C T O R Y
Analysis
Figure 5Photograph of the bottom area of drivers door of the vehicle.
In the absence of any trajectory

coordinate data, it is impossible for
anyone to reliably establish possible
shooter positions. Very general
directionalities (X coordinates) for
shots into various substrates (vehicle
panels, walls, doors, windows, etc.)
may sometimes be determined from
photographs based upon bullet
entry or impact site appearances,
but it is not possible to ascertain
anything concerning the requisite
information (Y coordinates) for
establishing shooter positions from
photographs having no trajectory
rods in place. Even for the shots
that have exit holes, nothing
can be reliably determined from
photographs as to the vertical (Y)
trajectory coordinates without being
able to positively eliminate internal
deflection (see Hueske, E.E., The
Need for Bullet Deflection Training
for Field Investigators, Forensic
Science Policy and Management: An
International Journal, 2010).
An example of the unreliability of
attempting to use scene photographs
of bullet holes in a vehicle door
is provided by the apparent shots
to the driver door shown below. It
is obvious from the shapes of the
holes in the photograph (Figure 5)
that the camera was not positioned
directly above and held with the focal
line at 90 degrees as required for
any accurate assessment. But other
questions must be asked:
1. Are both of those actually bullet
holes?
2. If they are bullet holes, how
was it determined that one or both
resulted from this incident (it is not
uncommon that vehicles, buildings,
etc. in high-crime areas have noncontemporaneous bullet strikes)?
Figure 6Photograph of the inside area of the drivers door of the vehicle.
36
3. If they are contemporaneous

with this incident and other shots
with obviously different trajectories
are present, why are their apparent
trajectories so drastically different
than for any of the other shots?
The image in Figure 5, in and of
itself, cannot be used to provide any

B U L L E T
meaningful information as to possible
shooter position. The photograph in
Figure 6 purports to show exit holes
in the inside area of the driver door.
Once again, the photograph
in Figure 6 was taken with the
camera not directly above the holes
(focal line was not at 90 degrees).
Neither photograph was taken with
a scale (ruler) present, making
them inappropriate for any sort of
evaluation based upon measurement.
As for attempting to use the
combination of the two photographs
to arrive at some sort of trajectory,
it cannot be done for the following
reasons:
1. There is no way to positively
conclude which exit hole is associated
with which entry hole due to the
possibility of internal ricochet off
cross bracing and/or the power
window mechanism (the upper
hole above exhibits an oval shape
indicative of traveling sideways at
impact with the inside door section).
T R A J E C T O R Y
Without having any

reliable horizontal (X)
trajectory coordinates and
no vertical (Y) trajectory
coordinates, it is impossible
to propose scientifically
reliable shooter positions
for any of the shots fired
into vehicles and other
target media using
photographs alone.
About the Author

Edward E. Hueske has spent 40 years as
a practicing forensic scientist, including
23 years with government crime labs in
Texas, Oklahoma, and Arizona (retiring in
1996), and 14 years as a full-time faculty
member in the department of criminal
justice at the University of North Texas
(retiring in 2012). He currently consults
with prosecution, defense, and police
agencies in civil/criminal matters and
provides training to police agencies in
shooting incident reconstruction. He is a
Consulting Forensic Scientist Fellow of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences,
Emeritus Member of the American
Society of Crime Laboratory Directors,
Emeritus Member of The Southwestern
Association of Forensic Scientists, and
Distinguished Member of the Association
of Firearm & Tool Mark Examiners.
xprtwit@aol.com
2. As for the question as

to whether these were shots
contemporaneous to the incident,
where are the responsible bullets that
passed through?
The locations of fired cartridge
cases at a scene do provide some
potential means of general horizontal
positioning of persons within the
scene, but when no cartridge case
ejection testing has been carried
out (using the involved weapons,
similar ammunition, similar terrain,
and firing from similar positions),
no quantitative assessment of the
cartridge case locations is possible.
The only meaningful horizontal
limitations present are buildings and
other structures.
Conclusion
Without having any reliable
horizontal (X) trajectory coordinates
and no vertical (Y) trajectory
coordinates, it is impossible to
propose scientifically reliable shooter
positions for any of the shots fired
into vehicles and other target media
using photographs alone.

37
to significant case-to-case variation.

Different recording processes,
variable levels of noise, and the
multitude of audio coding and
compression schemes all add to this
variability, providing the research
community in this field with a long
list of challenges.
Your Voice Is Evidence

Written by Reva Schwartz
A CALL COMES INTO THE EMERGENCY CALL CENTER and, in the background
of the call, the events of a crime being committed can be heard. While the dispatcher
determines the level of help needed, a recording is automatically captured. If needed, a
speaker recognition expert can compare the speech in the background of the E911 call
to a police interview with a person of interest. The expert would seek to confirm that
the person heard during the criminal act captured on the E911 call was in fact the same
individual in the interview.
That is a very simple and limited
explanation of what takes place within
the speaker recognition field. While
this profession is not one of the more
widely known forensic disciplines,
there is an extensive research
community focused on supporting
practitioners by improving tools,
technology, and capabilities.
In this field, the evidence is

typically several audio recordings or
speech samples, such as E911 calls,
undercover recordings, and audio from
CCTV video. These samples are also
referred to as questioned recordings
since the identity of the person is
uncertain. The other piece of evidence
is the known recording that contains
speech from someone whose identity
has been established. Forensic speaker
comparison evaluates the probability
of two hypotheses based on the
evidence:
1) that the speakers in the known
and questioned recordings are the
same; or
38
2) that the speakers in the known

and questioned recordings are
different.
Recently, there have been a number

of high-profile investigations and
court cases where forensic speaker
comparison played a major role,
including the Robert Zimmerman trial
and the Jihadi John ISIS videos. In
the former, the audio from an E911
call consisted mostly of screams. In
the ISIS videos, accent and dialect
became the focus of the investigation.
These cases exemplify the high level
of evidence variability commonly
encountered by practitioners in this
field.
In forensic speaker comparison, a

variety of procedures and tools are used
to arrive at the truth, although there is
currently no standard method for doing
so. Any particular technique by itself is
not as important as demonstrating that
the overall method is suitable for its
intended purpose. This is also known as
the methods validity.
Unlike other forms of pattern
evidence (such as ballistics, latent
prints, or footwear), speech is a
behavioral phenomenon. This leads
To reduce error, the research

community tries to model as many
sources of variability as possible. The
largest contributors to variability tend
to fall into two categories: extrinsic and
intrinsic.
Extrinsic factors are associated
with the recording itself (such as
noise, coding, or compression) while
intrinsic factors are associated with
the speaker or speakers heard within
the recordings (such as speaker stress,
language/dialect characteristics, and
whispers or shouting).
Since 1996, National Institute of

Standards and Technology (NIST)
has carried out more than a dozen
Speaker Recognition Evaluations
(SRE). The objectives of these
evaluations have been to drive
forward tools and technology,
measure the state-of-the-art, and
find the most promising algorithmic
approaches in forensic speaker
comparison tasks. The basic task
within these evaluations is to
determine if the same person is
speaking in two different audio
samples. To date, the research
community has focused almost
exclusively on addressing extrinsic
variability by studying issues
such as length of the recording,
transmission channel (telephone,
microphone), audio coding and
compression, and different types of
noise. Concentrating on these issues
has paid off well, with significant
performance boosts for the underlying
technology used by practitioners.
Intrinsic variability describes how

a speaker communicates. Examples of
this include:
Differences in language, accent,
and dialect between the evidence
and known recordings;
The type of speech heard in the

S P E A K E R
R E C O G N I T I O N
recordings, such as a conversation,

a formal speech or monologue,
a voice mail message, a police
interview, or courtroom testimony;
The relationship between the

parties in the conversation;
The emotional state or condition

of the speaker, such as physical,
emotional, or cognitive stress,
being under the influence of drugs
or alcohol, or speaking while
engaging in physical activity;
The speaker or speakers
awareness that they are being
recorded.
These issues and their interplay

within and across samples are
commonly referred to as mismatch,
and they continue to vex even the
best-performing forensic speaker
comparison systems. For example,
the questioned material in a case
may consist of speech samples from
a background talker in an E911 call
during a struggle, while the known
material may consist of digital video
recordings from a formal police
interview with a subject of interest
in a noisy room. The mismatch in
the above scenario entails numerous
extrinsic and intrinsic factors.
Mismatch is a significant cause

of error for existing algorithms in
attempting to identify speakers in all
environments. Conventional wisdom
suggests that having practitioners in
the mix will improve overall system
performance for these conditions.
However, that premise has not been
extensively tested or proven. There
is also little insight into how to
best combine human expertise and
automated technology in forensic
science in general.
One point on which the forensic

speaker comparison community does
agree is that more data is needed
for research. Data associated with
forensic casework is of varying
quality because practitioners have
no control over how evidence audio
is collected. So, practitioners have
to be flexible and adapt their tools
to handle these varying conditions.
Practitioners also need to have
A typical speech waveform, the type of recorded digital data that might be used in analyzing vocal evidence.
Photo: NIST
extensive knowledge of intrinsic
variability and how it plays out under
a variety of circumstances so they can
select the proper data for testing and
analysis within a case.
With mismatched conditions, it

may never be possible to model all
the variables, but the goal should be
to reduce the influence of as many
compromising factors as possible.
For example, if the case includes a
telephone call and an interview, then
the examiner needs sample recordings
from those channel types (the phone
system and the interview room)
to begin to train a system. For full
system development, data is needed
to test methodology, to perform
system validation, and for calibration.
Over the past two decades,
dataset development for forensic
speaker comparison system testing
and evaluation has advanced
significantly, with much of it driven
by the NIST SRE. These datasets
have been designed to primarily
study extrinsic variation. Answering
the mismatch question critical to
forensic casework requires data that
better reflect intrinsic variability
conditions. Until we have collected
those datasets, researchers and
practitioners will not have access to
data to sufficiently address many of
their research and case requirements.

Another significant source of

error in all forensic science is bias.
Speaker comparison practitioners are
supposed to focus on every factor
in the audio except the story it tells,
the aspect referred to as content.
This is because the content can lead
to bias and cause the practitioner
to subconsciously lean one way or
another when drawing conclusions.
Reducing the influence of bias on the
practitioner is another important area
of study worthy of pursuit.
This is an exciting time to be

working in the field of forensic
speaker comparison. The research
opportunities are numerous, the
technology continues to improve at
a rapid pace, and the interest in this
field has gained momentum. With
more and more high-profile cases
expecting high-quality, accurate
results from examiners, speaker
comparison will soon stand alongside
the more commonly mentioned
forensic science disciplines.
About the Author
Reva Schwartz is currently a Forensic Science

Research Project Manager at the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST),
Special Programs Office. She was previously
a forensic examiner specializing in speaker
recognition at the United States Secret Service.
reva.schwartz@nist.gov
39
Identification of Illegal Drugs

with 1064nm Handheld Raman
WHEN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATIONS ARE AT STAKE, there is no margin for error and
the demand for fast and accurate mobile techniques for the detection and identification
of narcotics is higher than ever before. Designer drugs, which are typically contaminated
with degraded products, impurities, and unreacted precursors, are entering the market at
an alarming rate and are often difficult to detect using traditional methods.
Often referred to as party drugs,
methamphetamines, cocaine, MDMA
(molly, ecstasy), and heroin have an
increasingly negative impact on public
health and safety worldwide. It falls
to law enforcement officers to remove
these dangerous substances from
circulation.
40
Raman spectroscopy is a confirmatory test under Category A by the Scientific Working Group for the Analysis
of Seized Drugs (SWGDRUG) and is
widely used to support the detection
and identification of illegal substances. Previous generations of handheld
785nm Raman-based systems are susceptible to fluorescence interference
when analyzing street drugs typically
contaminated with degraded products,
impurities, and dilutents. The introduction of handheld Raman devices
utilizing a 1064nm excitation laser
overcomes this limitation and enables
law enforcement professionals to
identify illegal drugs more easily and
quickly. This article will outline how
the new generation of handheld Raman

detection systems increases the range
of materials that can be identified using
just one device, providing higher levels
of confidence in identification.
The Drug Detection Challenge
Law enforcement professionals are

under increasing pressure to identify
illegal substances quickly and accurately, but current processes can result
in unnecessary delays and questionable results. With a lack of available
field-based technologies, forensic drug
analysis laboratories typically have the
heaviest workload compared to any
other crime department. For example,
the forensic services section of a local
county police department has estimated that the drug evidence submitted to
the laboratory accounted for around
60% of the total evidence submissions.
Laboratory analytical methods are
time consuming and costly. In this
case, only 20% of evidence results in
court submissions, and so the use of
Written by Edward Geraghty

mobile detection technologies for sample screening could save a considerable amount of time, effort and money.
Clandestine drug laboratories are
increasingly adding cutting agents
such as paracetamol, ketamine, and
glucose in an attempt to hamper
attempts to successfully detect illegal
drugs and narcotics, and many current
technologies are unable to identify
these materials. In some cases, this
means that officers cannot be certain
whether the evidence is even worth
collecting: it could be a bag of heroin
or it could be a cutting agent. They
then need to wait for confirmation
from a laboratory before pursuing a
case in court, wasting valuable time.
Handheld Raman utilizing a 1064nm
excitation laser offers a solution for
the detection of narcotics laced with
cutting agents.
Existing Technologies
There are a wide range of technologies
currently available for the detection

N A R C O T I C S
Figure 11064nm Raman spectra of ephedrine HCI (blue) and methamphetamine HCI (red).
Figure 2Raman spectra of street heroin collected at 1064nm (red) and 785nm (blue).
and identification of narcotics and illegal substances. However, when faced
with increasingly complex mixtures
and active ingredients, some of these
techniques are not able to provide the
required selectivity or sensitivity.
Spot-testing kits are commonly used
in the field to individually test small
amounts of a sample using different
chemicals to identify the substance.
However, the results from these kits
can be hard to read and are subject to
interpretation unless the user has been
properly trained. When criminal investigations are at stake there is no margin
for error. Surface wipes can also be
used to identify illegal substances but
users can only test for one specific drug
at a time.
The Raman Effect

Raman spectroscopy can be used to
effectively and efficiently identify and
distinguish between different materials in liquid and solid forms. Recent
advances in instrumentation have led
to the successful miniaturization of
Raman spectroscopy and the development of portable and handheld Raman
for fast sample analysis at the point of
need. Portable and handheld Raman
devices are used for a broad range
of applications including safety and
security, pharmaceutical and biopharmaceutical analysis, and food.
In Raman spectroscopy, a laser is
focused at the sample and the light
scattered is measured to detect changes

in its chemical structure and physical
characteristics. The Raman spectrum
for each compound is unique, and
serves as a chemical fingerprint that
can be used to identify an unknown
compound, or a mixture of compounds.
Onboard algorithms are used to match
the samples spectral constituents to
an extensive Raman spectral database
to provide a positive identification of
the sample. Raman is a highly selective technique and has the ability to
differentiate between a wide range of
compounds, which is critical when
faced with an increasingly broad range
of threats.
Devices utilizing Raman spectroscopy are ideal tools for analyzing
samples because, unlike other handheld
detection techniques, analysis can often
be performed through packaging material without disturbing the sample. This
minimizes exposure to the operator
and reduces the risk of sample contamination. Most handheld Raman-based
chemical detection systems in use
today utilize a 532nm or 785nm laser
to excite the sample, which are known
to generate heavy sample fluorescence
interference making analysis of colored
materials extremely challenging.
For this reason, the use of handheld
Raman-based detection systems has
historically been used primarily for
identifying white powders and clear
liquids, which are the least likely
samples to produce fluorescence when

excited with a lower excitation laser.

However, many real-world samples commonly encountered by law
enforcement professionals are colored
by impurities from crude synthetic
processes or from intentionally added
pigments and dyes such as those found
in household products including fuel
oil and antifreeze. The recent introduction of handheld Raman devices with
a 1064nm laser can help to overcome
these analysis challenges.
The Power of 1064nm

The high specificity and reduced fluorescence of 1064nm Raman enables
users to identify common narcotics
as well as identify cutting agents,
precursors, clandestine laboratory
hazards, and in many cases even the
manufacturing source. The high-quality spectra that can be achieved using
1064nm Raman is demonstrated in
Figure 1. Figure 2 shows a comparison
of an analysis of street heroin using
both 785nm and 1064nm Raman and
the fluorescence interference occurring during the 785 analysis is clearly
shown by the broad curvature of the
baseline. By allowing users to perform
confirmatory analysis upon arrest and
provide substantial, proven evidence,
cases can proceed to court much quicker helping to reduce the backlog and
increase the success rate of removing
dangerous substances from circulation.
Protecting evidence from contamination is critical to successfully take
41
N A R C O T I C S
a case to court. Handheld Raman can
perform analysis through packaging
materials such as polymer bags, glass
bottles, flasks, and vials, allowing the
user to screen materials by non-contact, non-destructive analysis, without
needing to open containers and risk
contamination. A feature that has
received positive feedback from end
users is an integrated digital camera
that enables users to easily store sample evidence for use in the courtroom.
One handheld Raman device
recently underwent a technical evaluation by a third party to evaluate
its performance for the identification
of illegal drugs using two proprietary detection algorithms. Samples
included pure samples of cocaine,
heroin, MDMS, and meth, as well as
street samples including a case sample
that had been identified as cocaine in
the field but was later found to be a
benign substance when analyzed in
the laboratory. The results demonstrated the accuracy of the 1064nm
Raman analyzer with 100% matches
for all samples. In addition, the sample
that had been falsely considered to
be a drug and brought to the lab for
analysis was quickly identified as
magnesium sulfate by the Raman
analyzer. Had the device been used to
scan incoming material, time, effort,
42
and money could have been saved by

avoiding expensive analysis.
The illegal trafficking of drugs
and narcotics across borders is an
increasing challenge for border
control officers who need to be able
to quickly and accurately identify a
suspicious substance. Raman devices
using 785nm excitation lasers cannot
perform the analysis that is required
and, in one case, a 1064nm laser removed any doubt as to the identity of a
suspicious bottle of liquid. Officers at
a border checkpoint found a bottle of
brown liquid that the owners claimed
to be window cleaner. If they had been
using a 785nm analyzer, fluorescence
interference would have made analysis
impossible. However, using a 1064nm
Raman analyzer meant that the
substance could be analyzed through
the bottle and within 15 seconds, the
substance was confirmed as liquid
methamphetamine.
The introduction of handheld
Raman devices utilizing 1064nm
technology has increased the range of
materials that can be identified using
just one device, reducing the number
of complementary techniques required
for successful narcotics identification.
In order to successfully remove these
dangerous substances from circulation, law enforcement and border
control professionals need to be one

step ahead of those responsible for
the manufacturing of increasingly
complex formulations. In order to
support these efforts, technology needs
to continually advance to provide
confident, cost-effective and comprehensive analysis and the capabilities of
handheld Raman make it an attractive
solution to meet these needs.
About the Author

Edward Geraghty is Rigaku Analytical Devices
application scientist. Based out of the companys Wilmington, Mass. office, Geraghty has
worked extensively in the safety and security
market sector for more than 30 years in roles
that include senior global support chemist
for GE Ion Track, and senior chemist for the
Massachusetts State Police Crime Laboratory.
He has broad experience in the application of
handheld, portable CBRNE instrumentation
to include Raman, FTIR, IMS, MicroCantilevers
and GC/MS technologies. In addition, he has
more than 30 years of experience in research
and development and has authored three U.S.
Patents for new product inventions and their
procedural applications.

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The magazine dedicated exclusively to the technology of evidence collection, processing, and preservation

Volume 14, Number 1 Spring 2016

Capturing Known Print Standards

Written by Donald J. Frost II

A known friction ridge print standard is

Making Informed Judgments Using Digital Images

Ground Penetrating Radar

Planning a Digital Forensics Lab

Book Excerpt: Mechanisms of DNA Transfer

Making Mobile Data Work Harder, Solve Cases Faster

Bullet Trajectory Analysis Using Photographs

NIST Corner: Your Voice is Evidence

Identification of Illegal Drugs with 1064nm Handheld Raman

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

Time for a Change

Volume 14, Number 1

THIRTEEN YEARS AGO, Evidence Technology

When we held that first printed edition in our

Copyright 2016 The Gulick Corporation. All rights reserved.

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

NamUs growth, training, and outreach on track, says director

J. Todd Matthews, Director of Case

NamUs does have registered users from most

most are registered as law enforcement

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

local, state, and national training or outreach

Shooting Incident Reconstruction

s The Koppa Targets Trajectory Scanning Set are

s The UltraLite One forensic light combines the

s The Kaleidoscope system comes with 3 to 36 red

s The JEOL AccuTOF-DART mass spectrometer

s With the UNITRON Comparison Forensic

s The Hitachi SU3500 Premium VariablePressure SEM featuring real-time 3D image

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

Making Informed Judgments

Special procedures must be followed

from film knows that there are many

Written by David Ski Witzke

or anyone who relies on pictures

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

to be very useful for accurate analysis

possible color values for each pixel in

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

The monitor resolution refers to the

tire tread examiners, and questioned

to capture an area that is too large

About the Author

David SkiWitzke is the vice president of

Singh, H., P. Kumar, R. Nanra, A. Kumar.

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

Ground penetrating radar

FORENSIC INVESTIGATIONS ARE MAKING USE OF ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY,

Comparing commonly used

Forensic scientists and crime

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

Ground penetrating radar

can point investigators in the right

Rise in interest in cold cases

The rising interest in cold case

Evidence Technology Magazine Spring 2016

is being used for a variety of cold

in receiving hands-on instruction,

Georgia agency uses GPR