Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Chapter-1
Signals and Systems
1.1 Prove each of the following statements. In each case, let energy signal x1 (t) have energy E[x1 (t)], let energy
signal x2 (t) have energy E[x2 (t)], and let T be a nonzero, finite, real-valued constant.
(i) Prove E[T x1 (t)] = T 2 E[x1 (t)]. That is, amplitude scaling a signal by constant T scales the signal energy by T 2 .
(ii) Prove E[x1 (t)] = E[x1 (t T )]. That is, shifting a signal does not affect its energy.
(iii) If (x1 (t) 6= 0) (x2 (t) = 0) and (x2 (t) 6= 0) (x1 (t) = 0), then prove E[x1 (t) + x2 (t)] = E[x1 (t)] + E[x2 (t)]. That
is, the energy of the sum of two nonoverlapping signals is the sum of the two individual energies.
(iv) Prove E[x1 (T t)] = 1/|T |E[x1 (t)]. That is, time-scaling a signal by T reciprocally scales the signal energy by 1/|T |.
Solution 1.1 Given that
Z
E[x1 (t)] = Ex1 =
|x1 (t)|2 dt
Since x1 (t) and x2 (t) are nonoverlapping signals, i.e. x1 (t)x2 (t) = 0, we have
Z
Z
Z
2
2
2
E[x1 (t) + x2 (t)] =
[x1 (t) + x2 (t)]dt =
[x1 (t)]dt +
(iv) Case-I: T > 0. The energy contained in the signal, x1 (T t), is given by
Z
Z
2
E[x1 (T t)] =
|x1 (T t)| dt =
x21 (T t)dt
n
X
Ck ejk t
is Px =
k=m
n
X
|Ck |2
k=m
T /2
1
|x(t)| dt = lim
T
T
T /2
= lim
1
T
1
T T
= lim
Z
Z
n
2
X
jk t
Ck e
dt
T /2
T /2
k=m
T /2
n
X
T /2 k=m
n
T /2 X
T /2 k=m
2
|Ck |2 ejk t dt
n
n
X
1 X
T
|Ck |2 =
|Ck |2
T T
|Ck |2 dt = lim
Solution 1.3
Fig.S1.1
k=m
k=m
1.4
In Fig.1.42, express signals x1 (t), x2 (t) and x3 (t) in terms of signal x(t) and its time-shifted, time-scaled, or
time-reversed versions.
Solution 1.4
t
t
t
t
+x
+y
+x
=y
2
2
2
2
t
t
t
t
t
t
+x +1 +x
+x
+x
+1 +x
x3 (t) = x
2
2
2
2
2
2
t
t
t
t
+ 2x
+x +1 +x
+1
x3 (t) = 2x
2
2
2
2
The signal z(t) and z(t) are shown in Fig S1.2(c).
Fig. S1.2
1.5 Simplify
the following expressions:
(i)
(ii)
sin t
2 +2
+2
2 +9
t
(t)
()
o
(iii)
[e cos(3t
60 )](t)
1
( + 3)
(iv) j+2
(v)
sin k
()
sin t
t2 + 2
(t) =
sin 0
0+2
(t) = 0
(ii)
+2
2 + 9
() =
0+2
0+9
() =
2
()
9
(iii)
[et cos(3t 60o )](t) = [e0 cos(0 60o )](t) = cos(60o )(t) =
1
(t)
2
(iv)
1
j + 2
( + 3) =
1
3j + 2
( + 3)
(v)
sin k
() =
sin 0
0
() = ()
1.6R Evaluate
the
following integrals:
(i) 32 t 23 (t 1)dt
R
(ii) (t 1) 32 t 23 dt
R 2
3
(iii) 3 et+1 + sin 2
3 t t 2 dt
R2
t t 23 dt
(iv) 3 et+1 + sin 2
3
R
(v) e5t+1 0 (t 5)dt
3
2
t
3
2
(t 1)
(iii) Since t =
3
2
3
2
t
3
2
1
|a| (t
(t 1)dt =
2
3
t
3
2
=
t=1
2 3
5
=
3 2
6
+ b/a), we have
3 9
3
9
3
15
dt =
(t 1) t
dt = (t 1) 9 =
1 =
2
4
2
2
4
8
t=
4
Z
is not in the interval 3 < t < 2, the shifting property of the impulse function yields
Z 2
3
2
t+1
t t
dt = 0
e
+ sin
3
2
3
(iv)
Z
t+1
+ sin
2
t
3
3
2
t+1
t
t
dt = e
+ sin
2
3
t= 3
2
3
1
1
2 3
= [e 2 + sin()] = e 2
= e 2 +1 + sin
3 2
(v)
Z
5t+1 0
(t 5)dt =
d 5t+1
e
(t 5)dt = 5
dt
1.7 (a) If xe (t) and x0 (t) are even and odd components of a real signal x(t), then show that
Z
xe (t)x0 (t)dt = 0
x(t)dt =
xe (t)dt
xe (t)x0 (t)dt =
x(t) + x(t)
2
x(t) x(t)
2
1
[x2 (t) x2 (t)]dt
4
Z
Z
1
x2 (t)dt
x2 (t)dt
=
4
Z
1
x2 (t)dt
x2 ( )d
=
4
Z
1
x2 (t)dt
x2 (t)dt = 0
=
4
x(t)dt =
Using property no.3 (page. 52) of even and odd signals, we have
Z
Z
Z
x(t)dt =
xe (t)dt + 0 =
xe (t)dt
1.8 Find and sketch the even and the odd components of the following:
(i) u(t)
(
t t0
r(t) = tu(t) =
0 t<0
Replacing t with t in the above expression, we get
(
r(t) = tu(t) =
t
0
t 0 t 0
t < 0 t > 0
Applying Eqs. (1.59) and (1.51) to get the even and odd part of r(t) respectively.
(
t
t0
1
re (t) = [r(t) + r(t)] = 2t
2
t<0
2
and
1
ro (t) = [r(t) r(t)] =
2
t
2
t
2
t0
t<0
dt
The signal r(t), r(t), re (t), and r0 (t) are shown in Fig. S1.3(a).
(iii) Consider the given signal
(
sin(0 t)
x(t) = sin(0 t)u(t) =
0
t>0
t<0
sin(0 t)
0
t > 0 t < 0
t < 0 t > 0
Applying Eqs. (1.59) and (1.51) to get the even and odd part of x(t) respectively.
(
1
sin(0 t)
1
1
1
xe (t) = [x(t) + x(t)] = sin(0 t)u(t) + sin(0 t)u(t) = 21
2
2
2
2 sin(0 t)
t>0
t<0
and
xo (t) =
1
1
1
[x(t) x(t)] = sin(0 t)u(t) sin(0 t)u(t)
2
2
2
1
1
= sin(0 t)u(t) + sin(0 t)u(t)
2
2
1
1
= sin(0 t)[u(t) + u(t)] = sin(0 t)
2
2
The signals sin(0 t)u(t), sin(0 t)u(t), xe (t) and x0 (t) are shown in Fig. S1.3(b).
(iv) Consider the given signal
(
cos(0 t) t > 0
x(t) = cos(0 t)u(t) =
0
t<0
Replacing t with t in the above expression, we get
(
cos(0 t) t > 0 t < 0
x(t) = cos(0 t)u(t) = cos(0 t)u(t) =
0
t < 0 t > 0
Applying Eqs. (1.59) and (1.51) to get the even and odd part of x(t) respectively.
xe (t) =
1
1
1
1
1
[x(t) + x(t)] = cos(0 t)u(t) + cos(0 t)u(t) = cos(0 t)[u(t) + u(t)] = cos(0 t)
2
2
2
2
2
and
1
1
1
xo (t) = [x(t) x(t)] = cos(0 t)u(t) cos(0 t)u(t) =
2
2
2
1
2 cos(0 t)
21 cos(0 t)
The signals cos(0 t)u(t), cos(0 t)u(t), xe (t) and x0 (t) are shown in Fig. S1.3(c).
t>0
t<0
Fig. S1.3
1.9 An aperiodic signal is defined as x(t) = sin(t)u(t), where u(t) is the continuous-time step function. Is the
odd portion of this signal, x0 (t), periodic? Justify your answer.
Solution 1.9 Consider the given signal
(
sin(t) t > 0
x(t) = sin(t)u(t) =
0
t<0
Replacing t with t in the above expression, we get
x(t) = sin(t)u(t) =
1
[x(t) x(t)]
2
1
1
sin(t)u(t) sin(t)u(t)
2
2
1
1
sin(t)u(t) + sin(t)u(t)
2
2
1
sin(t)[u(t) + u(t)]
2
1
sin(t)
2
2
The odd part xo (t) = 21 sin(t) is periodic with period T = 2
= = 2.
1.10 The output of the system, y(t), is related to the input x(t) as
Z t
x2 ( )d
x3 ( )d
x3 ( )d
= cos 2fc t + k
Z t
= cos 2fc t + a k
x1 ( )d + b k
x2 ( )d
x1 ( )d
be the corresponding output. Then consider a second input obtained by shifting x1 (t) in time:
x2 (t) = x1 (t t0 )
The output corresponding to this input is
Z
x2 ( )d
= cos 2fc t + k
x1 ( t0 )d
tt0
x1 ( )d
Now, consider
Z
x1 ( )d
tt0
y1 (t t0 ) = cos 2fc (t t0 ) + k
x1 ( )d
6= y2 (t)
We see that y2 (t) 6= y1 (t t0 ), and therefore, this system is time-variant.
1.11 The system that follow have input x(n) and output y(n). For each system, determine whether it is (i) memoryless,
(ii) stable, (iii) causal, (iv) linear, and (v) time-invariant.
(a) y(n) = loge [x(n)]
(b) y(n) = log10 [|x(n)|]
(c) y(n) = median{x(n 1), x(n), x(n + 1)}
(d) y(n) = Trun[x(n)], where Trun[x(n)] denotes the integer part of x(n) obtained by truncation.
(e) y(n) = Round[x(n)], where Round[x(n)] denotes the integer part of x(n) obtained by rounding.
(f) y(n) = |x(n)|
(g) y(n) = sgn[x(n)]
Solution 1.11 (a) (i) Consider the given input-output relation of the system.
y(n) = loge [x(n)]
y(0) = loge [x(0)]
y(1) = loge [x(1)]
y(1) = loge [x(1)]
The present output depends on the present input only. We may conclude, this system is a memoryless (static) system.
(ii) Assume that the input signal x(n) satisfies the condition
|x(n)| Bx < for all n.
We then find that
|y(n)| = |loge [x(n)]|
= |loge [Bx ]|
= By <
We conclude that in this system if any input is bounded by an arbitrary positive number Bx , the corresponding output
is bounded. Thus, the given system is stable.
10
11
values, and the sample at the middle is the median value. For example, median{2, 3, 7, 10, 5} = 5. (i) Consider the
given input-output relation of the system.
y(n) = median{x(n 1), x(n), x(n + 1)}
To calculate the median value, the past, present and future inputs are required. Consequently, the present output
depends on the present, past and future inputs. We may conclude, this system is a with-memory (dynamic) system.
(ii) For a bounded input x(n), the output y(n) of this system is always bounded. Thus, the given system is stable.
(iii) To calculate the median value, the past, present and future inputs are required. Consequently, the present output
depends on the present, past and future inputs. We may conclude, this system is a noncausal system.
(iv) Median filtering is a nonlinear operation. Consider the following sequences as the input to a median filter:
x1 (n) = {3, 5, 9}
and
x2 (n) = {2, 2, 2}
and
y2 (n) = median{2, 2, 2} = 2
for all n.
12
13
for all n.
14
for all n.
15
1
1
x(n) > 0
x(n) < 0
Solution 1.12
16
17
Fig. S1.4
Solution 1.13
Fig. S1.5
1.14 Find the derivative of the waveforms in Fig.1.40 and write the equations for the derivatives using shifted step
and/or impulse functions.
Solution 1.14 (a)
2E
E
E
2E
r(t)
r(t T ) +
r(t 3T ) r(t 4T )
T
T
T
T
2E
E
dx1 (t)
E
2E
= x01 (t) = u(t)
u(t T ) +
u(t 3T ) u(t 4T )
dt
T
T
T
T
x1 (t) =
18
(d)
1
x4 (t) = u(t) + r(t)
2
dx4 (t)
1
0
= x4 (t) = (t) + u(t)
dt
2
1
r(t 2) 2u(t 2)
2
1
u(t 2) 2(t 2)
2
Fig. S1.6
n+N
X
x(k) =
k=n0
x(k)
k=n0 +N
x(k)
k=n0 +N
x(m + N )
m=n0
x(m) =
n
X
x(k) = LHS
k=n0