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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 HAEMATOLOGY
Also spelled Hematology is the study of blood, the blood forming organs and the
diseases of blood. Hematology includes the study of etiology (science of the
causes of diseases), diagnosis, treatment, prognosis (i.e. assessment of the future
course and outcome of a patients disease), and prevention of blood diseases that
affect the production of blood and its components such as blood cells, hemoglobin
Physicians specialized in hematology are known as hematologists or hematologist.
Their routine work mainly includes the care and treatment pf patients with
hematological disease.
2.1 BLOOD COLLECTION
Blood collection is a vital procedure in blood testing. proper blood collection is
required to ensure the reliability of results. The methods for blood collection are:
VENIPUNTURE
It is the collection of blood from the veins through the use of a needle and a
syringe. In this procedure, the most common site of venipuncture is the antecubital
fossa where the cephalic. basilica and mid-cubital veins are found.
This procedure is required when large amounts of blood is needed for testing like
in glucose.
MATERIALS NEEDED
I. Syringe
2. Tourniquet
3
This method is useful for pediatric, obese and elderly patients where veins are
small and can not be palpated. It may also make use of the earlobe and big toe as
puncture sites.
MATERIALS NEEDED
1. Blood lancet
2. Wet and dry cotton
3. Isopropyl alcohol
FINGER PUNCTURE PROCFDURF:
1. Massage the selected linger down toward the fingertip.
2. Repeat this live or six times.
3. Cleans the fingertip with an isopropyl alcohol (in the cotton) and let dry.
4. Take a lancet and make a quick deep stab on the side of the finger.
5. Wipe away the first drop of blood to avoid dilution with tissue fluid.
6. When the required blood has been obtained, apply dry cotton and instruct the
patient to apply pressure.
PRECAUTIONS
1. Puncture only the specified site
2. Discard the first drop as this is made up of tissue fluid
3. Sterilize first before puncturing
Blood lice
EDTA bottle
Syringe-needle
Tourniquet
Anti Sera A,B,AB and D
Anti Sera B
N
A
A
N
N
A
A
N
Anti sera AB
A
A
A
N
A
A
A
N
Anti- Sera D
N
N
N
A
A
A
A
N
RESULT
ABABO+
A+
B+
AB+
O-
in a tube and measuring the heights of the red-cell column as a fraction of the total
by the use of an instrument called HAEMATOCRIT READER. PCV is measured
in percentage (%).
MATERIALS NEEDED FOR PCV TEST
Syringe and needle
Cotton
Touniqtiet
EDTA bottle
Haematocrit centrifuge
Haematocrit reader
Heparinated capillary tube
Electricity source
Plasticine
PROCEDURES FOR PACKED CELL VOLUME (PCV)
1. Tourniquet the upper arm and clean the site for puncture with cotton socked
in spirit
2. Gently insert the needle into the vein and draw out the required blood into
the syringe.
3. Loose the tourniquet and withdraw the needle from the vein. Press over the
punctured site with cotton wool.
4. Thereafter place the blood in an EDTA bottle and shake horizontally
5. Lower the capillary tube into the EDTA bottle (horizontally). If the blood is
filled to the point marked, remove the tube, close the FIYFA bottle and clean
the blood retained on the capillary tube surface.
6. Seal the tube with a plasticine
7. Place the sealed tube on the capillary chamber of the haematocrit centriftige
and close with the cover.
8. Plug the centriftige machine to an electric source and spin for 5 minutes.
TEST RESULT INTERPRETATION
Male : - 40-54%
Female: - 38-47%
Infant: - 30-35%
PRECAUTION
I. Ensure that the capillary tube is sealed.
2. Ensure that the blood is filled to the heparimated mark.
2.4 GENOTYPE:
Genotype is the genetic makeup of an individual or organisms. In other words, ii is
the genetic constitution of an individual. It is also kno4n as the sum total of genes
transmitted from parent to offspring.
AA
-
SS
10
Widal test is an agglutination test for the presence of antibodies against the
salmonella organisms that cause typhoid fever. It is thus a method of diagnosing
the presence of the disease in a patient.
MATERIALS FOR WIDAL TEST
I. Blood sample
2. Tile
3. EDTA bottle
4. Haematocrit centrifuge machine
PROCEDURE FOR WIDAL TEST
I. Collet the blood sample and place in an EDTA bottle.
2. Place the blood in an EDTA bottle and spin for 5 minutes with centrifuge
machine.
3. Make 4 drops of serum at intervals on a tile at one side and the other 4 drops on
the other side of the tile.
4. The widal kit of paratyphy A, B ,C and H (somatic antigen reagent) was mixed
to one group of the serum and the paratyphy A.B.C and 0 (flagella antigen agent
mixed with the other group of the dropped serum.
5. The tile was rocked for 2 minutes for agglutination to occur.
NOTE: The degree of the agglutination shows how serious the typhoid fever is in
the body of the patient.
OBSERVATION
11
Typhy H
Typhy O
Key:
agglutination
= non-agglutination
A. <20
<20
B. <20
<80
C. <80
<80
D. <160
<160
2. Blood sample
3. Blood lancet
4. Swab
PROCEDURE
I. Prick the finger tip of the patient and wipe away the first drop of blood.
2. Make a drop of blood on the blood chamber of the kit.
3. Add a drop of buffer on the buffer chamber.
4. Allow the reaction for 10 minutes.
OBSERVATION/RESULT
1. Appearance of band on the Control implies NEGATIVE.
2. Appearance of band on the Test implies INVALID.
3. Appearance of bond on both Test and Control implies POSITIVE
Is th plasma, measured under standardized conditions. The ESR increases if the
Level of ci1an proteins in the plasma rises, as in rheumatic diseases, chronic
infections and malignant disease and thus provides a simple hut valuable
screaming test for these conditions.
CHAPTER THREE
3.0 BIOCHEMISTRY
13
OBSERATION/RESULT
Test
Fasting
Random
Values
70-120mmg/dl
80-140mmg/dl
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OBSERVATION/RESULT
The combostik container has the urine constituent chart as folIow
S.G (specific gravity)
PH
15
Protein
Blood
Glucose
Nitrite
Ketones
Urobilinogen
Bilirubin
Leukocytes
NOTE: -The standard color on the strip that corresponds the color chart, gives the
appropriate result.
3.3 PREGNANCY TEST (PT)
This is the Laboratory test used to determine whether or not a woman is pregnant.
Most pregnancy tests are based on the detection of a hormone, human chronic
gonadotrophin (HCG), in the urine.
MATERIALS
1. PT strip
2. Urine sample
PROCEDURE
1. Collect fresh urine sample.
2. Remove the test strip from the sealed pouch.
3. Immerse the test strip vertically in the urine sample for 15 seconds.
16
4. Place the tests strip on a nonabsorbent flat surface, start the tinier and wait for
the colored line(s) to appear.
5. Read the result after three minutes.
OBSERVTION/RESULT
Positive: -Two distinct colored lines appear.
2. Negative: - One colored line appears in the control line region (c)
3. lnvalid: One band on the test region or not at all
CHAPTFR FOUR
4.0 MICROBIOLOCY
scientific studs of microorganisms. Microbiology in relation to medicine is
concerned mainly with the isolation and identification of the micro-organisms that
diseases.
17
White Cells
Red Cells
Casts
Bacteria
MATERIALS NEEDED
-
Urine simple
Glass slide
Cover ship
Microscopy
PROCEDURE
1. Collect urine sample from the patient.
2. Spin the urine sample with centrifuge machine.
3. Make a drop of the urine residue on the glass slide and cover with cover ship
4. View under x10 magnification.
Parasites likely to be seen
1. Red cells
2. Pore cells
4.2 STOOL MICROSCOPY
18
Protozoa ale micro-organisms consisting of single cell. They are found in stools in
their motile form, also called vegetative of trophozoite form.
Protozoa in motile form are chiefly found in:
1. Fluid stools
2. Soft unformed stools
3. Stools containing mucus
MATRIALS NEEDED
I. Collect fresh stool sample in a container.
2. Make a smear of the sample on the slide and cover with the cover ship.
3. Mount the specimen and observe using x10 magnification of the microscope.
OBSERVATION
Some observable parasite in the stool
i. Ascaris lumbricode
ii. Schistosoma mansoni
iii. Trichuris trachura
iv. StrongIoides stercorrahis
CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 INTRODUCTION TO VIROLOGY
Is the scientific study of viruses. It focuses on the following aspects of viruses:
their structure. classification, evolution and their ways to infect.
5.1 HIV TEST
19
HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) test, is a medical test that helps detect
whether or not a patient has I liv infection.
MATERIALS
1. Test strip
2. Blood sample
3. Dropping pipette
4. Buffer
PROCEDURE
1. Collect blood sample from the patient.
2. Uncover the test strip and place a drop of blood on the blood chamber.
3. Add a drop of buffer to the drop of blood.
4. AllowCTthe reaction for 15minutes.
CT
C
RESULT
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POSITIVE
NEGATIVE
INVALID
RESULT
C
Appearance of bands on both test
and control
Appearance
of bands on test or not at all invalid
Appearance of bands only on control implies non- reactive
Implies
C
REACTION
T
T
Reactive
Invalid
21
Non-Reactive
SUMMARY
It is important that every individual should go for medical checkup regularly
regardless of age, sex and health. Even if you are enjoying good health.
It is important to understand that many small and critical diseases can be prevented
if they are caught earlier.
This few reports here in with procedures are medical test which every individual
ought to undergo in order to prevent diseases.
Blood test and analysis is most import of all medical tests.
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
CONCLUSION
The student industrial Work Experience Scheme (SIWES) has broadened my
knowledge and experience on Medical