EE6401 Notes

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I N T R O D U C T IO N
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UNIT I
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Magnetic Circuits
H : magnetic field intensity vector,
H.dl = J.da
Amperes law
magnetic flux density is conserved
B : magnetic flux density vector.
B.da = 0
J : current density.
B = mH
m = m r m0 : magnetic permeability of medium.

m0 : permeability of free space m0 =4p 10-7
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m r : relative permeability
Simple magnetic circuit.

Ni F
: magnetomotive force (mmf, ampere-turns).

f = B.da
H. dl = J.da =
ni
Magnetic flux crossing surface S:
(Weber, Wb)
fc : flux in core,
fc @ Bc Ac
Bc : flux density in the core
@ Hc lc
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H.dl
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Ac : cross-sectional area of the core.
f
=
Bc
lc = Ni = F
m
lc
m Ac
: reluctance
f
lc = F
m Ac
Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit with air gap.
Flux is the same in the magnetic core and the air-gap.
Bc =
f
Ac
flux density in the magnetic core.
Bg =
f
Ag
flux density in the air-gap.
mmf
H.dl
= Hc lc + H g g = Ni = F
F=
F = f(c + g )
f=
m0 Ag
Bg
Bc
lc +
g=f
l
g
m c m0
m Ac
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F
+
c : reluctance of core, g : reluctac nce og f air-gap.
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Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits.

(a) Electric circuit, (b) magnetic circuit.
Example 1.1 The magnetic circuit shown in Fig.1.2 has dimensions Ac = Ag = 9 cm2, g = 0.050
cm, lc = 30 cm, and N = 500 tums. Assume the value mr = 70,000 for core material. (a) Find the
reluctances c and g . For the condition that the magnetic circuit is operating with Bc = 1.0 T,
find (b) the flux f and (c) the current i.
Solution:
(a)
(b)
(c)
c =
lc
0.3
=
= 3.79 103 A.turns/Wb
mr m0 Ac 70000 4p 10-7 9 10-4
g =
g
5 10-4
=
= 4.42 105 A.turns/Wb
m0 Ac 4p 10-7 9 10-4
f = Bc Ac = 1.0(910-4) = 910-4 Wb
i=
F f(c + g ) 9 10-4 (4.46 105 )

=
=
= 0.8 A
N
N
500
Air-gap fringing fields.
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Example 1.2 The magnetic structure of a synchronous machine is shown schematically in Fig.
1.5. Assuming that rotor and stator iron have infinite permeability (m ), find the air-gap flux
f and flux density Bg. For this example I = 10 A, N = 1000 turns, g = 1 cm, and Ag = 2000 cm2.
Nim0 Ag
F
f=
=
m0 Ag =
Rg
2g
f
0.13
Bg =
=
= 0. 65 T
Ag
0. 2
2g
1000 10 4p
= 0.13 Wb
2 0.01
10-7 0.2
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Rg =
pd
Solution: total air-gap length = 2g. Reluctance of iron core is negligible ((m ).
Simple synchronous machine.

FLUX LINKAGE, INDUCTANCE AND ENERGY
E. ds
Faradays law.
dl
df
e=
=N
dt
dt
= - d B.da
dt
S
e : induced voltage,
l = Nf : flux linkage (Wb-turns).
Linear magnetic circuit: flux linkage is proportional to current.

Inductance:
L=
l
i
NF
l = Nf =
Rtot
=
N 2i
Rtot
L=
N2
Rtot
If the reluctance of the core is negligible compared to that of the air-gap

L=
N2
g
m0 Ag
(Henry, Weber-turn /A)
N 2 m0 Ag
Example 1.3
The magnetic circuit of Fig. 1.6a consists of an N-turn winding on a magnetic core of infinite
permeability with two parallel air gaps of lengths g1 and g2 and areas A1 and A2, respectively.
Find
(a) The inductance of the winding and
(b)The flux density Bl in gap 1 when the winding is carrying a current i. Neglect fringing effects
at the air gap.
R1 R2
g2
m0 A2
A A
= m0 N 2 1 + 2
g1 g 2
B1 =
f1 m0 Ni
=
A1
g1
ni
Ni m0 A1 Ni
=
R1
g1
R2 =
f1 =
N 2 (R1 + R2 )
g1
m0 A1
na
(b)
R1 =
pd
L=
R1R2
R1 + R2
Req =
An
(a)
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Solution:
(a) Magnetic circuit and
(b) equivalent circuit for Example 1.3.
Magnetic circuit with two windings.

The total mmf:
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F = N1i1 + N 2i2
Neglect the reluctance of the core, and assume Ac = Ag, the resultant core flux produced by the
total mmf is
F
N i + N 2i2
m A
= 11
=g( N 1i1 + N 2i2 ) 0 c
Rg
m0 Ac
pd
f=
Flux linkage of coil 1,
m0 Ac
+ N1 N 2
g
m0 Ac
i1
i2
ni
l1 = N1f = N12
l1 = L11i1 + L12i2
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m0 Ac
L11 = N1 2
g
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L11i1 : flux linkage of coil 1 due to its own current.

L12i2 : flux linkage of coil 1 due to current i2 .
and 2
L12 = N1 N 2
m0 Ac
g
: self-inductance of coil 1
: mutual-inductance between coils 1
Similarly, flux linkage of coil 2,
l2 = N 2f = N1 N 2
m0 Ac
g
i1
m0 Ac
+ N2
g
i2
l2 = L21i1 + L22i2
L21 = L12 = N1 N 2
m0 Ac
g
: mutual-inductance,
m A
L22 2= N 20 c
g
: self-inductance of coil 1
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Induced voltage (magnetic circuit with single winding):
e=
dl d
di
dL
= (Li) = L + i
dt
dt
dt
dt
In electromechanical energy conversion devices, inductances are often time-varying.

Power and Energy
Power delivered to the winding:
p = ei = i
dl
dt
(Watts, W= Joules/ second)
Change in magnetic stored energy DW in the magnetic circuit in the time interval tl to t2
DW =
t2
l2
t1
l1
p dt = i dl
l2
l2
DW = i dl =
=
l
l
1
1
l2
1
(l 2 - l12 ) W (l ) =
or W (i) = Li 2
2L 2
2L
2
dl
: total stored magnetic energy.
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Single- winding s ystem of constant inductance, the change in magnetic stored energy as the flux
level is changed from l1 to l2
Example 1.6
L=
l Nf
=
i
i
Bc = 1.0 T
F = Ni L =
i = 0. 8 A
N2
5002
=
= 0 .5 6 H
c + g 4.46 105
1
2
1
2
W = Li 2 = (0.56)(0.82 ) = 0.18 J
dl
df
= 500 9 10-4 (377 1.0 cos(377t) )
= N dB = NAc
c
dt
= 170 cos(3d7t 7t) V dt
e=
An
(c)
F
c + g
na
(b) From Example 1.1,
f=
(a)
ni
For the magnetic circuit of Example 1.1 (Fig. 1.2), find (a) the inductance L, (b) the magnetic
stored energy W for Bc = 1.0 T, and (c) the induced voltage e for a 60-Hz time-varying core flux
of the form Bc = 1.0 sin(t) T where = 2f = 2(60) = 377 rad/sec.
PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS
Magnetic materials are used to constrain and direct magnetic fields in well-defined paths.
In a transformer they are used to maximize the coupling between the windings, and to
lower the excitation current required for transformer operation.
In electric machinery, they are used to shape the magnetic fields to obtain desired
electrical and mechanical characteristics.
Ferromagnetic materials are composed of iron and alloys of iron with cobalt, tungsten, nickel,
aluminum, and other metals, are the most common magnetic materials.
Relationship between B and H for a ferromagnetic material is nonlinear and multivalued: B-H
curve or hysteresis loop.
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B-H loops for M-5 grain-oriented electrical steel 0.012 in thick. Only the top halves of the
loops are shown here.
Dc magnetization curve for M-5 grain-oriented electrical steel 0.012 in thick.
AC EXCITATION
Sinusoidal core flux:
j(t) = fmax sinwt = AcBmax sinwt
Voltage induced in the N-turn winding,

e(t) = wNfmax coswt = Emax coswt
Emax = wNfmax = 2p fNAcBmax
Rms value of a periodic function of time,

Frms =
Erms =
Emax
2
1
T
(t)dt
= wNfmax = 2p fNAcBmax
Exciting current: current required to produce magnetic flux in the core; nonsinusoidal because
of the nonlinear magnetic properties of the core.
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Sources of power loss in the core:
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1-) Eddy currents: currents induced by the time-varying flux in the core due to nonzero
conductivity of the material. These currents cause ohmic I2R loss.
To reduce the effects of eddy currents, magnetic structures are built of thin sheets of
laminations of the magnetic material. These laminations are aligned in the direction of the field
lines, and are insulated from each other by an oxide layer.
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2-) Hysteresis loop: The time-varying excitation causes the magnetic material to undergo a cyclic
variation described by a hysteresis loop.
Energy input W to the magnetic core of Fig. 1.1 as the material undergoes a single cycle
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H c lc ( A
i dl
NdBc ) = Aclc H dBc
W=
j
N c
=
Aclc : volume of the core.
H dBc : area of the ac hysteresis loop.
c
Hysteresis power loss = W f
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Excitation phenomena. (a) Voltage, flux, and exciting current; (b) corresponding
hysteresis loop.
Exciting rms voltamperes per kilogram at 60 Hz for M-5 grain-oriented electrical

steel 0.012 in thick.
Hysteresis loop; hysteresis loss is proportional to the loop area (shaded).
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Core loss at 60 Hz in watts per kilogram for M-5 grain-oriented electrical steel 0.012 in thick.
Laminated steel core with winding for Example 1.8.

Example 1.8 The magnetic core in Fig. 1.15 is made from laminations of M-5 grain-oriented
electrical steel. The winding is excited with a 60-Hz voltage to produce a flux density in the steel
of B = 1.5 sin t T, where = 260 = 377 rad/sec. The steel occupies 0.94 of the core
crosssectional area. The mass-density of the steel is 7.65 g/cm3. Find (a) the applied voltage, (b)
the peak current, (c) the rms exciting current, and (d) the core loss.
a.
Voltage induced
dj
dB
1 m2
= NAc c = 200 4 in2 0.94
1.5 377 cos(377t)
2
dt
dt
39.4 in
= 274 cos(377t) V
e=N
b.
Bmax = 1.5 T
H max = 36 A-turns/m
lc = 0.71 m.
peak current I =
Bmax = 1.5 T
Pa = 1.5 VA/kg
H max lc 36 0.71
= 0.13 A.
=
N
200
Vc = 105.5 in3. Wc = 13.2 kg.
Total rms volt-amperes:
Pa = 1.5 VA/kg 13.2 kg = 20 VA
Ij,rms =
Pa
20
= 0.10 A
=
Erms 275 / 2
1.1 A magnetic circuit with a single air gap is shown in Fig. 1.24. The core dimensions are:
Cross-sectional area Ac = 1.8 10-3 m2
Mean core length lc = 0.6 m
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Gap length g = 2.3 x 10-3 m
ni
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N = 83 turns
Assume that the core is of infinite permeability ( m ) and neglect the effects of fringing fields
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at the air gap and leakage flux. (a) Calculate the reluctance of the core Rc and that of the gap R g .
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For a current of i = 1.5 A, calculate (b) the total flux f, (c) the flux linkages of the coil, and (d)
the coil inductance L.
Solution:
(a)
Rc = 0 since m
(b)
f=
(c)
l = Nf = 1.016 10-2 Wb
(d)
L=
Rg =
g
2.3 10-3
=
= 1.017 106 A/Wb
m0 Ac 4p 10-7 1.8 10-3
Ni
83 1.5
=
= 1.224 10-4 Wb
Rc + Rg 1.017 106
l 1.016 10-2
=
= 6.773 mH
i
1.5
1.3 Consider the magnetic circuit of Fig. 1.24 with the dimensions of Problem 1.1. Assuming
infinite core permeability, calculate (a) the number of turns required to achieve an inductance of
12 mH and (b) the inductor current which will result in a core flux density of 1.0 T.
Solution:
(a)
L=
N2
= 12 10-3 mH
Rg
N = 12 10-3 1.017 106 = 110.47
N = 110 turns
(b)
Bc = Bg = 1.0 T
i=
f = Bg Ac = 1.8 10 -3 Wb
l Nf 110 1.8 10 -3
=
= 16.5 A
=
L
L
12 10 -3
1.13 The inductor of Fig. 1.27 has the following dimensions:

Ac = 1.0 cm2
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lc = 15 cm
g = 0.8 mm
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N = 480 turns
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Neglecting leakage and fringing and assuming mr = 1000 , calculate the inductance.
Solution:
L=
l
i
l = Nf = NBc Ac
mmf equation:
Bc = Bg
H clc + H g lg = Ni
Bc =
m0 Ni
g + ( lc / m r )
Bc
Bg lc +
g = Ni
m r m0
m0
L=
m 0 N 2 Ac
4p 10 -7 480 2 10 -4
=
= 30.477 mH
g + ( lc / m r ) [ 0.08 + (15 / 1000) ] 10 -2
1.14 The inductor of Problem 1.13 is to be operated from a 60-Hz voltage source. (a) Assuming
negligible coil resistance, calculate the rms inductor voltage corresponding to a peak core flux
density of 1.5 T. (b) Under this operating condition, calculate the rms current and the peak stored
energy.
Solution:
(a)
dl
dB
= NAc c Bc = Bmax sinwt v(t) = wNAcBmax coswt
dt
dt
1
1
(2p 60) 480 10-4 1.5 = 19.2 V
Vrms =
wNAcBmax =
2
2
(b)
Vrms
= 1.67 A
wL
Wpeak =
1 2
1
LI peak = 30.477 10-3 ( 2 1.67)2 = 85.0 mJ
2
2
pd
I rm s =
at
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v(t) =
ni
1.16 A square voltage wave having a fundamental frequency of 60 Hz and equal positive and
negative half cycles of amplitude E is applied to a 1000-turn winding surrounding a closed
iron core of 1.25 x 10-3m2 cross section. Neglect both the winding resistance and any effects
of leakage flux.
(a) Sketch the voltage, the winding flux linkage, and the core flux as a function of time.
(a)
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(b) Find the maximum permissible value of E if the maximum flux density is not to
exceed 1.15 T.
E
m ax
voltage
t
max
(b)
dl
l - (-lmax )
l e(t).dt E = max
= 4 f lmax = 4 fNfmax = 4 fNAcBmax
dt =
T /2
E = 4 60 1000 1.2510-3 1.15 = 345 V
e(t) =
at
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1.24 The reciprocating generator of Fig. 1.34 has a movable plunger (position x) which is
supported so that it can slide in and out of the magnetic yoke while maintaining a constant air
gap of length g on each side adjacent to the yoke. Both the yoke and the plunger can be
considered to be of infinite permeabilit y. The motion of the plunger is constrained such that its
position is limited to 0 x w .
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There are two windings on this magnetic circuit. The first has N1 turns and carries a constant
dc current I0. The second, which has N2 turns, is open-circuited and can be connected to a load.
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this motion.
< 1. Find an expression for the sinusoidal voltage which is
ni
where
generated as a result of
w(1 + e sin wt)

2
x(t) =
(a) Neglecting any fringing effects, find the mutual inductance between windings 1
and 2 as a function of the plunger position x.
(b) The plunger is driven by an external source so that its motion is given by
(a)
L21 = N1 N 2
(b)
v2 =
dl2
dt
m0 Ac( x)
2g
Ac(x) = D(w - x)
l2 = L21i1 v2 = I 0
dL21
dL21 dx
m N N D dx
= I0
. = -I 0 0 1 2 .
dt
dx dt
2g
dt
m N N Dwe w cosw t
dx 1
= we wcosw t v2 = -I 0 0 1 2
dt 2
4g
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UNIT II
TRANSFORMERS
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A transformer is a static machine which transfers ac electrical power from one

circuit to another without any electrical link between. It essentially consists of two
windings- the primary and secondary, wound on a common laminated magnetic core. The
winding connected to the ac source is called primary winding and the one connected to
load is called secondary winding. The alternating voltage V1 is applied to the primary.
Depending on the no. of turns of primary(N1) and secondary (N2), the alternating emf,
E2 is induced in the secondary.
Working Principle
When a sinusoidally varying voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is

set up in the core. This flux links both the windings and induces emfs E1 and E2 in them
according to Faradays laws of electromagnetic induction.
According to Lenzs law, induced emf acts in opposite direstion to the appl ied
voltage V1.
Ie. E1
N1
df
dt
E2
-N2
df
dt
Therefore
E2 N2
=
= K where K is known as voltage transformation ratio.
E1 N1
If N2>N1 then E2>E1, it will be a step up transformer.
If N1>N2 then E1>E2, it will be a step down transformer.
Ideal Transformer
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An ideal transformer is one that has
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1. no winding resistance
2. no leakage flux
3. no iron loss.
EMF Equation of a Transformer
Consider an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f applied to primary of the transformer.

This develops a primary current which sets up an alternating flux
The instantaneous emf induced in the primary is
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df
df
= -N1 m sinwt
dt
dt
= - N1 m Cost
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e1= -N1
=-2 f N1 m Cost
= 2 f N1 m sin(t-90)
It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced emf in the primary is
Em1=2 f N1 m
the rms value E1=Em1/ 2
= 4.44 f N1 m
E2=4.44 f N2 m
Transformer Construction
The main elements of a transformer are two windings and a core. The two coils are
insulated from each other as well as from the core. The core is constructed from laminations of
sheet steel or silicon steel assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path. Silicon steel offers
low hysteresis loss and the laminations minimizes eddy current loss. The laminations are
insulated from each other by a light coating of varnish. According to the core construction and
the manner in which the primary and secondary are placed around it, transformers are classified
as
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1. core type
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2. Shell type
LOSSES IN TRANSFORMER
The losses in transformer are

1. iron losses or core losses
2. Copper losses
Iron losses
Since iron core is subjected to alternating flux, there occurs eddy current and hysteresis loss in it.
These two losses together known as iron losses and core losses. Both hysteresis and eddy current
losses depends on maximum flux density Bm in the core and supply frequency f.
Iron loss
= Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss
Copper Losses
`
The primary and secondary of the transformer have winding resistances of R1 and R2
respectively.
I12 R1 + I22 R2
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Total copper loss
Pi
+ Pc
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EFFICIENCY OF A TRANSFORMER
Total losses in a transformer =
pd
Where I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents.
=output power
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Transformer Efficiency
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Input power
Iron loss of a transformer
= Pi
Full load copper loss
= Pc
Total full load loss
= Pi + Pc
Full load efficiency
= Full load VA *P.f

Full load VA * P.f + Pi+Pc
For any fraction x of the full load

efficiency
x Full load VA * P.f
x*Full load VA * P.f + Pi+x2 Pc
Power Transformer
Power Transformers are used in generating stations or sub stations for transforming
voltage at each end of transmission line. They are put in operation during load hours and thrown
off during light load hours. These transformers are designed to have maximum efficiency at or
near full load. Normally the power transformers are rated in MVA.
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Distribution Transformer
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Distribution Transformers are used for stepping down the voltage to a standard voltage
and kept near or at the consumers premises.They are continuously in circuit whether they are
carrying any load or not. He core losses would occur for all tha time where copper losses occur
only when they are loaded. So they are designed to reduce the core losses compared to copper
losses. They must be designed for good all day efficiency and not for efficiency at full load.
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Instrument Transformer
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Instrument transformers are used to extend the range of instruments for the measuring
purposes. They are of two types
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1. Current transformers for measuring large ac currents

2. Potential transformers for measuring high ac voltages
Fig.2.1 Schematic views of (a) core-type and (b) shell-type transformers.
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No-Load Conditions
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Figure 2.2 Cutaway view of self-protected distribution transformer t ypical of sizes 2 to 25 kVA,
7200:240/120 V. Only one high-voltage insulator and lightning arrester is needed because one
side of the 7200-V line and one side of the primary are grounded. (General Electric Company.)
Exciting current
winding
ij
establishes an alternating flux in the core. Voltage induced in the primary
e1 =
KVL eqn. for the primary winding :

v1 = R1ij + e1
dl1
dj
= N1
dt
dt
R1: primary resistance
(primary leakage flux neglected)
Resistance drop is very small induced voltage e1 is very nearly equal to the applied voltage.
Hence, it is almost sinusoidal. Therefore, the flux is also sinusoidal.
dj
= wN1j max coswt
dt
V1
E1 @ V1 jmax =
2p
fN1
j = jmax sinwt e1 = N1
Rms value: E1 =
1
2p fN1j max = 2p fN1j max
2
The core flux is fixed by the applied voltage. The required exciting current is determined by the
magnetic properties of the core.
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Figure 2.4 Transformer with open secondary.
: core-loss component of exciting current; supplies the power

due to hysteresis and eddy current losses.
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Ic
Pc = E1 Ij cosq c
magnetizing component;
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Im :
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Figure 2.5 No-load phasor diagram.
The Ideal Transformer
Figure 2.6 Ideal transformer and load.

v1 = e1 = N1
dj
dt
Core flux links the secondary and induces the voltage e2 :
v2 = e2 = N 2
dj
dt
v1 N1
=
v2 N 2
When a current in the secondary winding flows, the total mmf should be zero since the
reluctance of the core is very large.
N1i1 - N 2i2 = 0
Instantaneous power:
i1 N 2
=
i2 N1
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v1i1 = v2i2
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Figure 2.7 Three circuits which are identical at terminals ab when the transformer is ideal.
Example 2.2
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The equivalent circuit of Fig. 2.8a shows an ideal transformer with an impedance R2 + j X2 = 1 +
j4 connected in series with the secondary. The tums ratio N1/N2 = 5:1. (a) Draw an equivalent
circuit with the series impedance referred to the primary side. (b) For a primary voltage of 120 V
rms and a short connected across the terminals A-B, calculate the primary current and the current
flowing in the short.
Figure 2.8 Equivalent circuits for Example 2.2. (a) Impedance in series with the secondary.
(b) Impedance referred to the primary.
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Figure 2.9 Schematic view of mutual and leakage fluxes in a transformer.
I2 is the component of the primary current which exactly counteracts the mmf of the secondary
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current I2 . The net mmf is produced by the exciting current

Therefore the net mmf is
Ij (in the primary winding).
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N1I j = N1I1 - N 2 I2
= N1(I j + I2 ) - N 2 I2
I2 =
N1I2 = N 2 I2
N2
I2
N1
The equivalent sinusoidal current Ij that represents the exciting current can be resolved into a
core-loss component Ic in phase with the emf 1 , and a magnetizing component Im lagging 1
by 90.
Rc : core-loss resistance
Lm : magnetizing inductance
magnetizing reactance: X m = 2p f Lm
core loss due to the resultant mutual flux =
Rc
excitation branch
Exciting impedance Zj =Rc / / jX m
na
ni
pd
at
es
1 N 1
=
2 N 2
X l2 =
N1
N2
Xl 2
An
Figure 2.10 Steps in the development of the transformer equivalent circuit.
N1
R2 =
R2
N2
N
V2 = 1 V2
N2
Example 2.3
A 50-kVA 2400:240-V 60-Hz distribution transformer has a leakage impedance of 0.72 + j0.92
in the high-voltage winding and 0.0070 + j0.0090 in the low-voltage winding. At rated
voltage and frequency, the impedance Zj of the shunt branch (equal to the impedance of Rc and
jXm in parallel) accounting for the exciting current is 6.32 + j43.7 when viewed from the lowvoltage side. Draw the equivalent circuit referred to (a) the high-voltage side and (b) the lowvoltage side, and label the impedances numerically.
ni
pd
at
es
Approximate equivalent circuits
An
Example 2.4
na
Equivalent series impedance = R eq + jX eq
Consider the equivalent-T circuit of Fig. 2.11a of the 50-kVA 2400:240 V distribution
transformer of Example 2.3 in which the impedances are referred to the high-voltage side. (a)
Draw the cantilever equivalent circuit with the shunt branch at the high-voltage terminal.
Calculate and label Req and Xeq. (b) With the low-voltage terminal open-circuit and 2400 V
applied to the high-voltage terminal, calculate the voltage at the low-voltage terminal as
predicted by each equivalent circuit.
Req = 0.72 + 0.70 = 1.42
Xeq = 0.92 + 0.90 = 1.82
Vcd = Vab = 2400 V
The equivalent T-circuit
Zj
Vcd = 2400
Zj + Z l1
632 + j 4 3 7 0
2400
6
3
2
.7 2 + j 4 3 7 0 . 9 2
= 2399.4 + j0.315 V
Example 2.5
Zeq = 1.42 + j 1.82
Ztot = 1.72 + j 3.42 = R + j X
ni
pd
at
es
The 50-kVA 2400:240-V transformer whose parameters are given in Example 2.3 is used to step
down the voltage at the load end of a feeder whose impedance is 0.30 + j 1.60 . The voltage Vs
at the sending end of the feeder is 2400 V. Find the voltage at the secondary terminals of the
transformer when the load connected to its secondary draws rated current from the transformer
and the power factor of the load is 0.80 lagging. Neglect the voltage drops in the transformer and
feeder caused by the exciting current.
50000
= 20.83 A
2400
q = cos-1(0.8) = 36.87
na
I =
An
V = 2 3 2 8 .3 V
lagging (i.e. current lags voltage)
= 20.83 - 36.87 A = 16.66 - j12.5 A
V2 + (R + jX )I = Vs = 2400d
(V + 71.41)2 + 35.482 = 24002
N
V = 2 V =
V
N1
232.83
Short-Circuit Test
Z sc = R1 + jX l1 +
Zj (R2 + jX l 2 )
Zj + R2 + jX l 2
Zj R2 + jX l 2
Z sc R1 + jX l1 + R2 + jX l 2 = R eq + jX eq
V = V2
Vsc , I sc and Psc measured

Z eq = Z sc
V
= sc
I sc
P
, Req = sc2
I sc
X eq =
Z eq - Req2
pd
at
es
Open-Circuit Test
Voc, Ioc and Poc measured
Voc2
Poc
Zj =
ni
Rc =
Voc
I oc
Rc ( jX m )
Rc + jX m
Xm =
(1 / Z )
j
- (1 / Rc )
na
Zoc = Zj =
Figure 2.16 Equivalent circuit with open-circuited secondary. (a) Complete equivalent circuit.
(b) Cantilever equivalent circuit with the exciting branch at the transformer primary.
An
Example 2.6
With the instruments located on the high-voltage side and the low-voltage side short-circuited,
the short-circuit test readings for the 50-kVA 2400:240-V transformer of Example 2.3 are 48 V,
20.8 A, and 617 W. An open-circuit test with the low-voltage side energized gives instrument
readings on that side of 240 V, 5.41 A, and 186 W. Determine the efficiency and the voltage
regulation at full load, 0.80 power factor lagging.
From the short-circuit test,
Z eq,H =
48
617
= 2.31 W , R e q,H =
= 1. 42 W ,
20. 8
2 0 .8 2
X eq,H = 2.312 - 1.42 2 = 1.82 W
At full load (transformer supplying 50 kVA to the load at 240 V),

Power factor = 0.8
IH =
50000
= 20. 8 A
2400
Pload = Pout = 50 000 0.8 = 40 000 W
Resistive power loss on winding resistances: PR = R eq,H I H2 = 1.42 20.82 = 617 W

From open-circuit test, Pcore = 186 W
Total losses, Ploss = PR + Pcore = 803 W
Total power supplied from high-voltage winding, Pin = Pout + Ploss = 40803 W
Efficiency =
Pout 40000
=
100 % = 98 %
Pin 40803
Voltage Regulation:
At full load, V2 = 24000 V,
IH = 20.8 - cos-1 0.8 = 20.8 - 36.87 A = 16.64 - j12.48 A
V1 = V2 + (Req + jX eq )IH = 2400 + (1.42 + j1.82)(16.64 - j12.48)

= 2446 + j13 V
at
es
2446 - 2400
100% = 1.92%
2400
na
ni
pd
Regulation =
An
TRANSFORMERS IN THREE-PHASE CIRCUITS
Figure 2.19 Common three-phase transformer connections; the transformer windings are
indicated by the heavy lines. ( N1 / N 2 = a )
Example 2.8
Three single-phase, 50-kVA 2400:240-V transformers, each identical with that of Example 2.6,
are connected Y-D in a three-phase 150-kVA bank to step down the voltage at the load end of a
feeder whose impedance is 0.15 + j 1.00 /phase. The voltage at the sending end of the feeder is
4160 V line-to-line. On their secondary sides, the transformers supply a balanced three-phase
load through a feeder whose impedance is 0.0005 + j0.0020 D/phase. Find the line-to-line
voltage at the load when the load draws rated current from the transformers at a power factor of
0.80 lagging.
at
es
Threephase
load
LV feeder
pd
HV feeder
0.15+ j 1.0
1.42 + j 1.82
VH
0.15+ j 0.6
Single-phase equivalent circuit:
ni
Load
na
The voltage at the sending end of the feeder is

Vs =
4160
3
= 2400 V line-to-neutral
An
The low-voltage feeder impedance referred to the high voltage side,

2
4160
Zlv,H =
(0.0005 + j 0.0020) = 0.15 + j 0.60 W
240
Combined series impedance of the high- and low-voltage feeders referred to the high-voltage
side,
Z feeder, H = 0.30 + j1.6 W/phase-Y
The equivalent single-phase series impedance of the transformer is equal to the single-phase
series impedance of each single-phase transformer as referred to its high-voltage side
Z eq,H = 1.42 + j1.82 W/phase-Y
Therefore, the single-phase equivalent circuit for this system is identical to that in Example 2.5.
Vload = 2329 V line-to-neutral referred to the HV side.

240
Referred to the LV side: Vload = 2329
4160
V = 134 V line-to-neutral.
\ Line-to-line Vload = 3 134 = 233 V
The per-unit system

Quantity in per-unit =
Actual quantity
Base value of quantity
Pbase, Qbase ,VAbase = Vbase I base
Rbase , X base , Z base =
Vbase
I base
VA base 1
(P,Q,VA) pu on base 2 = (P,Q,VA) pu on base 1
VA base 2
2
pd
Example 2.12
at
es
Vbase 1 VA base 2
(R, X , Z ) pu on base 2 = (R, X , Z ) pu on base 1

Vbase 2 VA base 1
X H = 3.75 W,
RL = 0.76 mW, RH = 0.085 W
X m = 114 W,
X L = 0.040 W,
The equivalent circuit for a 100-MVA, 7.97-kV:79.7-kV transformer is shown in Fig. 2.22a. The
equivalent-circuit parameters are:
na
Base quantities:
ni
Note that the magnetizing inductance has been referred to the low-voltage side of the equivalent
circuit. Convert the equivalent circuit parameters to per unit using the transformer rating as base.
VAbase= 100 MVA, Vbase=7.97 kV
Rbase = X base =
Vb2ase
= 0.635 W
VAbase
HV side:
VAbase= 100 MVA, Vbase=79.7 kV
Rbase = X base =
An
LV side:
Vb2ase
= 6 3 .5 W
VAbase
XL =
XH =
0 .0 4 0
7.6 10-4
114
= 0.063 p.u., RL =
= 0.0012 p.u., X m =
= 180 p.u.
0 .6 3 5
0.635
0.635
3 .7 5
0.085
= 0.0591 p.u., RH =
= 0.0013 p.u.
6 3 .5
6 3 .5
pd
at
es
Example 2.13
Vbase,H = 2400 V, Vbase,L = 240 V,
na
Base values:
ni
The exciting current measured on the low-voltage side of a 50-kVA, 2400:240-V transformer is
5.41 A. Its equivalent impedance referred to the high-voltage side is 1.42 + j 1.82 . Using the
transformer rating as the base, express in per unit on the low- and high-voltage sides (a) the
exciting current and (b) the equivalent impedance.
(a)
(b)
2400
240
= 115.2 W, Z base,L =
= 1.152 W
20.8
208
An
Z base,H =
I base,H = 20.8 A, I base,L = 208 A
5 .4 1
= 0.026 p.u.
208
0.541
=
= 0.026 p.u.
20.8
Per-unit value of exciting current referred to the LV side:
Ij ,L =
Per-unit value of exciting current referred to the HV side:
Ij ,H
Z eq,H =
1.42 + j1.82
= 0.0123 + j 0.0158 p.u.
115.2
The equivalent impedance referred to the LV side,

2
1
Z eq,L = 10 (1.42 + j1.82) = 0.0142 + j 0.0182 W

0.0142 + j0.0182
= 0.0123 + j0.0158 p.u.
Per-unit value Z eq,L =
1.152
3.7 Approximate Equivalent Circuits

The voltage drops I1 R1 and I1 X 1 (Fig.3.11e) are normally small and
then the shunt branch (composed of
Rc1 and X m )
E1 @ V1 . If this is true
can be moved to the supply terminal, as
shown in Fig.3.12a. This approximate equivalent circuit simplifies computation of currents,

because both the exciting branch impedance and the load branch impedance are directl y
connected across the supply voltage. Besides, the winding resistances and leakage reactances can
be lumped together. This equivalent circuit (Fig.3.12a) is frequently used to determine the
performance characteristics of a practical transformer.
In a transformer, the exciting current
Io
is a small percentage of the rated current of the
transformer (less than 5%). A further approximation of the equivalent circuit can be made b y
removing the excitation branch, as shown in Fig.3.12b. The equivalent circuit referred to side 2 is
An
na
ni
pd
at
es
also shown in Fig.3.12c.
Fig.3.12 Approximate equivalent circuits.
3.8 Transformer Rating

The kVA rating and voltage ratings of a transformer are marked on its nameplate. For
example, a typical transformer may carry the following information on the nameplate: 10 kVA,
1100/ 110 volts. What are he meanings of these ratings? The voltage ratings in dicate that the
transformer has two windings, one rated for 1100 volts and the other for 110 volts. These
voltages are proportional to their respective numbers of turns, and therefore the voltage ratio also
represents the turns ratio (a = 1100/ 110 = 10). The 10 kVA rating means that each winding is
designed for 10 kVA. Therefore the current rating for the high-voltage winding is 10,000/ 1100 =
9.09 A and for the lower-voltage winding is 10,000/110 = 90.9 A. It may be noted that when the
rated current of 90.9 A flows through the lowvoltage winding, the rated current of 9.09 A will
flow through the highvoltage winding. In an actual case, however, the winding that is connected
at
es
to the supply (called the primary winding) will carry an additional component of current
pd
(excitation current), which is very small compared to the rated current of the winding.
3.9 Determination Of Equivalent Circuit Parameters
R1, X l1, Rc1, X m1, R2 , X l 2
behavior of the transformer. The parameters
The equivalent circuit model (Fig.3.12(a)) for the actual transformer can be used to predict the
and a = N1 / N 2
ni
must be known so that the equivalent circuit model can be used.
If the complete design data of a transformer are available, these parameters can be calculated
(R1, R2 )
na
from the dimensions and properties of the materials used. For example, the winding resistances
can be calculated from the resistivity of copper wires, the total length, and the
An
cross-sectional area of the winding. The magnetizing inductances
Lm can be calculated from the
number of turns of the winding and the reluctance of the magnetic path. The calculation of the
leakage inductance
(Ll )
will involve accounting for partial flux linkages and is therefore
complicated. However, formulas are available from which a reliable determination of these
quantities can be made.
These parameters can be directly and more easily determined by performing tests that involve
little power consumption. Two tests, a no-load test (or open-circuit test) and a short-circuit test,
will provide information for determining the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer.
3.9.1 No-Load Test (Or Open-Circuit Test)
This test is performed by appl ying a voltage to either the high-voltage side or low-voltage
side, whichever is convenient. Thus, if a 1100/ 110 volt transformer were to be tested, the voltage
would be applied to the low-voltage winding, because a power supply of 110 volts is more
readily available than a supply of 1100 volts.
A wiring diagram for open circuit test of a transformer is shown in Fig.3.13a. Note that the
secondary winding is kept open. Therefore, from the transformer equivalent circuit of Fig.3.12a
the equivalent circuit under open-circuit conditions is as shown in Fig.3.12b. The primary current
is the exciting current and the losses measured by the wattmeter are essentially the core losses.
The equivalent circuit of Fig.3.13b shows that the parameters Rc1 and Xm1 can be determined
from the voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter readings.
Note that the core losses will be the same whether 110 volts are applied to the low-voltage
winding having the smaller number of turns or 1100 volts are applied to the high-voltage winding
at
es
having the larger number of turns. The core loss depends on the maximum value of flux in the
ni
pd
core.
An
na
(a)
(b)
Fig.3.13 No-load (or open-circuit) test. (a) Wiring diagram for open-circuit test. (b)
Equivalent circuit under open circuit
3.9.2 Short-Circuit Test.
This test is performed by short-circuiting one winding and applying rated current to the other
winding, as shown in Fig.3.14a. In the equivalent circuit of Fig.3.12a for the transformer, the
impedance of the excitation branch (shunt branch composed of Rc1 and X m1) is much larger than
that of the series branch (composed of
Req1 and Req1 ). If the secondary terminals are shorted,
the high impedance of the shunt branch can be neglected. The equivalent circuit with the
secondary short-circuited can thus be represented by the circuit shown in Fig.3.14b. Note that
since Zeq1 =
is small, only a small supply voltage is required to pass rated current
2
Req1
+ X eq21
through the windings. It is convenient to perform this test by applying a voltage to the
high-voltage winding.
As can be seen from Fig.3.14b, the parameters Req1 and Xeq1 can be determined from the
2
readings of voltmeter, ammeter, and wattmeter. In a well designed transformer, R1 = a R2 = R2

2
at
es
and X l1 = a X l 2 = X l 2 .
Note that because the voltage applied under the short-circuit condition is small, the core losses
are neglected and the wattmeter reading can be taken entirely to represent the copper losses in the
2
An
na
ni
pd
windings, represented by I1 Req1 .
Fig.3.14 Short-circuit test. (a) Wiring diagram for short-circuit test. (b). Equivalent circuit at
short-circuit condition.
The following example illustrates the computation of the parameters of the equivalent circuit
of a transformer
Example 3.4 Tests are performed on a 1 f , 10 kVA, 2200/220 V, 60 Hz transformer and the
at
es
following results are obtained.
pd
(a) Derive the parameters for the approximate equivalent circuits referred to the low-voltage
side and the high-voltage side.
(b) Express the excitation current as a percentage of the rated current.
ni
(c) Determine the power factor for the no-load and short-circuit tests.
Solution:
Note that for the no-load test the supply voltage (full-rated voltage of 220V) is applied to the
na
low-voltage winding, and for the short-circuit test the supply voltage is applied to the
high-voltage winding with the low-voltage Equivale winding shorted. The ratings of the
An
windings are as follows:
V1(rated ) = 2200 V
V2(rated ) = 220 V
I1(rated ) =
100 00
= 4.55 A
2200
I 2(rated ) =
10000
= 45.5 A
220
The equivalent circuit and the phasor diagram for the open-circuit test are shown in Fig.3.15a.
V22
Power, Poc =
Rc2
Then
220 2
Rc2 =
= 484 W
100
I c2 =
220
= 0.45 A
484
I m2 =
(I 2 - Ic2 ) = (2.52 - 0.452 ) = 2.46A
X m2 =
V2
22
=
= 89.4 W
I m2 2.46
The corresponding parameters for the high-voltage side are obtained as follows:
a=
2200
= 10
220
at
es
Turns ratio
Rc1 = a 2 Rc2 = 102 * 484 = 48 400 W
pd
X m1 = a 2 X m2 = 102 *89.4 = 8940 W
The equivalent circuit with the low-voltage winding shorted is shown in Fig.3.15b.
= I12 Req1
Z eq 1 =
Then,
215
= 1 0 .4 W
4.55 2
na
Req1 =
Vsc1 150
= 32.97 W
=
I sc1 4.55
An
Then,
ni
Power Psc
X eq1 =
2
2
Zeq1
- Req1
= 31.3 W
at
es
pd
Fig.3.15
X eq1
a2
10 2
= 0.104 W
10.4
ni
a2
31.3
10 2
X eq2 =
Req1
= 0.313 W
na
Req2 =
The corresponding parameters for the low-voltage side are as follows:
An
The approximate equivalent circuits referred to the low-voltage side and the high-voltage
side are shown in Fig.3.15c. Note that the impedance of the shunt branch is much larger than
that of the series branch.
(b) From the no-load test the excitation current, with rated voltage applied to the low-voltage
winding, is:
I o = 2.5A
T hi s i s
2 .5
*100% = 5.5%
45.5
c power factor at no load
of the rated current of the winding
Power
volt ampere
100
= 0. 18 2
220 * 2.5
Power factor at short circuit condition
215
= 0.315
150 * 4.55
Example 3.5 Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200/400-V, 50 Hz, 1 phase transformer
from the following test a :-O.C. test : 200 V, 0.7 A, 70W-on LV side
S.C. test : 15 V, 10 A, 85 W-on HV side
at
es
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5 kW at 0.8 power factor lagging, the primary
voltage being 200 V.
pd
Solution:
From O.C. Test
Po = Vo I o * cosj o
ni
= cos -1 0.5 = 60o
= I o cosj o = 0.7*0.5 = 0.35A
An
Then I c1
na
Then j o
Po
70
= 0.5
=
Vo I o 200 * 0.7
\ cosj o =
Im1 = I o sin j o = 0.7*0.866 = 0.606A

Then
Rc1 =
Vo1 200
=
= 571.4 W
I c1 0.35
And
X m1 =
Vo1
200
= 330 W
=
I m1 0.606
As shown in Fig.3.16, these values refer to primary i.e. low-voltage side

From Short Circuit test:
It may be noted that in this test instruments have been placed in the secondary i.e. high voltage
winding and the low-voltage winding i.e. primary has been short-circuited.
No w,
Z eq2 =
V2sc 15
= = 1.5W
I 2sc 10
1
= *1.5 = 0.375W
2
Z eq1 = a * Z eq2
Also,
Psc = I 22sc Req2
Then,
Req2 =
Req1 = a * Req2
1
= * 0.85 = 0.21 W
2
2
2
Zeq1
- Req1
= 0.3752 - 0.212 = 0.31 W
Xeq1 =
na
ni
pd
Then,
at
es
Then,
85
= 0.85 W
100
An
Fig.3.16
Output KVA =
real power
5
=
= 6.3 kVA
Power factor 0.8
Output current I 2
Now,
from
the
5000
= 15.6 A
0 .8 * 4 0 0
aproximate
V2 0 o = V1 d o - I 2 j
Then, V2
equivalent
circuit
refeared
* Z eq 2
0 o = 400d o - 15.6- 36.87 o * (0.85 + j1.2 )
V2 0o = 400d o -15.6 - 36.87o *1.5 54.7o
to
secondery
V2 0o = 400d o - 23.418.17o
From the above equation we have two unknown variables
V2 and do
it need two
equations to get both of them. The above equation is a complex one so we can get two equations
out of it. If we equate the real parts together and the equate the imaginary parts:
So from the Imaginary parts:
( )
V2 sin (0 ) = 400 sin d o - 23.4* sin 18.17o
( )
Then, d
at
es
0 = 400* sin d o - 7.41o
= 7.4o
pd
So from the Real parts:
V2 = 374.5 V
ni
Then,
V2 cos (0 ) = 400 * cos 7.41o - 23.4* cos 18.17o
Example 3.6 A 50 Hz, 1 - f transformer has a turns ratio of 6. The resistances are 0.9 W,
na
0.03 W and reactances are 5W and 0.13 W for high-voltage and low-voltage, windings
respectively. Find (a) the voltage to be applied to the HV side to obtain full-load current of 200
An
A in the LV winding on short-circuit (b) the power factor on short-circuit.
Solution:
The turns ratio is
a=
N1
=6
N2
Req1 = R1 + a 2 R2 = 0.9 + 62 * 0.03 = 1.98 W

X eq1 = X 1 + a 2 X 2 = 5 + 62 * 0.13 = 9.68 W
2
Zeq1 = Req1
+ Xeq21 = 1.982 + 9.682 = 9.88 W
I1 =
I 2 200
=
= 33.33A
a
6
(a)
Vsc = I1 * Zeq1 = 9.88*33.33 = 329.3V
(b)
cosj =
Req1
Z eq 1
1.98
9. 88
= 0 .2
Example 3.7 A 1 phase, 10 kVA, ,500/250-V, 50 Hz transformer has the following constants:
at
es
Resistance: Primary 0.2 W ; .Secondary 0.5W

Reactance: Primary 0.4W ; Secondary 0.1 W
pd
Resistance of equivalent exciting circuit referred to primary,

1500W
Reactance of equivalent exciting circuit referred to primary,
X m1 = 750
W.
Rc1 =
na
open-circuit and-short-circuit tests?
ni
What would be the readings of the instruments when the transformer is connected for the
O.C. Test:
I m1 =
I c1 =
An
Solution:
V1
500 2
=
= A
X m 750 3
V1
500 1
=
= A
Rc1 1500 3
2
1 2
Io = + = 0.745 A
3 3
No load primary input V1 * I c1
1
= 500 * = 167W
3
Instruments used in primary circuit are: voltmeter, ammeter and wattmeter, their readings
being 500 V, 0745 A and 167 W respectively.
S.C. Test
Suppose S.C. test is performed by short-circuiting the LV, winding i.e. the secondary so that
all instruments are in primary.
Req1 = R1 + R2 = R1 + a 2 R2 = 0.2 + 4 * 0.5 = 2.2 W

X eq1 = X 1 + X 2 = X 1 + a 2 X 2 = 0.4 + 4* 0.1 = 0.8 W
Then,
Zeq1 =
2
Req1
+ Xe2q1 = 2.22 + 0.82 = 2.341 W
Full-load primary current
Then Vsc
= I1 * Zeq1 = 20* 2.431 = 46.8V
Power absorbed
= I12 * Req1 = 202 * 2.2 = 880W
at
es
Rated kVA
10000
=
= 20 A
Rated Pr imaryvoltage
500
pd
I1 =
An
3.10 Efficiency
na
ni
Primary instruments will read: 468 V, 20 A, 880 W.
Equipment is desired to operate at a high efficiency. Fortunatel y, losses in transformers are

small. Because the transformer is a static device, there are no rotational losses such as windage
and friction losses in a rotating machine. In a well-designed transformer the efficiency can be as
high as 99%. The efficiency is defined as follows:
h=
output power (Pout) *100 =

Pout
*100
Input Power (Pin)
Pout + Losses
The losses in the transformer are the core loss
h=
Pout
Pout
=
Pout + Losses Pout + Pc + Pcu
(3.14)
(Pc) and copper loss (Pcu ) . Therefore,

(3.15)
The copper loss can be determined if the winding currents and their resistances are known:
Pcu = I 12R1 + I 22R2

2
(3.16)
= I1 Req1 = I 2 Req2
The copper loss is a function of the load current.

The core loss depends on the peak flux density in the core, which in turn depends on the
voltage applied to the transformer. Since a transformer remains connected to an essentially
constant voltage, the core loss is almost constant and can be obtained from the no-load test of a
transformer. Therefore, if the parameters of the equivalent circuit of a transformer are known, the
efficiency of the transformer under any operating condition may be determined. Now,
at
es
Pout = V2 I 2 cosj 2
Therefore,
V2 I 2 cosj 2
V2 I 2 cosj 2 + Pc + I 22 Req2
h=
V2 * I 2 * cosj 2
*100
V2 * I 2 * cosj 2 + Pc + I 22 Req1
(3.17)
(3.18)
na
ni
* 10 0
pd
h=
3.11 Maximum Efficiency
An
For constant values of the terminal voltage
V2 and load power factor angle j 2 , the maximum
efficiency occurs when:
dh
=0
dI 2
(3.19)
If this condition is applied to Eqn. (3.17) the condition for maximum efficiency is:
Pc = I 22 Req 2
(3.20)
That is, core loss = copper loss. For full load condition,
2
Pcu, FL = I 2,FL
Req 2
(3.21)
Let
x=
I2
I 2, FL
= per unit loadi ng
(3.22)
From Eqns. (3.20), (3.21) and (3.22).
Pc = x 2 Pcu, FL
Then,
(3.23)
Pc
x=
Pcu, FL
(3.24)
V2 and load current I 2 , the maximum efficiency
at
es
For constant values of the terminal voltage

occurs when:
dh
=0
dj 2
An
na
ni
pd
(3.25)
Fig.3.17 Efficiency of a transformer.
If this condition is applied to Eq.(3.17), the condition for maximum efficiency is
j 2 = 0 Then, cosj 2 = 1
that is, load power factor = 1
Therefore, maximum efficiency in a transformer occurs when the load power factor is unity
(i.e., resistive load) and load current is such that copper loss equals core loss. The variation of
efficiency with load current and load power factor is shown in Fig.3.17.
Example 3.8 For the transformer in Example 3.4, determine
(a)
Efficiency at 75% rated output and 0.6 PF.
(b) Power output at maximum efficiency and the value of maximum efficiency. At what percent
at
es
of full load does this maximum efficiency occur?
Pout = V2 I 2 cosj 2 .
= 0.75 *10 000 * 0.6 = 4500W
(a )
pd
Solution:
Pcu = I12Req1
2
ni
Pc = 100W ,
na
= (0.75 * 4.55) *10.4 = 121W

4500
*100 = 95.32%
4500 + 100 +121
An
h=
(b) At maximum efficiency
Pcore = Pcu and PF = cosj 2 = 1

Now, Pcore
= 100W = I 22Req2 = Pcu

1/ 2
100
Then, I 2 =
0.104
P out
hmax
= 31 A
= V2 I 2 cosj 2 = 220 * 31*1 = 6820W
Pout hmax
hmax =
Pout hmax + Pc + Pcu
6820
* 100
6820 + 100 + 100
= 97. 15 %
output kVA=6.82 and Rated kVA=10
Then, h max occurs at 68.2% full load.
Anther Method
From Example 3.4
at
es
Pc
100
X = =
= 0.68
P
2
1
5
c
u
,
F
L
pd
Then
Pcu,FL = 215W
ni
20 A, 100 W
O.C. test : 200 V, 0.8 A, 80W,
transformer from the following test a :-
Example 3.9 Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 8kVA 200/400 V, 50 Hz, 1 phase
S.C. test : 20 V,
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 6 kW at 0.7 power factor laggi ng, the primary
na
voltage being 200 V.
An
From O.C. Test
Po
\ cosj o
=
Then j o
Vo I o
80
= 0.5
2 0 0 * 0 .8
= cos -1 0.5 = 60o
Then I c1
= I o cosj o = 0.8* 0.5 = 0.4A
I m1 = I o sin j o = 0.8* 0.866 = 0.69282A

Then,
Rc1 =
Vo1 200
=
= 500 W
Ic1 0.4
And
X m1 =
Vo1
I c1
200
= 288.675 W
0.69282

It may be noted that in this test instruments have been placed in the secondary i.e. high
voltage winding and the low voltage winding i.e. primary has been short-circuited.
Now,
Also,
2
Psc = I 2sc
Req 2
Then,
Req 2 =
pd
= 0.25 W
20
2
Z eq2 2 - Req2
= 12 - 0.252 = 0.968246 W
X eq 2 =
I2 =
6000
= 21. 428 6 A
0.7 * 400
na
Output current
ni
Then,
100
at
es
V2sc 20
=
= 1W
I 2sc 20
Z eq2 =
Now, from the aproximate equivalent circuit refeared to secondery :
An
V2 0 o = V1d o - I 2 j
Then,
* Z eq 2
V2 0o = 400d o - 21.4286 - 45.573o * (0.25 + j 0.968246)
V2 0o = 400d o - 21.43 29.9495o

From the above equation we have two unknown variables
V2 and do
it need two
equations to get both of them. The above equation is a complex one so we can get two equations
out of it. If we equate the real parts together and the equate the imaginary parts:
So from the Imaginary parts:
( )
V2 sin (0 ) = 400 sin d o - 21.43* sin 29.9495 o
( )
0 = 400* sin d o -10.6986

Then, d
= 1.533
So from the Real parts:
V2 cos (0 ) = 400 *cos 1.533 o - 21.43* cos 29.9495 o

V2 = 381.288 V
at
es
Then,
short-circuite
pd
Example:3.10 A 6kVA, 250/500 V, transformer gave the following test results

20 V ; 12 A, 100 W and Open-circuit test : 250 V, 1 A, 80 W
I. Determine the transformer equivalent circuit.
ni
volt and 0.8 power factor lagging.
II. calculate applied voltage, voltage regulation and efficiency when the output is 10 A at 500
0.8 power factor lagging).
III. Maximum efficiency, at what percent of full load does this maximum efficiency occur? (At
An
na
IV. At what percent of full load does the effeciency is 95% at 0.8 power factor lagging.
Solution:
(I) From O.C. Test
\ cosj o =
Then j o
Po
80
=
= 0.32
Vo I o 250 *1.0
= cos -1 0.32 = 71.3371o
Then Ic1
= I o cosj o = 1.0*0.32 = 0.32A
Im1 = I o sin j o = 1.0*0.7953 = 0.7953 A

Then
Rc1 =
Vo1 250
=
= 781.25W
Ic1 0.32
And
X m1 =
Vo1
250
= 314.35W
=
Im1 0.7953
As shown in Fig.3.16, these values refer to primary i.e. low-voltage side

The rated current of the secondary side is:
I2 =
6000
= 12 A
500
It is clear that in this test instruments have been placed in the secondary i.e. high voltage
at
es
winding and the low-voltage winding i.e. primary has been short-circuited.
Now,
Psc = I 22sc Req2
Then,
Req2 =
Then,
Then,
na
Also,
Zeq1 = a * Z eq2
1
= *1.667 = 0.4167W
2
ni
pd
V2 sc 20
=
= 1.667W
I 2sc 12
Z eq 2 =
An
100
= 0.694 W
12 2
2
Req1 = a * Req2
1
= * 0.694 = 0.174 W
2
2
X eq1 = Ze2q1 - Req1
= 0.41672 - 0.1742 = 0.3786 W
As shown in the following figure, these values refer to primary i.e. low-voltage side
j0.3786 0.174
I0
V2
V1
314.35
781.25
The parameters of series branch can be obtained directly by modifying the short circuit test data
to be referred to the primary side as following:
SC test 20 V ; 12 A, 100 W (refered to secondery)
2
Psc = I1sc
Req1
Then,
Req1 =
ni
X eq 1 =
100
= 0.174 W
24 2
2
Ze2q1 - Req1
= 0.41672 - 0.1742 = 0.3786 W
na
Then,
Also,
pd
V1sc 10
=
= 0.4167W
I1sc 24
Zeq1 =
S o,
at
es
SC test 20*a=10V ; 12/a=24A, 100 W (refered to Primary)
An
It is clear the second method gives the same results easly.
(II) Output KVA = 10*500*0.8
= 4 kVA
Now, from the aproximate equivalent circuit refeared to secondery :
V1 d o = V2 0 o + I 2 j
Then,
* Z eq1
V1 d o = 250 0o + 20 - 36.87o * (0.174 + j0.3786)
VR =
= 257.3580.89o
V1 -V2 257.358 - 250

=
*100 = 2.943%
V2
250
Pout = 10*500* 0.8 = 4kW ,
Pi = Poc = 80W , and ,
Pcu = 10 * Req 2 = 100 * 0.694 = 69.4W
I
Pcu = Psc * 2
I 2SC
2
10
= 100 *
12
or
= 69.4 W
(III) maximum effeciency ocures when
at
es
Pout
4000
=
*100 = 96.4%
Pout + Pi + Pcu 4000 + 80 + 69.4
h=
Pc = Pcu = 80W
pd
the
The percent of the full load at which maximum efficiency occurs is :
ni
Pc
80
X = =
= 0.8945%
Pcu, FL
1
0
0
6000 * 0.8945 * 0.8

* 1 0 0 = 9 6 .4 1 %
6000 * 0.8945 * 0.8 + 80 + 80
An
h=
na
Then, the maximum efficiency is :
(IV)
h=
=
Pout
Pout
= 0 .9 5
+ Pi + Pcu
6000 * 0.8 * x
= 0 .9 5
2
6000 * 0.8 * x + 80 + 100 * x
Then,
95 x 2 - 240 x + 76 = 0
Then,
Or
x = 2.155
(Unacceptable)
x = 0.3712
Then to get 95% efficiency at 0.8 power factor the transformer must work at 37.12% of full
load.
3.12 All-Day (Or Energy) Efficiency, h ad

The transformer in a power plant usually operates near its full capacity and is taken out of
circuit when it is not required. Such transformers are called power transformers, and they are
at
es
usually designed for maximum efficiency occurring near the rated out put. A transformer
connected to the utility that supplies power to your house and the locality is called a distribution
transformer. Such transformers are connected to the power s ystem for 24 hours a day and operate
pd
well below the rated power output for most of the time. It is therefore desirable to design a
distribution transformer for maximum efficiency occurring at the average output power.
A figure of merit that will be more appropriate to represent the efficiency performance of a
distribution transformer is the "all-day" or "energy" efficiency of the transformer. This is defined
(3.26)
energy output over 24 hours

energy output over 24 hours + Losses over 24 hours
An
h ad =
energy output over 24 hours

* 100
energy i nput over 24 hours
na
h ad =
ni
as follows:
If the load cycle of the transformer is known, the all day effeciency can be deteremined.
Example 3.11 A 50 kVA, 2400/240 V transformer has a core loss P, = 200 W at rated voltage
and a copper loss Pcu = 500 W at full load. It has the following load cycle.
% L oa d
0 .0 %
Power Factor
H o u rs
50 %
75%
100 %
11 0 %
0.8Lag
0.9L ag
Determine the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
Solution
Energy output 24 hours is
0.5*50*6+0.75*50*0.8*6+1*50*0.9*3+1.1*50*1*3=630 kWh
Energy losses over 24 hours:
Core loss =0.2*24=4.8 kWh
Copper losses = 0.52 *0.5*6 + 0.752 *0.5*6 +12 * 0.5* 3+ 1.12 *0.5*3
=5.76 kWh
630
* 1 0 0 = 9 8 .3 5 %
630 +10.56
pd
Then, h AD
at
es
Total energy loss=4.8+5.76=10.56 kWh
3.13 Regulation of a Transformer
(1) When a transformer is loaded with a constant primary voltage, then the secondary terminal
= Secondary terminal voltage at no-load
Let. V2o
ni
voltage drops because of its internal resistance and leakage reactance.
na
= E2 = E1 / a = V1 / a
An
Because at no-load the impedance drop is negligible.
V2 = Secondary terminal
voltage on full-load.
The change in secondary terminal voltage from no-load to full-lead is =

change divided by
V20
is known as regulation down. if this change is divided by
full-load secondary terminal voltage, then it is called regulation up.
%reg =
Vno-load -Vload
*100
Vload
(V2 )no -load - (V2 )load

*100
(V2 )load
V1- (V2 )load
V1 -(V2) load
%reg =
*100 =
*100
(V2 )load
(V2) load
%reg =
V2o -V2 .
(3.27)
(3.28)
(3.29)
V2
This
i.e.
As the transformer is loaded, the secondary terminal voltage falls (for a lagging power factor).
Hence, to keep the output voltage constant, the primary voltage must be increased. The rise in
primary voltage required to maintain rated output voltage from no-load to full-load at a given
power factor expressed as percentage of rated primary voltage gives the regulation of the
transformer.
Vector diagram for the voltage drop in the transformer for different load power factor is
shown in Fig.3.18. It is clear that the only way to get V1 less than V2 is when the power factor is
leading which means the load has capacitive reactance (i.e. the drop on
Zeq1
will be negative,
V1
I 2 X eq1
I 2 Zeq1
V2
pd
ni
V1
I 2 Req1
I 2
at
es
which means the regulation may be negative).
I 2 X eq1
I 2 Zeq1
(a)
na
V1
I 2
I 2 Req1
V2
An
I 2
(b)
I 2 X eq1
I 2 Z eq1
I 2 Req1
j
V2
(c)
Fig.3.18 Vector diagram for transformer for different power factor (a) lagging PF (b) Unit y
PF (c) Leading PF.
Example 3.12 A 250/500 V, transformer gave the following test results

Short-circuit test : with low-voltage winding shorted.
short-circuited
20 V ; 12 A, 100 W
Open-circuit test : 250 V, 1 A, 80 W on low-voltage side.

Determine the circuit constants, insert these on the equivalent circuit diagram and calculate
applied voltage, voltage regulation and efficiency when the output is 5 A at 500 volt and 0.8
power factor lagging.
at
es
Solution
Open circuit test
I c1 = I o cosj o = 1*0.32 = 0.32A
pd
80
= 0.32
250 *1
P
cosj o = oc
Voc Ioc
=
X m1 =
na
V1oc 250
=
= 781.3 W
Ic
0.32
V1oc 250
=
= 263.8 W
I m 0.95
An
Rc1 =
ni
Im1 = I o2 - I c2 = 12 - 0.322 = 0.95A
Short circuit test

As the primary is short-circuited, all values refer to secondary winding. So we can obtain
Req2 and X eq2
and then refer them to primary to get
Req1 and X eq1 as explained before
in Example 3.5 or we can modify the short circuit data to the primary and then we can calculate
Req1 and X eq1 directly. Here will use the two method to compare the results.
First method
R eq 2 =
Psc 100
= 2 = 0.694 W
2
I 2sc
12
Z eq2 =
Vsc 20
=
= 1.667 W
I 2sc 12
Then,
As
X eq2 =
2
2
Zeq2
- Req2
= 1.6672 - 0.6942 = 1.518 W
Rc a n d X m
(Req2 , X eq2 , and
refer
to
primary,
hence
we
will
transfer
these
values
Z eq2 ) to primary with the help of transformation ratio.
Req1 = a 2 * Req2 = 0.52 * 0.694 = 0.174 W
pd
X eq1 = a 2 * X eq2 = 0.52 *1.518 = 0.38 W
at
es
Then
Z eq1 = a 2 * Z eq2 = 0.52 *1.667 = 0.417W
ni
Second method
Short-circuited results refeard to secondery are 20 V, 12 A, 100 W Then, Short-circuited results

refeard to primary are 10 V, 24 A, 100 W
Zeq1 =
Then,
Psc 100
= 2 = 0.174 W
2
I1sc
24
na
An
Then Req1
V1sc 10
=
= 0.417 W
I1sc 24
Xeq1 =
2
2
Zeq1
- Req1
= 04172 - 0.1742 = 0.38 W
Applied voltage
V1 d o = V2 0o + I 2 j o * Zeq1
Then, V1
d o = 250 0o +10 - cos -1 0.8* (0.174 + j 0.38)
V1 d o = 250 0o +10 - 36.24o * 0.418 65.4o
V1 d o = 250 0o + 4.18 29.16o

o
V1 d = 250 0 + 3.65 + j2.04 = 253.65 + j2.04
at
es
= 253.7 0.47 o V
Voltage regulation
pd
(V1 ) - (V2) load

*100
(V2)load
(V2)load = 250 00
253.7 - 250
* 1 0 0 = 1 .4 8 %
250
ni
% reg =
%reg =
Effeciency
V2 * I 2 * cosj
*100
V2 * I 2 * cos j + Pcu + Piron
h=
250 *10* 0.8

*100 = 95.356%
250 *10* 0.8 + 102 *0.174 + 80
An
na
h=
Example 3.13 A 1f, 10 kVA, 2400/240 V, 60 Hz distribution transformer has the following
characteristics: Core loss at full voltage =100 W and Copper loss at half load =60 W (a)
Determine the efficiency of the transformer when it delivers full load at 0.8 power factor lagging.
(b) Determine the rating at which the transformer efficiency is a maximum. Determine the
efficiency if the load power factor is 0.9. (c) The transformer has the following load cycle:
No load for 6 hours, 70% full load for 10 hours at 0.8 PF and 90% full load for 8 hours at 0.9
PF
Solution:
Pout = 10*0.8 = 8 kW
(a)
Pcore = 100 W , Pcu, FL == 60 * 2 2 = 240W

h=
x=
hmax
100
= 0.6455`` \
240
10 *103 * 0.6455 * 0.9

=
= 96.67%
4
10 * 0.6455 * 0.9 + 100 + 100
at
es
(b)
8000
*100 = 95.92%
8000 +100 + 240
pd
Output energy in 24 hours is:
ni
Energy losses in the core in 24 hours is
E24hrs = 0 +10* 0.7* 0.8*10 +10 * 0.9 * 0.9 * 8 = 120.8kWh
na
Ecore = 100 * 24 *10 -3 = 2.4 kWh
An
Energy losses in the cupper in 24 hours is
Ecu = 240* 0.72 *10 + 240 * 0.92 * 8 *10 -3 = 2.7312kWh

Then, hall day
1 2 0 .8
*100 = 95.93%
120.8 + 2.4 + 2.7312
3.14 Percentage Resistance, Reactance and Impedance

These quantities are usually measured by the voltage drop at full-load current expressed as a
percentage of the normal voltage of the winding on which calculations are made.
(i) Percentage resistance at full load
I1*Req1
%R =
V1
*10 0 =
I12 Req1
V1I1
* 10 0
(3.30)
I 2 Req2
V2 I 2
*100 = %Cu Loss at full load
Percentage reactance at full load:
%Z =
I1 * X eq1
V1
I 1 Z eq 1
V1
*100 =
* 10 0 =
I 2 X eq2
V2
I 2 Z eq2
V2
*100
(3.31)
* 1 00
(3.32)
at
es
%X =
(3.33)
pd
%Z = %R 2 + % X
3.15 Autotransformer
ni
This is a special connection of the transformer from which a variable AC voltage can be
obtained at the secondary. A common winding as shown in Fig.3.19 is mounted on core and the
secondary is taken from a tap on the winding. In contrast to the two-winding transformer
na
discussed earlier, the primary and secondary of an autotransformer are physically connected.
An
However, the basic principle of operation is the same as that of the two-winding transformer.
pd
at
es
Fig.3.19 Step down autotransformer.
ni
Since all the turns link the same flux in the transformer core,
(3.34)
na
V1 N1
=
=a
V2 N 2
If the secondary tapping is replaced by a slider, the output voltage can be varied over the
< V2 < V1 .
An
range 0
The ampere-turns provided by the upper half (i.e., by turns between points a and b) are:
(N1 - N 2 )* I1 = 1 - 1 N 1I1
(3.35)
The ampere-turns provided by the lower half (i.e., by turns between points b and c) are:
N 2 ( I 2 - I1 ) =
N1
( I 2 - I1 )
a
(3.36)
from amper turn balance, from equations (3.35) and (3.36)
1
1 - N
a
(3.37)
Then,
I1 1
=
I2 a
(3.38)
I =
N1
(I 2 - I1 )
a
Equations (3.34) and (3.37) indicate that, viewed from the terminals of the autotransformer,
the voltages and currents are related by the same turns ratio as in a two-winding transformer.
The advantages of an autotransformer connection are lower leakage reactances, lower losses,
lower exciting current, increased kVA rating (see Example 3.11), and variable output voltage
when a sliding contact is used for the secondary. The disadvantage is the direct connection
between the primary and secondary sides.
Example 3.14 A 1
f , 100 kVA, 2000/200 V two-winding transformer is connected as an
autotransformer as shown in Fig.E2.6 such that more than 2000 V is obtained at the secondary.
at
es
The portion ab is the 200 V winding, and the portion be is the 2000 V winding. Compute the
An
na
ni
pd
kVA rating as an autotransformer.
Fig.3.20
Solution:
The current ratings of the windings are
pd
at
es
Therefore, for full-load operation of the autotransformer, the terminal currents are:
ni
A single-phase, 100 kVA, two-winding transformer when connected as an autotransformer

can deliver 1100 kVA. Note that this higher rating of an autotransformer results from the
conductive connection. Not all of the 1100 kVA is transformed by electromagnetic induction.
An
V to ground.
na
Also note that the 200 V winding must have sufficient insulation to withstand a voltage of 2200
Example 3.15 A single phase, 50 kVA, 2400/460 V, 50 Hz transformer has an efficiency of

0.95% when it delivers 45kW at 0.9 power factor. This transformer is connected as an autotransformer to supply load to a 2400 V circuit from 2860 V source.
(a) Show the transformer connection.
(b) Determine the maximum kVA the autotransformer can supply to 2400 V circuit. (c)
Determine the efficiency of the autotransformer for full load at 0.9 power factor.
Solution:
(a)
460
2860
pd
U
kVA)Auto = 108.782860 = 310.87 kW
ni
Then,
= 108.7
(b)
50 *103
I s,2w =
2460
at
es
2400
Pi + Pcu,FL = 2368.42 W
h Auto =
An
Then,
na
(c) h2w
50 *103 * 0.9
=
= 0 .9 5
3
50 *10 * 0.9 + Pi + Pcu, FL
310870 * 0.9
= 9 9 .6 1 %
310870* 0.9 + 2368.42
3.16 Three-Phase Transformers

3.16.1 Introduction
Power is distributed throughout The world by means of 3-phase transmission lines. In order to
transmit this power efficiently and economically, the voltages must be at appropriate levels.
These levels (13.8 kV to 1000 kV) depend upon the amount of power that has to be transmitted
and the distance it has to be earned. Another aspect is the appropriate voltage levels used in
factories and homes. These are fairly uniform, ranging from 120/240 V single-phase s ystems to
480 V, 3-phase s ystems. Clearl y, this requires the use of 3-phase transformers to transform the
voltages from one level to another. The transformers may be inherently 3-phase, having three
primary windings and three secondary windings mounted on a 3-legged core. However, the same
result can be achieved by using three single-phase transformers connected together to form a
3-phase transformer bank.
3.16.2 Basic Properties Of 3-Phase Transformer Banks
When three single-phase transformers are used to transform a 3-phase voltage, the windings
can be connected in several ways. Thus, the primaries may be connected in delta and the
secondaries in wye, or vice versa. As a result, the ratio of the 3-phase input voltage to the 3-phase
output voltage depends not only upon the turns ratio of the transformers, but also upon how they
are connected.
A 3-phase transformer bank can also produce a phase shift between the 3-phase input voltage
at
es
and the 3-phase output voltage. The amount of phase shift depends again upon the turns ratio of
the transformers, and on how the primaries and secondaries are interconnected. Furthermore, the
phaseshift feature enables us to change the number of phases. Thus, a 3-phase s ystem can be
pd
converted into a 2-phase, a 6-phase, or a 12-phase system. Indeed, if there were a practical
application for it, we could even convert a 3-phase s ystem into a 5-phase s ystem by an
appropriate choice of single-phase transformers and interconnections.
In making the various connections, it is important to observe transformer polarities. An error
ni
in polarity may produce a short-circuit or unbalance the line voltages and currents.
The basic behavior of balanced 3-phase transformer banks can be understood by making the
na
following simplifying assumptions:
1.The exciting currents are negligible.

are negligible.
An
2.The transformer impedances, due to the resistance and leakage reactance of the windings,
3.The total apparent input power to the transformer bank is equal to the total apparent output
power.
Furthermore, when single-phase transformers are connected into a 3-phase system, they retain
all their basic single-phase properties, such as current ratio, voltage ratio, and flux in the core.
Given the polarity marks
X 1, X 2 and H1 , H 2 ,
the phase shift between primary and
secondary is zero.
3.16.3 Delta-Delta Connection
The three single-phase transformers P, Q, and R of Fig.3.21 transform the voltage of the
incoming transmission line A, B, C to a level appropriate for the outgoing transmission line 1, 2,
3. The incoming line is connected to the source, and the outgoing line is connected to the load.
The transformers are connected in delta-delta. Terminal

terminal
H2
H 1 of each transformer is connected to
X 1 and X 2 of successive
of the next transformer. Similarly, terminals
transformers are connected together. The actual physical layout of the transformers is shown in
Fig.3.21. The corresponding schematic diagram is given in Fig.3.22. The schematic diagram is
drawn in such a way to show not only the connections, but also the phasor relationship between
the primary and secondary voltages. Thus, each secondary winding is drawn parallel to the
corresponding primary winding to which it is coupled. Furthermore, if source G produces
voltages
E AB , EBC , ECA according to the indicated phasor diagram, the primary windings are
oriented the same way, phase by phase. For example, the primary of transformer P between lines
E AB .
ni
pd
at
es
A and B is oriented horizontally, in the same direction as phasor
na
Fig.3.21 Delta-delta connection of three single-phase transformers. The incoming lines
An
(source) are A, B, C and the outgoing lines (load) are 1, 2, 3.
Fig.3.22 Schematic diagram of a delta-delta connection and associated phasor diagram.
In such a delta-delta connection, the voltages between the respective incoming and outgoing
transmission lines are in phase. If a balanced load is connected to lines 1-2-3, the resulting line
currents are equal in magnitude. This produces balanced line currents in the incoming lines
A-B-C. As in any delta connection, the line currents are 43 times greater than the respective
currents
IP
and
IS
flowing in the primary and secondary windings (Fig.3.22). The power
rating of the transformer bank is three times the rating of a single transformer.
Note that although the transformer bank constitutes a 3-phase arrangement, each transformer,
considered alone, acts as if it were placed in a singlephase circuit. Thus, a current
from
IP
flowing
H 1 H 2 in the primary winding is associated with a current I S flowing from X 2 to X1
at
es
in the secondary.
Example 3.16 Three single-phase transformers are connected in delta-delta to step down a
pd
line voltage of 138 kV to 4160 V to su-pply power to a manufacturing plant. The plant draws 21
MW at a lagging power factor of 86 percent.
Calculate a. The apparent power drawn by the plant b. The apparent power furnished by the
HV line
ni
c.The current in the HV lines d. The current in the LV lines e. The currents in the primary and
Solution:
na
secondary windings of each transformerf. The load carried by each transformer
a. The appearent power drawn by the plant is:

= 21/0.86 = 24.4 MVA
An
S = P / cosj
b. The transformer bank itself absorbs a negligible amount of active and reactive power
because the
I2 R
losses and the reactive power associated with the mutual flux and the leakage
fluxes are small. It follows that the apparent power furnished by the HV line is also 24.4 MVA.
c.The current in each HV line is:-
I1 =
24.4 *106
S
=
= 102 A
3 *V1
3 * 13800
d.The current in the LV lines is:-
I2 =
S
24. 4 * 10 6
=
= 3386 A
3V2
3 * 4 1 60
102
= 58.9 A
3
e. Referring to Fig.3.19, the current in each primary winding is:
Ip =
The current in each secondary winding is:
IS =
3386
= 1955 A
3
f. Because the plant load is balanced, each transformer carries one-third of the total load, or
24.4/3 = 8.13 MVA.
The individual transformer load can also be obtained by multiplying the primary voltage times
the primary current:
S = E p I p = 138000*58.9 = 8.13 MVA
at
es
Note that we can calculate the line currents and the currents in the transformer windings even
though we do not know how the 3-phase load is connected. In effect, the plant load (shown as a
pd
box in Fig.3.22) is composed of hundreds of individual loads, some of which are connected in
delta, others in wye. Furthermore, some are single-phase loads operating at much lower voltages
than 4160 V, powered by smaller transformers located inside the plant. The sum total of these
ni
loads usually results in a reasonably well-balanced 3-phase load, represented by the box.
3.16.4 Delta-wye connection
When the transformers are connected in delta-wye, the three primary windings are connected
na
the same way as in Fig.3.21. However, the secondary windings are connected so that all the
X2
An
terminals are joined together, creating a common neutral N (Fig.3.23). In such a delta-wye
connection, the voltage across each primary winding is equal to the incoming line voltage.
However, the outgoing line voltage is 3 times the secondary voltage across each transformer.
The relative values of the currents in the transformer windings and transmission lines are
given in Fig.3.24. Thus, the line currents in phases A, B, and C are
times the currents in the
primary windings. The line currents in phases 1, 2, 3 are the same as the currents in the
secondary windings. A delta-wye connection produces a 30 phase shift between the line voltages
of the incoming and outgoing transmission lines. Thus, outgoing line voltage E12 is 30 degrees
ahead of incoming line voltage EAB, as can be seen from the phasor diagram. If the outgoing line
feeds an isolated group of loads, the phase shift creates no problem. But, if the outgoing line has
to be connected in parallel with a line coming from another source, the 30 degrees shift ma y
make such a parallel connection impossible, even if the line voltages are otherwise identical.
One of the important advantages of the wye connection is that it reduces the amount of
insulation needed inside the transformer. The HV winding has to be insulated for only 1/
3 , or
pd
at
es
58 percent of the line voltage.
An
na
ni
Fig.3.23 Delta-wye connection of three single-phase transformers.
Fig.3.24 Schematic diagram of a delta-wye connection and associated phasor diagram. (The
phasor diagrams on the primary and secondary sides are not drawn to the same scale.)
Example3.17 Three single-phase step-up transformers rated at 90 MVA, 13.2 kV/80 kV are
connected in delta-wye on a 13.2 kV transmission line (Fig.3.25). If they feed a 90 MVA load,
calculate the following:
a.The secondary line voltage

b.The currents in the transformer windings
c.The incoming and outgoing transmission line currents
Fig.3.25.
at
es
Solution
The easiest way to solve this problem is to consider the windings of onl y one transformer, say,
transformer P.
pd
a. The voltage across the primary winding is obviously 13.2 kV

The voltage across the secondary is, therefore, 80 kV.
The voltage between the outgoing lines 1, 2, and 3 is:
V2 = 80 * 3 = 139 kV
An
na
S = 90 / 3 = 30MVA
ni
b. The load carried by each transformer is
3.16.5 Wye-delta connection
The currents and voltages in a wye-delta connection are identical to those in the delta-wye
connection. The primary and secondary connections are simply interchanged. In other words, the
H2
terminals are connected together to create a neutral, and the
X 1, X 2
terminals are
connected in delta. Again, there results a 30 degrees phase shift between the voltages of the
incoming and outgoing lines.
3.16.6 Wye-wye connection
When transformers are connected in wye-wye, special precautions have to be taken to prevent
severe distortion of the line-to-neutral voltages. One way to prevent the distortion is to connect
the neutral of the primary to the neutral of the source, usually by way of the ground (Fig.3.26).
at
es
Another way is to provide each transformer with a third winding, called tertiary winding. The
tertiary windings of the three transformers are connected in delta (Fig.3.27). They often provide
the substation service voltage where the transformers are installed.
pd
Note that there is no phase shift between the incoming and outgoing transmission line
na
ni
voltages of a wye-wye connected transformer.
source.
An
Fig.3.26 Wye-wye connection with neutral of the primary connected to the neutral of the
Fig.3.27 Wye-wye connection using a tertiary winding.

Example 3.18 Three single phase, 30 kVA, 2400/240 V, 50 Hz transformers are connected to
form 3 j, 2400/416 V transformer bank. The equivalent impedance of each transformer referred
to the high voltage side is 1.5+j2 S2. The transformer delivers 60 kW at 0.75 power fa ctor
(leading).
(a) Draw schematic diagram showing the transformer connection.

(b) Determine the transformer wiWing current
(c) Determine the primary voltage.
(d) Determine the voltage regulation.
Solution:
60
= 80kVA
0.75
A
240 0
= 10
240
I1 ph =
An
a=
na
80 *103 = 111.029
Is =
3 *416
kVA =
ni
(b)
pd
at
es
(a )
111.029
= 11.103A
10
I1L = 11.103* 3 = 19.231 A

V2 = 24000o V , I 2 = 11.10341.41o A
( )
V1 = V2 + I 2 * Z eq1
= 24000 +11.10341.41o * (1.5 + j2 ) = 2397.960.66 o V

V1 -V2
VR =
* 100
V2
=
2397.96 - 2400
*100 = -0.0875%
2400
Problems:
1
A 1 0, 100 kVA, 1000/ 100 V transformer gave the following test results: open-circuit
test 100 V, 6.0 A, 400 W short-circuit test 50 V, 100 A, 1800 W
(a) Determine the rated voltage and rated current for the HV and LV sides.
(b) Derive an approximate equivalent circuit referred to the HV side.
(c) Determine the voltage regulation at full load, 0.6 PF leading.
(d) Draw the phasor diagram for condition (c).
2
A 1 ,25 kVA, 220/440 V, 60 Hz transformer gave the following test results.
Open circuit test
: 220 V, 9.5 A, 650 W Short-circuit test
: 37.5 V, 55 A, 950 W
(a) Derive the approximate equivalent circuit in per-unit values. (b) Determine the voltage
at
es
regulation at full load, 0.8 PF lagging. (c) Draw the phasor diagram for condition (b).
f 10 kVA, 2400/ 120 V, 60 Hz transformer has the following equivalent circuit
parameters:
Zeq1 = 5 + j25 W, Rc1 = 64 kW and Xm1 = 9.6 kW Standard no-load and
pd
A1
Short-circuit test results:
Vsc , Isc , Psc
A single-phase, 250 kVA, 11 kV/2.2 kV, 60 Hz transformer has the following
4-
Po c
ni
No-load test results: Voc , I oc ,
short-circuit tests are performed on this transformer. Determine the following:
parameters. RHV= 1.3 W XHV=4.5W, RLV = 0.05 W, XLV = 0.16, Rc2= 2.4 kW Xm2 = 0.8 kW
na
(a) Draw the approximate equivalent circuit (i.e., magnetizing branch, with Rc1 and Xm
An
connected to the supply terminals) referred to the HV side and show the parameter values.
(b) Determine the no load current in amperes (HV side) as well as in per unit.
(c) If the low-voltage winding terminals are shorted, determine
(d)
(i)
The supply voltage required to pass rated current through the shorted winding.
(ii)
The losses in the transformer.
The HV winding of the transformer is connected to the 11 kV supply and a load,
Z L = 15 - 90 o W is connected to the low voltage winding. Determine:

(i)
Load voltage. (ii) Voltage regulation.
A 1- f , 10 kVA, 2400/240 V, 60 Hz distribution transformer has the following
characteristics: Core loss at full voltage = 100 W Copper loss at half load = 60 W
(a)
Determine the efficiency of the transformer when it delivers full load at 0.8 power factor
lagging . (b)
Determine the per unit rating at which the transformer efficiency is a maximum.
Determine this efficiency if the load power factor is 0.9. The transformer has the following load
cycle: No load for 6 hours 70% full load for 10 hours at 0.8 PF 90% full load for 8 hours at 0.9
PF Determine the all-day efficiency of the transformer.

6
The transformer of Problem 5 is to be used as an autotransformer (a)
connection that will result in maximum kVA rating. (b)

high-voltage and low-voltage sides. (c)
S ho w
the
Determine the voltage ratings of the
Determine the kVA rating of the autotransformer.
Calculate for both high-voltage and low-voltage sides.

7
A 1
f , 10 kVA, 460/ 120 V, 60 Hz transformer has an efficiency of 96% when it
delivers 9 kW at 0.9 power factor. This transformer is connected as an
at
es
autotransformer to supply load to a 460 V circuit from a 580 V source.

Show the autotransformer connection.
(b)
Determine the maximum kVA the autotransformer can supply to the 460 V circuit.
(c)
Determine the efficiency of the autotransformer for full load at 0.9 power factor.
Reconnect the windings of a 1 f , 3 kVA, 240/120 V, 60 Hz transformer so that it can
pd
(a)
ni
supply a load at 330 V from a 110 V supply. (a) Show the connection.
9
(b) Determine the maximum kVA the reconnected transformer can deliver.
Three 1, 10 kVA, 460/120 V, 60 Hz transformers are connected to form a 3 f 460/208
na
V transformer bank. The equivalent impedance of each transformer referred to the high-voltage
An
side is 1.0 + j2.0 W. The transformer delivers 20 kW at 0.8 power factor (leading).
(a) Draw a schematic diagram showing the transformer connection. (b) Determine the
transformer winding current. (c) Determine the primary voltage. (d) Determine the voltage
regulation.
10
A 1f
200 kVA, 2100/210 V, 60 Hz transformer has the following characteristics. The
impedance of the high-voltage winding is 0.25 + j 1.5 W with the lowvoltage winding
short-circuited. The admittance (i.e., inverse of impedance) of the low-voltage winding is 0.025
- j O.075 mhos with the high-voltage winding open-circuited.
(a)
Taking the transformer rating as base, determine the base values of power, voltage,
current, and impedance for both the high-voltage and low-voltage sides of the transformer.
(b)
Determine the per-unit value of the equivalent resistance and leakage reactance of the
transformer. (c)
(d)
Determine the per-unit value of the excitation current at rated voltage.
Determine the per-unit value of the total power loss in the transformer at full-load output
condition.
UNIT III
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Introduction
Electromechanical energy conversions use a magnetic field as the medium of energy
conversion.Electromechanical energy conversion device:
Converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
or
Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy

Three categories of electromechanical energy conversion devices:
Transducers (for measurement and control)- small motion
at
es
Transform the signals of different forms. Examples: microphones, sensors and speakers.
Force producing devices (translational force)- limited mechanical motion.
pd
Produce forces mostly for linear motion drives, Example Actuators - relays, solenoids
and electromagnets.
Continuous energy conversion equipment.
ni
Operate in rotating mode. Examples: motors and generators.
Energy Conversion Process
na
The principle of conservation of energy:
An
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed. It can only be changed from one form to
another. Therefore total energy in a system is constant .
An electromechanical converter system has three essential parts:
An electrical system (electric circuits such as windings)
A magnetic system (magnetic field in the magnetic cores and air gaps)
A mechanical system (mechanically movable parts such as a rotor in an electrical

machine).
The energy transfer equation is as follows:

Ele c tric a l M e c hanical Increase in
energy input energy

stored
Energy
energy in
=
+

+ losses
from sources outpu t

magnetic field
The energy balance can therefore be written as:
at
es
Electricalenergy M echanicalenergy Increasein
input f romsources = output + f riction

+ stored field
- resis tan celoss and windageloss energy +coreloss
dWe = dWm + dW f
dWe = i d l = differential change in electric energy input
pd
For the lossless magnetic energy storage system in differential form,
ni
dWm = fm dx = differential change in mechanical energy output
Energy in Magnetic System
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy
na
Consider the electromechanical system below:
An
Axial length (perpendicular to page) = l
The mechanical force fm is defined as acting from the relay upon the external mechanical system
and the differential mechanical energy output of the relay is
dWm = fm dx
Then, substitution dWe = id l, gives
dWf = id l fm dx
Value of Wf is uniquely specified by the values of l and x, since the magnetic energy storage
system is lossless.
at
es
W f = idl
dWf = differential change in magnetic stored energy
pd
Energy and Coenergy
The l-i characteristics of an electromagnetic system depends on the air-gap length and B-H
characteristics of the magnetic material.
ni
For a larger air-gap length the characteristic is essentially linear. The characteristic becomes non
linear as the air-gap length decreases.
l
na
An
l-i
Wf
Increased
air-gap
lengt h
Wf
i
For a particular value of air-gap length, the field energy is represented by the red area between l
axis and l-i characteristic. The blue area between i axis and l- i characteristic is known as the
coenergy
Wf' =
di
From the figure of l - i characteristic,
The coenergy is defined as
Wf + Wf = l i
Note that Wf > Wf if the l - i characteristic is non linear and Wf = Wf if it is linear.
The quantity of coenergy has no physical significance. However, it can be used to derive
expressions for force (torque) developed in an electromagnetic system
Determination of Force from Energy
The magnetic stored energy Wf is a state function, determined uniquely by the independent state
variables and x. This is shown explicitly by
dWf (, x) = id l fm dx
F ( x1, x2 )
x1
dx1 +
x2
F(x1, x2 )
dx2
x2
x
1
Therefore, for the total differential of Wf
And we know that
dx
Wf (l,
x)
x
Wf (l, x)
dl
l
+
ni
dWf (l, x)
=
pd
dF(x1, x2 ) =
at
es
For any function of two independent variables F(x1,x2), the total differential equation of F with
respect to the two state variables x1 and x2 can be written
na
dWf (l, x) = idl - f m dx
i=
Wf (l, x)
l
x
An
By matching both equations, the current:
where the partial derivative is taken while holding x constant and the mechanical force:
fm = -
Wf (l, x)
x
l
Where the partial derivative is taken while holding l constant.

Determination of Force from Energy: Linear System
For a linear magnetic system for which l=L(x)i:
l
l
Wf (l, x) = i(l, x)dl = l2 dl
L(x) =
0
0
1
2 L(x)
and the force, fm can be found directly:
fm = -
Wf (l, x)
1 l2
l2 dL(x)
= -
=
x
x 2 L(x) l 2L(x) 2 dx
l
Determination of Torque from Energy

For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal, the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement and the torque T. Therefore, equation for the torque:
T =-
Wf (l,q )
q
l
where the partial derivative is taken while holding l constant.

Determination of Force from Coenergy
at
es
The coenergy Wf is defined as
Wf' (i, x) = il -Wf (l, x)
pd
and the differential coenergy dWf:
dWf' (i, x) = d(il) - dWf (l, x)
We know previously that
na
d (il) = idl + ldi
By expanding d(i):
ni
dWf (l, x) = idl - f m dx
An
So, the differential coenergy dWf:
dWf' (i, x) = d(il) - dWf (l, x)

= idl + ldi - (idl - f m dx)
= ldi + f m dx
By expanding dWf(i,x):
dWf' (i, x) =
Wf' (i, x)
Wf' (i, x)
di +
dx
i
x
x
i
and, from the previous result:
dWf' (i, x) = ldi + fmdx
By matching both equations, l:
Wf' (i, x)
l=
i
x
where the partial derivative is taken while holding x constant and the mechanical force:
Wf' (i, x)
fm =
x
where the partial derivative is taken while holding i constant.

For a linear magnetic system for which l=L(x)i:
i2
l(i,
L(x)
i
d
i
=L(x)
= x)di =
2
i
at
es
Wf' (i, x)

i 2 i 2 dL(x)
Wf' (i, x)
= L(x) =
x
x
2 i 2 dx
i
fm =
pd
and the force, fm can be found directly:
U
na
Wf' (i,q )
T=
q i
ni
For a system with a rotating mechanical terminal, the mechanical terminal variables become the
angular displacement and the torque T. Therefore, equation for the torque:
An
where the partial derivative is taken while holding l constant.
Determination of Force Using Energy or Coenergy?

The selection of energy or coenergy as the function to find the force is purely a matter of
convenience.
They both give the same result, but one or the other may be simpler analytically, depending on
the desired result and characteristics of the system being analyzed.
Direction of Force Developed
W (l,
1. By using energy function: f m = - f
x)
l
x
The negative sign shows that the force acts in a direction to decrease the magnetic field stored
energy at constant flux.
2. By using coenergy function: f m = +
Wf' (i, x)
x
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts in a direction to increase the coenergy at
i
constant current.
3. By using inductance function:
i 2 dL(x)
2 dx i
fm = +
The positive sign emphasizes that the force acts in a direction to increase the inductance at
constant current.
at
es
B-H Curve and Energy Density
pd
In a magnetic circuit having a substantial air gap g, and high permeability of the iron core, nearly
all the stored energy resides in the gap. Therefore, in most of the cases we just need to consider
the energy stored in the gap. The magnetic stored energy,
l
W f = idl
Therefore, W f =
dl = d (Nf) = d (NAB) = NAdB
ni
Hg
and
N
B
Hg
NAdB = Ag H dB
0
N
in which i =
wf =
Wf
Ag
An
na
However, Ag is volume of the air gap. Dividing both sides of the above equation by the volume
Ag results in
H dB
Where i wf = HdB s energy per unit volume

0
wf is known as energy density.

The area between the B-H curve and B axis represents the
energy density in the air gap.
In the same manner,
w'f =
BdH is coenergy per unit volume.
The area between the B-H curve and H axis represents the
coenergy density in the air gap.
For a linear magnetic circuit, B = mH or H = B/m, energy density:
H dB =
B
B2
dB =
m
2m
at
es
wf =
mH 2
B
d
H
=
m
H
d
H
=
=
0
2
0
w'f
pd
and coenergy densit y:
ni
In this case, it is obvious that wf = wf.
Doubly-excited Systems
na
Rotating Machines
An
Most of the energy converters, particularly the higher-power ones, produce rotational
motion.
The essential part of a rotating electromagnetic system is shown in the figure.
The fixed part is called the stator,
the moving part is called the rotor.
The rotor is mounted on a shaft and is free to rotate between the poles of the stator
Let consider general case where both stator & rotor have windings carrying current ( is
and ir )
Assume general case, both stator and rotor have winding carrying currents (non-uniform
air gap silent pole rotor)
at
es
The system stored field energy, Wf can be evaluated by establishing the stator current is
and rotor current ir and let system static, i.e. no mechanical output
An
na
ni
pd
Stator and rotor flux linkage l is expressed in terms of inductances L (which depends on
position rotor angle q, L(q)
Stored field energy
Torque
In linear system, coenergy = energy Wf = Wf
First two terms represents reluctance torque; variation of self inductance (exist in both
salient stator and rotor, or in either stator or rotor is salient)
The third term represents alignment torque; variation of mutual inductance.
Reluctance Torque It is caused by the tendency of the induced pole to align with
excited pole such that the minimum reluctance is produced. At least one or both of the
winding must be excited.
Alignment Torque It is caused by a tendency of the excited rotor to align with excited
stator so as to maximize the mutual inductance. Both winding must be excited.
Forces and Torques
F = q(E + v B)
at
es
Lorentz force law
F: N, q: Coulombs, E : V/m,
Fv = r (E + v B)
A/m2
r : charge density (C/m3)
J = rv
Fv: force density (force per unit volume), N/m3
An
na
ni
Current density,
pd
large numbers of charged particles are in motion,
B : T or Wb/m2
Right-hand rule for determining the direction magnetic-field component of the Lorentz force F = q(v B).
Example 3.1
A nonmagnetic rotor containing a single-turn coil is placed in a uniform magnetic field of magnitude B0,
as shown in Fig. 3.2. The coil sides are at radius R and the wire carries current I as indicated. Find the directed torque as a function of rotor position when I = 10 A, B0 = 0.02 T and R = 0.05 m. Assume that
the rotor is of length l = 0.3 m.
For wire 1 carrying current I into the paper,
F1q = - I B0 l sina
For wire 2 carrying current I out of the paper,
F2q = - I B0 l sina
at
es
Force per unit length of the wire, F = I B
ni
pd
Torque, T = F1q R + F2q R = -2 I B0 l R sina = -2(10)(0.02)(0.05)(0.3)sina = -0.006sina N.m
magnetic-field electromechanical-energy-conversion device
na
The energy method,
An
Pin(electrical) = Pstored (magnetic field) + Pout (mechanical)

ei =
dt
dW fld
dt
dt
( f fld x)
dWfld
simple force-producing device
lossless system
dl
dt
= i dl - f fld dx
e=
Energy Balance
energy input mechanical increase in energy energy
from electric = energy +
+ converted
stored in

sources output magnetic field into heat
Conversion of energy into heat: ohmic heating due to current flow in windings + mechanical friction
Lossless magnetic energy storage system:
dWelec = dWmech + dWfld
dWelec : differential electric energy input

dWmech : differential mechanical energy output
dW fld : differential change in stored energy
Singly Excited Systems
An electromagnetic relay
e=
dWmech = f fld dx
dl
dt
dWelec = i dl
dW fld = i dl - f fld dx
at
es
dWelec = ei dt
Wfld is uniquely specified by and x
An
na
ni
pd
Lossless magnetic energy storage system: conservative system: value of Wfld is uniquely specified by the
values of and x (, x are called the state variables)
Two different integration paths for Wfld
W f ld =
path 2a
dW fld +
dW fld
path 2b
On 2a: dl = 0, and f fld = 0 since l = 0

On 2b: dx = 0
For a linear system ( proportional to i): l = L( x)i
l
dW fld = 0
W fld (l0, x0 ) = i(l, x0 ) dl
0
0
Wfld (l, x) = i(l, x) d l =

=
0
1 l2
2 L( x)
l d l
L( x)
Example 3.2
The relay shown in Fig.3.6a is made from infinitely-permeable magnetic material with a movable
plunger, also of infinitely-permeable material. The height of the plunger is much greater than the air-gap
length (h >> g). Calculate the magnetic stored energy Wfld as a function of plunger position (0 < x < d) for
N = 1000 turns, g = 2.0 mm, d = 0.15 m, l = 0.1 m, and i = 10 A.
W f ld =
1
L(x)i 2
2
L(x) =
x
Agap = l(d - x) = ld 1 -
d
Agap : gap cross-sectional area
2g
L(x) =
m0 N 2ld (1 - x / d )
2g
at
es
1 (10002)(4p 10-7 )(0.1)(0.15)

x
- x
102 1
= 236 1- J
d
d
2
2(0.002)
na
ni
pd
W fl d =
m0 N 2Agap
An
Relay with movable plunger
Magnetic Force and Torque from Energy

Wfld is a state function determined uniquely by the values of the independent state variables and x.
dW fld = i d l - f fld dx
For any function of two independent variables F(x1, x2),

dF ( x1, x2 ) =
i=
F
F
dx1 +
dx2
x1
x2
W fld (l, x)
l
dW fld =
f fld = -
W fld
l
dl +
W fld
x
dx
W fld (l, x)
x
For linear magnetic systems for which = L(x)i,

f fld = -
Example 3.3
1 l2
l2
dL( x)
=
2
x 2 L( x) 2 [ L( x) ] dx
l = L( x)i
f fld =
1 2 dL( x)
i
2
dx
Table 3.1 contains data from an experiment in which the inductance of a solenoid was measured as a
function of position x, where x = 0 corresponds to the solenoid being fully retracted.
x (cm)
L(mH)
0
2. 8
0.2
2.26
0. 4
1.78
0.6
1.52
Table 3.1
0. 8
1. 0
1.34
1.26
1 .2
1.20
1.4
1.16
1. 6
1.13
1.8
1.11
2. 0
1.10
Plot the solenoid force as a function of position for a current of 0.75 A over the range 0.2 < x < 1.8 cm.
Using the MATLAB function polyfit, a fourth-order polynomial fit of the inductance as a function of x is
obtained:
pd
at
es
L( x) = a(1)x 4 + a(2) x 3 + a (3)x 2 + a(4) x + a(5)

1 dL( x) 1 2
3
f fld = i 2
= i 4a(1)x
+ 3a(2) x 2 + 2a (3)x + a(4)
2
dx
2
ni
MATLAB script:
An
na
clc
clear
% Here is the data: x in cm, L in mH
xdata = [0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0];
Ldata = [2.8 2.26 1.78 1.52 1.34 1.26 1.20 1.16 1.13 1.11 1.10];
%Convert to SI units
x = xdata*1.e-2 ;
L = Ldata*1.e-3;
len = length(x) ;
xmax = x(len) ;
% Use polyfit to perform a 4'th order fit of L to x. Store
% the polynomial coefficients in vector a. The fit will be
% of the form:
%
% Lfit : a(1)*x^4 + a(2)*x^3 + a(3)*x^2 + a(4)*x + a(5) ;
%
a = polyfit(x,L,4) ;
% Let's check the fit
for n = 1:101
xfit(n) = xmax*(n-1)/100;
Lfit(n) = a(1)*xfit(n)^4 + a(2)*xfit(n)^3 + a(3)*xfit(n)^2 ...
+ a(4)*xfit(n) + a(5);
end
% Plot the data and then the fit to compare (convert xfit to cm and Lfit to mH)
figure(1)
plot (xdata, Ldata, ' * ' )
hold
plot (xfit*100, Lfit*1000)
xlabel('x [cm] ')
ylabel('L [mH] ')
% Now plot the force. The force will be given by
%
% (1/2)i^2 dL/dx =(1/2) i^2 ( 4*a(1)*x^3 + 3*a(2)*x^2 + 2*a(3)*x + a(4))
%
%Set current to 0.75 A
I = 0.75;
for n = 1:101
xfit(n) = 0.002 + 0.016*(n-1)/100;

F(n) =4*a(1)*xfit(n)^3+3*a(2)*xfit(n)^2+2*a(3)*xfit(n)+a(4);
F(n) = (I^2/2)*F(n);
end
figure(2)
plot (xfit*100,F)
xlabel('x [cm] ')
ylabel('Force [N]')
System with rotating mechanical terminal: x q : angular displacement,

dWfld (l,q ) = i d l -Tfld dq
Linear magnetic systems: l = L(q )i
T fld = -
1 l2 1 l2
=
[ L(q
2 L(q )
2
)
Wfld (l,q )
q
1 l2
2 L(q
)
dL(q
)
dq
l = L(q )i
T fld =
1 2 dL(q
i
2 )
dq
at
es
W fl d =
T fl d = -
f fld T fld torque
Example 3.4
L0 = 10.6 mH
L2 = 2.7 mH
L(q ) = L0 + L2 cos(2q )
pd
The magnetic circuit of Fig. 3.9 consists of a single-coil stator and an oval rotor. Because the air-gap is
nonuniform, the coil inductance varies with rotor angular position, measured between the magnetic axis
of the stator coil and the major axis of the rotor, as
An
na
ni
Find the torque as a function of for a coil current of 2 A.
Solution:
2
T fld =
1 2 dL(q ) 1 2
i
= i
2
dq
( -2L2 sin(2q ) ) = -4 2.7 10 -3 sin(2q ) = -1.08 10-2 sin(2q )
Magnetic Force and Torque from Coenergy

is defined as: W fld (i, l) = il -W fld
The coenergy W fld
(i, l)
dWfld (i,l) = d (il) - dWfld (i,l)
d (il ) = id l + ldi
dWfld = i dl - f fld dx
dW fld = id l + ldi - (i dl - f fld dx ) = ldi + f fld dx
N. m
dWfld (i, x) =
Wfld
di +
Wfld
i
x
Wfld (i, x)
l=
i
dx
f fld =
Wfld (i, x)
x
The coenergy can be found from the integral of di

i
l(i, x) di
W fld (i, x) =
0
For linear magnetic systems, l = L(x)i
W fld (i, x) =
1
L(x)i 2
2
fld
W fld (i, x)
x
1 dL(x)
= i2
2
dx
For a rotating electromechanical system,

i
at
es
W fld (i,q ) = l(i,q ) di

0
W fld (i,q ) =
1
2
pd
L(q )i 2
T fl d =
W fld (i,q )
q
1 dL(q
= i2 )
2
dq
ni
Example 3.5
W fld (i,q )
T fld =
Magnetically linear system,
na
For the relay of Example 3.2, find the force on the plunger as a function of x when the coil is driven by a
controller which produces a current as a function of x of the form
x
i(x) = I 0 A
d
An
From Example 3.2,
L( x) =
f fld
m0 N ld (1 - x / d )
2g
2
1 dL(x)
1 m N 2l
= i2
= - i2 0
2
dx
2 2g
I 02m0 N 2l x
=
4g d
The coenergy for this system is

W fld (i, x) =
2
2
2
1
1 m0 N ld (1 - x / d ) m0 N ld (1 - x / d ) x
L( x)i 2 = i 2
=

2
2
2g
4g
d
The force cannot be found by taking the partial derivative of this expression for W fld (i, x) with
respect to x, because in the expression for f fld the current must be kept constant while
differentiating with respect to x.
1 2
1
l / L = Li 2 . For a
2
2
nonlinear system in which x and i or B and H are not linearly proportional, the two functions are not
equal.
For a magnetically-linear system, the energy and coenergy are numerically equal:
at
es
pd
Energy = i d Co-energy = di
sum of the energy and coenergy, W fld (i, l) + W fld (i,l ) = il
Example 3.6
An
na
ni
The magnetic circuit shown in Fig. 3.12 is made of high-permeability electrical steel. The rotor is free to
turn about a vertical axis. The dimensions are shown in the figure.
(a) Derive an expression for the torque acting on the rotor in terms of the dimensions and the
magnetic field in the two air gaps. Assume the reluctance of the steel to be negligible (i.e.
) and neglect the effects of fringing.
(b) The maximum flux density in the overlapping portions of the air gaps is to be limited to
approximately 1.65 T to avoid excessive saturation of the steel. Compute the maximum torque
for r1 = 2.5 cm, h = 1.8 cm, and g = 3 mm.
H ag =
( a)
Ni
2g
l = Nf = NBag Aag = NAagm0 H ag = m0 NAag
L=
m0 N 2Aag
2
Ni m0 N Aag
=
i
2g
2g
1
m N2
1 h.
Aag = r1 + g q . h L(q ) = 0
r1 + g q
2
2g
2
2g
1 dL(q ) m0 N 2 i 2
1 h
T fld = i 2
=
r1 + g
2
dq
4g
2
(b)
Bmax = 1.65 T
Ni = 2g
H max =
Bmax
Ni
=
2g
m0
Bmax 2 310-3 1.65

=
= 7878.2 A-turns
m0
4p 10-7
Maximum torque,
T fld
at
es
1 h 4p 10-7 (7878.2)2
m0 N 2i 2
=
(0.025 + 0.0015)0.018 = 3.1 N-m
r1 + g =
4g
2
4 0.003
na
ni
pd
Multiply-Excited Magnetic Field Systems
An
Differential energy
dWfld (l1,l2 ,q ) = i1 dl1 + i2 dl2 -Tfld dq
T fld = -
Wfld (l1,l2 ,q )
q
Current and torque in terms of energy

i1 =
Wfld (l1 ,l2 ,q )

l1
i2 =
Wfld (l1 ,l2 ,q )
T fld = -
l2
Wfld (l1 ,l2 ,q )

q
To find the energy by integrating the differential energy:

l2 0
W fld (l10 ,l20 ,q0 ) =
l1 0
i2 (l1 = 0,l2 ,q = q0 ).dl2 + i1 (l1 ,l2 = l20 ,q = q0 ).dl1

0
Magnetically linear system:

l1 = L11i1 + L12i2
L12 = L21
pd
l2 = L21i1 + L22i2
ni
na
l20
W fld (l10 ,l20 ,q 0 ) =
An
.dl1
1
i1 = (L22l1 - L12 l2 )
L12 -1 l1
D
L22 l2
1
i2 = (-L21l1 + L11l2 )
D
D = L11 L22 - L12 L21
where
Solving for i1 and i2 in terms of l1, l2

i1 L11
i =
2 L21
at
es
L11(q 0 )
l2 .dl2 +
D(q 0 )
l10
L22 (q0 )l1 - L12 (q 0 )l20

D(q0 )
= L (q ) l202 + L (q ) l102 - L (q ) l10l20

11 0
22
0
12
0
2D(q0 )
2D(q0 )
D(q 0 )
The coenergy is defined as,
W fld (i1,i2 ,q ) = l1i1 + l2i2 - W fld
dW fld (i1,i2 ,q ) = d (l1i1) + d (l2i2 ) - (

)
i1 d l1 + i2 dl2 - T fld dq
= l1di1 + l2 di2 + T fld dq
Wfld (i1 ,i2 ,q )

i
dWfld (i1 ,i2 ,q ) =

Wfld (i1,i2 ,q )
i
1
l1 =
l2 =
Wfld (i1 ,i2 ,q )

i
di1 +
Wfld (i1 ,i2 ,q )
i
2
Wfld (i1 ,i2 ,q )

q
di2 +
Wfld (i1 ,i2 ,q )
q
T fld =
dq
The coenergy can be found by integrating the differential,

W fld (i10 ,i20 ,q0 ) =
i2 0
i10
l2 (i1 = 0,i2 ,q = q0 ).di2 + l1(i1,i2 = i20 ,q = q0 ).di1
For a linear system,
1
1
W fld (i1,i2 ,q ) = L11(q )i1 2 + L22(q )i22 + L12 (q )i1i2
2
2
Torque,
T fld =
Wfld (i1,i2 ,q )
q
1 dL (q ) 1 dL (q )
dL (q )
= i12 11 + i22 22
+ i1i2 12
2
dq
2
dq
dq
Example 3.7
ni
pd
at
es
In the system shown in Fig. 3.15, the inductances in henrys are given as L11 = (3 + cos 2) 10-3;
L12 =0.3cos; L22 = 30 + 10cos2. Find and plot the torque Tfld() for current il =0.8 A and i2 = 0.01 A.
1 2 dL11(q ) 1 2 dL22 (q )
dL12 (q )
i1
+ i2
+ i1i2
2
dq
2
dq
dq
1 2
1
= i1 (-2 10-3 sin 2q ) + i22(-20sin 2q ) + i1i2 (-0.3 sin q )
2
2
= -(1.64sin 2q + 2.4 sin q ) 10-3 N-m
An
na
T fld =
Dynamic Equations
Model of a singly-excited electromechanical system.

KVL eqn. for the electrical system,
di
dL(x)
dl
l = L( x)i v0 = Ri + L(x) + i
dt
dt
dt
dL( x) dL( x) dx
di
dL( x) dx
=
v0 = Ri + L( x) + i
dt
dx d t
dt
dx dt
v0 = Ri +
di
:
self-inductance voltage term
dt
dL( x) dx
dx
i
: speed voltage ( : mechanical speed)
dx dt
dt
L( x)
Forces in the mechanical system in terms of mechanical position (and its derivatives):
f K = - K(x - x0 )
Spring:
Damper :
Acceleration of mass :
K : spring constant
dx
dt
d2x
= -M 2
dt
f D = -B
B: damping constant
fM
M : mass of moving part
Force equilibrium (f0: external mechanical excitation force):
f 0 (t) = -M
at
es
f f ld = f 0 - ( f K + f D + f M )
d2x
dx
- K ( x - x0) + f fld(x,i)
2 - B
dt
dt
d 2x
dx
-B
- K(x - x0) + f fld (x,i)
2
dt
dt
f 0 (t) = -M
di
dL(x) dx
+i
dt
dx dt
ni
v0 (t) = Ri + L(x)
The differential equations for the overall system:
pd
Note: If x > x0 and increasing (with positive second derivative: M accelerating), then the forces fK , fD ,
and fM all oppose ffld.
An
Example 3.10
na
Given the inputs (excitations) v0 (t ) and f 0 (t ) these equations can be solved to find x(t) and i(t).
Figure 3.24 shows in cross section a cylindrical solenoid magnet in which the cylindrical plunger of mass
M moves vertically in brass guide rings of thickness g and mean diameter d. The permeability of brass is
the same as that of free space and is 0 = 4 10-7 H/m in SI units. The plunger is supported by a spring
whose spring constant is K. Its unstretched length is l0. A mechanical load force ft is applied to the plunger
from the mechanical system connected to it, as shown in Fig. 3.24. Assume that frictional force is linearly
proportional to the velocity and that the coefficient of friction is B. The coil has N turns and resistance R.
Its terminal voltage is vt and its current is i. The effects of magnetic leakage and reluctance of the steel are
negligible.
Derive the dynamic equations of motion of the electromechanical system, i.e., the differential equations
expressing the dependent variables i and x in terms of vt, ft, and the given constants and dimensions.
at
es
g
m0p xd
R2 =
Total reluctance,
g
g 1 1
=
+
m0p ad m0p x a
d
N 2 m0 p adN 2 x
x
=
= L
R
g
a+x
a+x
L(x) =
ni
Inductance,
g
m0p
xd
R = R1 + R2 =
g
m0p ad
R1 =
pd
The reluctance of the upper and lower gaps,
W fld (i, x)
x
An
f fld =
na
The magnetic force acting upward on the plunger in the positive x direction is
1 dL(x) 1 2 aL
= i
= i2
2
dx
2 (a + x)2
The induced emf in the coil is
d
di
dL
di dL dx
(Li) = L + i
= L +i
dt
dt
dt
dt
dx dt
ai dx
x
di
= L
+L
a
+
x
dt
(a
+
x)2 dt
The dynamical equations of the system:

e=
f (t) = -M
d2x
dx
1
ai 2
B
K(x
l
)
+
L
0
dt 2
dt
2 (a + x)2
ai dx
x
di
v(t) = Ri + L
+L
(a + x)2 dt
a + x dt
An
na
ni
pd
at
es

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H : magnetic field intensity vector,

B : magnetic flux density vector.

m = m r m0 : magnetic permeability of medium.

Simple magnetic circuit.

: magnetomotive force (mmf, ampere-turns).

Magnetic flux crossing surface S:

Bc : flux density in the core

Ac : cross-sectional area of the core.

Fig. 1.2 Magnetic circuit with air gap.

Flux is the same in the magnetic core and the air-gap.

flux density in the magnetic core.

flux density in the air-gap.

Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits.

F f(c + g ) 9 10-4 (4.46 105 )

Air-gap fringing fields.

Simple synchronous machine.

l = Nf : flux linkage (Wb-turns).

Linear magnetic circuit: flux linkage is proportional to current.

If the reluctance of the core is negligible compared to that of the air-gap

(a) Magnetic circuit and

(b) equivalent circuit for Example 1.3.

Magnetic circuit with two windings.

Flux linkage of coil 1,

L11i1 : flux linkage of coil 1 due to its own current.

: mutual-inductance between coils 1

Similarly, flux linkage of coil 2,

Induced voltage (magnetic circuit with single winding):

In electromechanical energy conversion devices, inductances are often time-varying.

(Watts, W= Joules/ second)

: total stored magnetic energy.

(b) From Example 1.1,

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Dc magnetization curve for M-5 grain-oriented electrical steel 0.012 in thick.

j(t) = fmax sinwt = AcBmax sinwt

Voltage induced in the N-turn winding,

Rms value of a periodic function of time,

Sources of power loss in the core:

Hysteresis power loss = W f

Exciting rms voltamperes per kilogram at 60 Hz for M-5 grain-oriented electrical

Hysteresis loop; hysteresis loss is proportional to the loop area (shaded).

Laminated steel core with winding for Example 1.8.

Vc = 105.5 in3. Wc = 13.2 kg.

Total rms volt-amperes:

Pa = 1.5 VA/kg 13.2 kg = 20 VA

Gap length g = 2.3 x 10-3 m

N = 12 10-3 1.017 106 = 110.47

1.13 The inductor of Fig. 1.27 has the following dimensions:

< 1. Find an expression for the sinusoidal voltage which is

w(1 + e sin wt)

A transformer is a static machine which transfers ac electrical power from one

When a sinusoidally varying voltage V1 is applied to the primary, an alternating flux is

If N2>N1 then E2>E1, it will be a step up transformer.

If N1>N2 then E1>E2, it will be a step down transformer.

An ideal transformer is one that has

Consider an alternating voltage V1 of frequency f applied to primary of the transformer.

The instantaneous emf induced in the primary is

The losses in transformer are

= Hysteresis loss + Eddy current loss

Total copper loss

Total losses in a transformer =

Where I1 and I2 are primary and secondary currents.

Iron loss of a transformer

Full load copper loss

xFull load VA P.f + Pi+x2 Pc