Chapter 2

Types of
Transducers

12

Chapter 2
Types of Transducers
2.1 Resistive Position Transducers:
The principle of the resistive position transducer is that the physical
variable under measurement causes a resistance change in the sensing
element. A common requirement in industrial measurement and control
work is to be able to sense the position of an object, or the distance it has
moved.

Fig (2-1) Resistive Positive Transducer or Displacement Transducer

One type of displacement transducer uses a resistance element with

a sliding contact or wiper linked to the object being monitored. Thus, the
resistance between the slider and one end of the resistance element
depends on the position of the object. Figure (2-1) (a) shows the
construction of this type of transducer. Figure (2-1) (b) shows a typical
method of use. The output voltage depends on the wiper position and
therefore is a function of the shaft position. This voltage may be applied
to a voltmeter calibrated in inches for visual display. Typical commercial
units provide a choice of maximum shaft strokes from an inch or less to 5
feet or more.

13

Deviation from linearity of the resistance versus-distance

specification can be as low as 0.1% to 1.0% consider Fig. (2-1) (b). If the
circuit is unloaded, the output voltage V0 is a certain fraction of VT,
depending on the position of the wiper as seen in eqn (1).
V0
R2

VT
R1 R 2

(1)

In its application to resistive position sensors, this equation shows

that the output voltage is directly proportional to the position of the
wiper, if the resistance of the transducer is distributed uniformly along the
length of travel of the wiper, that is, if the element is perfectly linear.
Example (1)

Solution

Example (2)

Solution

A displacement transducer with a shaft stroke of 3.0 in.

is applied in the circuit of Fig. The total resistance of
the potentiometer is 5 k , and the applied voltage
VT=5.0V. When the wiper is 0.9 in. from B, what is the
value of the output voltage V0?
R2

0.9 in.
x 5000 1500
3.0 in.

V0

R2
1500
VT
x 5 .0 V 1 .5 V
RT
5000

A resistive position transducer with a resistance of 5000

and a shaft stroke of 5.0 in. is used in the
arrangement of Fig. (2-2). Potentiometer R 3R 4 is also
5000 , and VT = 5.0 V. The initial position to be used
as a reference point is such that R 1 =R 2 (i.e.. the shaft
is at midstroke). At the start of the test, potentiometer
R 3R 4 is adjusted so that the bridge is balanced (VE=0).
Assuming that the object being monitored will move a
maximum distance of 0.5 in. toward A, what will the new
value of VE be?
If the wiper moves 0.5 in. toward A from midstroke, it
will be 3.0 in. from B.
R2

3.0 in
5000 300
5.0 in

R2
R4
VT
VT
R1 R 2
R3 R 4
2500
(5V )
(5V ) 0.5 V
5000

VE VR2 VE 4
3000

5000

14

This answer is a measure of the distance and direction that the object
has traveled.

Fig (2-2) Basic Voltage Divider Resistive Transducer

2.2 Pressure Transducer:

1. Bellows. For slightly high pressures, the bellows is a serviceable
elastic deformation element. It is more sensitive than any other
device of its class.
The bellows may be considered to be made of cascaded capsules,
as shown in fig.(2-3) In fact, one method of manufacturing the bellows is
by fastening together several individual diaphragms. The bellows,
however, is a one-piece, collapsible, seamless metallic unit with deep
folds formed from very thin-walled tubing. Most commonly used
materials are brass, phosphor bronze, hardenable stainless steel, nickel
alloy and beryllium copper. The diameter may be as small as 12 mm or as
large as 300 mm, and it may have as many as 24 folds or convolutions.
Basically bellows is a pressure activated spring, stiffness of which
depends on the thickness and type of material.

Fig (2-3) The Deflection of the Bellows under Application of Pressure P is given
by the Expression
15

y 2nA

PR 2
Et 3

(2)

In equation (2) where in is the number of convolutions in the

belows, A is the effective area of the bellows, E is Young's modulus of
elasticity, and t is the thickness of wall of the bellows.
Generally, only a portion of the total available motion of the
bellows (10% of the maximum stroke length) is used, in order to prevent
their taking a "set" from being expanded to their limit too frequently. A
spring is often used to limit their motion. The larger the diameter of the
bellows the lower the pressure that can be measured with it.
One side of the bellows is fixed and the pressure is applied inside
the bellows from other side, which in turn expands or compresses the
bellows depending upon the nature of pressure. A rod fitted on the other
side of the bellows moves and transmits the motion to the secondary
transducer, as illustrated in fig. (2-4).

Fig (2-4) Measurement of Pressure Using Bellows and Potentiometer

Two commonly used bellows arrangements are illustrated. In one

arrangement the unknown pressure is applied to the inside of the bellows
and tends to expan d the bellows against the . pull of the tension spring, as
shown in fig. (2-5) (a) as the bellows expands, it actuates a mechanical
linkage which moves the wiper of a potentiometer to give an electrical
output signal.

16

Fig (2-5) (a) The Pressure is applied to the Inside of the Bellows

In alternative arrangement shown in fig (2-5) (b) the pressure under

measurement is applied to the outside of the bellows, forcing it to
contract against the push of a compression spring. As it moves, it actuates
a mechanical linkage which moves the core of an LVDT to give an
electrical output signal.

Fig (2-5) (b) The Pressure under Measurement is Applied to the Outside of
the Bellows

Main advantages of the bellows are simple and rugged

construction, moderate cost, capability of providing large force and wide
pressure range.
The main draw-backs of the bellows are:
i.
Ambient temperature compensation is required.
ii.
Unsuitable for measurement of very high pressures.
iii. Unsuitable for dynamic measurements because of their greater
mass and longer relative movement.
These are widely used for measurement of vacuum and low pressures.

17

2. Bourdon Tubes. Bourdon tube, consists of a tube flattened to have

an approximately elliptical cross-section and bent into either a C or
twisted tube, or spiral or helical shape, as shown in fig. (2-6) (a.b).
These are all formed from seamless metal tubing with wall
thickness varying from 0.25 mm to 1.25 mm. The tube is sealed at
one end and the other end of the tube is kept open for the
application of pressure under measurement. The tube is soldered,
or welded to a socket at the base through which pressure
connection is made.
Material used for bourdon tubes are phosphor-bronze, alloy steel,
cold worked brass, beryllium copper, stainless steel and Mohel metal.
Selecting of material for bourdon tube depends mainly on the fluid and
the pressure for which these are designed. The material used for bourdon
tube must have good elastic or spring characteristics for adequate
reliability. The wall thickness and material determine the maximum
pressure to which such an element may be subjected. A thick walled steel
bourdon tube is available for measuring pressure as high as 100 MPa.
The fluid whose pressure is being measured is admitted to the
inside of the tube at the open end, which is mechanically anchored. The
tube then deflects by an amount proportional to the magnitude of the
pressure. The deflection is mechanically transmitted to the wiper of a
potentiometer or to the core of an LVDT to furnish an electrical signal, as
illustrated in figs.(2- 6) (a) and-(b).

(a) Bourdon Tube Linked to a Potentiometer

18

(b) Bourdon Tube Linked To LVDT

Fig (2-6) (a.b) Bourdon Tubes are Useful for Measurement of Pressures Higher
than that can be measured with a Bellows

Figs.(2-6) (a) and (b) illustrates how a C-shaped bourdon tube could
be linked to a potentiometer or to an LVDT. C-type bourdon tubes cover
pressure ranges 35 kPa to 100 MPa, and with a 50 mm bending diameter
have a useful travel of approximately 3 mm. Such a tube has a hysteresis
error of approximately 1-2% of full-scale deflection.
The commercial bourdon pressure gauges have near elliptical xsection and the tube is usually. bent into a C-shape of arc length between
180 to 270, as shown in fig.(2-7) As the fluid under pressure enters the
bourdon tube, it tries to be 'reformed' and owing to availability of a free tip,
this action causes the tip to travel in free space and the tube unwinds. The
simultaneous action of bending and tension due to internal pressure makes a
non-linear movement of the free tip.
This travel is suitably guided and amplified for useful measurement
of the internal pressure. Though the actual tip travel, due to development of
compound stress in the bourdon tube, is non-linear but for practical of
compound stress in the bourdon tube. Is non-linear but for practical
purposes for a small travel of the tip this can be considered to be linear, and
parallel to the axis the link. The main requirement in the design of this gauge
is that whenever the same pressure is applied, the movement of the tip
should be same and on withdrawl of the pressure the tip should return to the
initial point. The schematic arrangement of a complete gauge is illustrated in
19

fig.(2-7) The applied pressure P1 acts inside the tube, and P2 acts at the
outside. The deflection y of the tube tip or end is a function of (P1 - P2), and
is amplified by the lever, quadrant, pinion, and pointer arrangement. A flat
spiral spring is commonly employed for taking up backlash between the
quadrant gear and the pinion.

Fig (2-7) Bourdon Tube with Mechanical Amplification

Increased sensitivity, better linearity, and higher accuracy can be

achieved by extending the length of the bourdon tubes in the form of a
flat spiral or helix as shown in figs.(2-8) (a) and (b). An increased
displacement of the free end can be achieved by increasing the number
of turns in the spiral or helix and so there is no need for further
amplification i.e. the gear sector and pinion arrangement is not required
for further amplification as in case of C-type bourdon tube.

Fig (2-8) (a) A Spiral Type Bourdon tube (b) Helical-Shaped Bourdon Tube

20

A spiral type bourdon tube is made by winding several turns of the

tube with its flattened x-section in the form of a spiral. On applying
pressure under measurement to the spiral, it tends to unwind causing a
relatively long movement of the tip. The displacement of the tip can be
used for indication or transmission. The accuracy of spiral tube is higher
than that of Gtype tube owing to absence of magnifying elements and is
typically approximately 0.5%.Helical-shaped bourdon tube is made of
coiled tube into multi-turn helix with 6 to 10 turns. The displacement of
the tip of helical tube is larger than that of spiral tube. The accuracies
obtainable with helical bourdon tubes are of the order 0.5 to 1 % of
span. Its advantages are high range capabilities (in the ratio as high as
10: 1); its adaptability for high pressure service and its stability in
fluctuating pressure applications.
Advantages and disadvantages of bourdon tubes are given below
advantages.
1. Cheap in cost and simple is construction.
2. Availability over wide range of pressure.
3. High sensitivity and good repeatability.
4. Good accuracy except at low pressures.
5. Easily adaptable for design for obtaining electrical outputs.
Disadvantages.
1. Prone to shock vibration and shock resistance.
2. Low spring gradient limiting their use for precision measurements
upto a pressure of 3 M Pa.

2.3 Strain Gauge Transducers:

The strain gauge is an example of a passive transducer the; uses
electrical resistance variation in wires to sense the strain produced by a
force on the wires. It is a very versatile detector and transducer for
measuring weight pressure mechanical force, or displacement.
The construction of a bonded strain gauge fig (2-9) shows a finewire element looped back and forth on a mounting plate, which is usually
cemented to the member undergoing stress a tensile stress tens to elongate
21

the wire and thereby increase its length and decrease its cross-sectional
area. The combined effect is an increase in resistance as seen from
eqn (3).
R

(3)

Fig (2-9) Resistive Strain Gauges; wire Construction

Where: = the specific resistance of the conductor material in ohm meters

(product)
L = the length of the conductor in meters
A = the area of the conductor in square meters
As a consequence of strain two physical qualities are of particular
interest:
(1) the change in gauge resistance and (2) the change in length. The
relationship between these two variables expressed as a ratio is called
the gauge factor.
K. Expressed mathematically as
K

R / R
L / L

Where:K
R

(4)

= the gauge factor

= the initial resistance in ohms (without strain)
R = the change in initial resistance in ohms
L
= the initial length in meters (without strain)
L = the change in initial length in meters
Note that the term L / L in the denominator is the same as the unit
strain G. Therefore. Eq (5) can be written as
22

R / R
G

(5)

Robert Hooke pointed out in the seventeenth century that for

many common materials there is a constant, ratio between stress and
strain. Stress is defined as the internal force per unit area. The stress
equation is can be written as Eq (6).
S

F
A

(6)

Where:S = the stress in kilograms per Square meter

F = the force in kilograms
A = the area in square meters
The constant of proportionality between stress and strain for a
linear stress-strain curve is known as the modulus of elasticity of the
material. E or Young's modulus Hooke's law is written as can be written
as Eq (7).
E

S
G

(7)

Where:E =Young's modulus in kilograms per square meter

S = the stress in kilograms per square meter
G = the strain (no units)
For strain gauge applications, a high degree of sensitivity is very
desirable. A high gauge factor means a relatively large resistance change
for a given strain. Such a change is more easily measured than a small
resistance change. Relatively small changes in strain can be sensed, as
shown in Examples.
Example (3)

Solution

A resistant strain gauge with a gauge factor of 2 is

fastened to a steel member, which is subjected to a
strain of 1 X 10-6. If the original resistance value of the
gauge is 130 . Calculate the change in resistance.
R / R R / R

L / L
G
R KGR ( 2) (1x10 6 ) (130) 260
K

23

Example (4)

A round steel bar, 0.02 m in diameter and 0.40 m in

length, is subjected to a tensile force of 33.000 kg,
where E = 2 x 1010 kg/m2. Calculate the elongation,
L, in meters.

Solution

0.02 m
D
A(
3.14 x 10 4 m 2

2
2

S
F/A
E

G L / L
33.000kg x 0.40m
FL
L

AE (3.14 x 10 4 m 2 ) ( 2 x 1010 kg / m 2 )

2.1 x 10 3 m

2.3.1 Types of Strain Gauges:

These strain gauges are mainly of four types namely:1. Wire strain gauges.
2. Foil strain gauges.
3. Thin film strain gauges and.
4. Semiconductor strain gauges.
1. Wire Strain Gauges. Wire strain gauges are normally of smaller
size, and are subject to minimal leakage, and can be employed in
high temperature applications.
The characteristics that should be possessed by wire strain gauges
inorder to give excellent and reproducible results are as follows:
i.
The element of the wire strain gauge should be of low
resistance temperature coefficient so that measurement
accuracy is not affected by variations in temperature.
ii.
Wire strain gauges should have a high value of gauge factor, G
so that a large change in resistance is obtained for a particular
value of strain resulting in high sensitivity.
iii. Wire strain gauges should be of resistance as high as possible
(of the order. of 100-1,000 ) so that accuracy of measurement
is not affected due to small variations in resistance of measuring
circuit. However, higher resistance of strain gauge results in
lower sensitivity. So higher bridge voltages are employed so
that high sensitivity is achieved but the bridge voltage is also
24

restricted by the maximum current carrying capacity of wires

which is typically 30 mA.
iv.
Wire strain gauges should be of linear characteristics for its
entire range inorder to have easy calibration.
v.
Wire strain gauges should not have any hysteresis or creep
effect, in its performance.
vi.
Wire strain gauges should have very good frequency response
as these are frequently employed for dynamic measurements.
Wire strain gauges are of two types namely (a) unbonded wire
strain gauges and (b) bonded wire strain gauges.
2. Foil Strain Gauges. It is basically an extension of the bonded
wire strain gauge differs in construction and has certain
advantages. The bonded wire strain gauges have been completely
superseded by foil strain gauges. In such gauges, metal foils are
used instead of wire, as shown in fig.(2-10) The required grid
pattern is formed from a very thin foil of the same material as that
used in wire strain gauges by photo-etching processes

Fig (2-10) Foil Strain Gauge

That permits great flexibility with regard to shape. The thickness

of foil varies from 2.5 microns to 6 microns. Dimensions of a single
bonded foil strain gauge can be as small as 0.8 mm x 1.6 mm. The
length of the grid versus the width is designed to concentrate the strain
sensing grid over the high-strain area. The foil is often specially heat
treated before use in order to optimize mechanical properties and the
25

thermal coefficient of resistahce. The photo-etching process employed

for making foil strain gauges allows the manufacture of sensing grids in
virtually any two-dimensional pattern. Normally, a geometric pattern is,
developed that will provide maximum electrical and mechanical
efficiency from the sensing element.
Foil strain gauges with gauge resistance values of 120, 350 and
1000 are common. The maximum gauge current is about 30 mA,
maximum strain for 1 per cent linearity is about 0.3 per cent, and
strain variation upto at least 50 kHz can be measured.
The advantages, that foil strain gauges posses over wire strain
Gauges, are Enumerated Below:
1. Width of foil gauge is many times of its x-section, so a larger ratio
of the bonding area to the x-sectional area is achieved. This in
turn enables higher heat dissipation-and better bonding. Thus
these gauges have low hysteresis and creep effects.
2. The larger ratio of surface area to x-sectional area provides
superior mechanical stability under prolonged strain and higher
temperature conditions.
So they can be used fog higher currents.
3. In foil strain gauges, terminals have no stress concentration
because of absence of joints resulting in longer life.
4. Response of the foil gauges to traverse strain can be reduced by
making the perpendicular sections of the foil wide.
5. The strain reproducibility is excellent
The foil strain gauges are employed for both stress analysis as
well as for construction of transducers.
3. Thin Film Strain Gauges. A thin-film strain gauge is produced by
depositing a thin layer of metal alloy on an elastic metal specimen by
means of vacuum deposition or sputtering process. This technique,
relatively new and extensively used, produces a strain gauge that is
molecularly bonded to the specimen under test, so the draw-backs of
the epoxy adhesive bond are eliminated. This technique is most widely

26

used for transducer applications such as in diaphragm-type pressure

gauges.
For producing thin film strain gauge transducers, first an electrical
insulation such as a ceramic is deposited on the stressed elastic metal
member such as a diaphragm or beam and then strain gauge alloy is
deposited on the top of the insulation layer. Both layers may be deposited
either by vacuum deposition or by sputtering process.
In the vacuum deposition or evaporation process the diaphragm is
placed in a vacuum chamber with some insulating material. Heat is
applied until the insulating material vaporizes p and then condenses,
forming a thin dielectric film on the diaphragm. Then suitably shaped
templates are placed over the diaphragm, and the evaporationcondensation process is repeated with the metallic gauge material,
forming the. Desired gauge pattern on top of the insulating substrate.
In the sputtering process, a thin dielectric layer is again deposited
in vacuum over the entire diaphragm surface; however, this detailed
mechanism of deposition is quite different from the evaporation process,.
In the process the gauge or insulating material is held at -ve potential and
the target (transducer diaphragm or beam) is held at a +ve potential.
Molecules of gauge or insulating material are ejected from the -ve
electrode owing to the impact of positive gas ions (argon) bombarding the
surface. The ejected molecules are accelerated toward the transducer
diaphragm or beam and strike the target area with kinetic energy of
magnitude several times greater than that possible with any I other
deposition process. This produces, superior adherence to the specimen
under test.
For achieving maximum bridge sensitivity (millivolt output),
minimum heating effect and stability, the four strain gauges, the wiring
between these gauges, and the balance and temperature compensation
components are all integrally formed during the deposition process. This
ensure the same composition and thickness throughout.
The thin-film strain gauge transducers have several advantages
over others. They are rugged and have very low hysteresis -and creep. The

27

sensitivity is also high-because of a higher gauge factor and high

resistance. A resistance as high as 5 k can be produced in order to
permit increased input and output voltages with low power consumption.
They can operate over a wide temperature range from - 200 C to 400 C
with good stability.
4. Semiconductor Strain Gauges. Semiconductor strain gauges are based
on the piezoresistive property of doped silicon and germanium and
that is why the transducers based on semiconductor gauges are often
called piezo-resisrive transducers, they are made of films of
germanium or silicon base materials as shown in fig (2-11).
Under strained condition, resistivity of any material changes and
this is called the piezo-resistive property of material. In metal alloy strain
gauges, variation in resistance is caused, under strained condition, mainly
because of change in geometrical shape and very less due to change in
resistivity of the material. The gauge factor of metal alloy strain gauges is
found to be about 2.0. But in semiconductor strain gauges, variation in
resistance, under strained condition, is mainly due to change in resistance
i.e. most of the resistance variation comes from peizo-resistance effect.
The p-type gauges increase resistance with applied tensile strain while the
n-type decrease resistance. Their big advantage is a very high gauge
factor. A typical semiconductor strain gauge has a gauge factor of
100 to + 150 with a maximum strain of 0.003 and a temperature range of
-10 to + 70 C. In addition to the high gauge factor, other advantages are
low cross-sensitivity, freedom from hysteresis a creep effects, chemical
inertness and good fatigue life unfortunately, the high gauge factors
accompanied by high temperature sensitivity, non-linearity, and mounting
difficulties.

28

Fig (2-11) Semi-conductor Strain Gauges

2.3.2 Merits of Semiconductor Strain Gauges:

1. These gauges permit measurement of very small strain, as small as,
0.01 micron owing to their high gauge factor lying between - 100
to + 150.
2. As semiconductor strain gauges can be manufactured in very small
sizes ranging from 0.7 to 7 mm, so they are very useful in the
measurement of highly localized strains.
3. They are chemically inert and have low cross-sensitivity.
4. They have got frequency response upto 102 Hz.
5. They are almost free from hysteresis and creep effects because of
integrated format of the actual gauge itself.
6. Their fatigue life is much higher than that of wire and foil gauges
due to the perfect elastic deformation of the silicon filament. Their
fatigue life is more than 10 106 operations.
7. The drift owing to moisture absorption and noise produced by
imperfect insulation of-lead wires are relatively less than that in
wire gauges because of higher strain sensitivity.
Demerits of Semiconductor Strain Gauges: They are expensive,
brittle, highly sensitive to temperature variations and have poor linearity.
Semiconductor strain gauges are often used in high-output
transducers as load cells. These gauges are extremely sensitive, with
gauge factors from 50 to 200. They are however, affected by temperature
fluctuations and often behave in a nonlinear manner. The strain gauge is
generally used as one arm of a bridge. The simple arrangement is shown
in Fig. (2-12) (a) can be employed when temperature variations are not
sufficient to affect accuracy significantly, or in applications for which
great accuracy is not required.

29

However, since gauge resistance is affected by temperature, any

change of temperature will cause a change in the bridge balance
conditions. This effect can cause an error in the strain measurement.
Thus, when temperature variation is significant, or when unusual
accuracy is required an arrangement such as that illustrated in Fig. (2-12)
may be used. Here two gauges of the same type are mounted on the item
being tested close enough together that both are subjected to the same
temperature. Consequently, the temperature will cause the same change of
resistance in the two, and the bridge balance will not be affected by the
temperature. However one of the two gauges is mounted so that its
sensitive direction is at right Angles to the direction of the strain. The
resistance of this dummy gauge is not affected by the deformation of the
material. Therefore, it acts like a passive resistance (such as R3 of Fig.
(2-12) (b) regards to the strain measurement). Since only one gauge
responds to the strain, the strain causes bridge unbalance just as in the
case of the single gauge.

Fig (2-12) Basic Gauge Bridge Circuits

2.4 Piezoelectric Transducers:

When a mechanical pressure is applied to a crystal of the Rochelle
salt quartz, or tourmaline type, a displacement of the crystals causes a
30

potential difference to occur. This property is used in piezoelectric

transducers: in these transducers a crystal is placed between a solid base
and force-summing member, as shown in Fig. (2-13).
Externally applied forces exert pressure to the top of the crystal.
This produces an electromotive force across the crystal proportional to
the magnitude of the applied pressure.

Fig (2-13) Elements of a Piezoelectric Transducer

For a piezoelectric element under pressure, part of the energy

will be converted to an electric potential that will appear on opposite
faces of the element, analogous to the charge on the plates of a
capacitor. The rest of the applied energy is converted to mechanical
energy, analogous to that of a compressed spring: When the pressure is
removed, the piezoelectric element will return to its original shape and
also lose its electric charge.
From these relationships the following formulas have been
derived for the coupling coefficient k as seen in eqn (8) and (9).
Mechanical energy converted to electrical energy
Applied mechanical energy

(8)

Electrical energy converted to mechanical energy

Input electrical energy

(9)

k
k

An alternating voltage applied to a crystal causes it to vibrate at

its natural resonance frequency. Since the frequency is a very stable
quantity, piezoelectric crystals are used principally in high - frequency

31

accelerometers. The output voltage is typically on the order of 1 to 30

mV per gram of acceleration. The device needs no external power
source and is therefore self-generating. The principal disadvantage of
this transducer is that voltage will be generated only as long as the
pressure applied to the piezo electric element is changing.
Example (5)

A certain crystal has a coupling coefficient of 0.32.

How much electrical energy must be applied to
produce an output of 1 in of mechanical energy?

Solution

1 in. = in. x

1 ft
1 Ib 1.356 J
x
x
12in 16
1 ft Ib

= 7.06 x 10-3 J
2.4.1 Merits, Demerits and Applications of Piezoelectric Transducers
Merits:

1. Piezoelectric transducers are generally small in size, light in weight

and very rugged in construction.
2. These are self generating transducers as they do not need external
power.
3. These transducers can operate over a wide range of temperature
without appreciable temperature induced errors. Quartz devices can
be employed over a temperature range of - 200 to + 300C;
whereas ceramic devices. are limited to + 100 C.
4. These transducers have very good high frequency response. They
provide flat frequency response from 1 Hz to 20 kHz, the natural
frequency being of the order of 50 kHz.
5. Their outputs are quite large; for example, a quartz crystal 2.5 mm
thick has a sensitivity of 125 mV/kPa and for a crystal area of
1,000 mmz, sensitivity is 125 V/kN.
Demerits:
1. On application of a constant deflection to the transducer, it
develops voltage across its terminals and the charge leaks off
slowly through the leakage resistance of the transducer but this

32

decay of charge is very slow on account of very high leakage

resistance (of the order of 1014 ohms) of the transducer. However,
when a voltmeter or any other voltage measuring device is
connected across the terminals of the transducer the charge leaks
off very rapidly. This prevents the measurement of static
displacement. Some commercially available systems employing
quartz elements of very high leakage resistance and input
amplifiers of very high input impedance achieve an effective total
resistance of 1014 ohms which gives reasonably slow leakage to
allow static measurements.
2. The output voltage is affected by temperature variations of the
crystal.
2.4.2 Applications of Piezoelectric Transducers:
1. These transducers are mainly used for measurement of force and
pressure. Because of simple and robust construction and having
high stiffness, they can be employed for measurement of force
over a wide range - from about 1 N to 200 N with linearity
approaching t 1 per cent.
2. These transducers, because of their high frequency response, are
mainly employed in high frequency accelerometers. In this
application their output voltage is typically of the order of 1- 300
mV per g of acceleration.
3. Piezoelectric transducers can also be used for measurement of
temperature. A special cut of crystal gives a very linear and
sensitive relation between resonant frequency and temperature
approximately of the order of 1 kHz per C. Temperature can be
measured with a linearity of 0.05% and a resolution of
0.0001C for the range from - 40C to + 230C.
4. Quartz crystals can be employed as mass to frequency convertor.
A crystal-controlled electronic oscillator uses a thin quartz plate.
The natural frequency of mechanical oscillations of the plate
determines the frequency of electrical oscillations.

33

5. Because of their unusual rugged construction they are widely

employed in difficult applications, such as ballistics, blasts,
explosions, internal combustion, fuel injection, flow
instabilities, high-intensity sound, and hydraulic or pneumatic
pulsations-in connection with problems which may be,
encountered in connection with guns, shock tubes, closed
bombs, rocket motors, internal combustion engines, pumps,
compressors, pipe lines, and oil exploration.

2.5 Capacitive Transducers:

The capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is given by eqn (10).
C

kA o
( farads )
d

(10)

Where:k
A

= dielectric constant
= the area of the plate, in square meters
o = 8.854 X 10", in farads per meter
d = the plate spacing in meters
Since the capacitance is inversely proportional to the spacing of the
parallel plates, any variation in d causes a corresponding variation in the
capacitance.
Figure (2-14) shows several forms of capacitive transducers. A
rotary plate capacitor is shown in fig (2-14) (a) one that is not unlike the
variable capacitor used to tune radio transmitters and receivers. The
capacitance of this unit is proportional to the amount of area on the fixed
plate, which is covered "shaded" by the moving plate. This type of
transducer will give signals proportional to curvilinear displacement or
angular velocity.
A rectilinear capacitance transducer is shown in Fig. (2-14) (b), and
it consists of a fixed cylinder and a moving cylinder. These pieces are
configured so that the moving piece fits inside the fixed piece but is
insulated from it.
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Figure (2-14) (c) shows a transducer that varies the spacing between
surfaces, that is, the thin diaphragm. The dielectric is either air or vacuum.
Such devices are often used as capacitance microphones.

Fig (2-14) Capacitance Transducers

Example (6)

Solution

An electrode-diaphragm pressure transducer has plates

whose area is 5 x 10-3 m2 and whose distance between
plates is 1 X 10-3 m. Calculate its capacitance if it
measures air pressure. The dielectric constant of air is
k =1.
kA o
d
(1) (5 x10 3 m 2 ) (8.854 x 10 12 F / m)

1 x10 3 m
44.25 pF

Capacitance transducers can be used in several ways. One method is

to use the varying capacitance to frequency-modulate an RF oscillator. This
method is the one employed with capacitance microphones like Fig (2-14)
(c). Another method is to use the capacitance transducer in an AC bridge
circuit. The capacitance transducer has excellent frequency response and can
measure of static and dynamic phenomena. Its disadvantage is sensitivity to
temperature variations and the distorted signals owing to long lead length.

35

2.5.1 Merits, Demerits and Applications of Capacitive Transducers

Merits:
1. These transducers have very high impedance so loading effects are
minimum n the measuring circuits.
2. These transducers have excellent frequency response (as high as 50
kHz) and so can be used for measurement of both static and
dynamic phenomena.
3. These transducers are not affected by stray magnetic fields. That is
why the capacitive transducers are used for applications where
stray magnetic fields make the inductive transducers useless.
4. These transducers are extremely sensitive.
5. A resolution of the order of 2.5 microns can be achieved with such
transducers.
6. These can be operated with very small forces so they are very
useful for small systems and they need small power to operate
them.
Demerits:
1. Output impedance of capacitive transducer is very high so its
measuring circuit becomes very complicated.
2. Insulation resistance of the system cannot be neglected because of
high output impedance of the transducer so it reduces its
sensitivity. Moreover with change in physical conditions e.g.
humidity, temperature etc this resistance changes its value and so
introduces error in measurement.
3. Stray capacitance including due to cables etc. in parallel with the
output impedance of the transducer also causes error and
introduces non-linearity. In order to reduce the effects of stray
capacitances, frames should be earthed.
4. Electrostatic screening should be provided for capacitive
transducers in order to avoid any pickup.

36

5. The screened cable connector to the transducer can be a source of

error because its capacitance varies with the movement between
the cable conductors and cable dielectric.
6. Capacitance of capacitive transducers changes with change in
temperature or on account of presence of small external matter e.g.
dusts particles and moisture etc. Hence error is introduced in
measurement.
7. Since the displacement, in general, is small and a large sensitivity
is usually needed, so adequate design is required for accurate
measurements.
2.5.2 Applications of Capacitive Transducers:
1. Capacitive transducers can be employed for measuring both linear
and angular displacements. The capacitive transducers are highly
sensitive and can be employed for measuring extremely small
displacements such as 0.01 pm. On the other hand they can be
employed for measuring large distances up to about 30 m as in
airplane altimeters.
2. Capacitive transducers can be employed for measuring force and
pressure, which are first converted into displacement and the
displacement, make the capacitance to change.
3. Capacitive transducers can also be employed for measuring
pressure directly in II those cases in which permittivity of a
medium changes with pressure such as in case of Benzene
permittivity varies by 0.5% in the pressure range of 1 to 1,000
times the atmosphere pressure.
4. Capacitive transducers can be employed for measuring humidity
since the permittivity of gases varies with the variation in
humidity. Though the variation in capacitance due to variation in
humidity is quite small but is detectable.
5. Capacitive transducers can also be employed to measure density,
volume, level of liquid, weight etc but with mechanical modifiers
6. The most commonly used microphones are of three types namely:

37

I. Capacitor microphones.
II. Carbon microphones and.
III.Dynamic microphones.
I. Capacitor Microphones. The operation of a capacitor microphone
is based on the fact that the capacitance between two plates varies
as the distance between the plates is varied. The capacitor
microphone uses a metal diaphragm as one plate (moving plate)
and a rigid metal plate as the other capacitor plate (fixed plate) as
illustrated in fig.(2-15) A constant voltage of 200 to 500 V is
maintained across the capacitor plates. The variations in the air
pressure in a sound wave striking the diaphragm makes the
diaphragm in or out and this, in turn causes the variation in the
capacitance. The varying voltage produced due to the incident
sound exists as an ac component superimposed on the do level. The
ac component is then amplified and delivered to the measuring or
recording instrument. The instrument used for measuring output of
the capacitor microphone should be of very high input impedance
in order to reduce loading errors because a capacitor appears as a
high output impedance source. An emitter follower is usually
located close to the microphone in order to reduce the inherently
high output impedance and reduce the distortion caused' by
the noise.

Fig (2-15) Capacitor Microphone

Capacitor microphones perform the most accurate conversions of

sound vibrations in air to electrical signals and as such, they are
widely used as the standard for precise acoustical measurements.
38

The frequency range is up to 50 kHz. They are reasonably

sensitive-a typical sensitivity is -50 db.
The disadvantages of capacitor microphones are that (i) they are
expensive and (ii) the high voltage supply is often inconvenient to
provide.
II. Carbon Microphones. These microphones detect sounds by
variations in the resistance of carbon granules and operate on the
fact that with the variation in the density of the carbon granules,
which is caused by the variations in the air pressure of the incident
sound waves, the resistance varies. The carbon microphone is
provided with a moving diaphragm which is mounted so as to
compress together carbon granules with in the housing when sound
waves strike it. The device is connected externally to a constant
voltage source, and the variation in current due to variation in the
resistance of carbon granules is, therefore, a function of variation in
sound. As in the capacitor microphones, the ac signal' is separated
from the do level, amplified and then delivered to the measuring or
recording device as shown in fig (2-16).

Fig (2-16) Carbon Microphones

Carbon microphones have low output impedance, high sensitivity

of the order of -400 db and limited frequency range-maximum of
about 5 kHz.
The non-linearties of variation in carbon resistance prevent the
signal from being a faithful replica of the sound vibrations and they
find little application in the field of sound measurements. However,
39

the device is quite suitable for transmission of voice and so they are
used in almost all telephones. The fact that they are cheaper, highly
reliable, and very rugged also makes them more suitable for such
applications.
III.Dynamic Microphones. The dynamic microphone operates on the
principle of electromagnetic transconduction. Such a microphone
makes use of a metal diaphragm mechanically linked to a moving
coil surrounded by a permanent magnet. The diaphragm and the
coil are suspended so that they can move back and forth. The
motion of the coil, which is produced due to variations in the air
pressure of the incident sound waves, in the magnetic field
produces a varying voltage, whose magnitude obviously depends
upon the pressure intensity of the sound waves, across the coil. The
signal (voltage developed across the coil) is amplified and
delivered to the measuring or recording device.
The dynamic microphones are self- generating transducers and they
have low output impedance, low sensitivity of the order of - 80 db and a
frequency response of maximum 20 kHz. They are seldom used in
precision measurements as shown fig (2-17).

Fig (2-17) Dynamic Microphone

The dynamic microphone can also be used as an inverse transducer

causing a sound to be produced by applying a varying voltage to the coil.
This is the principle on which a loudspeaker operates.
1.
Vibration Pickups. The transducers that can use for transforming
the sound of solid vibrations to electrical signals are called the
vibration pickups. Vibration pickups are piezoelectric type.
40

The piezoelectric type vibration pickup operates on the fact that

crystalline materials develop a voltage across themselves when deformed
from their natural shapes. The deformation need only to be of the order of
pm for producing this effect. If the applied force that deforms the
piezoelectric crystal has a time-varying magnitude (i.e., as a force on
account of the vibration of a piece of material t0 which the crystal is
attached), the output voltage from the crystal will also have time varying
form which is patterned after the time-varying form of the force.
The piezoelectric type vibration -pickup is shown in fig (2-18). The
crystals used in the construction of ac pickups are generally made quartz
or Rochelle salt. The quartz crystals are accurate but expensive also. Ever
Rochelle salt crystals are hampered to the fact that they melt at 65C and
limited because of high humidity conditions.

Fig (2-18) Piezoelectric Type Vibration Pickup

These are self-generating microphones and have been developed

for use in a wide variety of situations.
They have linear output over a wide range of amplitude, a low
sensitivity of the order of - 50 to - 100 db and a frequency response
extending to the ultrasonic region, above 100 kHz.
The problems with such devices are high output impedance.
dependence on temperature, and sensitivity to vibrations.
These devices are extensively used in sound measurement systems.

41