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David Marlon Alvarez

2 November 2016

Essay Regarding the Safe Use of Radiation

On the NRC and the code of federal regulations:
Working with Ionizing radiation poses substantial health risks. Therefore, working
with radioactive material is strictly regulated. The (Nuclear Regulatory Committee)
has the responsibility of protecting the worker, the public and also the environment
from any effects of radiation. This committee was established in 1974 as a result of
the "Energy Reorganization act." This "action" regulates the civilian use of nuclear
materials. The code of federal regulations. Also known as the CFR is published
consisting of 50 titles that represent the "subject matter" of the regulations. Title 10
deals with the subject of energy, and contains 50 "parts" that deal with the rules.
Part 19 of Title 10 deals with ; Notices, instructions and reports to workers, as well
as inspection and investigation. Part 20 gives us the standards for protection
against radiation. Part 34 covers the regulations for licensing in industrial
radiography, and radiation safety requirements for industrial radiographic
operations. More than half the "United States" have agreed to allow the NRC to
regulate radioactive material use within their borders. And furthermore, have
agreed to adopt and enforce regulations that are comparable or exceed those of the
NRC's, CFR title 10.
On Exposure Limits:
The International Commission on Radiation Protection (ICRP) has established
Occupational exposure limits that employ two primary objectives; (1) to prevent
acute exposure. (2) to limit the amount of chronic exposure to (acceptable levels.)
These guidelines are based upon an assumption that there is no acceptable level of
exposure. Therefore, even the smallest exposure has a probability of causing
stochastic effect such as cancer. The general philosophy is to stay below the
allowable limits and also to keep exposure to; As-Low-As-Reasonably-Achievable.
This is known as (ALARA.) The NRC's regulatory limits can be found in CFR title 10
part 20.
On Controlling Radiation Exposure:
The most useful ways to control exposure to radiation are:
(1) Limiting the amount of time spent exposed to radiation. "Less time exposed is
better for you." So, if your survey meter reads 3mR/hr, you are getting 3mR in

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1hour. You can calculate this as a dose rate by converting the hour into 60 minutes
then dividing the dose 3mR by the minutes spent. like this: 3mR/60 = .05mR per
minute. if I spent 7 minutes exposed, I would multiply like this: .05mR x 7 = .35mR
at 7 minutes. If I wanted to limit my exposure to 1mR, I would calculate my time
limit like this: 1.0mR/.035mR= 20 minutes. This is the total time I can spend to
reach my exposure limit.
(2) The distance from the source of radiation emission. " Greater distance from the
source of emission, is better for you." So, let's say I am getting an intensity reading
of 333 R/h=(Intensity1) at 3 feet away from the source = (Distance 1); This would
be my first known intensity and my first known distance. I could find the unknown
intensity=(Intensity2), at a second known distance of 7 feet = (distance2), like
this: Intensity2, is found by calculating 333R/h x 3 squared =2997, divided by 7
squared = 61.16326531...So, Intensity 2 at distance 2, equals 61.163R/h. It can be
seen that greater distance from source of emission reduces the intensity of
exposure.
If I had an Intensity of 637mR/h at 1 foot away from source and I wanted to know
how far I had to be away from the source to have an exposure intensity of 100mR I
would calculate this way: I know Intensity 1 is 637R/h I would multiply this number
by 1000 to get 637000mR/h then multiply it by the distance 1. that is 1 foot
squared. which equals 637000. Then divide that number by the desired second rate
of intensity (intensity 2) of 100mR. Which would equal: 6370. then I would find the
square root of that result. which equals 79.81227976 feet distance away from
source to get the desired boundary intensity of 100mR/h. I could use the same
calculating method to find the boundary distances from the source, for any number
of desired intensities.

(3) Shielding. "Shielding yourself from exposure is better for you."

A radiographer can make use of material or structures or even equipment and parts
to aid in shielding from, and the reduction of, exposure. Certain methods of
construction can influence the path of gamma rays as well, so that the exposure to
the radiographer is reduced. see below:

This sort of construction to house Gamma ray emitting equipment is called a

"maze."
On Half Value Layer-shielding (HVL):
"Half value layer " is a value that indicates a particular depth in a material where
the intensity of the photons are reduced to one half strength. materials differ in
densities and so the thickness needed to reduce the photons strength to half value
varies in each material. If I were to use a lead collimator with a HVL of 5 to shield a
source of 743R/h, the intensity of the source would be reduced to 23.21875 R/h. I
found this result by dividing 743R/h by 2 and then dividing the result again by 2 and
repeating the dividing of the result by 2 until I have done this five times.
On Safety Controls:
Generally speaking, there are two kinds of safety control measures used to provide
an adequately safe working environment. (1) Administrative, and (2) Engineered.
The administrative controls are employed as; Postings, warnings , training,
monitoring (dosimetry), and procedural guidelines.
Whereas the engineered controls include; Material containment, interlocking
mechanism, constructed shielding, Sensing devices and warning alarms, roping off
restricted areas and posting of signage. Note: Administrative controls SUPPLIMENT
engineered controls.
On Responsibilities:
Anyone, who is in any way involved in working with, or the administration of
radioactive materials, is responsible for its safe use and management. A radiation

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safety officer (RSO) is typically someone employed by a company or organization to
ensure that any activity involving the use of radioactive material is performed
according to approved procedures. And, that all regulatory guidelines and
requirements are followed. Such as;

Ensuring that anyone working with radioactive material has been trained and
authorized to do so.
Verifying the trained personnel and activities involving the use of radioactive
material are also supervised.
Ensuring accurate records are kept and that equipment is safe from unauthorized use.

CFR title 10 part 34.42 speaks on the minimum requirements needed to employ an
RSO.
Some companies or organizations have a regulation committee that assists the
RSO by providing an oversight of procedures, policies, and also the RSO's
responsibilities involved with the company's radiation safety plan.
Individuals working with radioactive source material are responsible for following
all the rules, regulations, and policies. For keeping accurate records . Making certain
the measuring equipment is calibrated and is working properly. Making sure that
while working with radiation sources, boundaries are set. Also, ensuring no
unauthorized access or removal occurs, as well as reporting any safety problems to
the RSO and also having the problems corrected before proceeding with work.

On Procedures:
Experience has proven that when working with radiation, certain obvious
procedures must be followed to ensure those working with radioactive sources are
not exceeding the established dosage limits. Established procedures must be
followed at all times, unless written permission to deviate is obtained from the RSO.
Some of the minimum required procedures for working with gamma sources are;

Appropriate handling and use of sealed sources.

methods and the occasions for conducting radiation surveys.
Methods for controlling access to radiation exposed areas.
Personnel monitoring.
Locking and securing radiation exposure devices as well as storage and
transport.
The transportation to field locations of sealed radiation sources as well as
packaging within vehicles and placard placement on vehicles and control of
ALL, while transporting.
Procedures for identifying, reporting defects and non-compliance.

Inspection, maintenance, and operability checks on radiation exposure

devices and survey equipment as well as transportation and storage
containers.
maintaining accurate records.

Emergency procedure plans should also be developed for the workers to follow in
the event an emergency actually occurs. Steps in this emergency procedure should
in the very least include;

Steps that should be taken if a personal dosimeter runs off-scale or a ratemeter sounds an alarm.
Steps that should be taken to minimize the amount of exposure of all persons
involved in the event of an emergency.
A procedure/method for notifying the appropriate people, organization, or
agency in the event of an emergency.
A source recovery plan, ( if the licensed radiographer is doing the "source"
recovery.)

On Survey Techniques:
Most exposures that happen to radiographers out in the field are due to not
knowing the proper procedures to follow when conducting a survey of the exposure
device. This creates a likelihood of, "not knowing" where the gamma source is
located along the camera or any of its connected parts. When transporting the
exposure device the device needs to be secured and locked within a container that
is oftentimes bolted to the floor of the vehicle. A survey should be made around and
over the package, around the outside of the vehicle, and also the drivers
compartment. these readings should be documented. When out in the field the
radiographer must rely heavily upon his survey and detection equipment in order to
avoid unwarranted exposure. Furthermore, and of great importance, the
radiographer should know and thoroughly understand how to use a survey meter.
Before approaching and before the removal of the exposure device from storage,
the radiographer should ensure the survey meter is calibrated and the battery level
is good. The survey meter should be "in hand" and operational. The survey meter
should be placed near the camera in order to verify the source is contained within.
measurements should be recorded and compared with recordings made before the
transportation. An assessment should be made of the exposure area. "Boundary"
calculations should be performed and boundaries should be "staked out" with ropes
and signs designating the appropriate restricted areas. Once boundaries are set and
signage is posted, the exposure device can be removed from the locked container
and set up at the target area. Keeping in mind however, to have the survey meter
in hand-operational-and monitored during the entire "approach" & set-up
procedure. At this time the assistant may check boundaries for unauthorized
persons accessing, and shall move outside the boundaries while the radiographer
proceeds with the exposure process. The radiographer, before cranking out the

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source, should ensure he/she is as at the farthest distance away from the guide
tube and collimator before proceeding. Then, QUICKLY crank out the source material
to the " target." He or She must crank the source out quickly because as it travels
through the guide tube the exposure intensity will greatly increase until the source
is in place within the collimator. The assistant should be monitoring the boundary
with the survey meter during crank out to compare the "actual" values with the
prior-calculated values in case the exposure intensity is actually higher than
previously calculated, and if so, the boundaries must be extended to ensure
compliance with exposure limits. When the radiographer retracts the source to the
camera a "spike" will again occur until the source is within the camera. Once the
source is presumed to be inside the camera, the radiographer should approach the
camera with a survey meter. As the radiographer is approaching and monitoring
with the survey meter, He or She should not see any increase of intensity, as long
as the source is properly retracted WITHIN the camera. The exposure device should
be surveyed on all sides. PAY CLOSE ATTENTION while surveying the front of the
camera. And, along the entire length of the guide tube. The process must be
repeated for each and every exposure performed by the radiographer. A survey
should be conducted while returning the source to the vehicle, and also when it is
placed back into the container for transportation. The results of the survey should
be documented.