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Optoelectronics

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References
 Paul

chiopu, Optoelectronic Devices, Ed.


MATRIX ROM, Bucureti, 2009
 Ovidiu Iancu, Dispozitive optoelectronice,
Ed. MATRIX ROM, Bucureti, 2003
 Amann, M.-C., Buus, J., Tunable Laser
Diodes, Artech House, 1998
 Coldren, L.A., Corzine, S.W., Diode Lasers
and Photonic Integrated Circuits, John
Wiley & Sons, 1995
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Practical activities
 According


to the teaching schedule:

laboratory 1 hour/week


it will effectively be held in 3 sittings of 4 hours each

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Final mark calculation


 Evaluation

of laboratory activity:
 Final exam evaluation:
TOTAL:

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30 pts.
70 pts.
100 pts.

Final mark calculation


IMPORTANT NOTE!
Attendance at course lectures will not be marked!
However, it will be taken into account in the final
mark through an extra bonus

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Introduction

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What is optoelectronics?
 Optoelectronics

is a branch of electronics
that overlaps with physics of light
 It deals with the theory, design and
manufacturing technologies of hardware
devices capable of generating, detecting and
controlling light


In this context, light often includes invisible


forms of radiation such as infrared (IR) and
ultraviolet (UV), in addition to visible light
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Electromagnetic spectrum

f =

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c0

Visible spectrum

100nm

1mm

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What are optoelectronic devices?


Optoelectronic devices are basically electricalto-optical (E/O) or optical-to-electrical (O/E)
transducers, or devices that use such
transducers in their operation
 Examples of optoelectronic devices:


LEDs (light-emitting diodes), laser diodes,


photodetectors (such as photodiodes, solar cells,
and CCDs), photomultipliers, optoisolators (also
called optical couplers or optocouplers)
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Optoelectronics vs. photonics


 The

field of photonics covers a much wider


range of light-related phenomena, such as:
emission, amplification, modulation,
transmission, detection and sensing, signal
processing, and switching of light.
 Applications of photonics deal with light
over the whole spectrum from UV over the
visible to the near-, mid- and far-IR
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Optoelectronics vs. photonics


 Optoelectronics

is usually considered to be
just a sub-field of photonics
 However, throughout these course notes we
will also address devices that are not
explicitly E/O or O/E transducers, such as:
optical waveguides (both planar and cylindrical)
 optical modulators (both temporal or spatial)
 photonic sensors


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Optoelectronics vs. photonics


 Therefore,

in the context of this course, the


term optoelectronic(s) will have a wider
connotation, very close to photonic(s) as
defined above

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Applications of optoelectronics


There is a wide range of applications of


optoelectronic devices and techniques:
1.
2.

Optical fiber communications


Optical storage


3.

CD/DVD/Blu-Ray devices, magneto-optical and


holographic memories, 3-D optical memories

Optical information processing




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optical correlators, pattern recognition


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Applications of optoelectronics
4.

Medicine


5.

Industrial manufacturing


6.

laser surgery (laser scalpel, laser cauterization and


suturing), endoscopy, laparoscopy, correction of
poor eyesight
the use of high-power lasers for welding, drilling,
cutting, and various methods of surface
modification

Constructions and metrology




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laser leveling, laser rangefinding


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Applications of optoelectronics
7.

Consumer equipment


8.

barcode scanner, laser printer, remote control


devices

Sensing


photonic gyroscopes (lacking mobile parts), various


types of optoelectronic sensors (mainly based on
optical fibers)

and more others


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Main chapters of the course


 Elements

of radiometry
 Coherence of light
 Photonic generators
 Optical waveguides. Optical fibers
 Light modulation techniques
 Photodetectors
 Photonic sensors
 Optical communication systems: an outline
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Elements of radiometry

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Elements of radiometry




Radiometry is the science of measuring light in


any portion of the electromagnetic spectrum
In practice, the term is usually limited to measurements in the IR, visible, and UV domains
By measuring light we mainly refer to
measuring the radiant energy of the photonic
beams, but the other characteristics of the
photonic beams can also be measured using
radiometric techniques
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Radiometry vs. photometry


 Photometry

is a domain related to radiometry


 Photometry deals with light measurements
but ONLY in the visible range of the
electromagnetic spectrum and by evaluating
the effects of the radiant energy on the
human eye

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Radiometric systems


A complete radiometric measurement system will


generally include the following components:







a source (S) of radiant energy


a transmission medium (TM) through which the radiant
energy passes
an object (Ob) which transmits, reflects, or absorbs
radiant energy
an optical system (OS)
a detector (D) which converts the radiant energy to
another form of energy
a signal processing (SP) device
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Configurations of radiometric
systems


There are 3 specific configurations of radiometric


measurement systems that are most used in practice
(see the figure on the next slide)
They differ by two aspects:


the presence or absence of the object in the path of the


radiant energy
the orientation of the optical system to collect the radiant
energy which is either reflected or transmitted by the
object

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Configurations of radiometric
systems

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Description of the components of


radiometric systems
 The

source (S) of radiant energy can be:

a natural one: e.g. the sun


 an artificial one:


thermal sources (radiant energy of a blackbody taken


as reference)
 light sources using electrical discharge in gases
 luminiscent materials
 laser devices (produce coherent light)


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Description of the components of


radiometric systems
 The


the terrestrial atmosphere (of primary interest)




transmission medium (TM) can be:


variations of the temperature, pressure, water content
and distribution of molecular species cause the
optical properties of the atmosphere to vary with
time, but also with altitude  all these aspects must
be taken into account

other media, such as optical fibers

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Electromagnetic opacity of
atmosphere

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Description of the components of


radiometric systems
 The

role of the optical system (OS) in the


radiometric measurement set-up is to collect
the radiation originating from the source and
altered (via reflection, transmission, and/or
absorption) by the object (Ob)
It usually consist of lenses, mirrors, apertures,
prisms, gratings, filters, interferometers,
polarizers, attenuators, diffusers, fiber optics, or
other optical devices
 Its performances are very important


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Description of the components of


radiometric systems
 The

detector (D) plays a fundamental role in


radiometry
The most important physical detectors of radiant
energy are photomultipliers, photographic
detectors, pyroelectric detectors, thermocouples,
bolometers, photoconductors, and photodiodes.
 The human eye can also be regarded as a
detector in the context of photometry. In fact, the
human visual system comprises the optical
system, the detector, and the signal processing
altogether


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Description of the components of


radiometric systems
 The

signal processing (SP) device


extracts all the information regarding
the photonic beam characteristics
(depending on the type of radiometric
measurement) from the electric signal
provided by the detector

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 The

basic concepts of radiometry refers to


the three complementary properties of
electromagnetic radiation
the wave behaviour
 the corpuscular behaviour
 the rectilinear propagation of the energy in
homogeneous and isotropic media, leading to the
concept of ray of light


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Basic concepts in radiometry





Most of the radiometry techniques rely on the use


of ray theory (also known as geometrical optics)
Definition: a ray is an idealized narrow beam of
light that follows a rectilinear trajectory in a
homogeneous and isotropic medium
Rays are bent at the interface between two
dissimilar media (according to reflection and
refraction laws), and may be curved in an
inhomogeneous medium
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Basic concepts in radiometry


 Ray

theory is based on approximate


solutions to Maxwell's equations
 Two assumptions are important in ray
theory:
the radiant energy is incoherent so that
interference effects can be ignored
 the size of the objects around which the light
wave propagates is much greater than the
wavelength, so that diffraction effects can be
ignored


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Basic concepts in radiometry


is a wave phenomenon which
arises when two or more beams of radiant
energy which are coherent or partially
coherent are added together
 Interference can greatly increase or decrease
the measured radiant energy in comparison
with the sum of the radiant energies
contained in the beams separately
 Interference

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 Interference

is related to the concept of


coherence of light which in turn is related to
the phase relation between the photons in the
light beam
 Coherence may be temporal or spatial and is
related to the spectral width of the beam of
radiant energy

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Basic concepts in radiometry


A

parameter which describes the coherence


light is the coherence length defined as:
2

lc =
=

where and are the frequency and


wavelength spectral width of the radiant
energy beam, respectively, and c is the speed
of light in vacuum
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Basic concepts in radiometry


the path difference l between two beams
is less than lc, the two beams will interfere,
otherwise, no interference takes place

 If

l < lc  interference
l > lc  no interference

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 In

radiometry, a possible unwanted situation


is that of interference due to partially
reflecting surfaces

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 Supposing

an application using incoherent


light in the visible range, for which the
spectral width is of tens, even hundreds of
nanometers, lc is below 1mm
 Therefore, the case illustrated in the previous
figure does not represent a real problem,
since the path difference between reflected
beam and the main one satisfies in principle
the condition l > lc
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Basic concepts in radiometry


is the wave phenomenon which
arises when a beam of radiant energy passes
through an aperture
 As the radiant energy leaves the aperture it
will not exactly follow the path defined by
the geometry of the aperture and the incident
beam. Instead, it will spread out.
 Diffraction

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Basic concepts in radiometry


Diffraction through an aperture

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 The

angle, called diffraction angle, through


which the beam will spread is given
approximately by:
=

where is the wavelength and D is the


diameter of the aperture

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 If

the wavelength is much smaller than the


size of the aperture, the diffraction angle is
negligible, otherwise the ray theory cannot
be used anymore due to diffraction effects

<< D  no diffraction
D  diffraction

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 In

addition to wave properties, radiant


energy exhibits corpuscular properties, since
light is made of particles called photons
 Each photon, or quantum of radiant energy
has an energy given by
Q = h
where h = 6.62610-34 Js is the Plancks
constant and is the optical frequency of the
beam of radiant energy
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Basic concepts in radiometry


 The

randomness of photon arrival at


detectors gives rise to a noise, specific to
optoelectronics and photonics, called shot
noise
 This noise cancels through averaging which
is an intrinsic characteristic of the
radiometric measurement

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 In

many applications, the amount of energy


in a light beam is large enough


Although the energy of a photon is very small,


(1eV = 1.610-19 J), there is a large population of
photons in a beam of radiant energy so the
overall energy becomes quite large

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Basic concepts in radiometry


 However,

there are circumstances when the


quantity of energy to be measured is small
(few photons)
 As a consequence, the averaging of the
energy cannot be performed and the discrete
nature of the beam of radiant energy must be
taken into account

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Applications of radiometry
category  measurements of the
visible radiant energy that would be detected
by the human visual system

 First

Examples: photometry, photography, television, visual


information displays, color science (colorimetry)

category  measurements with a


more scientific character

 Another


Exemples: astronomy, astrophysics, meteorology and


atmospheric physics, material science, photobiology and
photochemistry
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Applications of radiometry
 Military


applications, such as:

extending the range of human vision over longer


distances
taking into account the environmental conditions where
unaided human vision is limited (e.g. vision during night
and/or bad weather conditions)

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Definition of quantities used in


radiometry
 There

are 3 categories of quantities used to


define light measurements, each of which
will be discussed in the following:


radiometric quantities


photometric quantities


for measuring electromagnetic radiation, including visible light


for measuring visible radiation, weighted by a luminosity
function (a.k.a. sensitivity function of the human visual system)

photon quantities


useful especially for low-energy light beams

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Definition of quantities used in


radiometry


For the first category defined previously, there is


also a corresponding set of quantities called
spectral quantities, that will be also discussed
subsequently
These spectral quantities take into account the fact
that any radiation source emits radiation over a
certain frequency range (i.e. there is no pure
monochromatic source) and the radiant energy is
frequency-dependent

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Radiometric quantities


Radiant energy = Total energy transmitted from the


source and received by the detector:


Radiant energy density = Radiant energy per unit


volume of space:


Qe [J]

we = dQe/dV [Jm-3]

Radiant flux (or power) = Radiant energy flowing


through a surface in unit time:


e = dQe/dt [W]

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Radiometric quantities


Radiant emittance (or exitance) = Radiant flux


emitted by an infinitesimal surface element
(source), divided by the area of the surface element:


Me = de/dA [Wm-2]

Radiant intensity = Radiant flux emitted by a point


source into an infinitesimal cone containing the
given direction, divided by the solid angle of that
cone:


Ie = de/d [Wsr-1]

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Radiometric quantities


Radiance = Radiant intensity of an infinitesimal


surface element in a given direction, divided by the
area of the orthogonal projection of this surface
element on a plane perpendicular to that direction:
dI e
d 2 e
 Le =
[Wm-2sr-1]
=
(dA cos ) d (dA cos )
where is the angle between the given direction and the
normal to the surface element
 Note: In the formal definition of radiance, the radiant
intensity can be either leaving, passing through or
arriving at the surface
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Radiometric quantities


Lambertian source or radiator = A radiation source


that emits radiations whose intensity is proportional
to the cosine of the angle between the observer's
line of sight and the surface normal (Lamberts
law)
Lambertian surface = An ideal diffusely reflecting
surface (for which the Lamberts cosine law is
satisfied)
 Radiance L is constant for a Lambertian source
or surface
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Radiometric quantities


Irradiance = Radiant flux incident on an


infinitesimal surface element (detector), divided by
the area of the surface element:


Ee = de/dA [Wm-2]

Radiant exposure = Radiant energy incident on an


infinitesimal surface element (detector), divided by
the area of the surface element:


He = dQe/dA [Jm-2]

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Spectral quantities


Spectral quantities are defined as the derivative of


their radiometric counterparts with respect to
wavelength or frequency
For example:
Spectral energy = Radiant energy per wavelength
or frequency unit:



Qe, = dQe/d [Jm-1]


Qe,f = dQe/df [JHz-1]

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Spectral quantities


Similar definitions and notations are used for the


other spectral quantities, such as:


Spectral power:


Spectral intensity:


Me, = dMe/d [Wm-3] or Me, f = dMe/df [Wm-2Hz-1]

Spectral radiance:


Ie, = dIe/d [Wsrad-1m-1] or Ie, f = dIe/df [Wsrad-1Hz-1]

Spectral radiant emittance (or exitance) :




e, = de/d [Wm-1] or e, f = de/df [WHz-1]

Le, = dLe/d [Wsrad-1m-3] or Le, f = dLe/df [Wsrad-1m-2Hz-1]

Spectral irradiance:


Ee, = dEe/d [Wm-3] or Ee, f = dEe/df [Wm-2Hz-1]

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Calculus of radiometric quantities


from the spectral ones


If Xe, is a generic spectral quantity, the


corresponding radiometric quantity Xe can be
expressed as follows:

X e = X e, ( )d

or

X e,range = X e, ( )d
1

where = 2-1 defines the spectral range over


which the radiation is measured
If is small enough, then Xe Xe,

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Photometric quantities


Luminous energy = Spectral energy Qe, integrated


over the visible range of wavelengths, using the
luminous efficacy, KmV(), as weighting function:

Qv= Km V ( )Qe, d [J]


0

Luminous energy density = Luminous energy per


unit volume of space:


wv = dQv/dV [Jm-3]

Luminous flux (or power) = Luminous energy


flowing through a surface in unit time:


v = dQv/dt [lm]
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Photometric quantities


Luminous emittance (or exitance) = Luminous flux


emitted by an infinitesimal surface element
(source), divided by the area of the surface element:


Mv = dv/dA [lx] or [lmm-2]

Luminous intensity = Luminous flux emitted by a


point source into an infinitesimal cone containing
the given direction, divided by the solid angle of
that cone:


Iv = dv/d [cd] or [lmsr-1]

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Photometric quantities


Luminance = Luminous intensity of an infinitesimal surface element in a given direction, divided by


the area of the orthogonal projection of this surface
element on a plane perpendicular to that direction:
dI v
d 2 v
 Lv =
[cd m-2] or [lmm-2sr-1]
=
(dA cos ) d (dA cos )
where is the angle between the given direction and the
normal to the surface element
 Note: In the formal definition of luminance, the
luminous intensity can be either leaving, passing through
or arriving at the surface
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Photometric quantities


Illuminance = Luminous flux incident on an


infinitesimal surface element (detector), divided by
the area of the surface element:


Ev = dv/dA [lx] or [lmm-2]

Luminous exposure = Luminous energy incident on


an infinitesimal surface element (detector), divided
by the area of the surface element:


Hv = dQv/dA [lxs] or [Jm-2]

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Photometric quantities


Luminous efficacy = Ratio of luminous flux to


radiant flux (i.e. the fraction of electromagnetic
power which is useful for illumination purposes):


K = v/e [lmW-1]

Luminous efficiency (or coefficient) = Spectral


luminous efficacy normalized to its maximum
value Km:
V = K()/Km
where Km has a value of 683 lm/W @ = 555 nm
(yellowish-green) for photopic vision and 1700 lm/W
@ = 507 nm (bluish-green) for scotopic vision


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Luminous efficiency
Scotopic vision
darkness-adapted
(max. @ 507 nm)

Photopic vision
daytime-adapted
(max. @ 555 nm)

Wavelength [nm]
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Photon quantities


Number of photons (defined in a small spectral


range, where all photons are supposed to have the
same energy):


dNp=

Q f df
hf

Q d

=
hc
f

1 2 Qf
1 2
N p = dN p =
df =
Q d

h f1 f
hc 1


Photon flux = Number of photons emitted,


transferred, or received in unit time:


p = dNp/dt [s-1]
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Photon quantities


Photon emittance (or exitance) = Photon flux


emitted by an infinitesimal surface element
(source), divided by the area of the surface element:


Mp = dp/dA [s-1m-2]

Photon intensity = Photon flux emitted by a point


source into an infinitesimal cone containing the
given direction, divided by the solid angle of that
cone:


Ip = dp/d [s-1sr-1]

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Photon quantities


Photon radiance = Photon intensity leaving, passing


through or arriving at an infinitesimal surface
element in a given direction, divided by the area of
the orthogonal projection of this surface element on
a plane perpendicular to that direction:
 Lp

dI p

(dA cos )

d 2 p

[s-1m-2sr-1]

d (dA cos )
where is the angle between the given direction and the
normal to the surface element

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Photon quantities


Photon irradiance = Photon flux incident on an


infinitesimal surface element (detector), divided by
the area of the surface element:


Ep = dp/dA [s-1m-2]

Photon exposure = Surface density of the number


of photons received:


Hp = dQp/dA [m-2]

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Terminology related to light


reflection


Regular reflection = Specular reflection, i.e.


reflection without diffusion, in accordance with the
laws of optical reflection (as in case of a mirror).
Diffuse reflection = Diffusion by reflection in
which there is no regular reflection (on
macroscopic scale).
Isotropic diffuse reflection = Diffuse reflection in
which the spatial distribution of the reflected
radiant/luminous energy is such that the
radiance/luminance is the same in all directions of
the hemisphere of incidence.
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Terminology related to light


reflection






Mixed reflection = Partly regular and partly diffuse


reflection.
Retroreflection = Reflection in which radiant
energy is returned in directions close to direction
from which it came, this property being maintained
over wide variations of the direction of the incident
radiant energy.
Reflectance () = Ratio of reflected
radiant/luminous flux to the incident flux
Spectral reflectance () = Ratio of reflected
spectral radiant/luminous flux to the spectral
incident flux
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Terminology related to light


reflection


Regular reflectance (r) = Ratio of the


radiant/luminous flux that has undergone regular
reflection to the incident flux.
Diffuse reflectance (d) = Ratio of the
radiant/luminous flux that has undergone diffuse
reflection to the incident flux.
Reflectivity () = Reflectance of a layer of
material of such a thickness that there is no change
of reflectance with increase in thickness.

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Terminology related to light


reflection



Reflection (optical) density (D) = Base-10


logarithm of the reciprocal of the reflectance
Spectral reflection (optical) density (D) = Base-10
logarithm of the reciprocal of the spectral
reflectance
Radiance (luminance) factor () = Ratio of the
radiance/luminance of the medium to that of a
perfect reflecting or transmitting diffuser
identically irradiated/illuminated
Spectral radiance (luminance) factor () = Ratio of
the spectral radiance/luminance of the medium to
that of a perfect reflecting or transmitting diffuser
identically irradiated/illuminated
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Terminology related to light


reflection


Reflected radiance (luminance) factor (s) = Ratio


of the radiance/luminance due to reflection of the
medium to that of a perfect reflection diffuser for
identically irradiation/illumination.
Fluorescent radiance (luminance) factor = Ratio of
the radiance/luminance due to fluorescence of the
medium to the radiance/luminance of a perfect
reflection diffuser identically irradiated/illuminated.
Reflectance factor (R) = Ratio of the
radiant/luminous flux reflected in the directions
delimited by the cone to that reflected in the same
directions by a perfect reflecting diffuser identically
irradiated/illuminated.
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73

Terminology related to light


transmission through media


Transparent medium = Medium in which light


transmission is mainly regular and which has a high
regular transmittance. Objects are seen distinctly
through such a medium if its geometrical form is
suitable.
Translucent medium = Medium which transmits
light entirely, or almost entirely, by diffuse
transmission. In general, objects are not seen
distinctly through such a medium.
Opaque medium = Medium which transmits no
radiant energy neither by regular nor by diffuse
transmission.
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74

Terminology related to light


transmission through media


Diffuse transmission = Transmission in which


diffusion occurs independently of the laws of
refraction (on macroscopic scale).
Isotropic diffuse transmission = Diffuse
transmission in which the spatial distribution of the
transmitted radiant/luminous energy is such that the
radiance/luminance is the same in all directions of
the hemisphere in which the radiant/luminous
energy is transmitted.
Mixed transmission = Partly regular and partly
diffuse transmission.
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75

Terminology related to light


transmission through media



Transmittance () = Ratio of the transmitted


radiant/luminous flux to the incident flux
Spectral transmittance () = Ratio of the
transmitted spectral radiant/luminous flux to the
incident spectral flux.
Regular transmittance (r) = Ratio of the
radiant/luminous flux which has undergone regular
transmission to the incident radiant/luminous flux.

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76

Terminology related to light


transmission through media


Diffuse transmittance (d) = Ratio of the


radiant/luminous flux which has undergone diffuse
transmission to the incident radiant/luminous flux.
Spectral internal transmittance (i,) = Ratio of the
spectral radiant flux ()ex reaching the exit surface
of the layer, to the spectral flux ()in leaving the
entry surface

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77

Terminology related to light


absorption





Absorption = Transformation of radiant energy to a


different form of energy by interaction with matter
Absorbance = Ratio of the absorbed spectral
radiant/luminous flux to the incident flux:
Transmission (optical) density (D) = Base-10 logarithm
of the reciprocal of the transmittance.
Spectral transmission (optical) density = Base-10
logarithm of the reciprocal of the spectral
transmittance.
Spectral internal absorption (A) = Base-10 logarithm
of the reciprocal of the internal spectral transmittance.
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78

Terminology related to light


absorption


Spectral internal absorptance (i,) = Ratio of


spectral radiant flux absorbed between the entry
and the exit surface of the layer to the spectral
radiant flux which leaves the entry surface
Spectral absorptivity (i0,) = Spectral internal
absorptance of a layer of the material such that the
path of the radiant energy is of unit length and
under conditions in which the boundary of the
material has no influence.

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79

Terminology related to light


absorption


Absorption coefficient = The spectral absorption


coefficient is a property of some optically clear
materials (for example, isotropic crystals,
homogeneous liquids and gases at standard
temperature and pressure). For solutions of
absorbing materials in non-absorbing solvents, the
relative spectral absorption coefficients are
obtained by dividing the spectral absorption
coefficient by the concentration of the solution.

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80

Transfer of Radiant Energy




The transfer of the radiant energy from a source to


a detector involves a number of optical concepts
which are used to describe and to explain the
relationship between this energy and the
components of the radiometric system
The most important optical concepts used to
describe the transfer of the radiant energy are:




the diffraction of light


the coherence of light
the polarization of light
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81

Transfer of Radiant Energy


 Related

to these concepts, there are some


crucial optical properties of the components
of a radiometric system and of the light
beams associated with them, such as:
spatial characteristics (position and direction)
 spectral characteristics (optical wavelengths)
 temporal characteristics (modulation)


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82

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics


 Many

of the simplest and most useful


methods of radiometry are based on the ray
concept of geometrical optics
 In the following, a more precise definition of
the ray concept will be given based on the
wave equation

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83

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics




It is well known (Born and Wolf, 1964) that


Maxwell`s equations lead to the wave equation :
2

1
U

U = 2 2
v t

(1.1)

where U = U (r,t) represents the magnitude of one


component of the electric or magnetic field in an
appropriate coordinate system, and v = c / n, being
c the velocity of light in vacuum and n the index of
refraction
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84

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics




It can be shown that the solution of (1.1) is of the


form:
U(r,t) = U0(r) exp{jk[S(r) vt]}
(1.2)
where S(r) is real and k is the magnitude of the
wave vector
By substituting (1.2) in (1.1) we obtain :

[n

(S ) 2 U 0 +
j
1 2
2
2 U 0 + U 0 S + 2(U 0 )(S ) = 0
k
k

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(1.3)

85

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics




It can be shown that, when the wavelength is very


small ( 0 ) and the functions U0 and S are
varying very slowly with respect to coordinates,
(1.3) becomes:
(S ) 2 = n 2
(1.4)
where S is the gradient of S
The function S(r) is often called the eikonal and
equation (1.4) is known as the eikonal equation. It
is the basic equation of geometrical optics.
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86

Fundamentals of Geometrical Optics







The surfaces:
S(r) = const.
(1.5)
are the geometrical wave fronts or surfaces of
constant optical phase
The ray is then simply defined as the normal to the
geometrical wave front.
On this basis we can say that the ray concept of
geometrical optics defines the direction of energy
flow
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87

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy





The radiometric quantity radiance occupies a


central position in radiometry because it is found to
be conserved along a ray within a homogeneous
isotropic medium (within the limitations of
geometrical optics)
More generally the radiance is conserved even
across the boundary between different media
This property allows to describe the process of
radiant energy transfer from a source to a detector
by using the concept of optical ray
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88

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy



Let us consider an elementary beam of incoherent


radiant energy in a homogeneous isotropic medium
By definition, the elementary beam is composed of
a simple central ray of interest and a small bundle
of rays delimited by two area elements dA1 and dA2
around the central ray

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89

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy
Illustration of the elementary beam

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90

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy


The solid angles subtended at the opposite end by


each area element are
cos1dA1
d1 =
D2

and

cos 2 dA2
d 2 =
D2

(1.6a)

where 1 and 2 are the angles between the central


ray and the surface normal, while D is the
separation between the two area elements

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91

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy


The products of solid angle and projected area


defined as:
dG1 = d 2 cos1dA1

and dG2 = d1 cos 2 dA2 (1.6b)

are found to be equal (based on previous relations)


The quantity
dG = d1 cos 2 dA2 = d 2 cos 1dA1

(1.6c)

measured in [m2sr] is called the geometrical extent


of the elementary beam of rays.
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92

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy


The radiometric quantity radiance is defined as :


d 2
L=
d (dA cos )

(1.7)

where dAcos has the same meaning as in (1.6)


Since the same rays pass through dA1 and dA2,
geometrical optics implies that the radiant power
d2 which is associated with the rays which pass
through both areas is equal  d 2 1 = d 2 2

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93

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy


From the last consideration and from (1.6) and


(1.7) we obtain a very important result:
L1 = L 2 = L
(1.8)
where L1 and L2 are the radiances at dA1 and dA2
along the direction of the central ray
The important interpretation of (1.8) is that the
radiance has the same value at any point along a
ray within a homogeneous isotropic lossless
medium
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94

Spatial Distribution of Radiant


Energy


As a consequence of the last assertion, it is


convenient to characterize the losses due to
absorption or scattering within a lossy medium in
terms of reduction of radiance

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95

Transfer of radiant energy




Now it is possible to describe the transfer of radiant


energy of a radiating (source) surface to a receiving
surface by using the concepts of rays and radiance
conservation
This is done under the assumption that the medium
which fills the space between the two surfaces is
homogeneous, isotropic, and lossless and, in
particular, that there are no imaging or focusing
elements between the two

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96

Transfer of radiant energy




By using (1.6) and (1.7), the radiant power


transferred from a source area element dA1 to a
receiving surface element dA2 is found to be:
cos 1 cos 2

d 12 = L1dA1dA2
2

r
12

(1.9)

where L1 is the radiance of source area element and


r12 is the distance between dA1 and dA2 (the angles
have been defined previously)

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97

Transfer of radiant energy




The total radiant power received at surface 2 from


surface 1 is then:
cos1 cos 2
dA1dA2
12 = L1
2

r
A1 A2
12

(1.10)

where variations of L1, 1, 2 and r12 must be


considered when integrating over areas A1 and A2
of the two surfaces

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98

Transfer of radiant energy




When the source surface is Lambertian, then L1 is


constant by definition and:
L1 = M1/
(1.10a)
where M1 is the radiant exitance of the source area
By substituting (1.10a) in (1.10) one obtains:
cos 1 cos 2

dA1dA2
12 =
2

r12
A1 A2

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(1.11)

99

Transfer of radiant energy




The total power leaving surface 1 is:


1 = M1A1
(1.11a)
where A1 is the total area of surface 1
The fraction of the power that reaches surface 2 to
the total power leaving surface 1 is then:
1
F12 =
A1

cos 1 cos 2
dA1dA2

2

r12
A1 A2

(1.11b)

In terms of this factor the power transferred from


A1 to A2 for a Lambertian source is:
12 = M1A1F12 = L1A1F12
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100

Transfer of radiant energy




Another concept (valid within geometrical optics


approximations) which is widely used to describe
the amount of radiant power transferred from a
surface to another is the extent of a beam of radiant
energy
For defining this quantity, we start from the general
equation (1.10) which describes the transfer of
radiant power between two surfaces

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101

Transfer of radiant energy




If the radiance L1 is uniform (Lambertian source)


and if the geometry of the radiating and receiving
surfaces is such that the integrals over A1 and A2
can be separated, then (1.10) becomes:
12 = L1A
(1.12)
where A denotes the area of surface 1 and
cos1 cos 2
dA2 = cos1d 2
=
2

r12
surf 2
surf 2

(1.13)

is the projected solid angle subtended by surface 2


at surface 1
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102

Transfer of radiant energy




In equation (1.12), the product G = A


is the
geometrical extent of the finite beam of radiant
power defined by surfaces A1 and A2
When the two surfaces are not in the same medium,
it is possible to define an invariant quantity known
as the optical extent:
Gn = n2A
(1.15)
where A, and the index of refraction n are in the
medium of interest
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103

Diffraction effects (optional slides)





Geometrical optics does not handle the effects


diffraction and interference of light
However, in radiometric measurements, there are
situations when diffraction and interference take
place and these effects must be taken into account
in order to evaluate correctly the radiant energy that
propagates in the system
In the following, the main results of the diffraction
theory will be discussed briefly
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104

Diffraction effects (optional slides)




When a well-defined beam of radiant energy passes


through an aperture, the spatial distribution of the
radiant energy deviates from the straight line paths
indicated by geometrical optics due to diffraction
(see slide 39)
Diffraction leads to a redistribution of the radiant
energy both within and outside the geometrical
boundary of the beam.

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105

Diffraction effects (optional slides)




Diffraction theory is based on wave concepts and it


describes the propagation or the transfer of radiant
energy in terms of a scalar complex wave
amplitude U(x, y, z) where x, y, and z are the spatial
coordinates
U(x, y, z) usually represents one Cartesian
component of the electric field vector

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106

Diffraction effects (optional slides)




The amplitude U(x, y, z) of a plane wave is related to


the energy density at point (x, y, z) in a dielectric
medium by:
2

(1.16)
w(x, y, z ) = U (x, y, z )
2

where is the permittivity


 The irradiance at point (x, y, z) can be expressed as:
2
c
c
(
)
E (x, y, z ) = w(x, y, z ) =
U
x
,
y
,
z

n
2
n

(1.17)

In (1.16) and (1.17) we assume that the energy density


and irradiance represent averages over times which are
longer than the optical period 1/ = /c.
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107

Diffraction effects (optional slides)


Let us consider a beam of radiant energy incident on a
aperture from the left.
 The radiant energy which passes through the aperture is
to be described at the point (x,y,z).


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108

Diffraction effects (optional slides)




According to scalar diffraction theory, the complex


wave amplitude U(x,y,z) at an observation point
(x,y,z) is given by the Fresnel-Kirchhoff formula:
U ( x, y , z ) =
e jkR
1
j
dx' dy ' dz '
U (x' , y ' , z ') (cos + cos ')

2
R
aper

(1.18)

for which the different notation are described in the


following
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109

Diffraction effects (optional slides)




Explanation of the notations in eq. (1.18):










(x', y', z') are the spatial coordinates in the aperture


U(x', y',z') in the aperture is taken to be the complex
wave amplitude which would be produced at (x', y', z')
by the incident beam in the absence of the aperture, and
outside the aperture is taken to be zero
is the angle between the aperture surface normal at (x',
y', z') and the direction to the observation point
' is the angle between the aperture surface normal at (x',
y', z') and the direction of the incident beam
R the distance from (x', y', z') to (x, y, z)
k = 2 /
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110

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)





The first type of diffraction effect which we


consider is called Fraunhofer diffraction
Fraunhofer diffraction occurs in two situations.
a) In a non-focusing geometry, when the observation point
(x, y, z) is at a distance from the diffracting aperture
which is somewhat greater than D2/, where D is the
transverse dimension of the diffracting aperture
b) In a focusing geometry, when the observation point is in
the focal plane

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111

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)






The special form (1.18) for Fraunhofer diffraction


is found using some approximations, as follows
When the angles and ' are small:
(cos + cos ') / 2 1
(1.19)
When is small, the distance R in (1.18) can be
expanded in terms of the coordinates (x, y, z) and
(x', y', z') as follows:
x 2 + y 2 x'2 + y '2 xx'+ yy '
+

+ ...
R=l+
2l
2l
l

(1.20)

where l = |z z'|
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112

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)




In situation (a) when l >> D2 /, the third term of


(1.20) is negligible when used in factor ejkR of
(1.18)
The condition:
l >> D2 /
(1.21)
is the far-field condition and is critical for the
definition of Fraunhofer diffraction case (a)

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113

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)




In situation (b), the same third term of (1.20) is


negligible, but for a different reason which is
associated with the choice of a spherical reference
surface in the diffracting aperture with its centre of
curvature at the focal point

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114

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)




In both cases (a) or (b), eq. (1.19) and (1.20) can be


used to rewrite (1.18) as:

U ( x, y , z ) =
C
ik

U (x ' , y ' , z ')exp (xx'+ yy ') dx' dy ' (1.22)


l

1 ater

where C is a phase factor defined as:

2
2

ik
x
+
y
ikl
C = ie exp

2l

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115

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)




Some important properties of the formula that


describes the Fraunhofer diffraction:


A change in either the distance l, the aperture transverse


dimensions (x', y'), or the wavelength will result in only a
linear scaling of the dimensions of U (x, y, z) along the x
and y axis, with the functional form remaining
unchanged
The complex wave amplitude in the diffracting aperture
can be written as :
U(x', y', z') = U'm(x', y', z') ejkW(x', y', z')
(1.23)
where Um is the magnitude and kW is the phase.
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116

Fraunhofer diffraction (optional slides)




Some important properties of the formula that


describes the Fraunhofer diffraction (contd):
 In the focusing geometry of an imaging system,
W(x', y', z') is the aberration function and is
specified on the reference sphere in the exit
aperture
 When W(x', y', z') is zero for all points in the exit
aperture, the system is diffraction limited
 Relation (1.22) represent a Fourier transform

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117

Fresnel diffraction (optional slides)





The second type of diffraction effects which we


consider is known as Fresnel diffraction
These include the diffraction effects which do not
take place in the far-field or in the focal plane of a
lens, but rather in the near-field (l < D2 /)
Actually, Fresnel diffraction is more general than
Fraunhofer diffraction and also includes the
Fraunhofer case when we apply it to the far-field or
focusing geometry
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118

Fresnel diffraction (optional slides)


Because it is more general, Fresnel diffraction is more
complex
 Fresnel diffraction pattern does not simply scale
linearly with changes in wavelength, aperture
dimensions, or observations distances (as the
Fraunhofer pattern does)
 No simple Fourier transform relation exists between the
wave amplitude in the aperture and wave amplitude in
the diffraction pattern
 Therefore, Fresnel diffraction problems are solved by
using numerical or graphical methods.


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119

Fresnel diffraction (optional slides)




The basic diffraction equation is (1.18). At small angles we


can make assumption (1.19) and use the expansion (1.20),
which can be rewritten as:
2
2
(
)
(
)
x' x
y ' y
R=l+
+
+ ...

(1.24)

2l
2l
By using (1.24) and assuming that the wave amplitude Um in
the aperture is uniform, (1.18) takes the form commonlyknown as Fresnel diffraction for small angles:

jk
jU m
2
2
U ( x, y , z ) =
exp( jkl ) exp (x' x ) + ( y ' y )
l
aper
2l

dx' dy '

(1.25)
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120

Coherence
The level of radiant energy at a detector is determined
by source elements which are, in general, distributed
over a range of positions and/or directions in space
 Due to the wave nature of the electromagnetic field, the
radiant energy beams coming from these source
elements can interfere to each other
 The interference can greatly increase or decrease the
detected radiant energy in comparison with what would
be expected from a simple summation of the energy
contribution from each source elements


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121

Coherence


Interference is the phenomenon in which two


waves superimpose to form a resultant wave of
greater or lower amplitude  interference fringes





Electric fields amplitude E is summed, whereas we measure


the irradiance which is proportional to the time-averaged
value of |E|2

In order to interfere, the two waves must be


coherent (or correlated in terms of phase)
The two waves must have the same polarization to
give rise to interference fringes
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122

Coherence


The degree of interference at the detector can be


specified in terms of the degree of coherence of the
fields at the source elements
The coherence properties of the source must be
specified in both space and time
 spatial and temporal coherence

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123

Coherence


It is well-known that the laser devices produce


electromagnetic fields with a high degree of
coherence in both space and time


As a consequence, most of the radiometric


measurements involving laser sources require
consideration of possible interference effects

Electromagnetic fields originating from incoherent


sources may also interfere, especially due to the
fact that their spatial coherence increases as the
distance from the source increases
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124

Coherence
The degree of coherence between the electromagnetic
fields at two points in space is a measure of their ability
to interfere
 In order to define the degree of coherence, let us
suppose we have a source of electromagnetic radiant
energy and an opaque screen with two pinholes in it
(see the following figure)
 By allowing the fields from the two points P1 and P2 to
propagate to an observation plane and observing the
interference effects there, we can measure the degree of
coherence between the fields at P1 and P2


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125

Coherence

P1

r1
P0

r2
P2

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126

Coherence


The purpose of the two pinholes is to isolate the


fields at the points P1 and P2 which originate from
the source
Since the distance D between the screen and the
observation plane is supposed to be much larger
than the diameter of the pinholes, the waves
arriving at point P0 can be approximated to plane
waves

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127

Coherence


The field at point P0 in the observation plane will be the


sum of the fields from the two pinholes:

r
r
U 0 = U1 exp j0 t 1 + U 2 exp j0 t 2 (1.26)
v
v

where r1 and r2 are, respectively, the path lengths from


P1 and P2 to P0 , v is the velocity of the waves and 0 is
the angular frequency

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128

Coherence


The time-averaged irradiance E0 at point P0 is then:

c
c
*
E0 =
U 0U 0 = E1 + E2 + 2 Re U1 (t + )U 2* (t )
2n
2n

} (1.27)

where the angle brackets represent a time average,

= (r1 r2)/v is the time difference along the two


paths, and we have assumed that the time average is
a function of only this time difference

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129

Coherence


By definition, the quantity in the brackets (the third


term) in the previous equation is the mutual
coherence function:
12 = < U1( t + )U2* (t)>
(1.28)
It represents the cross-correlation of the fields at the
two points P1 and P2 for the time difference

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130

Coherence


By using (1.28), we can rewrite (1.27) as:


E0 = E1 + E2 + 2(E1E2)1/2 Re{ 12()}
where
12 ( ) =

12 ( )

1
2

[11 (0)12 (0)]

(1.29)
(1.30)

defines the complex degree of coherence which has


the property 0 | 12() | 1
:
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12() = 0  incoherent light


12() = 1  perfectly coherent light
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Coherence


If the irradiance due to each pinhole is the same


(i.e. E1 = E2 = E) then:
E0 = 2 E [1 + 12 ( ) cos 12 ( )]

(1.31)

where 12() is the phase of 12()


In case of plane waves, 12() = 0

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Coherence


The interference fringes which are formed at the


observation plane can be characterized by their
so-called visibility which is defined as:
V = ( E0,max E0,min) / ( E0,max + E0,min)
Using this definition with (1.31) we find that:
Fringe visibility, V = | 12()|
(1.32)
This result gives the interpretation of the degree of
coherence of the wave fields at P1 and P2 in terms
of the experimentally measurable fringe visibility in
the interference pattern
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Coherence



The spatial and temporal coherences field


properties cannot always be easily separated
However, in the case of a quasi-monochromatic
beam of radiant energy they can be separated as
follows
We can express the complex degree of coherence
12() in terms of its spectrum 12(f) by using the
Fourier transform:

12 ( ) = 0 12 ( f )e j 2f df
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(1.33)
134

Coherence


If the beam is quasi-monochromatic, then the


spectral width f = f f0 is much less than the
central frequency, i.e |f| << f0
Then we can write:
j 2f
j 2 f
(
)
12 = e

(
f
)
e
df
0 12
0

j 2f 0
e
(
0 12

2f 0
f )df = 12 (0) e1j2
3
123

(1.34)

temporal
spatial
coherence coherence

where we used the approximation << 1/f (since


is a very large quantity)
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Temporal Coherence


The quantity c = 1/f which is a measure of the


temporal coherence is called the coherence time
and can be interpreted as the maximum delay
between the two paths of the beam for which
interference effects can be noticed
Alternatively, the property of temporal coherence
can be associated with path length differences
along the direction of the radiant energy beam, by
using the coherence length which is given by
Lc = c0 c, where c0 is the speed of light in vacuum
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Temporal Coherence


Other equivalent expressions for the coherence


length are as follows:
(1.37)
Lc = c0 / f = 02/
where 0 is the central wavelength of the radiant
energy beams spectrum in vacuum
The coherence length approximately represents the
maximum separation along the path of the beam for
which interference effects can be noticed

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Spatial Coherence


By using diffraction theory, it can be shown that


the maximum transverse separation of two pinholes
across the beam for which interference effects can
be noticed at some distance from an incoherent
source is given by the so-called coherence
diameter:
Dc = l / Ds
where is the wavelength, l is the distance to the
source and Ds is the source diameter
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Spatial Coherence


The diameter Dc in the above formula can be


interpreted as the separation of points P1 and P2 for
which the visibility of the interference fringes
represented by 12(0) has been reduced to
approximately zero

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Spatial Coherence


By using the definitions of coherence length and


coherence diameter we can define the coherence
volume as LcDc
By definition, the fields at any two points within
this coherence volume are capable of producing
interference fringes if allowed to interfere and,
hence, have some finite degree of coherence

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140

Polarization


Beside spatial, spectral, temporal, and coherence


properties, beams of optical radiant energy have
polarization properties
Polarization properties are important because the
radiant energy which passes through a radiometric
system is sensitive to:



polarization properties of the radiant energy from the source


polarization characteristics of the components of the system
(transmission medium, reflecting or transmitting materials,
refracting or reflecting optical elements, and detector)

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Polarization


By convention, the polarization of light is described


by specifying the orientation of the wave's electric
field at a point in space over one period of the
oscillation
In most cases, polarization of radiant energy beams
is perpendicular to the wave's direction of
propagation
A complete characterization of the polarization
properties of a beam of radiant energy can be done
using a set of four measurable quantities which are
called Stokes parameters
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Polarization


Depending on the locus that the tip of the electric


field vector traces on a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation, there are 3 types of
polarization (see next figure):




linear
circular
elliptical (no polarization)

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Polarization
Possible types
of polarization

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Polarization


If we denote the projections of the electric field


vector on x and y axes as:
x = Ax(t) exp j[2ft - x(t)]
y = Ay(t) exp j[2ft - y(t)]

the Stokes parameters can be expressed as follows:


2

S 0 = (c / 2n)( A x ' + A y ' )


S1 = (c / 2n)( A x ' A y ' )

S 2 = (c / 2n) 2 Ax ' A*y ' cos( x' y' )


S 3 = (c / 2n) 2 Ax ' A*y ' sin( x' y' )
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Polarization


The significance of the Stokes parameters are as


follows:



S0 is simply the irradiance


S1 the difference of the irradiances in the x and y
components of the field and indicates the eccentricity of
the ellipse
S2 and S3 are products of the x and y components and
indicate both the angular orientation of the ellipse and
the direction of rotation of the electric field vector
clockwise or counter-clockwise

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Polarization


The significance of the Stokes parameters are as


follows (contd):




For an unpolarized wave: S1 = S2 = S3 = 0


For a partially polarized wave: S1, S2 and S3 are nonzero
but S12 + S22 + S32 < S02
For a completely polarized wave: S12 + S22 + S32 = S02

We can then define the degree of polarization P by:


P = (S12 + S22 + S32 )1/2 / S0

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Noise (optional slides)


 The

fundamental limit to the accuracy of all


radiometric measurements is noise
 The noise in radiometric measurements is
due to:
the particle nature of photons
 the thermal fluctuations which occur in the lower
frequency electronic circuits that are designed to
amplify the electrical signal coming from the
optical detector


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Noise (optional slides)


 The

most important noise source in


optoelectronics is the photon shot noise
which is due to the discrete nature of light
 Beside shot noise, there is also an additional
noise sources (although of less importance)
such as the excess radiation noise, which is
characteristic to thermal (non-laser) sources

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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)


 The

quantum or photon properties of


electromagnetic radiation play an important
role as one moves from the longer to the
shorter wavelength regions of the spectrum
 This is simply due to the particle nature of
light, i.e. a beam of radiant energy is made of
photons that have an energy:
E = hf = hc /
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150

Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)


 As

the wavelength decreases, a beam of


fixed radiant power becomes grainier, that is
the number of photons per unit time
decreases
 The number of photons per unit time or the
photon flux is:
p = e / hf
where e is the radiant power
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151

Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)




According to previous equation, a beam of fixed


radiant power has a photon flux p which is
inversely proportional to the frequency
Because the number of photons per unit time
decreases and because the arrival of photons at a
surface is a random or statistical event, a beam of
fixed radiant power becomes noisier at higher
frequencies (i.e. lower photon fluxes)
A brief demonstration of the last assertion will be
done in the following
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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)




Let us consider a beam of photons incident on an


ideal photon counter


The photon counter is ideal in the sense that the arrival


of each photon at the counter is registered as an event,
with no losses due to surface reflection or internal
quantum efficiency.

The following parameters are defined:


t time interval over which photons are counted
r rate of photon arrival (probability of an event per unit
time; identical to the photon flux)
<n> = r t the mean number of photons counted
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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)





Now we consider that a time interval t is divided


in s subintervals of length t = t / s
Each of the subintervals are chosen short enough so
that no more than a single event occurs during it,
that is:
P(0, t) + P(1, t) = 1
where P(0, t) and P(1, t) are the probabilities of
having no event or a single event during time
interval t, respectively
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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)




It is naturally to assume that the probability of


having one event during time interval t is:
P(1, t) = r t = r t / s
where r is the rate of photon arrival defined earlier
Finally, it is assumed that the probability of a
photon arrival in a time interval t is statistically
independent of the number of photons which have
arrived during previous intervals

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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)


 With

the three assumptions defined


previously, the probability of n events in the
time interval t is given by the Bernoulli
distribution:
n

rt rt
P (n ) =
1

s
s

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sn

s!
n!( s n)!

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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)




At limit (as the number of subintervals s is


allowed to increased while keeping t fixed) we
obtain:
< n > n < n >
P(n ) =
e
n!

which is known as the Poisson distribution


The fluctuations described by equation above
represent the mathematical definition of the
shot noise.
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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)


 An

important property of shot noise is that


its variance in terms of the number of
photons counted is:
2 = ( n < n >) 2 = n

so the standard deviation is then


=

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Photon Shot Noise (optional slides)




If the ratio of the mean number of photons to the


standard deviation of photon number fluctuation is
regarded as a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR), then
results:
SNR =

n = r t

According to this equation, the SNR increases as


the square root of either the photon flux r or the
time interval t
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