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Figure 1.
Particles make up a stable suspension which will not settle. Particles are known as
colloids.
Table 1.
Characteristics of Colloids
The unique behavior of colloidal particles is a result of surface phenomena. The principal
phenomena controlling the behavior of colloids are electrostatic forces, van der Waals forces,
and Brownian motion.
Electrostatic forces:
Electrostatic force is the principal force contributing to the stability of the colloidal suspensions.
Most colloids are electrically charged; negatively charged colloids predominate in natural
waters. A model of a colloidal particle and its double layer is illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2.
Model of a colloidal particle and double layer. (a) A negative colloidal particle
with its electrostatic field. (b) Distribution of electrostatic potential, shear plane,
and zeta potential.
Brownian Motion:
Brownian motion can cause two colloids to move sufficiently close for van der Waals forces to
predominate over electrostatic repulsion. However, the destabilizing influence of Brownian
motion is insignificant.
Figure 3.
Figure 4.
Figure 5.
Heterocoagulation
The surface charge on the surface of some naturally occurring particles may not be uniform.
Oppositely charged sites may exist on the surface of the same particle. The coagulation of
these colloidal particles can therefore occur via simple electrostatic interaction between these
oppositely charged sites (heterocoagulation).
Figure 7.
Enhanced Coagulation
In recent years, the coagulation process has also been broadly utilized to remove, not only
turbidity, but also other undesirable organic and inorganic contaminants from the raw water.
These objectives can be achieved by use of an enhanced coagulation process, in which an
elevated coagulant dosage is usually required (Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule and
the Disinfection and Disinfection By-products Rule (D/DBPR) 1994). Most recently, the
application of enhanced coagulation are no longer limited to TOC removal but also applied to
many other impurities, such as color, arsenic, and other heavy metals.
Definitions:
Coagulation is the addition and rapid mixing of a coagulant, the resulting destabilization
of colloidal and fine suspended solids, and the initial aggregation of the destabilized
particles (chemical conditioning). Particulates in source water that contribute to color
and turbidity are mainly clays, silts, viruses, bacteria, fulvic and humic acids, minerals
(including asbestos, silicates, silica, and radioactive particles), and organic particulates.
Flocculation is the slow stirring to aggregate the destabilized particles and form a rapidsettling floc (physical conditioning).
Chemical precipitation, which is closely related to chemical coagulation, consists of the
precipitation of dissolved minerals or solids in water by chemically or physically
modifying the solution.
Ferric sulfate:
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 <-> 2 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 CaSO4 + 6 CO2
Ferric chloride:
2 FeCl3 + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 <-> 2 Fe(OH)3(s) + 3 CaCl3 + 6 CO2
Alum:
Al2(SO4)3 * 14 H2O + 3 Ca(HCO3)2 <-> (2 Al(OH)3)(s) + 3 CaSO4 + 6 CO2 + 14 H2O
The following observations can be made on these reactions:
In conventional coagulation, the Fe3+ dose is in the range of 2 to 4 mg/L; the Fe3+ dose may
reach as high as 11 mg/L in enhanced coagulation. The metal-ion content in a liquid commercial
coagulant is typically in the range of 10-15% by liquid weight. The physical and chemical
properties of commonly used coagulants are summarized in Table 2.
Table 2.
Rapid Mix
Coagulation and precipitation processes both require the addition of chemicals to the water
stream. The process of dispersing chemicals is known as rapid mix or flash mix.
Types of Mixers
Rapid-mixing units can be classified
according to the method of agitation
(mechanical or static) and type of
flow pattern (plug-flow or complete
mix) (Figure 8).
Mechanically agitated mixers:
impeller
radial-flow impellers or
turbine impellers, Figure 8
(a) and (b); axial-flow
pitched-blade impellers
(Figure 8 (c)
propeller (Figure 8 (d) and
(e))
Figure 8.
Static mixers create turbulence by the use of hydraulic jumps, baffles, turbulent flow in a
pipeline or channel, or contractions or enlargements in a pipeline. Table 3 compares the
advantages and disadvantages of mechanical and static mixers.
Table 3.
Mixer Type
Mechanical mixers
Static mixers
Advantages
Disadvantages
Additional equipment
required for maintenance
Reliability subject to
equipment failure
Agitation dependent on flow
rate
High head loss
Less flexibility in operation
Agitation Requirements
In water treatment, the degree of agitation in a mixing unit is measured by velocity gradient.
For mixing equipment, the value of the velocity gradient is given by equation 1.
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(1)
where:
G = velocity gradient, 1/s (G = 700 to 1,000 1/s)
P = power imparted to the water, N-m/s or Watt, W (lb-ft/s)
V = volume of the basin, m3 (ft3)
= absolute viscosity of the fluid, N-s/m2 (lb-s/ft2)
The motor power of the mixer is the power to drive the speed reduction gears. The power
imparted to the water by a mixer is calculated from equation 2.
P=2nT
(2)
where
n = impeller speed, revolutions per second (rps)
T = impeller shaft torque, N-m (lb-ft)
Power expressions for laminar-flow range (Reynolds number NR < 10), equation 3
P = Npn2d3
(3)
where
Np = power number of impeller (Table 4)
d = impeller diameter, m (ft)
= mass density of fluid, kg/m3
= water density, N/m3 (lb/ft3)
g = acceleration due to gravity, m/s2 (ft/s2)
= dynamic viscosity of water, N-s/m2 (lb-s/ft2)
Power expressions for turbulent-flow range (Reynolds number NR > 10,000), equation 4
P = Npn3d5
(4)
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The design value of the velocity gradient G is dependent on the detention time in the mixing
unit, the coagulant dosage rate, and the geometry of the mixing unit. Velocity gradients
normally range from 100 to 1000/s. In general, a short duration of high intensity mixing often
gives the best results.
The velocity gradient for a mixing basin utilizing flow-induced turbulence can be calculated from
equation (6).
(6)
where
hL = total head loss through the mixer, m
t = detention time, s
In U.S. units, simplified for 4 C, equation 7
(7)
where
hL = total head loss through the mixer, ft
t = detention time, min
Table 4.
Radial flow
Straight blade turbine
4 blade (w/d = 0.15)
4 blade (w/d = 0.2)
Disc turbine
4 blade (w/d = 0.25)
6 blade (w/d = 0.25)
2.6
3.3
5.1
6.2
Axial flow
Propeller 1:1 pitch
Propeller 1.5:1 pitch
45 Pitched blade
4 blade (w/d = 0.15)
4 blade (w/d = 0.2)
0.3
0.7
1.36
1.94
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The detention time in rapid mixers (equation 8) should provide sufficient time for complete
homogenization of the chemicals with the water and also provide sufficient time for the floc to
reach particle-size equilibrium. Particle-size equilibrium refers to the condition where no
additional rapid mixing will result in any further turbidity removal by settling alone. Typical
detention time for rapid mixers ranges from 10 s to 5 min. Shorter detention times require
higher velocity gradients to achieve effective mixing. Conversely, longer detention times permit
lower velocity gradients. Optimum design values are best determined experimentally.
(8)
where
t = average detention time, min
Q = flow rate, m3/min (ft3/min)
V =volume of the reactor, m3 (ft3)
A channel with fully turbulent flow of sufficient length to yield the desired detention time,
followed by a hydraulic jump, has been used successfully (Figure 10). Also, pipe reducers and
increasers with a sufficient length of pipe develop fully turbulent flow condition and may give
the desired detention time.
In all cases, the coagulant chemical should be added to the water stream immediately prior to
the point of greatest turbulence.
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Figure 10.
Details of rapid-mix basins: Overall layout and plan view of rapid-mix basin
Figure 11.
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