Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

AENSI Journals

Advances in Environmental Biology

ISSN-1995-0756

EISSN-1998-1066

Journal home page: http://www.aensiweb.com/AEB/

Resource Use Efficiency and Return to Scale Analysis

in Off-Season Capsicum/Bell Pepper Production in
Punjab, Pakistan
1Qamar

Ali, 2Muhammad Tariq Iqbal Khan, 3Muhammad Ashfaq

Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan.

Department of Economics, Virtual University of Pakistan, Faisalabad Campus-38000, Pakistan.
2
Department of Economics, Government Postgraduate College, Jaranwala-37200, Pakistan.
3
Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040, Pakistan.
1

Address For Correspondence:

Qamar Ali, Institute of Agricultural and Resource Economics, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad-38040,
Pakistan.
E-mail: qamarali2402@gmail.com, qamar.ali@vu.edu.pk, Contact No. +923350778653
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY).
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Received 28 August 2016; Accepted 18 October 2016; Available online 22 October 2016

ABSTRACT
Background: Ensuring food security is a primary objective for developing countries. Agriculture sector contributed 19.80% in gross
domestic product of Pakistan and 42.3% of labor force was engaged in this sector. Vegetable production has a potential to ensure food
security with creation of employment and foreign exchange. Cultivation of vegetables in off-season is necessary to fulfill increasing
demand. Objectives: The main objective of present study is to estimate the resource use efficiency in off-season capsicum/bell pepper
production in Punjab, Pakistan. To estimate return to scale is the second objective of this study. Methodology: Simple random sampling
technique was adopted for the collection of primary data from 70 off-season capsicum/bell pepper growers. Cobb-Douglas production model
is used to estimate elasticity coefficient of selected inputs. Return to scale is calculated by the addition of elasticity coefficients of inputs.
Resource use efficiency is the ratio between value of marginal product (VMP) and marginal factor cost (MFC). Results: Coefficient of
determination (R2) is 82.4% which shows that the model explained 82.4% variations in off-season capsicum/bell pepper output due to
variations in the use of inputs. Model is significant on the basis of f-value (27.602). Elasticity of production is positive and significant for
education, off-season capsicum/bell pepper experience, contacts with extension agents, polythene sheet weight, irrigation hours and labour
man days. Under utilization of inputs is observed in case of polythene sheet, irrigation and labour. Over use of inputs is recorded for seed,
tractor, fertilizer and chemicals. Sum of production elasticity (0.721) shows decreasing return to scale and it shows that output is increased
by 72.1% due to 100% increase in the use of inputs. Conclusion: There exists inefficiency in the use of inputs. This study recommended
that the farmers should increase the use of underutilized inputs and decrease the use of over utilized inputs for obtaining more production.
Government should take steps for the promotion of horticultural crops and enhance the extension service. Impurity in chemical spray is
found and extension staff should guide the farmers about the use of registered chemical.

KEYWORDS: Cobb-Douglas, tunnel farming, MPP, MFC, underutilization, vegetables

INTRODUCTION
There were 2 to 3 billion malnourished people in the world. Approximately one billion undernourished
people in sub Saharan Africa and South Asia were unable to use the recommended level of carbohydrates,
proteins, vitamins and essential minerals. Per capita consumption of vegetables was less than 200 g per day in
many countries and this low amount had a direct link with poverty, lack of medical facilities, unacceptable
mortality rate and malnutrition in children [1].

Copyright 2016 by authors and Copyright, American-Eurasian Network for Scientific Information (AENSI Publication).

114

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

Agriculture sector contributed 19.80% in gross domestic product of Pakistan and 42.3% of labor force was
engaged in this sector. Progress in agriculture is also necessary for ensuring food security [2]. Vegetables
occupied an important place in human diet due to presence of smaller and larger food nutrients [3]. Population
of Pakistan will be 234 million by 2025 and it will create food insecurity. Vegetables have a potential to
encounter with food insecurity and it occupied 22% and 6% share in food production and gross domestic
product, respectively [4].
Capsicum (Capsicum annum L.) belongs to Solanaceae family and also called as bell pepper or hot pepper.
In Pakistan, it is called shimla mirch in local language [5]. Internationally, it is available in different verities
with increasing production over time. It is beneficial for human beings due to provision of vitamin A, thiamine,
vitamin C, folic acid, beta carotene, vitamin E and vitamin B6. It is used in different forms like green, spices,
condiments, sauces and pickles. It gives a unique flavor, taste and beauty in eating items [6].
It is cultivated in entire world except Antarctica and historically linked with voyage of Columbus. It was
introduced in Europe, Asia and Africa by Columbus. It reached in Japan, India and China after Europe [7].
International capsicum production was 11 million metric tons in 1990 and it was 28 million metric tons in 2009.
Its 50% production comes from China followed by Turkey (7%) and Mexico (7%). Global area under green
pepper cultivation was above 1.8 million ha [8].
In 2014-15, area under chilies production was 62,456 ha in Pakistan while it was 62,742 ha in 2013-14.
Total chili production was 139,687 tonnes in 2014-15 and it was 145,856 tonnes in 2012-13. In 2014-15, the
yield of dry chili was 2,236.5 kg per ha and it was 2,324.7 kg per ha in 2013-14. There was 0.45% and 4.23%
decrease in the area and total production, respectively. Yield was increased by 3.94% in 2014-15. In Punjab,
area under chilies production was 5,778 ha in 2014-15 but it was 5,612 ha in 2013-14. Total production was
9,377 tonnes in 2014-15 but it was 9,020 tonnes in 2013-14. Yield was 1,622.88 kg per ha in 2014-15 but it was
1,607.27 kg per ha in 2013-14. There was 2.96%, 3.96% and 0.97% increase in area, total production and yield,
respectively [9].
New technology can increase the yield and helpful for the elimination of vegetable shortage. Cultivation of
vegetables in off-season under plastic tunnel is a way to decrease high prices and fulfill vegetable demand. Soil
and climate of Punjab province is appropriate for vegetables cultivation under plastic sheet tunnel. Solar energy
is stored in plastic sheet and temperature is maintained as well [3]. Off-season vegetables can increase the
duration of crop and the produce reached in the market before 7 to 14 days. Yield is increased by 2 to 3 times in
off-season vegetable cultivation [10]. Internationally, the cultivation of vegetables under plastic mulch showed a
dramatic increase in the last 10 years. There are some benefits associated with this new technology like increase
in soil temperature, reduction in weeds, conservation of moisture, less insect pest attack, increase in yield and
efficient utilization of soil nutrients [11]. Bell pepper is considered as a primary vegetable grown in plastic
tunnels [12].
Efficient utilization of inputs is an important concept in agricultural economics. It is also important for food
security [13]. Resource use efficiency is the efficiency of individual input and pointed out that whether input is
over utilized or underutilized. Many researchers estimated resources use efficiency in case of different
agricultural crops in the past [14-18].
Wosor and Nimoh [19] explored the resource use efficiency in chili production in Ghana. They also used
Cobb-Douglas production model and observed that farmers were working in second stage of production
function. Diminsing return to scale was found with the help of elasticities of the different inputs. Resource use
efficiency value was less than 1 for all inputs excluding labour and manure. Jagtap et al. [20] demonstrated
resource use efficiency in chili production Maharashtra, India. Value of resource use efficiency was more than 1
in case of pesticides and fertilizers for small farmers, human labour and fertilizers for medium farmers, and
seed, human labour and fertilizers for large farmers. Patel et al. [21] used Cobb-Douglas production model for
the estimation of resource use efficiency in Chili production under drip and conventional farming. The value of
resource use efficiency was more than 1 for labour cost, chemical fertilizers, planting materials and irrigations
but it was negative for plant protection in drip cultivation. Resource use efficiency for conventional growing
was more than 1 for labour cost, irrigations, chemical fertilizers and plant protection but it was less than 1 for
planting materials.
Therefore, the primary aim of current study is to explore the resource use efficiency in off-season
capsicum/bell pepper production. The second objective of the study is to estimate return to scale in this farming
activity. The subject matter is important because food security is a major issue in developing countries like
Pakistan. The concept of efficient utilization of inputs has a direct link with ensuring food security. A rise in the
consumption, affordability and availability of nutritious vegetables can reverse the level of malnutrition [1].
There is no study about the estimation of resource use efficiency and return to scale in off-season capsicum/bell
pepper in Pakistan. Return to scale tells about the increase in output due to increase in the use of inputs. Farmers
can increase the production of off-season capsicum/bell pepper by following the recommendation of study about
the over utilization or under utilization of inputs.

115

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Simple random sampling was adopted for the collection of primary data from off-season capsicum/bell
pepper growers in 2014. Districts Faisalabad and Toba Tek Singh were selected for data collection due to their
expertise in off-season vegetable cultivation. Mamunkanjan, district Faisalabad and Kamalia, district Toba Tek
Singh are main off-season vegetable cultivation areas in Punjab. Poate and Daplyn [22], cited in Mari [23]
mentioned that decision making for large population required a sample of 60 respondents. But, present study
used a sample of 70 respondents. Software SPSS-15 and Microsoft Excel were used for data analysis.
Production function and its stages:
According to Jhingan [24], a production function shows a functional association between output and inputs.
There are three production stages and MPP becomes negative in third stage of production. It is not profitable to
operate when the value of MPP is negative [25].
Model Specification:
Cobb-Douglas model was applied to explore resource use efficiency. It has econometric advantages such as
sign and size of coefficients, t-test, f-test and R2 [15]. It was also applied by many researchers [14, 16-18]. Some
researchers also used socio-economic variables in Cobb-Douglas model [14-15, 17, 26].
Cobb-Douglas model used by Ashfaq et al. [15] is expressed:
Where i ranges from 1 to 10
It takes following form after applying natural logarithm:

where,
ln = Natural logarithm
a = constant
b1- b10 = Production elasticity or parameters to be estimated
Y = Off-season capsicum/bell pepper output (Kg/acre)
X1= Education of off-season capsicum/bell pepper grower (years)
X2= Off-season capsicum/bell pepper growing experience (years)
X3= Contacts with extension agents (No.)
X4= Polythene sheet weight (Kg/acre)
X5= Use of tractor in farming operations (Hours/acre)
X6= Seed (Kg/acre)
X7= NPK fertilizer (Kg/acre)
X8= Chemical sprays (No./acre)
X9= Irrigations (Hour/acre)
X10= Labour man-days for all farm activities (No./acre)
e = error term
Production elasticity (EP):
Percentage change in output divided by percentage change in variable input is known as production
elasticity:

Where Y is off-season capsicum/bell pepper output

Xs are various input used in off-season capsicum/bell pepper production
shows average use of a particular input
shows the average production of off-season capsicum/bell pepper
MPP shows the marginal physical product
Resource use Efficiency:
It is obtained by taking a ratio between marginal value product (MVP) and marginal factor cost (MFC) [1416, 18] expressed as:

116

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

where:
r = Resource use efficiency ratio
MVP = Value of additional output obtained by utilizing an additional unit of input or it is a product of MPP
and output price
MFC = PX = It shows the price of input.
Decision Rules:
Under utilization, over utilization and efficient utilization of a particular input is decided on the basis of
rules expressed as:
There exist efficient utilization, when r = 1 or MVP=MFC
There exist over utilization, when r <1 or MVP<MFC
There exist under utilization, when r > 1 or MVP>MFC
Adjustment in the use of input resources is needed if the value of r is greater or less than 1.
Return to scale is decided as:
If
than it shows constant return to scale
If
than it shows decreasing return to scale
If
than it shows increasing return to scale
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Table 1 presents the frequency distribution of off-season capsicum/bell pepper growers with respect to
socio-economic characteristics. Maximum (60%) farmers had 15 to 40 years age which shows that this business
is popular among young ones. Maximum (32.86%) farmers had 10 years education (matriculation) while
24.29% farmers were primary or below. However, qualified farmers were also engaged in this business.
Maximum farmers (90%) fall in lower category of family size. Maximum (60%) farmers had area under offseason capsicum/bell pepper production from 1 acre to less than 5 acres. Small farmers are main characteristic
of Pakistan agriculture [27].
Table 1: Socio-economic characteristics of off-season capsicum/bell pepper growers
Variables
Frequency
Age (years)
15-40
42
41-60
21
Above 60
7
Educational attainment
Primary or below
17
Middle
6
Matriculation
23
Intermediate
9
Graduation
10
Master or above
5
Family size
1-10
63
11-15
4
Above 15
3
Off-season capsicum/bell pepper area
Less than 1 acre
5
1 to less than 5 acre
42
5 to less than 10 acre
18
10 and more acre
5

Percentage (%)
60
30
10
24.29
8.57
32.86
12.86
14.29
7.14
90.00
5.71
4.29
7.14
60.00
25.71
7.14

Table 2 depicts the coefficient of Cobb-Douglas production model in off-season capsicum/bell pepper
production. Value of coefficient of determination (R2) was acceptable (0.824) and it shows that the proposed
model explained 82.4% variations in dependent variable (capsicum/bell pepper output) due to variations in the
use of inputs. Model was good on the basis of f-statistics (27.602). The coefficients of model were partial
coefficient which shows the impact of input variable on output variable keeping all other inputs constant.
Results shows a 0.214% increase in output due to 1% increase in the level of education. Impact of education was
significant and in line with some previous findings [17, 26]. Education plays an important role to understand
new technology and utilization of modern machinery. Off-season capsicum/bell pepper production significantly
rises by 0.185% due to 1% increase in its cultivation experience. An experienced farmer use better combination

117

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

of inputs and had more awareness about production technology. Role of extension agent is also helpful for
increasing production because he better knows about the production technology and recommended inputs. His
guidance is necessary in critical stages of a crop. Off-season capsicum/bell pepper production also rises
(0.248%) due to 1% increase in the contacts with extension agents. Coefficient was significant and positive in
case of polythene sheet which shows the rise in output (0.118%) due to 1% increase in polythene sheet weight.
Quality of polythene sheet increases with weight and it prevents the loss from heavy wind. A low quality sheet
damage earlier and create problem in temperature maintenance. Coefficient was negative and insignificant in
case of seed, tractor use, fertilizer and chemical spray. Coefficient of seed, pesticide and machinery in chili
production was also negative and insignificant as found by Jagtap et al. [20]. Negative coefficient of pesticide
was also in line with the findings of [21]. Off-season capsicum/bell pepper cultivation rises by 0.088% due to
1% increase in irrigation hours. Irrigation coefficient was also positive as found in literature [14-15, 28]. The
labour coefficient was significant and positive (0.118%) and in line with previous results [14-15, 19, 25, 29].
Sum of production elasticity gives the value of return to scale (0.721) with depicts decreasing return to scale. It
reveals that the increase in off-season capsicum/bell pepper production was 72.1% due to 100% increase in the
level of inputs. Decreasing return to scale was generally observed in agriculture and its value was 77% in case
of Bt cotton in Punjab [15].
Table 2: Coefficients of Cobb-Douglas model for off-season capsicum/bell pepper production
Variable
Unit
Coefficients
Constant
9.125*
ln-Education
Year
0.214*
ln-Off-season capsicum/bell pepper experience
Year
0.185*
ln-Contacts with extension agents
No.
0.248*
ln-Polythene sheet
Kg.
0.118*
ln-Tractor used
Hour
-0.146
ln-Seed quantity
Kg.
-0.018
ln-NPK
Kg.
-0.071
ln-Chemical sprays
No.
-0.015
ln-Irrigation
Hour
0.088***
ln-Labor man days
No.
0.118**
R2
0.824
Adjusted-R2
0.794
F-ratio
27.602
Return to scale= Sum of production elasticity
0.721
* significant at 1%, ** significant at 5%, *** significant at 10%

t-value
21.077
3.793
3.127
3.018
3.275
-1.615
-0.159
-1.412
-0.329
1.935
2.200

Prob.
0.000
0.000
0.003
0.004
0.002
0.112NS
0.874NS
0.163NS
0.743NS
0.058
0.032

Table 3 explores the under utilization or over utilization of input resources in off-season capsicum/bell
pepper production on the basis of resource use efficiency. Polythene sheet was underutilized in this activity and
adjustment is needed for more output. Overutilization was observed for tractor use hours, seed, fertilizer and
chemicals because of negative resource use efficiency. Overutilization of seed, fertilizer and pesticide in chili
production was also mentioned by was also mentioned by [19]. Underutilization was observed for irrigation
hours and labour man days. Therefore, a little adjustment is required to increase the level of irrigation and
labour man days for more output. Labour was efficiently utilized in chili production in Ghana [19].
Underutilization of irrigation and labour in chili production was also observed by [21].
Table 3: Resource use efficiency analysis in off-season capsicum/bell pepper production

,
Inputs
Polythene sheet
Tractor used
Seed
NPK
Chemical sprays
Irrigation
Labor man days

bi
0.118
-0.146
-0.018
-0.071
-0.015
0.088
0.118

163.00
8.57
0.17
674.26
25.06
25.61
308.66

MPP
39.13
-915.30
-5768.31
-5.67
-31.97
184.90
20.57

MVP
987.93
-23110.21
-145642.41
-143.20
-807.20
4668.51
519.48

MFC=Px
238.64
1692.53
196761.52
113.34
953.82
528.29
258.10

r
4.14
-13.65
-0.74
-1.26
-0.85
8.84
2.01

Status
Under Utilization
Over Utilization
Over Utilization
Over Utilization
Over Utilization
Under Utilization
Under Utilization

Conclusion:
The present study explored the return to scale and resource use efficiency in off-season capsicum/bell
pepper production in Punjab. This study was based on primary data. Value of R2 (82.4%) and f-statistics
(27.602) indicates the overall goodness of Cobb-Douglas production model. The effect of education, off-season
capsicum/bell pepper experience, contacts with extension agents, polythene sheet, irrigation and labour was
positive and significant. Polythene sheet, irrigation and labour were underutilized in off-season capsicum/bell
pepper production. Seed, tractor use hours, fertilizer and chemical were found over utilized. Sum of production
elasticity shows decreasing return to scale (72.1%) but it will be better after the adjustments of over utilize

118

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

inputs. Government should promote vegetables and stabilize their prices. Government should ensure the
availability of canal water and subsidize the inputs like fertilizers and chemical. Improvement in extension
services is required for the progress in agricultural sector.
REFERENCES
[1] Keatinge, J.D.H., R.Y. Yang, J.dA. Hughes, W.J. Easdown and R. Holmer, 2011. The importance of
vegetables in ensuring both food and nutritional security in attainment of the Millennium Development
Goals. Food Security, 3: 491-501.
[2] Government of Pakistan (GOP), 2016a. Economic survey of Pakistan 2015-16, Ministry of Finance,
Islamabad.
[3] Muhammad, S.A., A. Saghir, I. Ashraf, K. Asghar and R. Kousar, 2015. An impact assessment of tunnel
technology transfer project in Punjab, Pakistan. World Applied Sciences Journal, 33(1): 33-37.
[4] Sheikh, A.T., E. Elahi, M. Abid, S. Fatima and N. Fatima, 2012. Effect of sewage water on the cauliflower
productivity in Punjab, Pakistan. Journal of Agriculture and Social Sciences, 8(1): 37-40.
[5] Shrestha, R.B., W.C. Huang, and R. Ghimire, 2014. Production efficiency of smallholder vegetable farms in
Ilam district, Eastern Hill, Nepal. American-Eurasian Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences,
14 (2): 150-154.
[6] Komla, A.N., 2013. Effect of organic mulch on growth and yield of sweet pepper (Capsicum Annuum L),
M.Phil thesis, University of Ghana, Legon.
[7] Jalu, N.N., 2014. Response of hot pepper (Capsicum Annuum L.) to mulching and plant spacing at Bako,
West Shoa zone, Ethoipia, M.Sc. thesis, Haramaya University.
[8] Tesfaw, A., 2013. Benefit-cost analysis of growing pepper: A trial at west Gojjam, near the source of blue
Nile. International Journal of Agriculture and Crop Sciences, 6(17): 1203-14.
[9] Government of Pakistan (GOP), 2016b. Fruit, vegetables and condiments statistics of Pakistan 2014-15.
Ministry of National Food Security & Research, Islamabad.
[10] Iqbal, Q., M. Amjad, M.R. Asi, M.A. Ali and R. Ahmad, 2009. Vegetative and reproductive evaluation of
hot peppers under different plastic mulches in poly/plastic tunnel. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences,
46 (2): 113-118.
[11] Kasirajan, S. and M. Ngouajio, 2012. Polyethylene and biodegradable mulches for agricultural applications:
a review. Agronomy for Sustainable Development, 32: 501-529.
[12] Maniutiu, D., R. Sima, A.S. Apahidean, M. Apahidean and D. Ficior, 2010. The Influence of plant density
and shoot pruning on yield of Bell Pepper cultivated in plastic tunnel. Bulletin UASVM Horticulture, 67(1):
259-263.
[13] Chiedozie, E.C., A. Blessing and N. Oliver, 2010. Resource use efficiency in arable crop production among
smallholder farmers in Owerri agricultural zone of Imo State, Nigeria. Researcher, 2(5): 14-20.
[14] Abid, M., M. Ashfaq, M.A. Quddus, M.A. Tahir and N. Fatima, 2011. A resource use efficiency analysis of
small Bt cotton farmers in Punjab, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 48(1): 75-81.
[15] Ashfaq, M., M. Abid, K. Bakhsh and N. Fatima, 2012. Analysis of resource use efficiencies and return to
scale of medium sized Bt cotton farmers in Punjab, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 28(3): 493-498.
[16] Mohammed, S., N. Abubakar, J.E. Ochi and U. Haruna, 2014. Assessment of resource use efficiency in
irrigated rice production in Dadinkowa, Gombe state, Nigeria. Journal of Agricultural Science and
Technology, B (4): 427-433.
[17] Ibitoye, S.J., U.M. Shaibu and B. Omole, 2015. Analysis of resource use efficiency in tomato (Solanum
Lycopersicum) production in Kogi state, Nigeria. Asian Journal of Agricultural Extension, Economics &
Sociology, 6(4): 220-229.
[18] Umar, A.S.S. and M.B. Abdulkadir, 2015. Analysis of resource-use efficiency and productivity of residual
soil moisture tomato production in Kaduna State, Nigeria. International Letters of Social and Humanistic
Sciences, 51: 152-157.
[19] Wosor, D.K. and F. Nimoh, 2012. Resource use efficiency in Chili Pepper production in the Keta
municipality of Volta Region of Ghana. Elixir Production Management, 47: 8595-8598.
[20] Jagtap, P.P., U.S. Shingane and K.P. Kulkarni, 2014. Resource use efficiency and economics of marketing
of green chilli. Journal of spices and Aromatic crops, 23(1): 32-37.
[21] Patel, J.K., K.S. Jadav and H.C. Parmar, 2014. An analysis of resource use efficiency of drip and
conventional chilli farm in middle Gujarat. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 3(3):
85-91.
[22] Poate, C.D. and P.F. Daplyn, 1993. Data for agrarian development. Cambridge University Press.
[23] Mari, F.M., 2009. Structure and Efficiency Analysis of Vegetable Production and Marketing in Sindh,
Pakistan, Ph.D thesis, Sindh Agri. Univ., Tando Jam, Pakistan.
[24] Jhingan, M.L., 2007. Micro Economic Theory, 6th Edition, Vrinda Publications Ltd, India.

119

Qamar Ali et al, 2016

Advances in Environmental Biology, 10(10) October 2016, Pages: 113-119

[25] Akighir, D.T. and T. Shabu, 2011. Efficiency of resource use in rice farming enterprise in Kwande local
government area of Benue state, Nigeria. International Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 1(3):
215-220.
[26] Dlamini, D. and F. Kongolo, 2014. Resource use efficiency in organic vegetable production: A case study
of Manzini region, Swaziland. Journal of Agricultural Studies, 2(2): 52-61.
[27] Adil, S.A., H. Badar and T. Sher, 2004. Factors affecting gross income of small farmers in district JhangPakistan. Pakistan Journal of Life and Social Sciences, 2(2): 153-155.
[28] Karthick, V., T. Alagumani and J.S. Amarnath, 2013. Resource use efficiency and technical efficiency of
turmeric production in Tamil Nadu- A stochastic frontier approach. Agricultural Economics Research
Review, 26(1): 109-114.
[29] Anim, F.D.K., K. Thaba and M. Tshikororo, 2015. Resource use efficiency in vegetable production under
irrigation: The case of Marutle Agricultural Cooperative in the Limpopo province of South Africa. Journal
of Human Ecology, 50(1): 11-17.