Gods and Mythology of Ancient Egypt

Man's first gods were

the forces of nature.
Terrifying and
unpredictable, they
were feared rather than
revered by our
ancestors. Yet while
much of the world was
in darkness,
worshipping cruel
incarnations of natural
forces, a river valley in
Africa held a people
who followed a
different path. They
worshipped gods that were beautiful to behold, luminous beings that walked the earth,
guiding the human race to Paradise. They had human forms but were much more
powerful; yet like humans, they got angry, despaired, fought with one another, had
children, and fell in love. They lived lives that were very much like those of the
people who worshipped them, the ancient Egyptians.
They were gods to be feared yes, as all gods are, but they were also gods to be loved.
What's more, the Egyptians enjoyed talking about the gods. Like the gods of the
Greeks and Romans, the Egyptian gods seemed to be made for storytelling. There
were tales to educate, tales to entertain, and tales with morals, and in those stories, the
gods didn't seem so far away and unreachable. It was comforting to hear that the gods
also wept for those they had lost, to hear about the gods laughing, to learn that the
gods faced many of the same problems that the people did, albeit on a grander scale.
In learning about the gods on such an intimate level, the Egyptians could better relate
to the universe around them.
The ancient Egyptians practiced a belief system that was part totemism, part
polytheism, and part ancestor worship. There were numerous gods, but rather than
living on an isolated mountain or in an unreachable heaven, many of them lived
invisibly in the mortal world, acting through sacred sites, items, animals, or even
chosen people. Furthermore, the spirits of the deceased, if remembered and honored,
could aid and guide the living from the Afterlife.
Here we will explore the religion of the ancient Egyptians, how it evolved, how it
affected their lives and their development as a civilization. But most importantly, we
will try to understand a people through what they believed and in doing so, give them
that which they sought most: immortality.

Hathor

Other Names: Het-Hert, Hetheru

Patron of: the sky, the sun, the queen, music, dance and the arts.
Appearance: A cow bearing the sun disk between her horns, or a woman in queenly
raiment wearing the sun disk and horns on her head. Depictions of her as a woman
with a cow's head do not occur until later periods.
Description: Hathor is a very ancient goddess, dating to predynastic times. When
dynastic rule began, as Horus was associated with the king, Hathor was with the
queen. Her name translates to "The House of Horus," and so she is associated with the
royal family. But also, as the entire world could be said to be the House of Horus,
Hathor can be seen as the mother-goddess of the whole world, similar to Isis.
Hathor's cult is unusual, as both men and women were her priests (most deities had
clerics of the same gender as they). Many of them were artisans, musicians, and
dancers who turned their talents into creating rituals that were nothing short of works
of art. Music and dance were part of the worship of Hathor like no other deity in
Egypt. Hathor herself was the incarnation of dance, and stories were told of how
Hathor danced before Ra when he was in despair to cheer him up.
Inspiration was also Hathor's bailiwick, and many would come to the temples of
Hathor to have their dreams explained or to beseech her for her aid in creation, much
in the same way the Greeks invoked the Nine Muses.
Worship: Worshipped throughout all of Egypt, her cult center was at Dendera in
Upper Egypt.

Hathor, Goddess of Love, Music and

Beauty...
by Caroline Seawright
October 3, 2000

Hathor, Goddess of Love, Music and Beauty...

Hathor (Het-Hert, Het-Heru, Hwt-Hert, Hethara), meaning "House of Horus [the

Elder]", was a goddess of many things, from the celestial to the alcoholic! She was a
celestial goddess, The Mistress of Heaven. A goddess of love, music and beauty as the
Goddess of Love, Cheerfulness, Music and Dance. She was known as the Mother of
Mothers and the Celestial Nurse who presided over women, fertility, children and
childbirth. Yet she was also a goddess of baser things - she was the Vengeful Eye of
Ra, the Lady of Drunkeness, and a goddess of the dead as Lady of the West. As Lady
of the Southern Sycamore, the sycamore was sacred to her. It was from the sycamore

tree that she was thought to hand out good things to the deceased in the afterlife, and
so she was thought to be a friend to the dead.
Her name is translated as "House of Horus", which may be a reference to her
as the embodiment of the sky in her role of the Celestial Cow, being that
which surrounds the decidedly sky-oriented hawk-deity, Horus, when he takes
wing. If Horus was the god associated with the living king, Hathor was the
god associated with the living queen.
-- Hathor, Stephanie Cass
She was also known as the Mistress of Life, the Great Wild
Cow, the Golden One, the Mistress of Turquoise, Lady of Iunet
(Dendera) (her cult centre was located at Iunet), Mistress of
Qis, Lady to the Limit (of the Universe), Lady of Punt (perhaps
an area in present day Somalia - a famous expedition to this
land was commissioned by Hatshepsut (1473-1458 BC), of the
18th Dynasty), the Powerful One, the Mistress of the Desert,
Lady of the Southern Sycamore... and many other names,
besides. She was also the goddess of the third month of the
Egyptian calendars, know in Greek times as Hethara.
An interesting story involving Hathor - all the more interesting
because it is very similar to the Japanese tale of the sun goddess
who leaves the company of the gods to sulk - is the story of
Ra's temper tantrum. Baba a predynastic baboon god, taunted
Ra who stood for Set becoming ruler rather than Horus, "Your shrine is empty!" With
that, Ra stormed off to be alone - presumably this is a story about a solar eclipse - and
refused to join the other gods. Realising that they'd gone too far, the others sent Baba
away, but still Ra refused to stop sulking. Finally, Hathor decided on a plan. She went
into Ra's presence and stood before him and started to dance and strip, revealing her
nakedness and lewdly showing him her private parts. The dance caused Ra to laugh,
forget his hurt feelings and he once again rejoined the gods.
The reason that she has so many names, one would assume, is because she is an
ancient goddess - she seems to have been mentioned as early as the 2nd Dynasty. She
may even been associated with the Narmer palette - although the two human faced
bovines may also have been a representation of the king or of another ancient bovine
goddess, called Bat, who was eventually surplanted by Hathor.
It is interesting to note, though, that there is not a personal name of the goddess
mentioned in the list of names - they are all titles.
Hathor, Lady of Amenty, the Dweller in the Great Land, the Lady of TaTchesert, the Eye of Ra, the Dweller in his breast, the Beautiful Face in the
Boat of Millions of Years, the Seat of Peace of the doer of truth, Dweller in
the Boat of the favoured ones.....
-- The Chapter of Praise of Hathor, Lady of Amenty, The Book of the Dead

Another interesting thing about Hathor is found in one particular

Egyptian tale - when the hero of the story was born, the 'Seven
Hathors', disguised as seven young women, appeared and announced
his fate. They seemed to be linked with not only fortune telling, but to
being questioners of the soul on its way to the Land of the West. These
goddesses were worshiped in seven cities: Waset (Thebes), Iunu (On,
Heliopolis), Aphroditopolis, Sinai, Momemphis, Herakleopolis, and
Keset. They may have been linked to the Pleiades in later times, but
this is debated. Hathor herself was known as "Lady of Stars" and
"Sovereign of Stars" and linked to Sirius (the goddess Sopdet). The
day that Sirius rose (originally on the first day of the first month,
known as Thuthi by Greek times) was a festive occasion to the
followers of Hathor - it was the day they celebrated her birth. By Greek
times, she was the goddess of Hethara, the third month of the Egyptian
calendar.
Generally, Hathor was pictured as a woman with cow's horns with the
sun between them (giving her the title of 'Golden One'), or as a
beautiful woman with cow's ears, or a cow wearing the sun disk
between her horns, or even as a lioness or a lion-headed woman
showing her destructive side. It was only in later Egyptian history that
she was shown as a woman with the head of a cow.
She often is seen carrying a sistrum, an ancient musical instrument played by the
priestesses. The sistrum usually had the face of Hathor where the handle adjoins the
rest of the instrument. This particular instrument was thought to have sexual
overtones, relating to fertility. Hathor has a rather odd title, "Hand of God". This
might be related to how the handle of the sistrum is held, just as the
relationship of the loop ajoined to the handle (the naos) might be
related to her title of "Lady of the Vulva"!
Hathor was also known as the "Great Menat". The menat, a necklace
with a special counterweight, is not actually jewelry - it is a musical
instrument sacred to Hathor! The counter piece is similar to the fertility
dolls found in ancient tombs, while the beaded necklace was believed
to represent the womb. It was held in the hand and rattled to convey the
blessing of the goddess.
Hathor was also the "Lady of Greenstone and Malachite" and "Lady of
Lapis-Lazuli", presiding over these materials as well as being a
goddess of the fringes where they were mined. (Malachite is a banded light and dark
green semi-precious stone that was ground up and mixed with eye make up. Lapislazuli adorned many pieces of ancient Egyptian jewelry. This fits in well with Hathor's
role of a goddess of beauty.) She was a goddess of the west, and a goddess of Punt
and Sinai and so was a goddess of far off places. This is perhaps why she was also
known as the "Lady to the Limit" - the Egyptians believed her to be a goddess who
ruled over the known universe!
She was said to be the mother of the pharaoh, and is often depicted in a nurturing role,
suckling the pharaoh when he was a child. Other than the pharaoh - a living god - she

was believed to have a son with Horus-Behdety (a form

of Horus the Elder) known as
Ihy (Ahy,
Horus-Sematawy, Harsomtus), a falcon-god and childgod of music and dancing who carried a sistrum. The
three were worshiped at Iunet.
My majesty precedes me as Ihy, the son of
Hathor
I am the male of masculinity
.......
I escaped from her blood, I am the master of the
redness.
But it is the following tale for which she is most
remembered today:
The Eye of Ra
One of the tales of Hathor was how she was originally a goddess of destruction
(Hathor-Sekhmet), and how she came to be the goddess of happier things:
Then Ra took on the shape of a man and became the first Pharaoh, ruling over
the whole country for thousands and thousands of years, and giving such
harvests that for ever afterwards the Egyptians spoke of the good things
"which happened in the time of Ra".
But, being in the form of a man, Ra grew old. In time men no longer feared
him or obeyed his laws. They laughed at him, saying: "Look at Ra! His bones
are like silver, his flesh like gold, his hair is the colour of lapis lazuli!"
Ra was angry when he heard this, and he was more angry still at the evil deeds
which men were doing in disobedience to his laws. So he called together the
gods whom he had made - Shu and Tefnut and Geb and Nut - and he also
summoned Nun. Soon the gods gathered about Ra in his Secret Place, and the
goddesses also. But mankind knew nothing of what was happening, and
continued to jeer at Ra and to break his commandments. Then Ra spoke to
Nun before the assembled gods: "Eldest of the gods, you who made me; and
you gods whom I have made: look upon mankind who came into being at a
glance of my Eye. See how men plot against me; hear what they say of me;
tell me what I should do to them. For I will not destroy mankind until I have
heard what you advise."
Then Nun said: "My son Ra, the god greater than he who made him and
mightier than those whom he has created, turn your mighty Eye upon them
and send destruction upon them in the form of your daughter, the goddess
Sekhmet."

Ra answered: "Even now fear is falling upon them and they are fleeing into
the desert and hiding themselves in the mountains in terror at the sound of my
voice."
"Send against them the glance of your Eye in the form Sekhmet!" cried all the
other gods and goddesses, bowing before Ra until
their foreheads touched the ground.
So at the terrible glance from the Eye of Ra his
daughter Sekhmet came into being, the fiercest of all
goddesses. Like a lion she rushed upon her prey, and
her chief delight was in slaughter, and her pleasure
was in blood. At the bidding of Ra she came into
Upper and Lower Egypt to slay those who had
scorned and disobeyed him: she killed them among
the mountains which lie on either side of the Nile, and
down beside the river, and in the burning deserts. All
whom she saw she slew, rejoicing in slaughter and the Image April
McDevitt
taste of blood.
Presently Ra looked out over the land and saw what Sekhmet had done. Then
he called to her, saying: "Come, my daughter, and tell me how you have
obeyed my commands."
Sekhmet answered with the terrible voice of a
lioness as she tears her prey: "By the life which
you have given me, I have indeed done
vengeance on mankind, and my heart rejoices."
Now for many nights the Nile ran red with
blood, and Sekhmet's feet were red as she went
hither and thither through all the land of Egypt
slaying and slaying.
Presently Ra looked out over the earth once
more, and now his heart was stirred with pity
for men, even though they had rebelled against
him. But none could stop the cruel goddess Sekhmet, not even Ra himself: she
must cease from slaying of her own accord - and Ra saw that this could only
come about through cunning.
So he gave his command: "Bring before me swift messengers who will run
upon the earth as silently as shadows and with the speed of the storm winds."
When these were brought he said to them: "Go as fast as you can up the Nile
to where it flows fiercely over the rocks and among the islands of the First
Cataract; go to the isle that is called Abu (Elephantine) and bring from it a
great store of the red ochre which is to be found there."

The messengers sped on their way and returned with the blood-red ochre to
Iunu, the city of Ra where stand the stone obelisks with points of gold that are
like fingers pointing to the sun. It was night when they came to the city, but all
day the women of Iunu had been brewing beer as Ra bade them.
Ra came to where the beer stood waiting in seven thousand jars, and the gods
came with him to see how by his wisdom he would save mankind.
"Mingle the red ochre of Abu with the barley-beer," said Ra, and it was done,
so that the beer gleamed red in the moonlight like the blood of men.
"Now take it to the place where Sekhmet proposes to slay men when the sun
rises," said Ra. And while it was still night the seven thousand jars of beer
were taken and poured out over the fields so that the ground was covered to
the depth of nine inches -- three times the measure of the palm of a man's
hand-with the strong beer, whose other name is "sleep-maker".
When day came Sekhmet the terrible came also, licking her lips at the thought
of the men whom she would slay. She found the place flooded and no living
creature in sight; but she saw the beer which was the colour of blood, and she
thought it was blood indeed -- the blood of those whom she had slain.
Then she laughed with joy, and her laughter was like the roar of a lioness
hungry for the kill. Thinking that it was indeed blood, she stooped and drank.
Again and yet again she drank, laughing with delight; and the strength of the
beer mounted to her brain, so that she could no longer slay.
At last she came reeling back to where Ra was waiting; that
day she had not killed even a single man.
Then Ra said: "You come in peace, sweet one." And her name
was changed to Hathor, and her nature was changed also to the
sweetness of love and the strength of desire. And henceforth
Hathor laid low men and women only with the great power of
love. But for ever after her priestesses drank in her honour of
the beer of Iunu coloured with the red ochre of Abu when they
celebrated her festival each New Year.
Note that in the above tale, the goddess called 'Eye of Ra' was Hathor who became
'Sekhmet', then 'Hathor'. But afterwards, Sekhmet and Hathor were two separate
deities, both having claim to the title 'Eye of Ra'!
Hathor was a very clear example of the Egyptian idea of duality - Hathor was both the
'sweet one' of music, dance and pleasure as well as a goddess of destruction, an
ancient goddess who was loved by the people of Egypt.

Ammut, Great of Death, Eater of

Hearts, The Devourer...

by Caroline Seawright
March 5, 2001

Ammut, Great of Death, Eater of Hearts, The Devourer...

Ammut (Ammit, Ahemait, Ammemet) was an Egyptian demoness. She was known as
the 'Eater of Hearts', 'The Devourer' and 'Great of Death' because she was a demoness
of punishment. She was a netherworld dweller who waited by the scales of judgement
to consume the heads of those who did evil during their lives. She was not worshiped,
and was never regarded as a goddess. Instead she embodied creatures that the
Egyptians feared, threatening to eat them if they did not follow the principals of
Ma'at.
She had the head of a crocodile, the body of a leopard and the backside of a
hippopotamus - all fierce creatures to the Egyptians. All man-eaters. It's no wonder
that she was depicted as one who consumed the unworthy dead!
Of Ammut, an Egyptian papyrus (No. 9901) states:
hat en emsuh; pehu-s em tebt her-ab-set em ma.
the fore-part of a crocodile; her hind-quarters are those
of a hippopotamus; her middle part [is that] of a lion.
-- The Book of the Dead, E. A. Wallis Budge
In The Book of the Dead, Ammut sat at the judgement of the dead in The Hall of
Double Ma'at (when the deceased's heart was weighed on the scales against Ma'at),
ready to devour the souls of the unworthy - the final death for an Egyptian! It has
even been suggested that she was also a protector of Osiris, because of her position at
the Judgement.
She was also known as the 'Dweller
in Amenty' or the 'Devourer of
Amenty', the place where the sun
sets. Amenty, as used by the
Egyptians, was applied to the west
bank of the Nile - Egyptian
cemeteries and funerary places
were all on the west. To the
Image Insecula

Egyptians, west was a direction linked to death. Amenty was also the name of the
underworld - the place where Ra travelled during the night. Ammut, therefore, was
not only a demoness of death, but a demoness of the underworld. In at least one
papyrus, Ammut was depicted as crouching beside the lake of fire in the infernal
regions of the underworld!
The Book of the Dead is a selection of spells, designed to assist the deceased through
the trials of the underworld. This also, of course, assists the dead to not get eaten by
Ammut. The papyrus of Ani, in a speech made by the gods to Thoth, says:
The Osiris [the scribe Ani], whose word is true, is holy and righteous. He has
not committed any sin, and he has done no evil against us. The devourer
Ammut shall not be permitted to prevail over him.
-- The Book of the Dead
In the form of Egyptian's fiercest man-eaters, Ammut was a terrifying demon who
was to eat those wrongdoers who had not followed ma'at. She stayed by the
judgement scales in the underworld, the one who lived in Amenty - the Land of the
West. She might have be fooled by spells, but what the Egyptians really wanted was
to be judged as worthy and holy, as one who was fit to stay with the gods in the Field
of Reeds.

Hathor, Goddess of Love, Music, Beauty ......

by Caroline Seawright

Hathor and Seti I

Hathor (Ht-hr - House of Horus)

She was a goddess of many things, among them she was a:

Celestial goddess: The Mistress of Heaven

Goddess of love, music and beauty: the Goddess of Love, Cheerfulness, Music, and
Dance,
Goddess of women, firtility, children and childbirth: The Mother of Mothers, the
Celestial Nurse,
Goddess of destruction and drunkeness: The Vengeful Eye of Ra, the Lady of
Drunkeness,

Goddess of the dead: Lady of the West

She was also known as the Mistress of Life, the Great Wild Cow, the Golden One, the
Mistress of Turquoise, Lady of Dendera (her cult centre was located at Dendera), Mistress of
Qis, Lady to the Limit (of the Universe), Lady of Punt (perhaps an area in present day
Somalia - see Hatshepsut's Expedition to Punt), the Powerful One, the Mistress of the Desert,
Lady of the Southern Sycamore (she was depicted as handing out water to the deceased
from a sycamore tree, hence a goddess of moisture as well as of the dead, both relating to
the sycamore tree), Lady of Malachite (eye makeup from Sinai was made from green
malachite - Sinai was one of Hathor's domains)... and many other names, besides.
The reason that she has so many names, one would assume, is because she is an ancient
goddess - she seems to have been mentioned as early as the 2nd Dynasty. She may even
been associated with the Narmer palette - although the two human faced bovines may also
have been a representation of the king.
It is interesting to note, though, that there is not a personal name of the goddess mentioned in
the list of names - they are all titles.
Another interesting thing about Hathor is found in one particular Egyptian tale - when the hero
of the story was born, the 'Seven Hathors', disguised as seven young women, appeared and
announced his fate. They seemed to be linked with not only fortune telling, but to being
questioners of the soul on its way to the Land of the West. These goddesses were worshiped
in seven cities: Thebes, Heliopolis, Aphroditopolis, Sinai, Momemphis, Herakleopolis, and
Keset. They are linked to the Pleiades.
Generally, Hathor is pictured as a woman with cow's horns with the sun between them (Eye of
Ra, Golden One), or as a beautiful woman with cow's ears, or a cow wearing the sun disk
between her horns, or even as a lioness or a lion-headed woman (destruction and
drunkeness). She often is seen carrying a sistrum, an ancient musical instrument (hence a
goddess of music). The sycamore was sacred to her (Lady of the Southern Sycamore). She is
said to be the mother of the pharaoh, and is often depicted in a nurturing role, suckling the
pharaoh when he was a child (hence a goddess of motherhood).
The Eye of Ra
One of the tales of Hathor was how she was originally a goddess of destruction (HathorSekhmet), and how she came to be the goddess of happier things:
Then Ra took on the shape of a man and became the first Pharaoh, ruling over the
whole country for thousands and thousands of years, and giving such harvests that
for ever afterwards the Egyptians spoke of the good things "which happened in the
time of Ra".
But, being in the form of a man, Ra grew old. In time men no longer feared him or
obeyed his laws. They laughed at him, saying: "Look at Ra! His bones are like silver,
his flesh like gold, his hair is the colour of lapis lazuli!"
Ra was angry when he heard this, and he was more angry still at the evil deeds
which men were doing in disobedience to his laws. So he called together the gods
whom he had made - Shu and Tefnut and Geb and Nut - and he also summoned
Nun. Soon the gods gathered about Ra in his Secret Place, and the goddesses also.
But mankind knew nothing of what was happening, and continued to jeer at Ra and to
break his commandments. Then Ra spoke to Nun before the assembled gods:
"Eldest of the gods, you who made me; and you gods whom I have made: look upon
mankind who came into being at a glance of my Eye. See how men plot against me;
hear what they say of me; tell me what I should do to them. For I will not destroy
mankind until I have heard what you advise."

Then Nun said: "My son Ra, the god greater than he who made him and mightier than
those whom he has created, turn your mighty Eye upon them and send destruction
upon them in the form of your daughter, the goddess Sekhmet."
Ra answered: "Even now fear is falling upon them and they are fleeing into the desert
and hiding themselves in the mountains in terror at the sound of my voice."
"Send against them the glance of your Eye in the form Sekhmet!" cried all the other
gods and goddesses, bowing before Ra until their foreheads touched the ground.
So at the terrible glance from the Eye of Ra his daughter Sekhmet came into being,
the fiercest of all goddesses. Like a lion she rushed upon her prey, and her chief
delight was in slaughter, and her pleasure was in blood. At the bidding of Ra she
came into Upper and Lower Egypt to slay those who had scorned and disobeyed him:
she killed them among the mountains which lie on either side of the Nile, and down
beside the river, and in the burning deserts. All whom she saw she slew, rejoicing in
slaughter and the taste of blood.
Presently Ra looked out over the land and saw what Sekhmet had done. Then he
called to her, saying: "Come, my daughter, and tell me how you have obeyed my
commands."
Sekhmet answered with the terrible voice of a lioness as she tears her prey: "By the
life which you have given me, I have indeed done vengeance on mankind, and my
heart rejoices."
Now for many nights the Nile ran red with blood, and Sekhmet's feet were red as she
went hither and thither through all the land of Egypt slaying and slaying.
Presently Ra looked out over the earth once more, and now his heart was stirred with
pity for men, even though they had rebelled against him. But none could stop the
cruel goddess Sekhmet, not even Ra himself: she must cease from slaying of her
own accord -and Ra saw that this could only come about through cunning.
So he gave his command: "Bring before me swift messengers who will run upon the
earth as silently as shadows and with the speed of the storm winds." When these
were brought he said to them: "Go as fast as you can up the Nile to where it flows
fiercely over the rocks and among the islands of the First Cataract; go to the isle that
is called Elephantine and bring from it a great store of the red ochre which is to be
found there."
The messengers sped on their way and returned with the blood-red ochre to
Heliopolis, the city of Ra where stand the stone obelisks with points of gold that are
like fingers pointing to the sun. It was night when they came to the city, but all day the
women of Heliopolis had been brewing beer as Ra bade them.
Ra came to where the beer stood waiting in seven thousand jars, and the gods came
with him to see how by his wisdom he would save mankind.
"Mingle the red ochre of Elephantine with the barley-beer," said Ra, and it was done,
so that the beer gleamed red in the moonlight like the blood of men.
"Now take it to the place where Sekhmet proposes to slay men when the sun rises,"
said Ra. And while it was still night the seven thousand jars of beer were taken and
poured out over the fields so that the ground was covered to the depth of nine inches
-- three times the measure of the palm of a man's hand-with the strong beer, whose
other name is "sleep-maker".

When day came Sekhmet the terrible came also, licking her lips at the thought of the
men whom she would slay. She found the place flooded and no living creature in
sight; but she saw the beer which was the colour of blood, and she thought it was
blood indeed -- the blood of those whom she had slain.
Then she laughed with joy, and her laughter was like the roar of a lioness hungry for
the kill. Thinking that it was indeed blood, she stooped and drank. Again and yet
again she drank, laughing with delight; and the strength of the beer mounted to her
brain, so that she could no longer slay.
At last she came reeling back to where Ra was waiting; that day she had not killed
even a single man.
Then Ra said: "You come in peace, sweet one." And her name was changed to
Hathor, and her nature was changed also to the sweetness of love and the strength of
desire. And henceforth Hathor laid low men and women only with the great power of
love. But for ever after her priestesses drank in her honour of the beer of Heliopolis
coloured with the red ochre of Elephantine when they celebrated her festival each
New Year.
Note that in the above tale, the goddess called 'Eye of Ra' was Hathor who became
'Sekhmet', then 'Hathor'. But afterwards, Sekhmet and Hathor were two seperate deities, both
having claim to the title 'Eye of Ra'!

In Egyptian mythology, the various deities not only ruled

specific departments of life but actually embodied these
concepts as well. What does this mean? Well, in other
words, Nefertum, Lord of Perfume, not only ruled and
sponsored the fragrant arts but also actually embodied their
product. He not only ruled the process, at its finest
expression, he could be the result. Heka was not only god
of magic but also the embodiment of magic as well.
Similarly, Hathor was the goddess of beauty and sacred
sponsor of the cosmetic arts but simultaneously their living
embodiment too. It is difficult to consider the Egyptian
vision and concept of beauty without also considering the
roles played by this prominent goddess.
Hathor is among the most ancient of the Egyptian deities.
She figures prominently in the creation saga featuring Ra.
Although Isis, who shared or adopted many of her
attributes, would eventually eclipse her in popularity,
Hathor would remain an important deity for as long as
worship of the traditional Egyptian gods was legal and
permitted. Even today, she continues to be spiritually
significant both for those Westerners who find spiritual
inspiration in ancient Egyptian religion and also for local Egyptian women who still
seek cures, fertility and protection at the remains of her shrines. Hathor is a constant
presence in the history of Egypt.
Hathor was the matron and embodiment of what were considered the pleasures of life
5,000 years ago- and which for many, remain so even today: joy, love, romance,
fecundity, dance, music, alcohol and perfume. A deity of women, she ruled anything

having to do with the female gender. Yet although she was intrinsically connected to
the female of the species, Hathor cannot be considered only a women's deity. She also
had a large and devoted following among men. As Lady of Malachite, Lady of
Turquoise, Hathor was also connected to metal. Holding spiritual dominion over the
Sinai Peninsula, she was responsible for the success and well being of the mines in
that area. Apparently Hathor was as intensely worshipped by male miners and soldiers,
as she was by women in childbirth or young girls desirous of husbands. Both genders
were able to recognize the sacred divine within her seductively vibrant joyous beauty.
Hathor may be occasionally fierce and terrible; she is never, however, unattractive.
Lest one think her imagery is limited, it is interesting to note that Hathor traditionally
takes more forms than perhaps any other ancient Egyptian deity, most of whom are
limited to only one or two shapes. In terms of imagery, she is perhaps the most fluid of
all of the Egyptian deities, rivaled only by the controversial Seth, among whose littleknown positive attributes include the providing of powerful love magic. Thus, Bastet
appears either as a
cat or as a woman
with a cat's head,
that's it. Hathor, the
Great One of Many
Names, seemingly
takes innumerable
shapes: woman,
goose, cat, lion,
malachite, sycamore
fig, to name only a
few.
Perhaps Hathor's
most famous
manifestation is as a
cow. This bovine
imagery remains
most consistent.
Even when
appearing as a
woman, she often
sports a cow's head
or at least a pair of cow ears, indicating perhaps that no matter how she appears, the
nourishing, generosity of the cow is always readily available under the surface. Hathor
embodies abundance in life, whether abundance of beauty, wealth, security or justice.
Prominent among common people and the royal state religion, Hathor is frequently
depicted suckling the pharaoh, whether in the guise of a cow or as a sycamore fig, a
tree that exudes a white milky substance. When she is depicted as entirely a cow, she
can be distinguished from run-of-the-mill bovines by her exquisitely made-up eyes.

Malachite, mined in
Hathor's province of
Sinai, was ground
into eye make up.
Thus one not only
worshipped Hathor
through the act of
embellishing the
eye, one also wore
her essence upon
one's body.
Although one
cannot draw
definitive parallels
as we lack definitive records, one can recognize a merging of physical and spiritual
goals, akin to the manner in which painting henna upon the body transcends mere
body art for a devout Hindu woman. The ritual ideally brings actual physical
connection with the divine presence of the good goddess Laksmi, embodied in henna.
Laksmi, quite similarly to Hathor, rules joyousness, abundance and the beauty and
vitality of women, the gracious acceptance of the pleasures of life. Thus Hathor was
very likely not merely an abstract religious concept but a vital living component of
everyday life. Eventually, Isis would borrow much of Hathor's iconography and her
functions, eventually even wearing her headdress. However, the two deities are not the
same nor are they interchangeable. Isis is a being of tremendous complexity: there is
tragedy inherent in her myth. Ultimately, Isis is the bereaved widow, the self-less,
devoted single mother. For all Isis' fame as the Mistress of Magic, she cannot avoid
pain, grief and desolation. Her legend embodies both the noblest and the most
hopeless aspects of human nature. Hathor, on the other hand, is the embodiment of
success. She lacks the ambivalence Isis sometimes possesses. Instead Hathor has an
absolute, laser-like focus. She may be joyous and benevolent or she may be singlemindedly vengeful towards spiritual transgressors, the enemies of her father.
Unhappiness, ugliness, failure: all these are foreign to her, not a part of her being.
Even in her most vengeful, dangerous aspect, Hathor takes the form of an elegant if
fearsome lioness or the searing but beautiful solar eye.

Hathor in her vengeful aspect is a consistently dangerous force; she cannot be

appealed to via emotion. Her destructive rampage is ultimately stopped through a trick
utilizing alcohol. Hathor was
sponsor not only of miners and
perfumers but also of brewers.
Implicitly, it is only through her
own force that she can be appeased
and controlled.
This is unlike Isis, who at the
moment of Horus's triumph suffers
a pang of mercy and pity for Seth,
his rival. Horus's response is to cut
off his mother's head, which will
ultimately be replaced by that of a
cow- an echo of Hathor for whom
boundaries are starkly clear, who
has no mercy on her father's
enemies.
Another parallel exists between
Hathor and Isis. In general, the
Egyptian gods and Egyptian
religion did not travel. The ancient Egyptians were insular, not overly interested in
importing or exporting deities. Eventually Isis would become the great exception, with
temples in Rome, and throughout Europe, Africa and Asia, as far away as the British
Isles. Hathor was her trailblazing predecessor. Beyond the traditional borders of Egypt
and Nubia, Hathor was worshipped throughout Semitic West Asia, beloved
particularly in the city of Byblos. She was also adored as far afield as what is modern
Ethiopia, Somalia and Libya. The seed of what would be universally beloved within
Isis also existed within Hathor. Their appeal transcends national or ethnic boundaries:
Hathor perhaps embodies the wishes of those who long for life to be generously
benevolent and abundant, while Isis embodies the hopes of those who wish for mercy
and kindness.
Hathor was associated with turquoise, malachite and the metals gold and copper. Her
demeanor glows with consistent confidence and sunny, good health. Hers is a warm,
sensual beauty not aloof or remote. Although she ruled the perfumer's trade in general,
Hathor was especially connected with the fragrance of myrrh, which was exceedingly
precious to the ancient Egyptians and which on a spiritual level embodied the finest
qualities of the feminine. The protector and sponsor of dancers, Hathor was associated
with percussive music, in particular the sistrum. Her traditional votive offering was
two mirrors, the better with which to see both her beauty and your own.
Hathor's image, specifically her head, was traditionally used to decorate sistrums and
mirrors. Thus when gazing at one's own reflection in the mirror, you would see Hathor
looking back, from underneath one's own face, serving as foundation and support,

perhaps as role model and goal. This imagery was standard and ubiquitous, it also
commonly decorates architectural columns, however one is forced to ask, how would
one know it was Hathor? Usually by the cow ears but even more consistently by the
hair-do.
Hathor's hair is dressed in so characteristic a fashion that the style now bears her
name: archaeologists have dubbed it the "Hathor hair-do." This style is utterly
distinctive and perhaps surprisingly modern to our eyes. It is not the heavily
bejeweled, elaborately braided hair so commonly depicted in other ancient Egyptian
imagery. Rather it is simplicity in the extreme: a simple flip, often parted down the
middle. The 'do wouldn't have looked at all out of place on a French or English mod
girl pop singer of the early to mid '60's- a Marianne Faithfull perhaps or Francoise
Hardy. It is a simple hairstyle, a hairstyle one can conceivably maintain by oneself,
without extensive wigs, servants or leisure time. It is very much an equalizing
hairstyle. Ironically, then, it is a hairstyle most commonly seen in the depiction of
deities, especially beautiful love goddesses, perhaps demonstrating the intensity of
their self-confidence.
While other ancient Egyptian hairstyles are instantly recognizable even today as solely
Egyptian, the Hathor hair-do seems to have set an international style, in particular
traveling all over the Middle East. Other goddesses are depicted wearing this style, in
fact it seems to have become the goddess hairstyle, favored by all the most fashionable
deities. In Mesopotamia, the beautiful and stylish, ever youthful if fierce, Ishtar
dresses her hair this way. So do the beautiful Western Semitic love and war goddesses,
Anat and Astarte, who would eventually achieve great popularity in ancient Egypt,
perhaps the only foreign deities to do so. They would become incorporated into
Egyptian mythology, serving as the designated consolation prize brides for Seth, in the
face-saving compromise that concludes his loss to Horus. Anat and Astarte, the ancient
equivalent of hot foreign babes, of course wear only the most stylish of hairdos.
Technically, we have no way of actually knowing where this hair-do originated or with
whom. However, Hathor's influence remains so consistent that no matter where an
ancient goddess plaque is dug up, if she's wearing that flip, she is automatically
described as wearing the Hathor hair do. What the goddesses who wear this style have
in common with Hathor beyond celestial beauty is a willingness to boldly battle on
behalf of justice, their families and followers. Ishtar, Anat and Hathor: these images of
beauty are not passive or vain but action-oriented brave women, perhaps so confident
of their inherent beauty that elaborate adornment becomes only necessary for their
own pleasure, not as a needed demonstration.

Horus
See Also:

Our Feature Story on Horus

Other Names: Heru, Hor, Harendotes/Har-nedj-itef (Horus the Avenger), Har-PaNeb-Taui (Horus Lord of the Two Lands)
Patron of: the living Pharaoh, rulers, law, war, young men, light, the sun, many
others depending on the particular variant.
Appearance: His most common form is that of falcon-headed man, but he is also
shown as a falcon, a lion with the head of a falcon, or a sphinx. He is also shown as a
falcon resting on the neck of the pharaoh, spreading his wings to either side of the
pharaoh's head and whispering guidance in his ear.
Description: It is nearly impossible to distinguish a "true" Horus from all his many
forms. In fact, Horus is mostly a general term for a great number of falcon gods, some
of which were worshipped all over Egypt, others simply had local cults. Yet in all of
his forms he is regarded as the prince of the gods and the specific patron of the living
ruler.
The worship of Horus was brought from the outside by neighboring tribes who
invaded and then settled into Egypt. He was their god of war, but was quickly
absorbed into the state religion, first as a son of Ra, then changing to become the son
of Osiris. He was the protector and guide to the pharaoh and later pharaohs were
believed to be his avatar on earth. Horus was also the patron of young men and the
ideal of the dutiful son who grows up to become a just man.
The most popular story of Horus is the one in which he grows to manhood to avenge
the death of his father Osiris by battling against his cruel uncle Set. In many writings,
he is said to continue to battle Set daily to ensure the safety of the world.
Worship: Worshipped widely throughout all of Egypt, even his variant forms were
widespread.
Variants:
Harmakhet
God of the dawn and of the morning sun, he is also worshipped as a keeper of secret
wisdom. Harmakhet's form is that of a sphinx or a sphinx with the head of a ram,
often depicted as a companion to Khephri. It is thought that the Great Sphinx, staring
at the eastern horizon, represents him.
Har-Pa-Khered/Harpokrates
Rarely found depicted without his mother Isis. He is shown as a nursing infant with
the royal sidelock or sometimes even with a crown, thus demonstrating his right to
kingship from the moment of his birth. His worship became very popular in the New
Kingdom, spreading even into the Greek and Roman civilizations.
Har-Sa-Iset/Harsiesis
This is the form of Horus that is most familiar, the son of Osiris and Isis. He was
conceived magically after the death of Osiris, and Isis hid him away on an island to
protect him from Set. In this form he is worshipped as an infant and is beseeched to
gain his mother's protection for the worshipper.

Horus Behudety/Horus of Edfu

God of the noontime sun. This particular variant was first worshipped in the western
Delta and spread south, a cult center being established at Edfu. He is represented by a
winged sun or as a lion with the head of a hawk. Horus Behudety fights constantly
against Set and an army of darkness to ensure that the sun rises each day.
Horus the Elder (Haroeris)
An early form of Horus, when his cult was still new in Egypt. A god of light, his left
eye was the sun and his right eye the moon. He was the brother of Osiris and Set, and
the husband of Hathor.
Ra-Harakhte
A combined god of Horus and Ra, he was the god of the sun and took it on its daily
path across the sky. He is represented as a falcon or a falcon-headed man wearing the
solar disk and the double crown. Sometimes he is pictured wearing the atef crown and
the uraeus.

Isis
Other Names: None.
Patron of: women, mothers, children, magic, medicine, and the Ritual of Life.
Appearance: A beautiful woman in magnificent clothing, sometimes shown wearing
the sun disk. She has almost no variant forms.
Description: Isis may be the oldest deity in Egypt, and certainly the oldest to survive
the ages in much the same form. She may also be the most important, for although the
other gods were worshipped widely, Isis was worshipped almost universally by all
Egyptians. The major goddess of the Egyptian pantheon, she had many of the same
attributes of other mother-goddesses found all over the world. She was revered as the
great protector, prayed to for guidance, and beseeched for peace in the world. Temples
to Isis are found everywhere in Egypt, some of them quite ancient, and many houses
had shrines to her devotion. Her worship was taken up by the Greeks and the Romans,
and indeed, Isis followers are still found today.
She was the daughter of Nut and Geb, the sister to Osiris, Set, and Nephthys, and the
mother of Horus. In earlier times she was not only the wife to Osiris, but his female
counterpart, equal in all ways and powers. In the Legend of Osiris it is she who travels
the world to find all the pieces of his body and it is she who brings him back to life
with the aid of Thoth. But that is not the only time she is associated with Thoth.
Together they taught man the secrets of magic, medicine, and agriculture. Her power
is spoken of much in the ancient stories, and she may have been even more powerful
than Ra and Osiris. She did after all trick Ra's secret name out of him to gain his
power. Yet she is never shown as selfish or cruel, except to those who would harm
those she loves. Power and compassion, crafty but merciful, Isis represents all the
qualities of women.

Worship: Worshipped widely not only throughout Egypt but also much of the known
world.

Amun and Amun-Re

by Taylor Ray Ellison

Some assume that Amun (Amen, Amon) was a

relatively modern god within the context of ancient
Egyptian religion. His worship at Thebes, where the
earliest known Temple dedicated to him was located,
is only documented from the 11th Dynasty onward.
It is true that he gained most of his prestige after
replacing the war god Montu as the principle god of
Thebes during Egypt's New Kingdom, when he was
recognized as the "King of Gods". At that time,
because of Egypt's influence in the world, he actually
became a universal god. In fact, by the 25th Dynasty,
Amun-Re was even the chief god of the Nubian
Kingdom of Napata and by the Ptolemic, or Greek
period, he was regarded as the Egyptian equivalent of
Zeus. However, he is actually mentioned in the
pyramid text from the Old Kingdom (5th Dynasty,
Unas - line 558), which show him to be a primeval
deity and a symbol of creative force. This text seems
to assign great antiquity to his existence.
Amun-Re grew so important spiritually and politically by the time of the New
Kingdom that Egypt became something of a Theocracy. At the apex of his worship,
Egyptian religion approached monotheism. The other gods became mere symbols of
his power, or manifestations of Amun-Re. In essence, he became the one and only
supreme deity.
He was one of the eight Heh gods of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, where his original
consort was Amaunet (Ament). His worship may have originated at Hermopolis, but
another possibility was that he functioned early on as a less prominent god at Thebes,
where he eventually flourished. The Nubians, however, believed that he originated at

Gebel Barkal, located in the modern north of the Sudan.

In the middle of the 16th Dynasty, with the expulsion of the Hyksos rulers of Egypt,
Amun's growth was accelerated due to the vindication of both Egyptian power and
Amun-Re as a protector of both the Egyptian state and the Monarchy. At that time,
temples were built and dedicated to Amun throughout Egypt, including the Luxor
Temple and the Great Temple at Karnak. His importance during this and later periods
is evidenced by the grander and extravagance of these temples. They were enlarged
and enriched over the centuries by rulers of Egypt who were eager to express their
devotion to Amun-Re.
In fact, his growth to that of a national god mirrored the growth of Thebes in
importance. This growth was accelerated when Amenemhet I took control of the
thrown at Thebes, and founded the 12th Dynasty. However, the apex of his worship
probably occurred during the New Kingdom onward at Thebes, where the important
Opet festival was dedicated to Amun. During the Opet festival, the statue of Amun
was conveyed by boat from the temple of Karnak to Luxor in order to celebrate
Amun's marriage to Mut in his aspect of Ka-mut-ef (literally, "bull of his mother"). In
this capacity, Amun was recognized for his procreative function. Together, Amun and
Mut conceived their son, Khonsu, a moon god, to make of the Thebes Triad.
The sacred animal of Amun was originally the Goose, and like Geb, he was sometimes
known as the "Great Cackler". Later, Amun was more closely associated with the
Ram, a symbol of fertility. At various times he also sometimes appears as a man with
the head of a frog, the head of a uraeus, the head of a crocodile, or as an ape. However,
when depicted as a king, he wears the crown of two plumes, a symbol borrowed from
Min, and often sits on a throne. In this form, he is one of nine deities who compose the
company of gods of Amen-Ra. In the Greek period (and somewhat earlier, in order to
ascribe many attributes to Amun-Re, he was sometimes depicted in bronze with the
bearded head of a man, the body of a beetle with the wings of a hawk, the legs of a
man and the toes and claws of a lion. He was further provided with four hands and
arms and four wings.

The worship surrounding Amun, and later, Amun-Re represented one of ancient
Egypt's most complex theologies. In his most mature form, Amun-Re became a
hidden, secret god. In fact, his name (Imn), or at lest the name by which the ancient
Egyptians called him, means "the hidden one" or "the secret one" (though there has
been speculation that his name is derived from the Libyan word for water, aman.
However, modern context seems to negate this possibility). In reality, however, and
according to mythology, both his name and physical appearance were unknown, thus
indicating his unknowable essence.
Stated differently, Amun was unknown because he
represented absolute holiness, and in this regard, he was
different then any other Egyptian deity. So holy was he
that he remained independent of the created universe. He
was associated with the air as an invisible force, which
facilitated his growth as a supreme deity. He was the
Egyptian creator deity par excellence, and according to
Egyptian myth, was self-created. It was believed that he
could regenerate himself by becoming a snake and
shedding his skin. At the same time, he remained apart
from creation, totally different from it, and fully
independent from it.
However, while hidden, the addition to his name of "Re"
revealed the god to humanity. Re was the common
Egyptian term for the sun, thus making him visible.
Hence, Amun-Re combined within himself the two
opposites of divinity, the hidden and the revealed. As
Amun, he was secret, hidden and mysterious, but as Re,
he was visible and revealed. In some respects, this even
relates to his association with Ma'at, the Egyptian concept
of order and balance, and reflects back upon the ancient

Egyptian's concepts of duality.

The secret, or hidden attribute of Amun enabled him to be easily synchronized and
associated with other deities. At Thebes, Amun was first identified with Montu, but
soon replaced him as the city's protector. His association with Re grew in importance
when Amenemhet I moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy at the apex of the Nile Delta,
where the relationship was probably expedient both theologically and politically.
However, this association with Re actually grew as Thebes itself gained importance.
Soon, Amun was identified with other gods as well, taking on the names (among
others) Amun-Re-Atum, Amun-Re-Montu, Amun-Re-Horakhty and Min-Amun.
However, it should be noted that with all of this synchronization, Amun was not
absorbed to create a a new god. Instead, there was a unity of divine power with these
other gods.
Amun-Re was associated with the Egyptian monarchy,
and theoretically, rather than threatening the pharaoh's
power, the throne was supported by Amun-Re. The
ancient theology made Amun-Re the physical father of
the king. Hence, the Pharaoh and Amun-Re enjoyed a
symbiotic relationship, with the king deriving power
from Amun-Re. In return, the king supported the
temples and the worship of Amun. In theory, Amun-Re
could even take the form of the king in order to
impregnate the chief royal wife with the successor to
the throne (first documented during the reign of
Hatshepsut during the New Kingdom). Furthermore,
according to official state theology during the New
Kingdom, Egypt was actually ruled by Amun-Re
through the pharaohs, with the god revealing his will
through oracles.
In reality, the god did in fact threaten the monarchy, for
the cult of Amun-Re became so powerful that its
priesthood grew very large and influential, and at one
point, priests of the deity actually came to rule Egypt
(during the 21st Dynasty). At other times, Amun-Re created difficulties for the king,
such as in the case of Akhenaten, who sought to change the basic structure of Egyptian
religion. In this instance, Amun-Re eventually proved more powerful then the king,
for though Akhenaten desperately tried to change the nature of Egyptian religion, for
such efforts he himself became the scorn of later pharaohs. After Akhenaten's reign,
Egyptian religion almost immediately reverted back to its prior form and to the
worship of Amun-Re.

Ma'at, Goddess of Truth, Balance,

Order...
by Caroline Seawright
February 8, 2001

Ma'at, Goddess of Truth, Balance, Order...

Ma'at, unlike Hathor and Nephthys, seemed to be more of a concept than an actual
goddess. Her name, literally, meant 'truth' in Egyptian. She was truth, order, balance
and justice personified. She was harmony, she was what was right, she was what
things should be. It was thought that if Ma'at didn't exist, the universe would become
chaos, once again!
For the Egyptian believed that the universe was above everything else an
ordered and rational place. It functioned with predictability and regularity; the
cycles of the universe always remained constant; in the moral sphere, purity
was rewarded and sin was punished. Both morally and physically, the universe
was in perfect balance.
-- Ma'at, Goddess of Truth; Truth and Order, Richard Hooker
Because of Ma'at, the Egyptians knew that the universe, that everything in the
universe, worked on a pattern, just as, later on, the Greeks called the underlying order
of the universe logos (meaning, order, pattern).
"In the beginning was the logos*, and the logos* was with God and the logos*
was God."
-- John 1:1
* Logos was the 'Word', another name for Jesus.
Egypt, then, was seen to be nothing without Ma'at.

Ma'at was reality, the solid grounding of reality that made the Sun rise, the
stars shine, the river flood and mankind think. The universe itself, all the
world around them, was sacred in the ancient view.
"Ethics" is an issue of human will and human permission. It is a function of
the human world of duality. What is "ethical" for one group is sin for another.
But Ma'at, the reality that made all groups what they are is transcendent of
ethics, just as a rock or a flower is amoral, a-ethical, without "truth or
falsehood." How can a flower be "false" or "ethical." It just is. How can the
universe be "ethical or moral, right or wrong"? It simply is. That is Ma'at.
-- Walk Like An Egyptian: A Modern Guide To The Religion and Philosophy
Of Ancient Egypt, Ramona Louise Wheeler
Despite being a winged goddess (like Nephthys), she was judge at the Egyptian
underworld at the Halls of Ma'ati or Halls of the Double Ma'at.
The dead person's heart was placed on a scale, balanced by Ma'at herself, or by the
Feather of Ma'at (her symbol that she wore on her head was an ostrich feather).
Thoth (god of writing and scribes) weighed the heart... if the deceased had been found
to not have followed the concept of ma'at during his life (if he had lied or cheated or
killed or done anything against ma'at) his heart was devoured by a demon (she was
called Ammut - Devouress of the Dead) and he died the final death. If the heart
weighed the same as Ma'at, the deceased was allowed to go on to the afterlife.
In life, it was the pharaohs' duty to uphold ma'at. "I have done Ma'at" has been spoken
by several pharaohs, as well as being called "beloved of Ma'at".
The ruler who forcibly emphasizes his adherence to Ma'at on his monuments
in Akhenaten - the very king whom later pharaohs considered to have deviated
immensely from her laws.
-- Ma'at/Maae't, Nebet Mirjam
Ma'at, as would be logical, was also was the justice meeted out in ancient Egyptial
law courts. It is likely that a "Priest of Ma'at" referred to people who were involved in
the justice system, as well as being priests of the goddess
herself.
There is a small temple dedicated by Hatshepsut (14731458 BC) to Ma'at (in ruins) at Ipet-Isut (Karnak). The
temple is inside Precinct of Montu, the smallest of three
enclosures at Ipet-Isut. The temple seems to have been
built by Hatshepsut, then reconstructed by Thothmose III.
There is a computer reconstruction of the temple of Ma'at by Gerard Homann.
Ma'at did not exist until Ra rose from the waters of Nun (the water where Nun and
various other gods and goddesses of Chaos lived). She was known as a Neter goddess,
and as such, was described as a daughter of Ra. But without Ma'at, Egyptians believed

that Nun would reclaim the universe. She was also thought to be the wife of Thoth,
moon god and god of the wisdom.
She was, really, the most important deity of them all.

Hatshepsut, Female Pharaoh of Egypt

by Caroline Seawright
November 6, 2000

Ma'at-ka-Ra Hatshepsut, Female Pharaoh of Egypt

Ma'at-ka-Ra - 'Truth/Order/Balance ("Ma'at") is the Spirit/Double ("ka")

of Ra'
Hatshepsut-Khnumet-Amen - 'Foremost of Female Nobles, Joined With
Amen'
Although not the only female ruler of Egypt, Ma'at-ka-Ra Hatshepsut
(1473-1458 BC) is one of the best known (next to Cleopatra).
She was an 18th dynasty Pharaoh, daughter of Thothmose I and Queen
Ahmose. When her father died her half brother, Thothmose II, ascended to
the throne. He was young, apparently younger than Hatshepsut herself.
The Egyptian tradition of having the Pharaoh marry a royal woman led Thothmose II
to marry Hatshepsut. (The women in Egypt may have carried the royal blood, not the
males. To become Pharaoh, the man had to marry a female of royal blood, often a
sister, half sister or other near relative. Usually it was the eldest daughter of the
previous Pharaoh.) Thothmose II died soon after becoming Pharaoh, leaving the
widow Hatshepsut, a daughter Neferura... and a son by another wife - Thothmose III.

Due to the young age of the Pharaoh, Hatshepsut became his regent. They
ruled together for a number of years until she proclaimed herself Pharaoh
(perhaps when Thothmose III was reaching manhood) - something almost
unheard of, despite the higher status of women in Egypt compared to
women in other cultures at the time. Women could own land, inherit from
family members, and even go to court to defend her rights. But before
Hatshepsut, there were queens who had ruled Egypt... but not a female
Pharaoh.
She managed to rule for about twenty years, before disappearing from history...
coinciding with Thothmose III's becoming Pharaoh in his own right.
But what happened in those twenty years?
Inscriptions on the Walls of Hatshepsut's Temple
Hatshepsut, with the backing of the temple of Amen, proclaimed that she was the
divine daughter of the god Amen:
Amen took the form of the noble King Thothmose and found the queen
sleeping in her room. When the pleasant odours that proceeded from him
announced his presence she woke. She smiled at his majest. He went to her,
his penis erect. He gave her his heart to her and showed himself in his godlike
splendour. When he approached the queen she wept for joy at his
strength and beauty. His love passed into her limbs. The palace
was flooded with the god's fragrance, and all his perfumes were
as from Punt.
On the walls of her temple, Hatshepsut describes how Thothmose I made
her his heir:
Then his majesty said to them: "This daughter of mine, KhnumetAmen Hatshepsut - may she live! - I have appointed as my
successor upon my throne...she shall direct the people in every sphere of the
palace; it is she indeed who shall lead you. Obey her words, unite yourselves
at her command." The royal nobles, the dignitaries, and the leaders of the
people heard this proclamation of the promotion of his daughter, the King of
Upper and Lower Egypt, Ma'at-ka-Ra - may she live eternally!
The Birth Colonnade depicts Queen Ahmose in subtle images with the words of
Hatshepsut's conception and birth. From an image of Queen Ahmose and Amen seated
together while the queen breaths in life from the god, to one of the rare examples of a
pregnant woman - Khnum and Heqet lead the queen to the birthing room. The
stomach of the queen is only slightly rounded, despite the fact that she is shown going
to the birthing room to give birth to Hatshepsut. Another scene shows a goddess
handing the baby girl to the queen, with the goddess Meskhenet, the goddess of the
birth bricks, kneeling behind the queen, and deities all around. Finally there is a scene
showing Hatshepsut being brought before the gods, and before her father, Amen.

Hatshepsut began to adopt several male attributes, after the Oracle of Amen
pronounced it Amen's will that Hatshepsut should be Pharaoh. She gradually took on
the new role, rather than appearing all at once as the Pharaoh. That would have been a
drastic step - she was rather cautious. She dropped her titles relating to those only a
woman could hold, and took on those of the Pharaoh, and slowly started the trend
towards appearing like a male, wearing the shendyt kilt, nemes headdress with its
uraeus, khat head cloth and false beard. She even, eventually, dropped the female
ending from her name ('t') and became His Majesty, Hatshepsu 'Foremost of Nobles'.
Hatshepsut's Daughters
On becoming Pharaoh, Hatshepsut had to give up her title - not just a title, but a
special job with specific duties - of "God's Wife". She granted her daughter Neferura
('Beauties of Ra'), Thothmose II's daughter, this title. Unfortunately Neferura died
young, but Hatshepsut apparently was grooming her daughter as a prince, rather than
a princess, despite the title. There is a beautiful block statue of Senmut, holding the
child Neferura enfolded in his arms. Neferura is wearing the royal false beard, and the
side lock of a youth.
One of Neferura's tutors was a soldier, Ahmose, who wrote:
Hatshepsut gave me repeated honours. I raised her eldest daughter, Princess
Neferura, while she was still a child at the breast.
Merira-Hatshepset ('Beloved of Ra'), Hatshepsut's who may or may not have been
second daughter (there are different schools of thought on this matter), became the
wife of Thothmose III, and married him just before or during his coronation after
Thothmose II died. Little else is known about her, other than she may have been the
mother of Amenhotep II.
Senmut and Other Officials
When Neferura was still a child, Senmut ('Brother of Mut') was her tutor. It is
unknown as to his relationship with Hatshepsut, but he was one of her strongest
supporters, probably even one of her top advisers... During his time, he gained over
40 titles, including chief architect. He disappeared some time before the end of
Hatshepsut's reign, and it is unknown what actually happened to him.
The backing of the priesthood of Amen was very important to raise and keep
Hatshepsut in power. Hapuseneb was the High Priest of Amen, and Hatshepsut also
put him in charge of her monuments at Ipet-Isut (Karnak). He may have even been
vizier to Hatshepsut, but she certainly gave him power.
Nehsy was one of her Chancellor, known for leading Hatshepsut's expedition to the
Land of Punt.
One inscription that Senmut himself left proclaimed of himself:

Companion greatly beloved, Keeper of the Palace, Keeper of the

Heart of the King, making content the Lady of Both Lands,
making all things come to pass for the Spirit of Her Majesty.
But, from his titles, it may be a true statement. Senmut was a lowly born man who
rose to power with Hatshepsut. Some of his many titles included Overseer of the
Works, Overseer of the Fields, Overseer of the Double Gold House, Overseer of the
Gardens of Amen, Controller of Works, Overseer of the Administrative Office of the
Mansion, Conductor of Festivals, Overseer of the Cattle of Amen, Steward of the
King's Daughter Neferura, Chief of the King, Magnate of the Tens of Upper and
Lower Egypt, Chief of the Mansion of the Red Crown, Privy Councillor, Chief
Steward of Amen, Overseer of the Double Granary of Amen and Hereditary Prince
and Count.
Hatshepsut's Mortuary Temple and Other Works
After becoming Pharaoh, Hatshepsut ordered many works, carrying on from her
father's works. Her first were two obelisks, cut at Swentet (Aswan) and transported to
Ipet-Isut. There is not much left of these, as most of her things were vandalised after
Thothmose III took over. She later ordered three more to be cut (one of which cracked
before it was carved from the rock, so it still remains at Swentet till this day!). These
were to celebrate her 16th year as Pharaoh.
At Ipet-Isut, she carried out many repairs to the temples, assuring herself the favours
of the priests. It was a continuation of the works of her father, but her own
restorations included a pylon to the temple and obelisks. Somewhat further north,
she built a small temple in the rock, with more inscriptions of her reign. This is a
most beautiful temple, again.
She also ordered a tomb made for herself, while married to Thothmose II. It was
a queen's tomb in the Valley of the Kings, but it was never completed.
Supposedly she and her father, Thothmose I, were actually buried there until the
priests moved the bodies elsewhere, to stop thieves from desecrating the tombs.
(There was a first, small tomb that was also unfinished, built behind the Valley of
the Queens, but this was abandoned when Hatshepsut married Thothmose II and
became queen.)
After the Valley of the Kings tomb was abandoned, work at the beautiful Deir elBahri tomb was started. This was to be her famous Mortuary Temple - Djeser
Djeseru. It was built at the site of an even older temple - Montuhotep II's mortuary
temple from the 11th Dynasty. This is the place where the inscriptions of her life and
achievements can be found, although they, too, were vandalised.
It was modelled on Montuhotep II's temple, but Senmut, the architect, improved on
the design, blending in with the cliffs around the area. It is a three-terraced building
with porticoes, with chapels to the gods at the top - one to Hathor, Anubis, RaHorakhty and, of course, Amen-Ra.
Inscriptions at the temple say:

When you rest in your building where your beauties are

worshiped, Amen-Ra, the Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands,
give Hatshepsut Ma'at-ka-Ra life, duration and happiness. For
you she has made this building fine, great, pure and lasting...
It most certainly is lasting.
Her temple was filled with many beautiful scenes that prove herself as Pharaoh. There
was even some reference to military activity at the temple, even though she is often
portrayed as a peaceful queen. She did, in fact, have some conquest, like the rest of
her seemingly war-loving family.
This refers to a campaign in Nubia. She even sent Thothmose III out with the army,
on various campaigns (many of which little is known at all!). One inscription even
says that Hatshepsut herself led one of her Nubian campaigns. The inscription at Setet
Island (Sehel Island) suggest that Ty, the treasurer of Lower Egypt, went into battle
under Hatshepsut herself. She had to prove herself as a warrior Pharaoh to her people.
It also depicts her expedition to the Land of Punt.
The Expedition to Punt
Hatshepsut ordered a trading expedition, her ships reaching the Land of Punt (perhaps
to present day Somalia), as commanded by the god Amen-Ra. This was a land rich in
products Egyptians desired - myrrh, frankincense, woods, sweet-smelling resin,
spices, gold, ebony, ivory and aromatic trees. Even animals and fish, many of which
can be identified today.
There are also reliefs of the homes and people of Punt. The huts of the people, and the
native flora, resemble the huts of the Toquls (according to some) near Somalia. The
fish and other animals are not natives of Egypt, leading to evidence that Hatshepsut's
people had actually visited such a place. Even the people are shown - the most
obvious of the people, though, would have to be the ruler of Punt's wife - she is
depicted as an obese woman. But their outfits and the fashion shown of the people
seem to describe the ancient peoples of Somali.
The chief and his wife, quoted on Hatshepsut's mortuary temple, say:
How have you arrived at this land unknown to the men of Egypt? Have you
come down from the roads of the Heavens? Or have you navigated the sea of
Ta-nuter? You must have followed the path of the sun. As for the King of
Egypt, there is no road which is inaccessible to His Majesty; we live by the
breath he grants to us.
On the return of the expedition, Hatshepsut held a procession to the Temple of AmenRa, where her inscriptions stated that the god himself, and Hathor (Lady of Punt),
guided the expedition to the new lands. After the appropriate sacrifices had been
made, tributes from the Land of Punt were transferred to the temple.

She recorded this on the walls of her temple at Deir el-Bahri, and many of the
scenes can still be seen today. (Unfortunately many were damaged or destroyed
when someone - most likely Thothmose III - tried to erase her name and image
from every monument that may have had her name.)
Though this seems a little drastic, there was obviously bitter feelings against
Hatshepsut. No-one knows if she was murdered, died or retired from politics to let
Thothmose III and her second daughter rule, but she disappeared when Thothmose III
became Pharaoh in his own right. Her body has not been positively identified, so it is
difficult to prove one way or another. There are a mummies that are a good candidates
to be the pharaoh herself, though. An elder woman found in the cache of Amenhotep
II; the second female mummy found in the tomb of Hatshepsut's nurse, Sitra-In; and a
female mummy found in a cache of mummies along with Hatshepsut's canopic chest
containing the remains of her liver.
But, despite all the damage, the people of today still know of Egypt's first female
Pharaoh - Hatshepsut.

Nun and Naunet, Deities of Chaos and

Water...
by Caroline Seawright
September 3, 2001

Image Francis Dzikowski

Nun and Naunet, Deities of Chaos and Water...
The Egyptians believed that before the world was formed, there was a watery mass of
dark, directionless chaos. In this chaos lived the Ogdoad of Khmunu (Hermopolis),
four frog gods and four snake goddesses of chaos. These deities were Nun and Naunet
(water), Amen and Amaunet (invisibility), Heh and Hauhet (infinity) and Kek and
Kauket (darkness). The name of the water of chaos was Nun.
Nun

It was from Nun (Nu) that Ra (or Amen, another of the Ogdoad who became
prominent Middle Kingdom onward, and joined with the sun god as Amen-Ra)
created himself, rising up on the first piece of land - the primeval mound
(Benben) out of the water lily (lotus) blossom, born from the world egg, or as a
bnw-bird who then found and landed on the mound. In another story, it was
Thoth who awoke from Nun and sang the unnamed four frog gods and snake
goddesses who then continued Thoth's song to keep the sun travelling through the sky.
The First Time then began and Ra was thought to have created the universe, including
his children - other gods. He brought Ma'at - order - to chaos. Nun was thought to be
the father of Ra, who was known as the father of the gods.
Your offering-cake belongs to you, Nun and Naunet,
Who protects the gods, who guards the gods with your shadows.
-- Pyramid Text 301
One story says that Ra's children, Shu and Tefnut, went to explore the waters of Nun.
After some time, Ra believed that they were lost, and sent the his Eye out into the
chaos to find them. When his children were returned to him, Ra wept, and his
tears were believed to have turned into the first humans. Nun then became the
protector of the twin deities, protecting them from the demons in his waters.
Later on, it was Nun who suggested that Ra sent out his Eye to destroy the
humans who were in contempt of the sun god. Finally, it was on Nun's orders that
Nut turned into a solar cow, and carried Ra up into the sky after the sun god had
grown old and wearied of life on earth.
Nun was thought to exist both outside the universe and as part of every body of
water from the Nile to temple pools. The Nile itself was thought to flow from Nun's
primordial waters. He was thought to play a part in the rituals involved in laying out
the foundation for new temples.
Nun was also thought to continue to exist as subsoil water beneath the earth
and as the source of the annual flooding of the Nile River.
-- Encyclopdia Britannica
The god was shown as either a frog-headed man, or as a bearded man, occasionally
shown as similar in appearance to Hapi. He was often shown rising up out of a body
of water, carrying the solar barque in his up stretched hands.
Though Nun was a being of chaos, he was thought to have a beneficial side, unlike the
water serpent of chaos, Apep, who was thought to be Ra's enemy. The Egyptians
believed that Apep had been created when the goddess Nit spat into Nun - her spittle
turned into the water serpent-demon.
The god of chaos didn't have a priesthood, nor any temples that have been found, and
was never worshiped as a personified god. Instead, he was represented at various

temples by the sacred lakes symbolising the chaotic waters before the First Time. At
Abtu (Abydos), he is represented by an underground water channel at the Osireion.
The Ogdoad were the original great gods of Iunu (On, Heliopolis) where they were
thought to have helped with creation, then died and retired to the land of the dead
where they continued to make the Nile flow and the sun rise every day. Iunu was
thought to have been the site of the primeval mound by the priests of the city, and they
had a sacred lake known as 'The Sea of Two Knives' and an island known as 'The Isle
of Flames'. The lake, attached to a temple, represented Nun's waters, and the island
was believed to be the primeval mound itself. Ra was thought to have come into the
world out of the giant water lily which grew on the mound:
Out of the water lily, created by the Eight, came forth
Ra, who created all things, divine and human.
In Mennefer (Hikuptah, Memphis), Nun was linked
to the creator god, Ptah, and known as Ptah-Nun.
Thus both Ptah and Nun were thought to be the father
of the sun god Atem, and also thought to be more
powerful than the god. He was the 'Heart and the
Tongue of the Ennead' (the one of intelligence who
had the power to command), and thus the one who
was in control, with the sun god being placed a step
below the creator god of Hikuptah.
Image April McDevitt
The priests of Waset (Thebes), on the other hand, declared that Waset was the site of
the Nun's water, and the rising of the primeval mound. Amen, the creator god of
Waset, was originally one of the Ogdoad and became the most powerful god of the
area. They believed that Amen changed from the invisible chaos deity into the
primeval mound. In this form, he created the other gods. He created the water lily,
which opened to reveal the child form of Amen-Ra, who then finished the creation of
the world. Nun, although he was a powerful force, was thought to have been inert
until Amen awoke him from torpor, and used his chaotic waters to create the universe.
Naunet

Naunet (Nunet), on the other hand, is more obscure than her

husband. She was thought to be a snake-headed woman who
presided over the watery chaos with Nun. Her name was
exactly the same as Nun's, in hieroglyphs, but with the
feminine ending for a goddess.
In Hikuptah, she was imagined to be the mother of the sun god, as Nun was the father,
combined with Ptah, creator god of the city:
The gods who came into being in Ptah:
Ptah-on-the-great-throne --------.

Ptah-Nun, the father who [made] Atem.

Ptah-Naunet, the mother who bore Atem.
Ptah-the-Great is heart and tongue of the Nine [Gods].
-- Shabaka Stone
The Egyptians of Khmunu believed that the world was surrounded by mountains that
helped support the sky, but at their feet was Naunet. They imagined that Ra appeared
from these mountains, being reborn daily from the watery abyss.
Naunet was the feminine to Nun's masculine, more of a representation of duality than
an actual goddess, so she was even less of a deity than Nun, and more of an abstract.
One day, it was believed that the waters of Nun would eventually inundate the whole
world, and once again the universe would become the primordial waste of Nun's
chaotic waters.

Thoth, God of the Moon, Magic and

Writing...
by Caroline Seawright
August 6, 2001

Thoth, God of the Moon, Magic and Writing...

The wisest of the Egyptian gods was Thoth (Djhuty, Djehuty, Tehuty), the baboon and
ibis god of the moon. Thoth was the god who overcame the curse of Ra, allowing Nut
to give birth to her five children, with his skill at games. It was he who helped Isis
work the ritual to bring Osiris back from the dead, and who drove the magical poison
of Set from her son, Horus with the power of his magic. He was Horus' supporter
during the young god's deadly battle with his uncle Set, helping Horus with his
wisdom and magic. It was Thoth who brought Tefnut, who left Egypt for Nubia in a

sulk after an argument with her father, back to heaven to be reunited with
Ra.
Tefnut, the Eye of Ra, became estranged from her father and fled into Nubia,
taking all of her precious water with her. In this land, she transformed herself
into a lioness. She raged through the countryside, emitting flames from her
eyes and nostrils. Viciously, she drank the blood and fed on the flesh of both
animals and humans. As time went on, Ra missed his Eye, and longed to see
her again - Egypt had dried, and the land was in chaos. He summoned Shu to
him, along with Thoth, who was the messenger of the gods and famous for his
eloquence. Ra issued the command that Shu and Thoth must go to Nubia and
bring back his recalcitrant daughter. Before they set off on their journey Shu
and Thoth disguised themselves as baboons. The baboon was an animal sacred
to Thoth. Eventually, Thoth and Shu found Tefnut in Begum. Thoth began at
once to try and persuade her to return to Egypt. Tefnut, however, wasn't
interested. She liked hunting in the desert and was perfectly happy where she
was. Thoth would not give up though, and wove stories to depict to her how
gloom had descended upon Egypt since she had left. The people of Egypt
would do anything for her if she'd just return home. Ultimately, wooed by
Thoth's promises, Tefnut relented and returned to Egypt accompanied by the
two baboons. All the way there, Thoth kept her entertained with stories.
Tefnut made a triumphant entry back into the homeland, accompanied by a
host of Nubian musicians, dancers and baboons. She went from city to city,
bringing back moisture and water (the inundation), amid great rejoicing, until
finally she was reunited with her father, and restored to her rightful position as
his Eye.
When Ra retired from the earth, he appointed Thoth and told him of his desire to
create a Light-soul in the Duat and in the Land of the Caves, and it was over this
region that the sun god appointed Thoth to rule, ordering him to keep a register of
those who were there, and to mete out just punishments to them. Thoth became the
representation of Ra in the afterlife, seen at the judgement of the dead in the 'Halls of
the Double Ma'at'.
The magical powers of Thoth were so great, that the Egyptians had tales of a 'Book of
Thoth', which would allow a person who read the sacred book to become the most
powerful magician in the world. The Book which "the god of wisdom wrote with his
own hand" was, though, a deadly book that brought nothing but pain and tragedy to
those that read it, despite finding out about the "secrets of the gods themselves" and
"all that is hidden in the stars".
He was one of the earlier Egyptian gods, thought to be scribe to the gods, who kept a
great library of scrolls, over which one of his wives, Seshat, the goddess of writing,
was thought to be mistress. The god born of this union was called Hornub. He was
associated by the Egyptians with speech, literature, arts, learning. He, too, was a
measurer and recorder of time, as was Seshat. Believed to be the author of the spells
in The Book of the Dead and a much later work, the Book of Breathings, he was a
helper (and punisher) of the deceased as they try to enter the underworld. In this role,
his wife was Ma'at, the personification of order, who was weighed against the heart of
the dead to see if they followed ma'at during their life. At Khmunu (Hermopolis) he

was wed to a goddess of protection called Nehmauit (Nahmauit,

Nehmetaway), 'She Who Uproots Evil', with whom he fathered the god
Neferhor.
Thoth was usually depicted as an ibis headed man or as a full ibis, or with
the face of a dog-headed baboon and the body of a man or, again, as a full dog-headed
baboon. The ibis, it is thought, had a crescent shaped beak, linking the bird to the
moon. The dog-headed baboon, on the other hand, was a night animal that was seen
by the Egyptians who would greet the sun with chattering noises each morning just as
Thoth, the moon god, would greet Ra, the sun god, as he rose.
In keeping with his many attributes, he was depicted with a variety of
symbols. As a god of Egypt, he carried the ankh, the symbol of life, in one
hand, and in the other he held a sceptre, the symbol of power. In The Book of
the Dead, he was shown holding a writing palette and reed pen to record the
deeds of the dead. As voice of the sun-god Ra, he carried the Wedjat (Eye of
Horus or Ra) the symbol of Ra's ubiquitous power. Thoth was variously
depicted wearing a crescent moon on his headdress, or wearing the atef
crown, or sometimes, the crown of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Originally, Thoth was a god of creation, but was later thought to be the one who
civilized men, teaching them civic and religious practices, writing, medicine, music
and magic. It was Thoth who was thought to have taught men the mode and
pronunciation of his writing - prayers and magic spells could fail if not intoned
correctly - and so he was the master of magic. He took on many of the roles of Seshat,
until she became a dual, female version of Thoth.
The god of learning was also reputed to have been a god of measuring the passage of
time, and thus the god of the Egyptian calendar. He was also thought to be the god of
the first month of the Egyptian calendar, known as Thuthi by Greek times. It is
interesting to note that although he is related to the solar calendar in myth (where he
won five extra days a year from Khonsu, the moon god), but that as a moon god
himself, he was very probably closely related to Egypt's original lunar calendar:
"...Researchers of the ancient Egyptian calendar agree that the solar calendar
of 360 + 5 days was not the first prehistoric calendar of that land. This 'civil'
or secular calendar was introduced only after the start of dynastic rule in
Egypt, i.e., after 3100 BC; according to Richard A. Parker (The Calendars of
the Ancient Egyptians) it took place circa 2800 BC 'probably for
administrative and fiscal purposes'. This civil calendar supplanted, or perhaps
supplemented at first, the 'sacred' calendar of old. In the words of the
Encyclopaedia Brittanica, 'the ancient Egyptians originally employed a
calendar based on the Moon'. According to R. A. Parker (Ancient Egyptian
Astronomy) that earlier calendar was, 'like that of all ancient peoples', a
calendar of twelve lunar months plus a thirteenth intercalary month that kept
the seasons in place."
- When Time Began, Zecharia Sitchin

Thoth's centre of worshiped was at Khmunu (Hermopolis) in Upper Egypt,

where he was the creator god, in Ibis form, who laid the World Egg. The
sound of his song was thought to have created four frog gods and snake
goddesses who continued Thoth's song, helping the sun journey across the sky.
He was the 'One who Made Calculations Concerning the Heavens, the Stars and the
Earth', the 'Reckoner of Times and of Seasons', the one who 'Measured out the
Heavens and Planned the Earth'. He was 'He who Balances', the 'God of the
Equilibrium' and 'Master of the Balance'. 'The Lord of the Divine Body', 'Scribe of the
Company of the Gods', the 'Voice of Ra', the 'Author of Every Work on Every Branch
of Knowledge, Both Human and Divine', he who understood 'all that is hidden under
the heavenly vault'. Thoth was not just a scribe and friend to the gods, but central to
order - ma'at - both in Egypt and in the Duat. He was 'He who Reckons the Heavens,
the Counter of the Stars and the Measurer of the Earth'.

Nephthys, Sister of Isis,

Mistress of the House...
by

Caroline Seawright
January 31, 2001

Nephthys, Sister of Isis, Mistress of the House...

Nephthys is one of the Egyptian goddesses who seems to have been

ignored or pushed into the background. She didn't become a major cult
figure, like her sister Isis, but one must remember that Nephthys, too,
was a sibling of the most famous gods of ancient Egypt - Isis and Osiris.
She was also the sister-wife of the god Set, the god of storms and the
desert... and aunt to the god Horus.
Her Egyptian name Nebt-het (Neb-hut, Neb-hwt, Nebt-hut, Nebthet)
means "Mistress of the House"...

...but by the word "house" we must understand that portion of the sky which
was supposed to form the abode of the Sun-god Horus; in fact "het" in the
name of Nebt-het is used in exactly the same sense as "het" in the name "HetHert," or Hathor, i.e., the "House of Horus."
-- Nephthys, TourEygpt
Despite being the wife of Set, she was seen as a loyal sister to her other siblings,
helping Isis to gather Osiris' scattered limbs (after Set cut him into pieces), and helped
her revive the dead god. She thus became associated with the dead, becoming a friend
of the deceased. She offered guidance to the newly dead, and comfort to the family of
the one who died. Along with Hapy - the baboon headed Son of Horus - she guarded
the
lungs in their canopic jar on the north cardinal point.
Nephthys saith unto the Osiris Ani, whose word is
truth:- I go round about thee to protect thee, O
brother Osiris. I have come to be a protector unto
thee. [My strength shall be near thee, my strength
shall be near thee, for ever. Ra hath heard thy cry,
and the gods have made thy word to be truth.
Thou art raised up. Thy word is truth in respect of
what hath been done unto thee. Ptah hath
overthrown thy foes, and thou art Horus, the son
of Hathor.]
-- Speech of Nephthys, The Book of the Dead
She
was depicted as a woman with the hieroglyph of her name
(a basket and a house on top of each other) on her head, though she was also
sometimes given wings or the form of a bird (the kite), making her a solar deity, as
well as a deity of the dead. In the later period, she became the mother of Anubis (the
god of the dead) through Osiris.
As comforter, she stood at the birth-bed to offer comfort and help with the birth of
new born children - Isis was seen as the midwife. The two sisters were often together,
only being able to be told apart by the hieroglyph on their heads. Also, like her sister,
she was thought to have great magical powers - she was the Mighty One of Words of
Power.
Yet, originally, where Isis was visible, birth, growth, development and vigour,
Nephthys was invisible, death, decay, diminution and immobility. She was the
darkness to Isis' light. Isis was the day, her twin sister the night.
The goddesses were personified by two priestesses who were virgins and who
were ceremonially pure; the hair of their limbs was to be shaved off, they
were to wear ram's wool garlands upon their heads, and to hold tambourines
in their hands; on the arm of one of them was to be a fillet inscribed "To Isis,"
and on the arm of the other was to be a fillet inscribed "To Nephthys." On five
days during the month of December these women took their places in the

temple of Abtu (Abydos) and, assisted by the Kher Heb, or precentor, they
sang a series of groups of verses to the god.
Here is an except from the 'Songs of Isis and Nephthys', sung to Osiris by the two
priestesses:
Hail, thou lord of the underworld, thou Bull of those who are therein, thou
Image of Ra-Harmachis, thou Babe of beautiful appearance, come thou to us
in peace. Thou didst repel thy disasters, thou didst drive away evil hap; Lord,
come to us in peace.
O Un-nefer, lord of food, thou chief, thou who art of terrible majesty, thou
God, president of the gods, when thou dost inundate the land [all] things are
engendered. Thou art gentler than the gods. The emanation of thy body make
the dead and the living to live, O thou lord of food, thou prince of green herbs,
thou mighty lord, thou staff of life, thou giver of offerings to the gods, and of
sepulchral meals to the blessed dead. Thy souls flieth after Ra, thou shinest at
dawn, thou settest at twilight, thou riseth every day; thou shalt rise on the left
hand of Atmu for ever and ever. Thou art the glorious one, the vicar of Ra; the
company of the gods cometh to thee invoking thy face, the flame whereof
reacheth unto thine enemies. We rejoice when thou gatherest together thy
bones, and when thou hast made whole thy body daily. Anubis cometh to thee,
and the two sisters (i.e., Isis and Nephthys) come to thee. They have obtained
beautiful things for thee, and they gather together thy limbs for thee, and they
seek to put together the mutilated members of thy body. Wipe thou the
impurities which are on them upon our hair and come thou to us having no
recollection of that which hath caused thee sorrow.
Come thou in thy attribute of "Prince of the Earth," lay aside thy trepidation
and be at peace with us, O Lord. Thou shalt be proclaimed heir of the world,
and the One god, and the fulfiller of the designs of the gods. All the gods
invoke thee, come therefore to thy temple and be not afraid. O Ra (i.e.,
Osiris), thou art beloved of Isis and Nephthys; rest thou in thy habitation for
ever.
One of the reasons, during the later period of Egyptian history, given as to why Set
and Osiris hate each other was because of Nephthys, Set's sister-wife. She was barren
(she represented the desert, as did Set), and she hit on the plan of disguising herself as
Isis and seducing Osiris. Getting Osiris drunk, Nephthys took Osiris to her bed, and
the two had drunken sex together. Osiris dropped his garland of melilot flowers in the
act of passion. Set found the adulterous goddess and the flowers, and knowing who
the flowers belonged to, he began to plan Osiris' death. The child of this union was
thought to be Anubis, god of mummification.
Now as the overflowings of the Nile are sometimes very great, and extend to
the boundaries of the land, this gave rise to the story of the secret intercourse
between Osiris and Nephthys, as the natural consequence of so great an
inundation would be the springing up of plants in those parts of the country
which were formerly barren.

-- Nephthys, TourEgypt
Among her titles, Nephthys was known as the Lady of the Body (of the Gods), the
Dweller within Senu, Lady of Heaven, Mistress of the Gods, the Great Goddess and
Lady of Life. Her major centres of worships were Senu, Hebet, (Behbit), Per-mert,
Re-nefert, Het-sekhem, Het-Khas, Ta-kehset, and Diospolites. Her principal sanctuary
was at Iunu (On, Heliopolis).
She was the darkness to Isis' light, the bareness to contrast her sister's fertility. Friend
to the dead, their protector, she was a beneficial deity who offered both guidance and
comfort. Although linked with death and decay, she was also a bringer of life into the
world, and rebirth into the land of the dead. Leaving her husband Set, she became a
follower of Osiris and a supporter of her sister. In Egyptian art, the twin sisters were
almost always shown together. Great of magic, Nephthys was seen as a good goddess
who would give them rebirth in the land of the dead, just as she had helped Osiris to
be reborn.

Exploring Isis
By Catherine C. Harris
The Egyptian goddess Isis is one of the most
important goddesses of ancient Egypt, and she
remains one of the most well known goddesses of
this age. Isis is most well known for her role as
devoted wife and mother. In the Osiris legend we
can see the reasoning behind this pattern of
thought.
Isis is one of the five children of Nut, the sky
goddess. When Isis was very young, she was
determined to increase her powers. In order to do
so, she would have to get the secret name out from
Ra. Isis was clever and used Ra's own saliva to
create an invisible snake that bit him. Thus Ra was
poisoned and could not heal himself because he
didn't know the nature of the wound. Ra was weak
and near the end of his reign, and Isis took
advantage of him. Isis offered to heal Ra if he
would tell her his secret name. Faced with death
from the unknown wound, Ra told Isis the name
and in doing so he transferred his knowledge and
power to her.
Isis later married Osiris, and together they ruled
over Egypt. Due to Set's jealousy over the throne, Osiris was tricked into climbing in
a box. Once he was inside the box, the lid was slammed closed and nailed shut. The
box was then covered with melted lead and thrown into the Nile. Isis was furious and
grieved for her husband.

Eventually, word reached Isis that Osiris was found in Byblos. Isis traveled to Byblos
where she used the magic taught to her by Thoth to bring her husband back to life
long enough to conceive a child by him. She hid on the island until she gave birth to
her son, Horus.
While Isis was away one day, Set found the body of Osiris. He had the body cut into
14 pieces and had them scattered throughout Egypt. Isis returned and was grief
stricken. Isis began her search for the body parts of her
beloved Osiris. She found all of the pieces except for his
manhood, which had been eaten by a crab. With help from
several other deities, Isis performed the needed magic to
rejoin the body parts of her departed husband, Osiris. Isis
performed the Rite of Rebirth in order to give Osiris
eternal life, at which time Osiris ascended to the immortal
world.
Isis stayed in hiding with Horus as he grew and trained.
She knew he would need to be strong to regain control of
the throne, which was rightfully his. Isis exposed Horus to
wild animals and scorpion bites in an effort to give him
strength. Each time he was attacked or poisoned he was
protected. Osiris, his father, came down to teach him
weaponry.
Eventually, Horus challenged Set for the throne of Egypt. Horus went before the elder
gods and petitioned for them to appoint him the rightful ruler. Set tried to convince
everyone that Horus was not strong enough to rule. Despite the World Mother's
declaration that Horus was indeed the rightful heir the tribunal sided with Set. Isis
struck fear into the tribunal by putting curses on everyone.
The tribunal was moved to an island that was thought to be out of the reach of Isis.
Isis would not be thwarted, however, and bribed the ferryman to take her to the island.
Once there she disguised herself as a young and beautiful maiden. She trapped Set
into saying that her son was the rightful heir to the throne. Once Set realized what he
had done he returned to tell the tribunal.
Set demanded that the matter be settled by combat between himself and Horus. The
two men dove into the Nile to see which one could hold his breath the longest. Isis
became so concerned for her son Horus that she threw a magical spear into the water.
It struck Horus by mistake, and he emerged for his mother to remove the spear. Isis
again threw the spear into the water, and this time it hit Set. Set emerged from the
water, as Horus had done, for Isis to remove the spear. Horus was so enraged at his
mother's interference that he lashed out at her with the spear and chopped her head
off. The god Thoth replaced Isis' head with that of a cow. In the end, after much
turmoil, Horus was named the rightful heir. Set would never accept it and continued to
be a thorn in their sides.

The Egyptian goddess Isis is one of the goddesses that stood the test of time. Isis is
the Greek form of more ancient Egyptian names, and the name Isis is associated with
the word for "throne." Originally, Isis was known as Aset, or Eset. Isis is worshipped
today, just as she has been for thousands of years, as the Lady of Heaven, The Great
Enchantress, Goddess of Magic, The Goddess of Love and War, the Giver of Life,
Queen of the Gods, and Goddess of Marriage and Protection.
Isis was able to give the gift of immortality. For this reason, she is often portrayed
wearing or carrying an Ankh. The Ankh is an ancient symbol for eternal life. The
symbol is similar to that of a cross, but it has a looped top. Isis is sometimes seen
wearing horns and a solar disk atop her head. She is sometimes pictured with wings.
Isis is occasionally shown with a cow's head or with the sign of a throne on her head.
Isis is one of the only winged deities in Egyptian myth. She is sometimes
representative of the wind, as in the legend of Osiris. One version of the legend tells
of Isis using her wings to fill Osiris' mouth and nose with air. For those people who
recognize Isis as a force at work in their life; the wind takes on a magical face. The
simple act of walking outside on a windy day brings about a refreshing of the soul.
Isis is viewed as the protector and patron of women. Isis guided women in childbirth,
marriage, and in the loss of loved ones. She has the qualities that endear her to women
of all ages. Isis is full of compassion, tenderness, love and devotion. Isis is the Great
Mother Goddess.
As a divine healer, Isis shared the secrets of healing and preparation of medical
potions to her priestesses. Isis is also credited for bringing us the secrets of law and
agriculture. If you ask anyone that esteems Isis to the role of goddess in this present
age; you will surely hear them proclaim that Isis holds life in here hands. Isis, with her
ability to breathe life into something once dead, is worshipped today as she has for
centuries.

There are ways to bring the goddess Isis into everyday life. Her colors are white, gold,
and cobalt blue. Many view these as the colors of royalty and comfort. The gems and
stones equated with Isis are pearl, coral, lapis, geodes, and moonstone. Wearing
jewelry with these stones embedded is just one way to bring the goddess near.
Fragrances of the goddess are myrrh, rose, iris, and eucalyptus. Candles and essential
oils are useful in bringing the fragrance of Isis into the home.
Isis is the Mistress of all elements, and she is a powerful wind that blows constant.
Isis is the Goddess of Countless Names, and she will continue to make her presence
known.

Apep, Water Snake-Demon of Chaos,

Enemy of Ra...
by Caroline
April 3, 2004

Seawright

Image April McDevitt

Apep, Water Snake-Demon of Chaos, Enemy of Ra...
(

Apep (Apepi, Aapep, Apophis) was a demon of the underworld, in the form of a giant
water snake. It was believed that he was created when Nit spat into the primeval
waters of Nun. He was the enemy of the sun god, trying to stop him as he travelled on
his barque through the underworld each night. He was so powerful that little could
defeat him, and even then, he was back again the following evening to threaten Ra.
He was a demon outside of ma'at, the opposite of order, a demon of darkness and
chaos.

Apep was first attested to during the Middle Kingdom, but the New Kingdom texts
provide the myths and legends of this demon. During Roman times, Apep's name was
thought to mean 'He who was Spat Out'. He was believed to have been created when
Nit spat into the waters of Nun, her spittle turning into the giant water snake. This was
thought to happen at the start of time, and that he lived in the primeval waters. His
name may mean 'Great Snake' (from
aah - in words such as 'be great', 'the
great', 'greatly'), but the reading is uncertain. (The sound aah was also the word for
donkey, animals that were believed to be followers of both Set and Apep. This may be
part of an ancient Egyptian pun.)
He was depicted as a giant water snake, almost always shown being pierced by knives
or other weapons or under the control of a deity, so his image would not give the
demon power. He was thought by the ancient Egyptians to be over 16m long, with
skin as hard as flint. His roar was so loud that it shook the underworld. He was called
'Evil Lizard', 'Opponent of Ra', 'Enemy of Ra', 'World Encircler' and 'Serpent of
Rebirth'.
It was believed that Apep waited at Bakhu - the mountain of the horizon - to swallow
the barque of Ra, or during in the seventh hour of the night. He also could swallow
the waters of the celestial river in the underworld, or use his coils as sandbanks, to
strand Ra's barque. Serqet also used her magic to protect the barque from Apep, as she
had power over snakes, reptiles and poisonous animals. She was also thought to be
able to hold Apep's tail. Maahes also protected Ra on
the barque, as he protected the pharaoh while in
battle. Shu was a defender of the barque, who used
spells and magic to protect Ra from the water snakedemon and his followers. He was also thought to be
caught or cut by other deities, including Isis, Nit,
Sekhmet, Geb and the Sons of Horus.
The Egyptians believed that Shu was the second divine pharaoh, ruling after Ra.
Apep's followers, though, plotted against him and attacked the god at his palace in At
Nub. Despite defeating them, Shu became diseased due to their corruption, and soon
even Shu's own followers revolted against him. Shu then abdicated the throne,
allowing his son Geb to rule, and Shu himself returned to the skies.
Neither Shu, Maahes nor Serqet were strong enough to kill Apep. Only a few could
kill him - Set boasts that "Every day I slay the enemy of Ra when I stand at the helm
of the Barque of Millions of Years, which no other god dare do." He was the only
deity who was strong enough to withstand the power of Apep, and to kill the water
serpent.
(Set resumes):
"Back, Fiend, from the onslaught of his light! If you speak, your face will be
overturned by the gods. Your heart will be seized by the lynx (Mafdet), your
reins will be bound by the scorpion (Hededet), you will be punished by Ma'at,
she will bring you to grief."
...

(Apep cries out that he will conform to the divine will):

"I will perform your will, O Ra, I will act properly, I will act peacefully, O
Ra!"
(Set speaks again):
"Bring your ropes, O Ra, that Apep may fall to your snaring or be trapped by
the gods of north, south, east and west in their traps ... All is now well, O Ra!
Proceed in peace! And you, Apep, Down! Away, Apep, O Enemy of Ra!"
(During the fight with Horus, Set loses his testicles ... Apep now taunts Set
with this):
"But what you felt is worse than the sting of the
scorpion. What ma'at did to you was so dire that you
will suffer from its effect forever! You will never go
courting, you will never make love!"
(Stung by this retort, Set determines to destroy Apep
rather than just keep him in bondage ...)
"Apep, O Enemy of Ra! Turn your face away! Ra
hates the very sight of you." The head is then cut off, hacked in pieces and
thrown away on either side of the roads ... "Your head is crushed, O
Groundling! Your bones are broken up and your flesh cut in pieces. Ra has
consigned you to the earth, O Apep! Enemy of Ra!"
-- Myth and Symbol in Ancient
Egypt, R. T. Rundle Clark
After the defeat of Apep, from Chapter
39 of The Book of the Dead, Set
became insulting towards Ra. Set
threatened that if he wasn't treated
well, that he would bring storms and
thunder against the sun god. In
retaliation, Ra and his retinue drove him away from the Barque for his insolence, and
proceeded on course without him.
In another version of the myth, Apep swallowed the barque of the sun, and it was Set
and a snake god, Mehen, who cut a hole in Apep so the
barque could get free.
It

was the god Atem, a form of the sun god at sunset, who was
believed to condemn Apep to destruction. He was shown as
standing before the water snake demon, the demon awaiting
it's destruction. The deceased were also given spells to help
them get passed Apep - "Apep has fallen into the flame, a
knife is stuck into his head, his name no longer exists
anywhere on the earth ... I sever his vertebrae from his neck, cutting into his flesh
with a knife and stabbing through his skin." - the magic spells could bring the demon
to this place of destruction, where Apep would be chained, cut, burned and crushed.
Apep is also shown as being decapitated by Ra in the form of the 'The Great Cat of

Iunu (On, Heliopolis)', at the foot of the sacred ished or the sacred sycamore tree of
the horizon.
...the Book of Overthrowing Apep ... gives spells and other instructions for the
checkmating of the monster, which were recited daily in the temple of AmenRa at Waset (Thebes). In these Apep is referred to as a crocodile and a serpent,
and it is described how by the aid of sympathetic magic he is to be speared,
cut with knives, decapitated, roasted, and finally consumed by fire, and his
evil followers also. These magical acts were duly carried out at Waset day by
day, and it was supposed that they greatly assisted the journey of the sun-god.
-- Egypt, Myths and Legends, Lewis Spence
The Book of Overthrowing Apep had the following descriptive chapters:

The Chapter of Spitting Upon Apep

The Chapter of Defiling Apep with the Left Foot
The Chapter of Taking a Lance to Smite Apep
The Chapter of Fettering Apep
The Chapter of Taking a Knife to Smite Apep
The Chapter of Putting Fire Upon Apep
According to these, Apep will first be speared, then sliced with red-hot knives
so that every bone of his body has been separated, his head, legs and tail are
cut off. His remains are then scorched, singed, and roasted, finally to be
consumed by fire. The same fate awaits Apep's confederates and everything
which formed parts of him, them, and all their offspring (their shadows, souls,
doubles, and spirits).
-- Apep, April McDevitt

Apep was never worshiped, but the ancient Egyptians protected themselves against
him - he was a threat not only against people and the gods, but against ma'at and
creation itself. As a demon of the unknown and related to frightening events such as
unexplained darkness (solar eclipses were interpreted as a victory of Apep over Ra as
he swallowed the solar barque), rituals were followed to ensure he could do no harm.
In this, he was linked to Set, who also had eclipses, thunderstorms and earthquakes
attributed to him. Despite this two Hyksos rulers of the 15th Dynasty - Apepi I and
Apepi II - may have named themselves after Apep (though the spelling is different these rulers used
). During the Late Period, a wax model of the
water serpent was cut into pieces and burned. A picture of Apep on papyrus, drawn in
green, was sealed in a box, spat on, and burned. Rituals such as these were thought to
give protection against Apep.

Writing an introduction to ancient Egypt temples is considerably more difficult then

examining any specific structure, for a number of different reasons. First of all, the
term "temple" is misleading, and secondly, the term covers a huge variety of different
structures that evolved over such a vast period of time that many people have a
difficulty comprehending just how long a time this period spans.

The Ramessuem on the West Bank at Luxor (Ancient Thebes)

For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old,
and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to
Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were
already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must
consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the
feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St.
Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the

courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him
then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.
Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of
god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second
definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit
the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in
Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.
Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions.
In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the
second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our
modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple
being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the
structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even
these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses,
administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats.
However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples
as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all
together different purposes.
It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary
temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the
early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations,
sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of
priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town.

The Temple of Karnak at Luxor

The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is

perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably
not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the
most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in
what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the
ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as
Karnak, if not larger.
Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and
Kom Ombo would most likely fall
under the category of "god's
mansion". They were more then
religious "temples" however. While
the god may certainly have been
worshiped in these temples, it was
also his symbolic home, if not
considered his physical residence,
and the functions of the temple
were as much to serve his or her
symbolic physical needs as they
were for the god's worship. There
was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the
people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed
inward, towards the care of the gods.
Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of
kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar.
Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the
same attention as other
gods. Both regular and
mortuary temples
served to keep the name
of the king or god
alive.
Right: Temple of Dendera

The real distinction,

religiously, seems to be
in regards to structures
that might not so easily
be defined as "god's
mansions". Nefertari's
temple at Abu Simbel
was certainly dedicated to the goddess Hathor, it would seem. But this also seems to
be a situation where a "god's mansion" was built as much for political as for religious
purposes. These great monuments at Abu Simbel, consisting of her temple, and the
larger temple of her husband, Ramesses II, were not just temples. They were also
reminders of Egypt's greatness to her southern neighbors. Other structures hardly fit

within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that
celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than
"god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for
his soul.
Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other then
tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.
Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have
survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of
worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major
deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were
mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where
he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which
were often no more then monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary
chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sedfestival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.
Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by
generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include
those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In
fact, there are any
number of northern
temples, though long
gone, that would have
rivaled the southern
temples that we most
often visit today.
Left: Kom Ombo

Most Temples had some

sort of organized
structure that evolved
into a traditional, if
somewhat varied floor
plan. For example, the
mortuary temple of 5th
Dynasty kings invariably had an outer section and an inner sanctuary. The outer
section would consist of an entrance corridor, followed by an open columned
courtyard. Often, the pillars were inscribed with the king's name and title, and the
northern columns would have scenes oriented to northern Egypt's symbolic gods, with
a similar arrangement on the southern columns. Various additional minor chambers
might also exist within the outer section, including, for example, an entrance vestibule
or a guard station. Between the outer temple and the inner section there was usually a
transverse corridor, and in the center of the long, west wall a doorway lead to the inner
sanctuary of which the front section consists of a chapel with five niches for statues.
Behind the chapel would be an offering hall, notable for a false door on the west wall

that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner
sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers.
Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and
other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.
Non-mortuary temples often also had
courtyards, chapels, offering halls,
vestibules, antechambers, just like the
mortuary temples. They tend to vary
considerably in their style and elements,
though temples built for specific gods
tended to be more uniform (though not
always). One of the major differences
between mortuary temples and others
was that the non-mortuary temples were
very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare
cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high
holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added
to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major nonmortuary temples.
Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure
walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.

Topics Applicable to Temples and Chapels

The Columns of Ancient Egypt

Construction in Ancient Egypt
An Overview of Ancient Egyptian Cults
Foundation Ceremonies
Grand Festivals in Ancient Egypt
The Location and Orientation of Ancient Egyptian Temples
Mythology
Offering Formulas and Rituals
Pharaonic Egypt in Sketches
Priests in Ancient Egypt
Royal Cults of the Kings of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part I: Approach and Entrance
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part II: The Outer Courtyards
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part III: On the Path to the Sanctuary
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part IV: The Sanctuary and its Environs
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part V: Associated Element

Specific Temples and Chapels

For Pyramid Mortuary Temples, see Ancient Egyptian Pyramids

Abu Simbel - Nubia

Aghurmi Temple and the Oracle of Amun - Siwa
Ain el-Muftella, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Alexander the Great, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Amada, Temple of - Nubia
Amenhotep III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
el-Amarna, Tell - Deir Mawas
Artemidos, Speos of - Mallawi
Aten, Great Temple of - Amarna
Aten, Small (Royal) Temple of - Amarna
Beit el-Wali Temple, Nubia
Bes, Temple of - Bawiti, Bahariya Oasis
Dakka, Temple of in Nubia
Deir el Bahari, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Dendera, Temple of - Dendera
Dendur, Temple of - New York
Derr, Temple of - Nubia
Dush, Temple of - Kharga
Gerf Hussein, Temple of - Nubia
Al-Ghuwaytah, Temple of - Kharga Oasis
Al-Hager, Temple of Deir - Dakhla Oasis
Hathor, Ptolemaic Temple of at Deir el-Medina - West Bank, Luxor
Hercules, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Hibis, Temple of - Kharga
Horemheb, Speos of - Kom Ombb
Horus, Temple of - Edfu
Horus, Temples of (at Thoth Hill) - West Bank, Luxor
Kalabsha Temple - Nubia
Karnak, Temple of - Luxor
Khnum, Temple of - Esna
Kom-Ombo, Temple of - Kom-Ombo
Luxor, Temple of - Luxor
Maru-Aten - Amarna
Medinet Madi (ancient Narmouthis) - Fayoum
Mentuhotep II, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Merenptah, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Montu, Rattawy & Harpcrates, Temple of - Medamud
Montu, Temple of - Tod
Nekhbet and Thoth, Temples of at el-Kab
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part I
Abusir, Tell Atrib (Arhribis), Ausim (Letopolis), Behbeit el-Hagar, & Tell elDab'a
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part II
Ezbet Rushdi, Tell Far'un, Kom el-Hisn, Kom Abu Billo & Tell el-Maskhuta
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part III
Tell el-Muqdam (Leontopolis), Tell el-Qirqafa and Tell el-Rub'a (Tell El
Robee, Greek Mendes)

Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part IV

Tell el-Retaba, Saft el-Hinna, Samannud (Sebennytos) and Tell el-Yahudiya
Nubia, Lost Temples of
Nubian, Other Temples
Osiris, Temple of (and former temple of Khentyamentiu) - Abydos
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part I
Temples belonging to Amenhotep I, Amenhotep II, Siptah, the Colonnaded
Temple of Ramesses IV, the Ramessid Temple, the Chapel of the White Queen
and the private temple of Nebwenenef
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part II - Temples of Ramesses IV
(mortuary), Amenophis son of Hapu, Tuthmosis II, and the North and South
temples at Nag Kom Lolah
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part III: The Temples at Deir elMedina - Temple of Amenhotep I, the Hathor Chapel of Seti I, the Ptolemaic
Temple of Hathor, and a small Temple of Amun.
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part IV - Mortuary Temple of
Tuthmosis III, and the temples of Tuya and Nefertari, Tuthmosis IV, Wadjmose
and Siptah and Tausert
Philae (Now on Agilika Island), Temple of - Nubia
Qasr Ibrim - Nubia
Qertassi, Kiosk of - Nubia
Ramesseum - West Bank, Luxor
Ramesses II, Portal Tempel of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Minya
Ramesses III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Red Chapel of Hatshepsut at Karnak - East Bank, Luxor
Wadi al-Sabua (Sebua), Temple of - Nubia
Sarabit al-Khadim, Temple and Mines of - Sinai
Sarapeion, including Pompay's Pillar - Alexandria
Satis, Temple of - Elephantine (Aswan)
Senusret III, Mortuary Temple of - Abydos
Seti I Temple of Millions of Years - West Bank, Luxor
Seti I, Temple of and the Osireion at Abydos
Shepseskaf, Mortuary Temple of (Unique, at South Saqqara)
Shenhur, Roman Temple of
Sobek-Re, Temple of - Qasr Qarun
Sun Temples of the 5th Dynasty (Userkaf and Niuserre) - Abusir & Abu
Ghurob
Taposiris Magna, Temple of - Alexandria
Temple of the Oracle - Siwa
Tuthmosis III, Temple of at Abydos
Tuthmosis III, Temple of Amun at Deir el-Bahari - West Bank, Luxor
Umm Ubayda, Temple of - Siwa Oasis
White Chapel of Senusret I, The - East Bank in the Open Air Museum, Luxor

Al-Zayyan Temple - Kharga

When we think of Egyptian temples, one of

the principle architectural elements that
comes to mind is the column. In fact, it is
difficult to imagine a temple such as Karnak
without thinking of its columned halls, and
what many visitors will take away with them
is visions of pylons, obelisks, statues and
columns. Column shafts were often decorated
with colorful depictions in painted, carved
relief, and remain some of the most
interesting architectural elements in Egyptian
structures.
Most people who have any familiarity with
ancient Egypt will immediately recognize the
form of Lotus and Papyrus style columns, but
actually no less the about 30 different column
forms have been isolated from temples of the
various periods. Most of the time, the
columns shafts were copies in stone of
supports made from plants, resembling either
a trunk or a bundle of stems of smaller
diameter. Also the shape of the capital, the
top of the column, also had a plant theme, and
at the transition of the capital to the shaft, five bands might be found representing the
lashing which held together the bundle of stems of which the earliest columns were
made. Above the capital a low abacus usually connected the column to the architraves
placed above it. However, there are exceptions to all of this. At least prior to the
Graeco-Roman Period, we also find columns with tent pole and the goddess Hathor
and other god or goddess motifs.
Actually, the type of column was usually, but not
always dictated by its placement within the temple,
and therefore most temples actually employ more
then one design. Most of the time, "Bud" style
columns were used in the outer temple courts,
particularly away from the central axis of the inner
temple. "Open" style capitals were most often found
in the temples central areas. However, as time passed,
into the late antiquities period, there was considerably
more variation in these themes. In the Graeco-Roman
period, column styles became especially varied, and
many Egyptian designs were exported to Greece and
Roman, where they underwent further evolutionary
changes.
Left: Tent Pole style columns in the Festival Temple of

Tuthmosis III at Karnak

In the very earliest of Egyptian history, columns were often made from one large
monolithic block. However, in all later periods columns were usually built up in
sectional blocks that were then first shaped and then smoothed from the top down.
They were then normally painted, and afterwards, were difficult to tell that they were
not cut from a single piece of stone.

Major Types of Columns and/or Capitals

Plant Style Columns
Fluted Column
This early form of column first appears in the Step Pyramid enclosure of
Djoser, but the form died mostly died out by the New Kingdom.
However, their use continued in Nubia. These columns resembled and
represented bundled reeds or plant stems, but during later periods,
sometimes took the form of a polygonal column shaft.
What is probably most interesting about fluted columns in Egypt is that
they very probably represent the first columns made from stone in the
world. While the fluted columns may have lost their popularity as an
independent style many of the future columns incorporated design elements from
them, in effect, simply incorporating a more complex capital.
Palmiform Columns
The Palmiform Columns were also one of the earliest styles of columns
in Egypt temple architecture. Example of this type of column were
found, for example, in the 5th Dynasty pyramid mortuary complex of
Unas. However, after the 5th Dynasty, these types of columns are rare,
but continued to occasionally be used. Mostly we find examples during
later periods at the Taharga temple in Kawa in Upper Nubia, and in some
temples dating to the Graeco-Roman Period. However, they may also be
found in the Ramesseum. There, at the inner side of the court, are two
rows of ten columns. The four middle columns in each row are
Papyriform columns while the others are Palmiform. These columns
obviously had a palm tree motif, but did not actually represent the tree
itself, but rather eight palm fronds lashed to a pole.
Lotiform Columns
Lotiform columns were perhaps used in non-secular buildings then in the
temples. However, this is not to say that they were not also sometimes
employed in religious architecture. The simple, lotus bud form of the
column is enjoyed widespread use in the Old and Middle Kingdom

temples. Its use declined during the New Kingdom, but again found popularity during
the Graeco-Roman Period. This column usually has ribbed shafts representing the the
stems of the Lotus, and capitals in the form of a closed (bud) or open lotus flower.
Just as a side note, Lotus plants specifically are not present in the earlier times of
Egyptian antiquity. What we so often refer to as "Lotus" was in fact a type of water
lily.
Papyriform Columns
There are several variations in this type of column. Some
have circular shafts representing a single plant, while
others have ribbed shafts that represent a plants with
multiple stems. The capitals could be closed (buds) or open
in a wide, bell-shaped form. During the New Kingdom, the
shafts of most papyriform columns taper upwards from
bases decorated with triangular patterns representing
stylized stem sheaths. The earliest examples we know of
the circular shaft style columns can be found in Djoser's
Step Pyramid enclosure at Saqqara. However, these are not free standing columns, but
incorporated into other structures. Though the circular shaft form of the column seems
to have been used throughout Egyptian history, they saw widespread use during the
New Kingdom, along with both open and closed capital styles.
We first find the multi-stemmed form of this column employed during the 5th
Dynasty, but it was also frequently used during the New Kingdom. 18th Dynasty
columns are particularly fine, with considerable artistic detail. They became more
stylized by the 19th Dynasty.
Coniform Columns
This column style apparently quickly died out after their use in Djoser's Step Pyramid
enclosure wall. It has not been found in later temples. The style is characterized by a
fluted shaft surmounted by a capital representing the branches of a conifer tree.
Tent Pole Columns
Though we probably know of other applications of this style from
documentation, apparently the only surviving, known examples are
found in the Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III at Karnak. It is possible
that very early examples of the style were also constructed of brick.
There is little doubt that this type of column made of stone was rare. The
column is basically a representation in stone of the wooden "poles" used
to support light structures such as tents, and sometimes shrines, kiosks or
ships cabins.
Why this tent pole design was used is perhaps somewhat of a mystery, though they

certainly reflect back on the earliest of Egypt's structures and their wood counterparts.
It is sometimes believe that the specific columns in Tuthmosis III temple were
modeled after actual wooden poles of his military tent.
Campaniform Columns
Considerable variety existed in this style of columns. They sometimes
took the shape of a floral column or pillar. Some had circular, ribbed or
square shafts (pillars). They all had some form of flower shaped capital.
Two of the best known of these are located in the Hall of Annals of
Tuthmosis III at Karnak. At this temple, the, the structures take the shape
of a pillar. They including two style of column, with one representing the
heraldic plant of Lower (northern) Egypt, the Papyrus, and the other type
representing the symbolic plant of Upper (southern) Egypt, the Lotus.
They are positioned symbolically on the northern and southern sides of
the hall. Such placement was not unusual, and we see many examples of columns
positioned in the north and south of courtyards with northern and southern motifs.
This specific types of column is rare, but their more stylized forms appeared most
frequently in the Graeco-Roman Period.
Composite Columns
These columns were common during the Graeco-Roman Period.
Composite Columns were probably an evolutionary extension of the
campaniform columns with capitals decorations including floral designs
of any number of real, or even imagined plants. There variation could be
endless, and they became so utterly stylized that the original floral motifs
could hardly be recognized. In fact, this type of column continued to
evolve in Greece and Rome, becoming very different then the Egyptian
variety.

None Plant Style Columns

While natural plant columns were the most common in Egypt, other column and pillar
types could represent deities or their attributes. Examples of these include:
Hathoric Columns
This type of column never appeared prior to the Middle Kingdom, and
was probably originated in that period. They are usually instantly
recognizable by their capital in the shape of the cow headed goddess,
Hathor. They often had a simple, round shaft. All considered, they were
fairly common, and examples may be found in the temple of Nefertari at
Abu Simbel and within the hypostyle hall of the Ptolemaic (Greek)
temple at Dendera. The Dendera columns are probably the best known,
where all twenty four columns have the head of this goddess on all four
sides. We also know of several other temples with Hathor columns,

including the temple of Nekhebet at el Kab. Sistrum columns are also associated with
Hathor, but represent in the capitals and shafts the handles and rattles of the sistrum.
Osiride Pillars
All examples of this type of pillar are engaged, meaning that they are part of another
architectural element. They appear to also have originated in the Middle Kingdom,
and and take the form of a statue of the god Osiris on the pillar's front surface.

Lotiform Columns

Hathor Columns at Dendera

A Closed (bud) Style Capital

An example of Open Capital engaged Columns

Osiride Pillars, normally

identifiable by the crossed arms

An Open Papyrus Column

There is consensus among historians and

Egyptologists that the ancient Egyptians were the
first builders ever known to man; they taught
humanity how to design and erect buildings; thus
laying grounds for human civilization, urbanization
and man's settlement in a specific homeland of his
own for the first time in history.

Great achievements with simple tools

Ancient Egyptians actually reached unmatched high
levels in architectural design and construction
engineering. Even at present it is still hard to
conceive how they could have all these buildings and
structures erected with such high level of perfection
and precision, using only primitive and naive tools
far incomparable with modern machinery and
equipment. Even a layman would think that ancient
Egyptians' knowledge of theoretical and applied
sciences was as advanced as ours today. However,
their knowledge was purely experimental and their
tools so simple. These mainly consisted of a builder's thread to delineate vertical lines,
an angle, a measuring arm (52cm-long) and a straight edge. With these primitive tools,
however, they could make schematic drawings, plans and cross-sections for their
colossal but very fine structures that still astound the world.
Looking at the existing Pharaonic monuments, we should keep aside our conception of
today's technological advancement. At that early time in history, stone blocks were

molded with solid stones, copper or bronze tools. Courses of block work, column
bodies and crowns, beams and ceilings were hoisted to the required level over mud
and earth ramps up to the top of sand heaps adjacent to walls.
Lifting devices used consisted of wooden gliders, rollers, ropes and levers.
Well-trained teams of workers rowed stone-carrying boats across the Nile, then pulling
the huge boulders overland to their destination. The process demanded backbreaking
efforts and considerable endurance and patience on the part of huge numbers of
workers and other staff, working in harmony and unison. Undoubtedly this was a
significant success factor for ancient Egyptian architects.
At present, one can easily appreciate the aesthetic and
artistic value of ancient Egyptian temples and tombs
with their copious ornaments, mind-boggling artistic
elements carved out with exceptional creativity.
Ancient Egyptian buildings reflected builders
conception of things as well as the needs of the
society. In building their tombs and temples, ancient
Egyptians put to good use their wealth of knowledge
and creative genius; almost in the same way modern
nations focus their attention on improving their
technological and professional capabilities.
With ancient Egyptians, construction was an
unceasing practice. Under the reign of the one and
same king, and often several times, houses of deities
were rebuilt or expanded, with mural decorations refurbished or completed under
orders of the king, whose duty was to have temples erected or renovated.

Construction and Religious Rituals

With ancient Egyptians, construction was inseparably associated with religious rituals.
Temples and tombs figured high within the main religious rituals. Certain ancient
Egyptian words were used to describe architectural drawings, foundations and
construction works well as the purpose of religious building.
Indeed, buildings themselves with their form and decorations were stone incarnation
representations of religion and rituals. According to ancient Egyptians beliefs, such
buildings, made of very solid materials, had the power of giving life through the magic
of simulation in this world and immortality in the after life, even if no religious rituals
were performed there.
According to some texts, a temple, with its contents, is a miniature of the world of the
dead. Accordingly, certain parts of the tombs were shaped like houses and temples.
The pyramid may be compared to the first hill where the sun was first born and the

corridors of the Valley of Kings to those existing in the nether world.

Construction supervisors and scholars in charge of the rituals as well as master
builders used to perform magic rituals ordered by the royal decree to erect royal tombs
and temples. Pursuant to royal permission and with due regard for all prevailing
conventions and the nature of the land, as well as astrological considerations; they
could define the orientation and location of the building.
Meanwhile, technical aspects and rituals required for the construction process were
prepared. Visible components such as architectural and construction works were as
important as invisible ones such as burial of offerings and sacrificial animals and reusing rocks carved out of other sacred places.
In fact, ancient Egyptians used funerary inscriptions and scenes of religious rituals and
afterlife mainly for religious purposes rather than for mere decoration. Inscriptions and
paintings were laid in endless rows on the walls of temples, courtyards, and rooms
depending on their religious use. Examples included stars portrayed on ceilings,
swamp lotuses on ceiling cornices, solar snakes, celestial eagles, with rows of water
and land spirits below. The famous Egyptian cornice on top of doors, temple gates,
towers and rooms were stone geometrical forms of stone, while sets of inscriptions on
the upper parts of temple walls were replicas of arches earlier used. With such
astounding genius of harmonizing materials, location, paintings and ornamentation
with worldly needs and religious rituals, the ancient Egyptian architect could create
magnificent symmetrical and highly impressive masterpieces.

Building and the Status of Stone

Ancient Egyptians used two words for stones; one to denote precious stones, such as
turquoise and emerald brought in small bags from eastern mines, red carnelian from
Nubia and lapis lazuli from Asia. Semi-precious stones were used most adroitly in
making amulets or inlaid into wood or gold.
The other type was stone blocks used by sculptors and builders. These were found in
plenty, especially lime stone. Rough stones were used in building interior walls and
foundations, while fine stones, cut out with special care, were used in decorating main
walls or erecting colossal temples. Yellow limestone was brought from Al-Silsila
Mount, white limestone from Tura, and gray or red granite from Aswan and alabaster
from central Egypt. The temple of Ramsis I, where almost all these types of stone
were used, is the best illustration.
Basalt was often used in paving roads and laying lower courses of buildings.
Generally, the above-mentioned stones, in addition to diorite, marble and porphyries
were used in making statues and utensils. Convertible diorite was used in making the
famous Chephren statue. Many scarabaeuses and other objets d'arte were made of soft
steatite.

Pharaonic Creativity
Using robust copper or bronze chisels, Ancient Egyptians not only carved out
limestone but also molded the hardest of rocks and stones and inscribed their fine
hieroglyphics on them. Long before circa 4000 BC, their ancestors of the Modern
Stone Age made beautiful utensils with only very simple tools. Before the Iron Age,
Ancient Egyptians had no steel tools to use in consummating such works that can not
be made at present without special tools such as power drills.
In this context, anthropologists argue that although working methods used by ancient
Egyptians were slower and harder, they were no less effective than ours today. Studies
of remaining ancient tools and illustrations of sculptors at work show that their
working modalities were as follows: The overall design was made, using a globalshaped hammer of more solid stone, then cut with a saw and sanded out. Stone was
carved with pointed-end tools and drilled with a tool counterpoised with a bag of
pebbles. Cutting devices were made of hammered copper sharpened with an abrasive
material like modern sandpaper.
It is worth mentioning that, trying to imitate ancient Egyptians, a young French artist
attempted to use hammered copper in carving granite, but failed. However, he
succeeded in creating precisely imitated pieces by using flint tools in granite sculpture.
This may be the starting point to get more precise knowledge of the ancient Egyptian
sculpture and to revive the ways of the great ancient Egyptians who showed the whole
world how the art of sculpture and building should be.

Evolution of Pharaonic Architecture

Ancient Egyptians knew how to fortify their cities and to surround their tombs with
mud bricks and to build roomy temples; for almost in 3200 BC, ancient Egyptians
started using sun-dried mud bricks on a large scale; a practice that persisted for long.
However, the temples of the most famous deities were built with beautiful stone to
stand time.
However, in 2800 BC, a genius architect called Imhoutep thought of using stones in
building premises of secret rituals where people lived in life and afterlife.
Years after years many generations of skillful builders invented new architectural
styles. They improved the style of building the pyramids and temples by using more
stone blocks. The Old Kingdom witnessed setting of features, styles and decorations
of ancient Egyptian architecture.

Most famous ancient Egyptian buildings

The pyramids
The pyramids have the deepest impression on the whole world's imagination. They are

the greatest and most famous structures ever in human history.

The extraordinary great pyramid was built by Cheops, son of Snefro. It covers an area
of 13 feddans with an original height of 146, of which 9 meters at the top were lost.
The four angles of the pyramid tilting at 51 and 52 degrees, face the original four
directions. The interior of the
pyramid was built with decorated
stones. It was coated with a bright
layer of which only some traces
still remain. The only entrance of
the pyramid is located to the north
side at a 16 meters height.
The burial chamber, where the
sarcophagus of the king lies bare, is
made of granite. The ceiling of the
chamber consists of nine granite
blocks weighing some 400 tons.
Above, there lie five separate niches, of which four have flat ceiling, while the upper
one has a slanting one to avoid collapse under the weight of the overlying building.
Fortresses
Skillful ancient Egyptians later devised more sophisticated methods for transporting
earth and stone to build defense structures. Through out Pharaonic eras, sensitive
border were secured by strong defense means. From the early dynasties onward, royal
palaces were surrounded with high clay walls erected around the outer courtyards of
the tombs of princes in later eras. Other examples include Zoser wall in Sakkara and
walls around certain sarcophagi. Oval-shaped fortresses were built with round
supports in the same style used in earlier epochs.
During the Middle Kingdom, more sophisticated defenses were erected, consisting of
huge 5-6 meter-high, mud brick castles with dual walls, barriers and terraces and
sometimes with mobile towers and trenches. Fourteen fortresses were ingeniously
built on the islets and mountains lying between the first and third cataracts on the Nile
by Snosert III, conqueror of Nubia. Another manifestation of this style can be seen in
the Prince's Wall, built by Amnemhat I in Al-Tolombat Valley to fend off Asian
invaders.
Probably, that style of fortress building may be the origin of the myth widely
circulated up to the time of the Arab conquest of Egypt, that an ancient Egyptian king
had built a defense wall extending from Al Farama in Sinai to Heliopolis. To a large
extent, the fortifications built by ancient Egyptians in that area are much similar to the
Great Wall of China. Later, when ancient Egyptians conquered Asia during the
Modern Kingdom, they adopted the common Asian fortress design known as the
Migodol.

This was almost similar to the European castles of the Middle Ages, with the outer
walls fitted with arrow shooting ports and small towers. On the other hand, the gate of
the temple of Ramsis II in Habu was only a replica of the Asian-Syrian-style fortress.
Since time immemorial, Egyptian fortresses were totally invulnerable.
Edfu Temple
Edfu was the capital of the second region in Upper Egypt. It was a city of great
importance and prosperity during the Old Kingdom. It owes its fame to a spacious
Ptolemaic temple, one of the most famous religious monuments in Egypt.
The 137-m-long, 79-m-wide and 36-m-high temple is still exceptionally almost intact,
with its hall, columns, stairs and ceiling still maintaining their original state. In
addition, its colors and decorations still look fresh. It is not even hard to imagine how
all these looked like at the peak of their glory. At the entrance, there lie two obelisks in
front of the entrance with statues in the courtyard. The hall of columns look so live
that a visitor may think he will soon see priests with their immaculate robes strolling
around the place.
Karnak Temple
"All I have seen in Thebes and all I have strongly admired on the west bank of the
Nile was by no means comparable to the Karnak. No people, ancient or modern, had
thought of art or architecture in such a superb and extensive scale or with such
grandeur as the ancient Egyptians did. They made me think of people each 100-feettall," said Champillion. Al Karnak temple itself is a world where one may get totally
lost. In order to perceive the overall system of these mind-boggling buildings, one
should climb to the top of the first edifice built there. In front of the Temple, there lie
the grand court of the Ethiopians and Sheshanq Gate. At the back there lies the great
roofed hall built by Ramses, followed by Hetshepsut's obelisk and Thohomous' granite
temple and ceremonial hall.
In the background, there lie the eastern gate, with the
Sacred Lake, ruins of Osiris tomb, the temple of the
infant deity Khonso, faced by Eurgetes edifice and
Opit temple.
Obelisks
Sanctification of obelisks dates back to the predynasty period. The architectural use of obelisks all
over ancient Egypt took its origins in Heliopolis
especially during the Modern Kingdom. Ancient
Egyptians used to build two obelisks, one at each side
of the temple gate. In certain cases when the sun cult
was restored, a single obelisk was erected at the
center of the temple. An example of this design can be

seen in the sacred stone in

Heliopolis. Those obelisks
with vertical sides and tilted
pyramidal-shaped caps
were reminders of the sun
cult. Made of red Aswan
granite, very little is yet
known about how those
structures were carved
transported or erected.
One obelisk could weigh hundreds of tons; the biggest unfinished one, still lying at its
quarry in Aswan, weighs more than 1000 tons. At present, only five obelisks still
survive in Egypt while more than 50 ones stand in the main squares in capitals of
Europe and USA.
On the 30th anniversary of building the Aswan High Dam, the international Dams
Commission, selected the Aswan High Dam as the best hydraulic and engineering
project in the 20th century This was the result of a study conducted over three years by
a panel of prominent dam experts, involving a comparative analyze of 120
international dams all over the world.
Although, the Aswan High Dam is not the highest and biggest in the world, yet, it is
next to none, in terms of economic advantages in the fields of agriculture and industry,
electric power generation, fish wealth development and protection against floods and
draught. This international testimony proves that the Aswan High Dam is the best in
the world.

Abu Simbel
By Marie Parsons

Perhaps after the Giza pyramids, or coincident with them, the great temple of Abu
Simbel presents the most familiar image of ancient Egypt to the modern traveler and
reader. When the conservation efforts to preserve the temple from the soon-to be built
High Aswan Dam and its rising waters were begun in the 1960s, images of the
colossal statues filled newspapers and books. The temples were dismantled and
relocated in 1968 on the desert plateau, 200 feet above and 600 feet west of their
original location.
Abu Simbel lies south of Aswan on the western bank of the Nile, 180 miles south of
the First Cataract in what was Nubia. The site was known as Meha in ancient times
and was first documented in the 18th Dynasty, when Ay and Horemheb had rock-cut
chapels hewn in the hills to the south.
Ramesses II, called "the Great," built seven rock-cut temples in Nubia. The rock-cut
temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Abu Simbel is the greatest of
these. This temple was not seen by Europeans until J.J. Burckhardt discovered them in
1813.
The temple, called Hwt Ramesses Meryamun, the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved of
Amun," was begun fairly early in Ramesses long reign, commissioned some time
after his fifth regnal year, but not completed until his 35th regnal year. The massive
facade of the main temple is dominated by the four seated colossal statues of
Ramesses. These familiar representations are of Ramesses II himself. Each statue, 67
feet high, is seated on a throne and wears the double crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Each is taller than the famed Memnon Colossus at Thebes, and all are sculpted
directly from the rock face. The thrones are decorated on their sides with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt.
Burckhardt said of the first face on the left that it "was the most expressive, youthful
countenance, approaching nearer to the Grecian model of beauty than that of any

ancient Egyptian figure I have seen."

An ancient earthquake damaged the statues. One is demolished from the waist up.
Between the legs and on each of their sides stand smaller statues of members of the
royal family. The smaller statues of relatives were probably, for the first southern
colossus: Queen Nefretari by the left leg, the kings mother, the great wife of Seti I,
Muttuya by his right leg, and Prince Amenhirkhopshef in front. For the second
southern colossus, Princess Bentanta stood by the left leg, Princess Nebettawyby the
left, and one unnamed female figure, probably that of a lesser royal wife named
Esenofre.
The family statues at the first northern colossus were, Queen Nefretari, Princess
Beketmut and Prince Riameses in front. For the second northern colossus, there were
Princess Merytamun, Queen Muttuya and Princess Nofretari.
Beneath these giant sculptures are carved figures of bound captives.
The forecourt or terrace which fronted the temple contained two tanks for the
ablutions of the priests. On the northern side of this terrace stood a small sun-chapel,
and on the south, stood a chapel of the god Thoth. Above the entrance, a figure of the
falcon-headed sun-god Ra is shown worshipped by flanking images of Ramesses. The
rebus figure of Ra contains the prenomen of Ramesses II, or Usermaatre: the falcon
headed god Ra has next to his right leg the glyph showing the head and neck of an
animal, read User, and the goddess at his left leg is maat. At the top of the temple
faade is a row of baboon statues in adoring attitudes, said to welcome the rising sun.
A stela at the southern end of the external terrace is called "the Marriage Stela," and is
a copy of the record of one of Ramesses IIs
diplomatic triumphs, his marriage to a daughter
of the Hittite king Hattusilis III.
Within the temple a series of chambers
becomes increasingly smaller as the floors of
the rooms rise noticeably. This is a basic
convention of temple design, as one moves into
the temple deeper to the sanctuary which would
contain the primeval mound of creation, rising
out of the waters of Nun.
The first hall within the temple contains eight
large statues of the king as Osiris, four on each
side, which also serve as pillars to support the
roof. The walls are decorated in relief with
scenes showing the king in battle, including the
great battle of Kadesh on the north, and Syrian,
Libyan and Nubian wars on the south wall, and

also presenting prisoners to the gods.

On the north entrance wall in this Hypostyle hall a scene shows Ramesses in the
presence of Amun, to whom the king appealed during his battle at Kadesh against the
Hittites.
Behind the first hall is a second smaller hall with ritual offering scenes. Here in one
scene both Ramesses and Nefertari are depicted before the sacred barque of Amun,
and in another, before the sacred barque of Ra-Horakhaty. Three doors lead from here
into a vestibule, and then one reaches the sanctuary.
The sanctuary contains a small altar and in its rear niche are four statues. These cult
images represent Ramesses II himself, and the three state gods of the New Kingdom,
Ra-Horakhty of Heliopolis, Ptah of Memphis and Amun-Ra of Thebes. Before the
statues rests a block upon which would have rested the sacred barque itself.

The axis of the temple is arranged so that on two days of the year, in February and
October, the rising sun shoots its rays through the entrance and halls until it finally
illuminates the sanctuary statues.
To the north of the main temple a smaller temple was built in honor of Ramesses great
wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. This temple should not be confused with the
beautiful Tomb to Nefertari in the Valley of Queens near Thebes.

As with Ramesses own temple, the cliff face was cut back to resemble sloping walls
of a pylon. Six colossal standing figures 33 feet high four of Ramesses and two of
Nefertari, were cut from the rock face, along with smaller figures of the royal family.
An inscription over the entrance reads "Ramesses II, he has made a temple, excavated
in the mountain, of eternal workmanship, for the chief queen Nefertari, beloved of Mu,
in Nubia, forever and ever, Nefertari for whose sake the very sun does shine."
Inside, Nefertaris temple has a single pillared hall, with carved Hathor heads atop the
pillars. On the sides facing the center of the hypostyle; Ramesses is shown smiting his
enemies and offering before various gods, while Nefertari is shown, graceful and
slender, with hands raised. Three doors lead to a vestibule with ancillary rooms at
either end.
The sanctuary is complete, though two spaces were left on its side walls for doors to
rooms, which were never cut. The inner chamber contains a number of images
interrelating the royal couple and the gods. On the rear wall, Hathor is depicted in high
relief as a cow emerging from the western mountain, with the king standing beneath
her chin. Nefertari is shown repeatedly participating in the divine rituals on an equal
footing with the king. On the left wall, Nefertari is seen worshipping before Mut and
Hathor, and on the right, Ramesses worships before images of his deified self and his
wife.
When Greek mercenaries passed by in the 6th century BCE, sand already reached the
knees of the statues. These ancient sight-see-ers left an inscription which reads "When
King Psammetichus <sic> came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed
with Psammetichus the son of Theolces, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the
river permits."

Sopdet, Goddess of Sirius, New Year

and Inundation...
by Caroline Seawright
January 11, 2004

Sopdet, Goddess of Sirius, New Year and Inundation...

(

)
Sopdet (Sepdet, Sothis) personified the 'dog star' Sirius. This star was
the most important of the stars to the ancient Egyptians, and the
heliacal rising of this star came at the time of inundation and the start
of the Egyptian New Year. As a goddess of the inundation, she was a
goddess of fertility. She also was linked to the pharaoh and his journey
in the afterlife.

She was represented as a woman with a star on top of her headdress, or

as a seated cow with a plant between her horns (just as Seshat's
hieroglyph might have been a flower or a star) as depicted on an ivory
tablet of King Djer. The plant may have been symbolic of the year, and
thus linking her to the yearly rising of Sirius and the New Year. She
was very occasionally depicted as a large dog, or in Roman times, as the goddess IsisSopdet, she was shown riding side-saddle on a large dog.
Sirius was both the most important star of ancient Egyptian
astronomy, and one of the Decans (star groups into which the
night sky was divided, with each group appearing for ten days
annually). The heliacal rising (the first night that Sirius is seen,
just before dawn) was noticed every year during July, and the
Egyptians used this to mark the start of the New Year (wp rnpt,
'The Opening of the Year'). It was celebrated with a festival known
as 'The Coming of Sopdet'.

The time period between Sothic risings is

called the Sothic Cycle and it is one of the
tools Egyptologists use to create a chronology
of Egyptian history.
--

Sopdet, April McDevitt

Even as
early as the 1st Dynasty, she was known as
'the
bringer of the new year and the Nile flood'.
When Sirius appeared in the sky each year, the Nile generally started to
flood and bring fertility to the land. The ancient Egyptians connected the
two events, and so Sopdet took on the aspects of a goddess of not only the
star and of the inundation, but of the fertility that came to the land of Egypt
with the flood. The flood and the rising of Sirius also marked the ancient
Egyptian New Year, and so she also was thought of as a goddess of the
New Year.
Her aspect of being a fertility goddess was not just linked to the Nile. By the Middle
Kingdom, she was believed to be a mother goddess, and a nurse goddess, changing
her from a goddess of agriculture to a goddess of motherhood. This probably was due
to her strong connection with the mother-goddess Isis.
Not just a goddess of the waters of the inundation, Sopdet had another link with water
- she was believed to cleanse the pharaoh in the afterlife. It is interesting to note that
the embalming of the dead took seventy days - the same amount of time that Sirius
was not seen in the sky, before it's yearly rising. She was a goddess of fertility to both
the living and the dead.
In the Pyramid Texts, she is the goddess who prepares yearly sustenance for the
pharaoh, 'in this her name of "Year"'. She is also thought to be a guide in the afterlife
for the pharaoh, letting him fly into the sky to join the gods, showing him 'goodly
roads' in the Field of Reeds and helping him become one of the imperishable stars.
She was thought to be living on the horizon, encircled by the Duat.
In the Pyramid texts, parallelling the story of Osiris and Isis, the pharaoh was believed
to have had a child with Sopdet:
Your sister Isis comes to you rejoicing for love of you. You have placed her on
your phallus and your seed issues into her, she being ready as Sopdet, and
Horus-Soped has come forth from you as Horus who is in Sopdet.
-- Sopdet in the Pyramid Texts
Sopdet was believed to be wife of Sah (the star Orion) and the mother of Soped
(Sopdu). She was also thought to give birth to the Morning Star (Venus), the pharaoh
being described as the father in the Pyramid Texts. She was linked closely with Isis,
just as Sah and Soped were linked with Osiris and Horus. In 'The Lamentations of Isis
and Nephthys for Osiris', Isis calls herself Sopdet, saying that she will follow Osiris in
the heaven. Sopdet was also connected to the goddess Satet at Abu (Elephantine).

Sirius happens to travel the sky just ahead of the large constellation of Orion.
(His belt of three stars serves as an easy pointer towards Sirius, the
unmistakable bright star that is one of the few visible even in city lights'
glare). Orion was identified with the dying-and-resurrected god Osiris, in
Egyptian mythology, who was one of the most well-known gods of the
pantheon. His wife and sister Isis was Lady of Magic, who brought her
husband back to life, and the bright star his constellation followed naturally
came to be associated with her.
-- Inventing the Solar System: Early Greek Scientists Struggle to Explain How
the Heavens Move, Ellen N. Brundige
She was also given a masculine aspect, and linked with Horus as Sopdet-Horus during
the Middle Kingdom. She was also linked with Anubis during Greek Times as
Sopdet-Anubis, probably because of the iconography of her as a god, or riding on the
back of a dog. She was also linked with other goddesses such as Hathor, Bast and
Anqet.
She was venerated in Per-Soped (Saft al Hinna), in the 20th Nome of Lower Egypt.
She was the goddess who helped the pharaoh reach the realm of the gods, who
heralded the innundation, and the goddess of the ancient Egyptian new year. She was
the personification of the most important star of ancient Egypt, so important was she
that her worship lasted through Egyptian history, from predynastic times, through to
the Graeco-Roman period.

Abydos in Egypt
by Marie Parsons
>> Abydos
Abydos, or Abjdu, lies in the eight nome of Upper Egypt, about 300 miles south of
Cairo, on the western side of the Nile and about 9.5 miles from the river. It spreads
over 5 square miles and contains
archaeological remains from all
periods of ancient Egyptian history. It
was significant in historical times as
the main cult center of Osiris, the lord
of the netherworld. At the mouth of the
canyon at Abydos, which the
Egyptians believed to be the entrance
to the underworld, one of the tombs of
the 1st dynasty kings was mistaken for
the tomb of Osiris, a thousand years
later, and pilgrims would leave

offerings to the god for another thousand years. The area is thus now called Umm el
Qaab, "Mother of Pots."
Abydos was the burial place for the first kings of a unified Egypt. But it contains
remains from earlier, in the Predynastic period. In 1900 the Predynastic cemetery of
el-Amra was excavated with hundreds of graves from all Predynastic phases. Other
important cemeteries were found at Naga ed-Deir, el-Mahasna, Mesheikh, Beit Allam
and the various cemeteries at Abydos itself. In addition, settlements have been found,
most representing small farming villages. El-Mahasna had beer-brewing facilities.
The Predynasty/Early Dynastic cemetery is located in the low desert. It consists of
three parts: predynastic Cemetery U in the north, Cemetery B in the middle with royal
tombs from Dynasty 0 and the
early 1st Dynasty, and in the south
the tomb complexes of six kings
and one queen from the 1st dynasty
and two kings from the 2nd dynasty.
Most of the 1st dynasty tombs show
traces of immense fires. Many had
also been plundered many times.
In 1977 a tiny ivory label was
discovered bearing the "nar" name
of Narmer, and the king is seen
smiting an enemy in the Delta.
Cemetery U contains several hundred graves and offering pits. Ceramics are from the
Naqada culture. Of particular importance is the tomb named U-j, uncovered in 1988.
It is dated to 150 years before Aha and the beginning of the 1st dynasty.
The tomb is elaborate, brick-lined, with doors and windows. It has twelve chambers
and measures about 27 feet x 24 feet. It still contained much funerary equipment.
There were large amounts of different
kinds of Egyptian pottery, and more than
200 wine jars imported probably from
Palestine. There were also about 150 labels
of ivory or bone, many of which were
apparently attached to linen bolts.
Many of the inscriptions on the labels are
readable with clear glyphs and signs. The
most frequent sign was a scorpion,
sometimes together with a plant. It is speculated that either King Scorpion was buried
here or that he was a known figure. Hundreds of wine jars imported from Canaan
were also unearthed in one of the tombs store-rooms.
There were traces of a wooden shrine on the floor in the burial chamber, and in the
northeastern corner a complete crook-shaped scepter of ivory.

Many of the earliest tombs are in the

location known as Umm el Ga'ab. Ten
royal enclosures in total must have been
built; but only eight have been located.
Some of the royal owners have been
identified: Djer, Djet (Tomb), Queenmother Merneith (Tomb), of the 1st
Dynasty, Den (tomb) and Peribsen
(Tomb) and Khasekhemwy (Tomb)of
the 2nd Dynasty. At least some of these
burials were surrounded by subsidiary
graves for attendants killed and buried
along with the royal funeral.
Cemetery B contains three double-chamber tombs, currently attributed to King Aha
(Tomb), and his Dynasty 0 predecessors of Narmer (tomb), Ka (tomb) and possibly
another King named Iry-Hor (tomb). Pottery shards have been found here which are
inscribed with the name-signs of these kings.
Royal graves at Abydos became more elaborate, until the last and largest royal tomb
built there for Khasekhemwy, last king of the 2nd Dynasty. His tomb, called Shunet
es-Zebib, the Storehouse of the Flies, measures about 230 feet long and varying
between 56 and 33 feet in width. Near Khentyamentius temple, a mile north of the
Umm el Gaab (Qa'ab) cemetery and nested among the enclosures were fourteen
(found to-date) large boat graves The remains of the ancient ships, dating to the 1st
Dynasty, were uncovered in the desert. Each averages 75 feet in length and had been
encased in a structure two-feet thick with whitewashed mud-brick walls. Whether
they were meant to represent solar barques, anticipating the ship built by Khufu and
found within his Pyramid at Giza, is not yet known.
North Abydos contains an ancient settlement and also the remains of a large stone
temple from the 30th Dynasty, along with a portal structure of Ramesses II, and a
fairly recently discovered temple built by Tuthmosis III. Most of the early town lies
beneath modern groundwater and the remains of later settlements. Another temple,
that of Khentyamentiu which was later identified with Osiris as his temple, dates from
the later third millennium BCE. Royal cult buildings or ka chapels were built here by
kings from the Old Kingdom through the New Kingdom. Buildings to the west and
southwest of the cult buildings proved to be houses spanning the period from late
Predynastic to the 2nd Dynasty.
A residential and industrial section have also been found to the southeast of those
excavations, dating to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. A number of
mudbrick houses, consisting of between 7 and 10 small rooms, courtyards and a
narrow street have been found. A workshop, the earliest and most complete faience
workshop in Egypt, was also uncovered, complete with kilns.

The Northern cemetery was the principal burial ground for non-royal individuals at
Abydos during the Middle Kingdom, and continued to be so used through the GraecoRoman period.
The tombs of the first
kings of unified Egypt
were deep brick-lined
structures topped with
mounds of sand, later
called mastabas, the
Arabic word for bench,
since their square or
rectangular shapes
resembled benches.
Later in the 1st Dynasty,
one structure was
placed underground,
supported by a
retaining wall, and the
second mastaba was
placed above ground
directly over the first,
to protect the lower
one.
The most striking
standing buildings are
the enclosure of King
Khasekhemwy from the
2nd Dynasty, the well-preserved New Kingdom temples of Seti I (temple) and
Ramesses II (temple) from the 19th Dynasty, and the walled enclosure now called the
Kom es-Sultan, the location of the early town and main temple dedicated to Osiris.
The 19th Dynasty Seti temple contains seven sanctuaries set in a row, each dedicated
to a different deity, Ptah, Ra-Harakhty, Amun-Ra, Osiris, Isis and Horus. Seti I
himself was included with his funerary shrine. The unusual L-shaped plan of the
temple is caused by a southeast wing appended to the main rectangular-shaped
temple. This wing contains rooms dedicated to Sokar and Nefertum and other
funerary deities. There is also a King list to the south of the sanctuaries. Since the
temple was unfinished when Seti died, his son and successor Ramesses II finished the
work.
Immediately behind the chambers dedicated to the Osiris cult is another structure,
subterranean, called the Osireion. It contains offering scenes and other scenes from
the Book of Gates and the Book of the Dead.
South Abydos was developed as a zone for royal cult complexes, two well-preserved
ones so far identified as belonging to Senusret II of the 12th Dynasty and Ahmose of
the 18th Dynasty, who built a small pyramid here. .

Relief fragments at the complex of King Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom
and conqueror of the Hyksos invaders, have been found near his pyramid and funerary
complex at Abydos. One fragment represents a group of three arcers, teams of bridled
chariot horses, ships with oars, and fallen warriors recognizable as Asiatics. Other
fragments bear the names of Apophis, the leader of the Hyksos, and that of Avaris, the
capital city of the Hyksos.
As work proceeds at ancient Abydos, a home of the dead for so many millennia, more
and more of the history and religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians is returning to
life.

The Amada Temple in Nubia

by Craig Hildreth

The Amada Temple in Nubia, though small,

nevertheless contains some important historical
inscriptions and is also significant as the oldest of
the Lake Nasser temples. For example, one carved
on a stela on the rear wall of the sanctuary in the
third year of Amenhotep II describes an Egyptian
military campaign into Asia, and his bringing back
the bodies of rebel chieftains to hang on the walls
of Thebes and one on the prow of his ship sailing
through Nubia as a warning. Another, carved on a
stela on the northern side of the entrance doorway
describes a Libyan invasion of Egypt in the fourth
year of Merenptah, the son of Ramesses II.
This temple is located about 180 kilometers south
of the High Dam, and was dedicated to the
important New Kingdom gods, Amun-Re and ReHorakhty. It was originally built on the orders of Tuthmosis III and his son,
Amenhotep II during Egypt's New Kingdom 18th Dynasty. The hypostyle hall was a
later addition by Tuthmosis IV. Seti I had a hand in some small additions, such as a
large pylon with a sandstone gateway abutting against the hypostyle hall, along with
other 19th Dynasty rulers including his son, Ramesses II, who seems to have involved
himself in some way with almost every Nubian temple built prior to his reign.
However, Ramesses II's restoration of the temple has been noted as rather a poor

effort, probably employing the use of local artists of inferior skill. Of course,
Ramesses II also added a number of his own temples to the Nubian landscape during
his reign.

A relief of Amun in the temple, with his name excised by Tuthmosis IV

Due to the rising waters of Lake Nasser after the construction of the High Aswan
Dam, the temple was moved, together with the nearby Temple of Derr, to a new,
higher location some 2.5 kilometers from its original site between 1964 and 1975.
The temple, which does retain much of its painted relief work including polychrome
decorations, consists of a court with a brick wall with proto-Doric columns forming a
rear portico. Tuthmosis IV enlarged it transforming the court into a pillared hall
through the erection of twelve pillars in four transverse rows in front of the four
columns, with inter-columnar walls between the outer pillars. The temple proper,
which was built in sandstone, has a shallow transverse hall decorated with coronation
scenes, a deep offering hall connected on either side to a small cult statue shrine for
Re-Horakhty (south) and Amun-Re (north).

The painted reliefs within the

temple are interesting, particularly
one section where, in a high register
devoted to Tuthmosis III, we find
him worshiping Amun-Re, which is
then harmonized by a lower register
of a similar motif where
Amenhotep II worships ReHorakhty in the same symbolic
theme. Unfortunately, Tuthmosis
IV, better known as the heretic
king, Akhenaten, who broke from
religious tradition in his attempts to
promote Aten, had chipped away
representations of Amun. These were the images that Ramesses II had restored, but
with inferior workmanship. Also, like many other Nubian temples, the early Christians
made the structure a church capped by a cupola, and in the process, contributed their
own damage. On the other hand, when these same Christians plastered over many of
the reliefs, they in fact preserved many of them, making these depictions some of the
finest remaining in any Nubian temple.

James Breasted and his family visiting the Temple of Amada

Beyond the original reliefs, there are some interesting graffiti, apparently inscribed
during the 19th Dynasty that include scenes of the viceroy of Nubia, Messuy, which
appear to show the royal uraeus added to the viceroy's brow. Other, more recent
graffiti visible on the very top of the temple facade are crude representations of camels
taht are though to have been either the work of Bedouins or travelers during the
Middle Ages.

The Cartouche of Seti I from the T

A general view of the Temple of Amun including the sacred lake

Karnak is one of the premier sites in all of Egypt and one of the most visited. In fact, it
is perhaps one of, if not the largest religious complex ever constructed anywhere in the

world. This vast, ancient Egypt complex demonstrates the religious significance of the
area in ancient times. Though this complex is very complicated, by far the largest
system of temples is that of Amun, a local god of Thebes (modern Luxor) who rose to
national importance during Egypt's New Kingdom.

Click on the Area you wish to Explore

The Temple of Amun in Egypt, unusually, is built along two axis running both eastwest and north-south. It's construction took place over many centuries, and at the
command of many different Egyptian kings.
The original core of the temple was located near the center of the east-west axis on a
mound which was itself almost certainly a very ancient sacred site. This original core
was then expanded both towards the Nile in normal Egyptian fashion, but also in the
direction of the outlying Mut temple to the south.
Today, visitors normally approach the temple from the west by way of a quay built by
Ramesses II which gave access to the temple from a canal which, during ancient

times, was linked to the Nile. Just to the right stands a small barque chapel of Hakoris
(393-380 BC) which was used as a resting station on the processional journeys of the
gods to and from the Nile River. A short avenue of cryosphinxes leads from the quay
to the temple's first pylon. These cryosphinxes have ram's heads symbolizing the great
state god, Amun, and each holds a statue of the king protectively between their paws.
The huge entrance pylon is actually unfinished, as attested by the unequal height of its
upper regions, the uncut clocks which project from its undecorated surfaces and the
remains of the mud-brick construction ramp that is still present on its interior side.
Originally, it stood some 40 meters high (131 feet). This structure may have been built
as late as the 30th Dynasty by Nectanebo I, who at least constructed the temenos walls
to which the pylon is attached. However, this is uncertain and it is possible that an
earlier pylon once stood on the same spot. High upon this gate is an inscription left by
Napoleon's Expedition, which is still visible.
Passing through this pylon, the
first courtyard now encloses an
area that was originally outside of
the temple, as evidenced by a
number of cryosphinxes like
those outside that were displaced
from their original positions along
the processional route. Inside this
courtyard to the left is the granite
and sandstone triple barque
chapel of Seti II, which contains
three chambers for the barques of
Mut (left), Amun (center) and
Khonsu (right). Opposite this
shrine is a small sphinx with the
features of Tutankhamun.
Centered within the courtyard are
the remains of the kiosk of
Taharqa, which was later usurped
by Psammetichus II and later still,
restored during Egypt's Greek
Period. It originally consisted of ten huge papyrus columns linked by a low screening
wall and open at its eastern and western ends. Now there is only one great column and
a large, altar-like block of calcite (Egyptian alabaster). The function of this structure
has been assumed to be a barque shrine but, because it is open to the sky, it has been
suggested that the structure may have served another ritual purpose.

To the right of the

entrance is a small
temple built by
Ramesses III. This was
actually an elaborate
barque shrine designed
as a miniature version
of the king's mortuary
temple at Medinet
Habu. Hence, this
structure's first court is
lined with Osiride
statues of Ramesses III,
while the walls are decorated with various festival scenes and texts. Beyond is a
portico and small hypostyle hall, as well as an inner area for the members of the
Karnak Triad.
Just next to the Ramesses III temple is the famous so-called "Bubastite Portal", which
gives access to the famous scenes of Sheshonq I of biblical fame (Shishak, from 1
Kings 14: 25-26). In these scenes depicted on the
south face of the main temple's side wall, he smites
his captive enemies. The portal on the court's
opposite, northern sides leads through to the open-air
museum where there are now a number of small
monuments that have been reconstructed from
dismantled blocks found within the temple's walls
and pylons where they were used as filling. These
include beautiful and nearly complete limestone
barque chapel of the Middle Kingdom ruler, Senusret
I and the New Kingdom shrines of Amenhotep I and
II. Recently, the "Chapelle Rouge" of Hatshepsut was
also added.
Just before the second pylon in this court were two
striding colossi of Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great).
However, only the feet of one remain. Before these,
there is a third, standing statue of the king with the
diminutive figure of the princess Bent'anta
(Bentanath, and later queen) standing between his
feet. This statue was usurped by Ramesses VI and
later by the High Priest and southern ruler, Pinedjem
I of the 21st Dynasty.
The second pylon was begun during the reign of Horemheb, the last ruler of the 18th
Dynasty, and completed during the reign of Seti I. From its core, many sandstone
talatal blocks of an earlier temple of Akhenaten, the heretic king, have been removed.

The second pylon opens into the

famous Great Hypostyle Hall, which is
one of the most impressive areas in the
whole of the Karnak complex, with its
towering columns. There are a total of
134 papyrus columns, including 12 in
the center which are taller than the
others. They measure about 21 meters
(69 feet) high, while the 122 others
measure 15 meters (49 feet). The larger
columns have open capitals, while the
smaller ones are closed. So large are
these columns that fifty people could
stand together on the capitals of the
largest.
At one time, these columns supported
a roof with small clerestory windows.
While the roof is gone, some of the
windows remain. They would have
provided a muted illumination for the
interior, which symbolizes the
primeval papyrus swamp. In ancient
times, the space between the columns
would have been teaming with statues of gods and kings, and a few of these have in
recent times been restored to the hall. Against the southern pylon wall is a low
alabaster block decorated with the enemies of Egypt, termed the "nine bows", which
served as a barque rest during processions. The hall was begun by Amenhotep III.
However, the decorations were initiated by Seti I, and completed by Ramesses II.
Ramesses the Great's decorations can be distinguished from the earlier work because
they lack the artistic quality of the others in the northern half of the hall. Within the
hall, the decorations show scenes from the daily ritual and also processional scenes, as
well as mythical topics such as the kings interaction with various gods. On the exterior
walls are carved reliefs celebrating the military exploits of Seti I and Ramesses II in
Syria and Palestine, including Ramesses II's famous battle of Kadesh.

Amenhotep III initiated

the third pylon, though its
entrance porch is a part of
the later Ramessid
period. There were a
huge number of reused
blocks found as filler
within this monument,
from which most of the
monuments in the Open
Air Museum were
reconstructed. Beyond
this pylon is the Obelisk Court where four such structures were erected by Tuthmosis I
and III before the entrance to the original, inner temple. However, only one of
Tuthmosis I's obelisks remains. This is also where the area of the temple's second axis
branches off to the south.
However, continuing to the east on the main axis, the fourth and fifth pylons were
constructed by Tuthmosis I. Both of these pylons were constructed by Tuthmosis I,
and together with the narrow, once-pillared area between them constitute the oldest
part of the temple that still remains. This part of the temple later received additions,
including two obelisks of Hatshepsut, one of which still remains while the other
shattered one lies nearby to the south on a concrete block. In all, Hatshepsut placed
four obelisks in the Temple of Amun, though these are the only ones left.
Very little remains of the sixth pylon,
which was built by Tuthmosis III.
However, the walls still retain the
lists of conquered peoples of the
south (southern wall) and of the north
(northern wall). This pylon fronts a
court with two magnificent granite
pillars bearing the floral emblems of
Upper and Lower Egypt on the
respective northern and southern
sides. On the courts north side are
two large statues of Amun and
Amaunet, which were dedicated by
Tutankhamun.
This court leads to a granite barque
shrine built by Alexander the Great's
short lived successor, Philip
Arrhidaeus, though it perhaps
replaced an earlier shrine of
Tuthmosis III. It is made up of two
halves, consisting of an outer area

where offerings were made to the god, and an inner area which still contains the
pedestal upon which the god's barque rested. Here, the inner walls. are adorned with
scenes of offering rites, with Amun appearing in both his usual anthropomorphic and
his alternative ithyphallic forms. The outer walls still depict various festival scenes,
some still retaining much of their original brightly colored paint.
The chambers that surround the granite shrine, which are made of sandstone, were
built by Hatshepsut, but the walls closest to the structure were placed here by
Tuthmosis III. He decorated them with the "annals" of his military campaigns and
dedication to the temple, including a scene in which the king presents his two
obelisks.
These walls precede the so-called "central court", which is an open court where the
earliest temple on this site probably once stood, and which became the sanctuary of
the later temple. Unfortunately, the building was plundered for its stone during
antiquity, and there is now little left other than the large calcite slab on which a shrine
once stood.
The relatively complete Festival Temple
of Tuthmosis III lies beyond the central
court, which retains some of the most
interesting and unusual features to be
found at Karnak. This structure was
built as a sort of shrine to his ancestral
cult, including himself. Named the
"Most Splendid of Monuments", the
entrance located on the building's
southwest corner was originally flanked
by two statues of the king in festival
attire. It leads into an antechamber with
storage magazines and other rooms on
the right and left of the temple's great
columned hall. Around the perimeter,
the roof is supported by square pillars,
though in the central section there are
curiously shaped columns that imitate
ancient tent poles. They are probably
symbolic of those in his actual military
tents, though it is possible that they
recall similar structures from earlier
religious buildings. During the Coptic
Christian Period between the fall of the
ancient pagan religion and the Muslim invasion of Egypt, this building was reused as a
church, evidenced by haloed icons that may still be seen near the tops of several
columns. Other rooms within the building were dedicated to his ancestors, the god
Sokar, the sun god in his morning manifestation and to Amun. In the chapel of Amun,
there is a massive quartzite pedestal that once supported the shrine of that god. The

vestibule of this temple is also well known as the "Botanical Room" having depictions
of exotic flora and fauna that Tuthmosis III encountered on his military campaigns.
At the back of Tuthmosis
III's complex, the walls are
mostly destroyed, so it is
possible to exit there and to
examine the niche shrines
built against the temple's
back. It was here that the
ancient Egyptians brought
their petitions for Amun's
consideration. It was here,
on either side of the shrines,
that the two long lost
obelisks of Hatshepsut were
located. However, their
bases can still be seen. A little further to the east, beyond a reconstructed "horned"
altar of late date, are the remains of a small "temple of the hearing ear". Like the niche
shrines of Ramesses II, they allowed common Egyptians, not usually allowed within
the temple proper, access to their state god, Amun. This structure also once contained
a single obelisk on the central axis. Though not certain, this may have been the
Lateran Obelisk now in Rome. This temple once stretched almost to the rear gate of
the Karnak complex.
The rear gate is an imposing portal reaching some 20 meters (over 65 feet) in height. It
was constructed by Nectanebo I, and it terminates the main east-west axis of the
complex. However, to the north, just inside the ruined mud-brick wall, are the remains
of a small 22nd Dynasty temple built by Osorkon IV and dedicated to Osiris Hekadjet,
"Ruler of Eternity". There were also several other small shrines in this area.
From here, turning back to the south, one may walk back towards the sacred lake
which is now filled with ground water. It supplied water for the priests' ablutions as
well as for other temple requirements. There, seating for the temple's famous sound
and light show lies atop the excavated remains of the housing for priests. The lake is
lined with rough hewn stone and on its southern side is a stone tunnel through which
the domesticated geese of Amun were released into the lake from their yards further
south.
A chapel of Taharqa sits on the northwest corner of the lake. This is a strange little
building with underground chambers that contain descriptions of the sun-god's nightly
journey through the netherworld and his rebirth each day as a scarab beetle.
Apparently, this is the reason that the large scarab sculpture was brought here from the
west bank mortuary temple of Amenhotep III. Also on the northwest corner of the lake
rests the pyramidion of Hatshepsut's second obelisk.

Beyond Hatshepsut's pyramidion is the

first court of the temple's north-south axis.
Here is the seventh pylon, which was
constructed by Tuthmosis III, though the
side walls are the work of Merenptah, the
son and successor of Ramesses II. The
courtyard is also known as the "Courtyard
of the Cachette", for it was at the southern
end of it that Legrain discovered some
20,000 statues and stelae in 1904. Many of
these were stone states that have survived
in good condition, though others made of
wood were completely destroyed by
ground water. Statues made of bronze
faired only slightly better.
The remaining pylons on this axis consist
of the eighth, built by Hatshepsut, and the
ninth and tenth, raised by Horemheb, who
made considerable use of stone quarried
from the temples of Akhenaten.
Built into the southern wall of the court between the ninth and tenth pylons is a small
Sed-festival temple of Amenhotep II, which was only recently reconstructed by
American Egyptologist Charles Van Siclen III. Within, the temple's central hall
contains some finely carved reliefs which have retained much of their original color,
even though the images of the god Amun were destroyed during the reign of
Akhenaten. They were later repaired by Seti I. Van Siclen believes that this structure
once occupied an area in front of the eighth pylon, and that it was apparently removed,
stone by stone, by Horemheb and rebuilt at its present location when the king extended
the Great Temple of Amun's south wing.
The southern entrance to the precinct of Amun was a gate through the tenth pylon
which led past two limestone colossi, probably of Horemheb, to the sphinx-lined
processional way which connected the precinct of Mut.
Within the walls of the Amun precinct lie a number of smaller temples, including the
Temple of Khonsu, the Opet Temple and the Temple of Ptah.
Individual Sections of the Great Temple of Amun:

The Approach to the First Pylon (Western)

The First Courtyard in the Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns

The Interior Walls

The Obelisk Courtyard (Between the Third and Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the Temple Proper
The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of
Tuthmosis III Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons
The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak
The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

Other Temples within the Precinct of Amun (within the enclosure walls):

The Temple of Mut

The Temple of Opet
The Temple of Osiris Hek-Djet
The Temple of Khonsu

The Temple of Ptah

The Temple of Amun,

which actually houses a
number of integrated
temples and chapels, is
both the central and
principal construct at
Karnak. It's primary
modern entrance is on
the west (northwest),
and consists of a
number of structures
and statues leading up
and through the first
Pylon. In the approach to the Temple of Amun at Karnak in ancient Thebes (modern
Luxor), a canal was originally dug out to the Nile terminating at a quay built by
Ramesses II located on the western extremity of an avenue bordered with two rows of
ram-headed sphinxes. The avenue comes to a holt about twenty meters before the first
pylon on the northeast of the main structure which faces the Nile River. The avenue is
cut into by the royal highway which went from Coptos to Syrene (Aswan) by way of

Thebes, passing between the seventh and eighth sphinxes.

A modern view of the avenue of Sphinxes showing the Quay

Branching off from the royal highway, a slight ramp climbs toward the quay. Where
the ramp begins, there were two human headed sphinxes holding a ram-headed urn in
their hands, of which nothing remains but their pedestals, which are 1.5 meters in
height.
The various heights of the annual Nile floods that were marked during the time
between the 22nd Dynasty reign of Shoshenq I and the 26th Dynasty reign of Psamtik
III can be seen on the western side of the quay. For example:
"Year 3, first month of the third season, day 5 under the majesty of King Shabata.
When his majesty was crowned as king in the House of Amun, he granted him that he
should splendidly appear as favorite of the Two Goddesses, like Horus upon the
throne of Ra. [The Nile] which his father Amun the great, Hapi the great, great in
Niles, granted him in his time: twenty (cubits), 2 palms."
These measurements are believed to be marked
with regard to a horizontal line that must have
formerly served as a reference for the
augmentation of the average level of the flood
over the course of the seasons. It should be
noted that the quay does not bear
measurements from the first five years of
Taharqa's reign, which is known to have been a
period of drought. Once the flood finally did
occur, Tahraqa had two stela carved, one in
Coptos and the other at Mataanah, to
commemorate the event.
On the northeast and southwest corners of the quay, Seti II had two small obelisks

erected. Today, nothing remains of the northern one except the pedestal, but the
southern obelisk, which is almost intact, is interesting
because it presents Seti II's complete titles, which reading
from top to bottom, include his Horus name, his "Two
Crowns" name, his Golden Horus name, his throne name
as the king of the South and the North, and his "Son of Ra"
name, repeated in four vertical columns. Also, a small
barque chapel of Hakoris stands to the right of the quay,
which once acted as a resting station on the gods'
processional journeys to and from the river.
The avenue of sphinxes consist of statues with lions'
bodies and the heads of rams, symbolizing Amun, each of
which protect between their front paws a royal effigy of
Ramesses II in the form of Osiris. Around each of their
pedestals is an extra inscription added during the 21st
Dynasty by the high priest Pinedjem, son of Piankh.
The first pylon, which is the current entranceway to the
great Temple of Amun, is composed of two massive blocks
framing a large portal. On the west face of each block, for
vertical grooves served to house the poles, made from
Lebanon cedar and stitched with copper. These poles were adorned with banners
(flags) at their tops.
The pylon may have been built by Nectanebo I, who raised the temenos walls to which
the pylon is attached, though this is by no means certain. Hence, it would have been a
relatively late addition built during Egypt's
30th Dynasty. However, it is also possible
that an earlier pylon may have stood on this
same spot. While the pylon is undecorated,
high up on its thickness is an inscription left
by Napoleon's Expedition, which remains
visible today.
The pylon remains unfinished. The north
wing has only thirty-two courses and
measures 21.70 meters high, while the
southern wing has fort-five courses and
measures 31.65 meters high. Its thickness at
the base is bout 14.5 meters. Though the
pylon's four faces remain unfinished, an
examination of its construction reveals the
extreme care taken in the precision with
which the slope of the monument is drawn
on each of the blocks. As an example, the
ten lower courses and the upper courses

marking he projection of the torus in the southwest corner bear a groove indicating its
exact slant.
the doorway of the pylon is rather odd. All of the blocks that constitute its jambs are
very carefully jointed, not only on the west facade and the interior of the passageway,
but also on their faces joined to the pylon, while the entire eastern facade has remained
in a state of construction. The doorway has an interior width of 7.4 meters and a height
of 19.36 meters. On the inside of the doorway, to the upper right, the French scholars
of the Bonaparte expedition carved the latitudes and longitudes of the principal
monuments they surveyed.
Home | Next
See also:
Individual Sections of the Great Temple of Amun:

The Approach to the First Pylon (Western)

The First Courtyard in the Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns
The Interior Walls
The Obelisk Courtyard (Between the Third and Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the Temple Proper
The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of
Tuthmosis III Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons
The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak

The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first pylon is a construction platform built of brick
caissons enclosing packed earth between retaining walls perpendicular to the pylon,
which is evidence that the first pylon was still under construction when the work was
abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large, somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two sides by a portico with columns built
during the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I (Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns
here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the
capitals. The capitals themselves or in the
form of closed buds.
About in the center of the northern
enclosure wall behind the columns is an
enigmatic, but interesting depiction. This is
the so called magic image of Amun. Here,
the pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the
two cartouches, and he is making libation in
the presence of a very strange image. The
representation has the head of Amun,
wearing a crown topped by a solar disk
surmounted by two large feathers, which
emerge from a goatskin bottle embraced by
the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this
depiction surmounts a pedestal crowned by
a uraeus, in front of which is a lion whose
chest comes up to the level of the shafts. It
would seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded during

processions. This scene then sits upon a table fronting a series of lotuses, each of
which is giving birth to a new lotus framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the Temple of Amun at Karnak was originally outside the
temple proper, so the row of Cryosphinxes outside the temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the
surrounding pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard
torus (a large convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central
doorway measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
quartzite that probably
came from Gebel el-Ahmar
near Cario. The rest of the
building is made of more
ordinary sandstone,
probably from Gebel elSilsila. Hence, this edifice
is made of white blocks of
sandstone from the South
placed on red stones
coming from the north. The
quartzite blocks of the first
course of stone also have a
much more pronounced
slope than the rest of the
building.
In the eastern area of the northern facade of the building we find depictions in two
registers of tableaux presenting Seti II offering to the Theban gods. In the lower of

The Great Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Amun, Karnak, Part I

An Overview and the Exterior Walls
by Jim Fox

An Overview
It is difficult for one to think of Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern Luxor), much less the section
known as the Temple of Amun, without picturing
the Great Hypostyle Hall. This is the large area just
behind the second pylon in the Temple of Amun,
which is a veritable forest in stone, and measures
some 99.4 by 51.82 meters.. At one point, it was
called "The Temple of Seti Merneptah is
Lumininous in the House of Amun" and was
described by the ancient Egyptians as "the resting
place of the Lord of gods, beautiful sojourn of the
Ennead" and "the beautiful sojourn of the Ennead,
where Amun rests, the place of appearance of the
Lord of the gods at his annual feast". It was also
designated as the "Hall of the two crowns", which
perhaps points to the ceremony of the coronation
being performed in it, a ritual which is depicted
upon its walls. It has been described as one of the
most monumental achievements in Egyptian
architecture and is the largest known example of a
typical hypostyle hall.
The 134 colossal papyrus columns surge into the
sky in an impressive array of ancient workmanship.
The center 12 columns are larger, standing some 21 meters tall, with open capitals,
while the remaining 122 columns outside of these stand 15 meters high and have
closed capitals. It is difficult to actually understand their size. Consider for example,
that a crowd of fifty people could easily stand atop the capital of the largest of the

mammoth structures.
The 12 larger columns were perhaps raised by Amenhotep III, but at the latest, by
Horemheb. The other columns surrounding these are a later addition.
Originally the abacuses above the capitals, supporting stone architraves supported a
massive roof, with only small clerestroy windows, of which a few survive.
Purposefully, this would have provided only muted illumination for the primeval
papyrus swamp which the
hall represented. The taller
columns represent papyrus
plants that are further
developed in their growth,
owing to their being nearer
to the daylight, while the
smaller once are less
developed due to their lack
of access to the light.
Amidst the columns stood
literally throngs of statues
depicting gods and kings, a
few of which have been
restored to this location in
recent times.
This hall was begun by Amenhotep III, though not until Seti I were the decorations
initiated. They were completed by his son, the great Ramesses II. The latter's work can
be differentiated from the earlier decorations by their more hurried and less subtle
sunk reliefs. The theme of these decorations include celebrated military exploits of
Seti I and Ramesses II in Syria and Palestine, including the Battle of Kadesh (See also
the Egyptian Account of the Battle of Kadesh), on their exterior, while inside are
depictions of rituals including processional scenes and mythical topics such as the
king interacting with various gods. This hall is terminated by the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon.
Excavations have revealed a foundation wall under the first row of lower columns to
either side of the central nave in the Hypostyle Hall. This has lead archaeologists to
believe that a foundation wall once enclosed the central alley of columns, before the
hall was enlarged. Prior to this enlargement, this would have been a colonnade
forming the approach between second and third pylons.
The Exterior Walls
The exterior walls (consisting of the North and South walls, not the outer pylon walls)
of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak mostly portray the
military actions of Ramesses II (the south wall) and of his father, Seti I (the north
wall), and in this respect, historically, are some of the most important areas of this

famous region at Karnak. In particular, the southern exterior wall portrays the famous
Battle of Kadesh.
Southern Wall
Chapollion recounted that
all the exterior southern
facade of the hypostyle hall
"was formerly adorned with
historical tableaux relative
to the conquests of
Ramesses the Great; but
they are almost entirely
effaced and one can hardly
recognize the subject of the
two registers still visible
above the heaped-up piles
of dirt and blocks".
Today, of course, these
walls have been cleared.
However, little of the reliefs
remain. In fact, it appears
that Ramesses II may have
usurped himself on these
walls. Originally, scenes
from Ramesses II's Battle for Kadesh were recorded upon the walls, but subsequently,
the battle scenes were recarved with new scenes of Palestinian conquests, even though
the textual record was largely left untouched. It almost seems as though his artists had
run out of temple real estate and had to record newly commissioned scenes over older
ones. After all, Ramesses II had this famous battle also recorded in the temple of
Luxor and the Ramesseum. However, some of the material from the Battle of Kadesh
with the Hittites and other enemies clearly remain.
There are only three
registers that are visible
today. The two lower
registers begin at the
western edge with acts
of conquest, after which
the king begins his
return journey home as
the scenes move toward
the temple entrance,
where he presents his
defeated enemies to
Amun. On each side of

the doorway the scenes expand in height so that they take up the first two registers,
and represent the "ritual massacre of the vanquished". At the east end of the southern
wall is carved the narration of the Battle of Kadesh in a long text of vertical columns
below a large scene in which the king and the princes are bringing a bound group of
prisoners before Amun.

Superimposition of Amun and a scene of struggle

In addition to the reliefs concerning the Battle of Kadesh, there is also, on the wall
protruding from the exterior southern wall of the Hypostyle hall, reliefs that depict the
surrender of the fortress of Askalon. This was a city about ten miles north of Gaza and
about 40 miles south of Joppa. This scene depicts the pharaoh's soldiers staving in the
doors of the fortress with axes, while others scale it by means of ladders. Also, on a
nearby hill, Egyptian soldiers are exterminating the fleeing enemy.
Northern Wall
This wall, divided by a doorway, depicts combat at both of its extremes, and then
converge toward the center doorway with the king's victorious return to the temple of
Amun.

The southern exterior wall of the

Hypostyle hall, perhaps because it was
for the most part not reused as was its
northern counterpart, is perhaps
somewhat better in condition. It
records several military campaigns of
Set I into the Levant, as well as one
battle with the Libyans in the west.
In the lower half of the eastern section
of the wall, we see scenes depicting
the taking of the fortress of Pekanan.
They begin on the east edge of this
wall with the king's departure from
Raphia (now Rafah or Rafiah) for the
desert road. This is followed by the
Bedouin's ambush and scenes
depicting the waterholes along the
desert path. The next scene heading
west depicts return of Seti I to the
Egyptian boarder, followed by the
offering of booty to Amun. Beyond
this and next to the doorway is a
scene, taking up both upper and lower
registers, depicting the ritual massacre of the vanquished.
The upper part of the wall scenes on the eastern facade of the wall, beginning on the
eastern end, depict the "new version of the great chieftains of Lebanon". The eastern
most upper section depicts the capture of Yamoam, followed by the binding of the
vanquished. Next comes a scene showing the capturing of prisoners, followed by the
offering of booty to the Theban triad.
On the western half of the northern wall, the lowest of three registers on the western
end, begin by depicts an archery battle against the Kheta (Hittites), followed by the
return to Egypt with Khetan captives. Further east we find the offering of booty to the
gods, Amun, Sekhmet-Mut,
Khonsu and Ma'at. This in turn is
followed by another portrayal next
to the doorway, two registers high,
of the ritual massacre of the
prisoners before Amun, which
mirrors that on the western half of
the doorway.
The next level of scenes, beginning
on the far western edge of the wall
represent javelin combat against
the Libyans. This is followed by
the return to Egypt with Libyan

The Obelisk Court of Amenhotep III

In The Temple of Amun at Karnak
by Jim Fox

The small area between the Third

Pylon and the Fourth Pylon, which
was during the time of Tuthmosis I
the front of the the Temple of Amun at
Karnak, is sometimes referred to as
the Obelisk Court or the Court of
Amenhotep III.
During the course of the Great Feast
of Opet and the Feast of the Valley at
Thebes which occurred each year, the
sacred barques of Amun, Mut and
Khonsu were led in a procession to
the Temple of Luxor, Opet of the
South, and the funerary temples of on
the West Bank. Their boats departed
Karnak and were towed by other boats
that were propelled by oarsman.
Covering almost the entire width of
the eastern face (rear) of the north
wing of the third pylon are depicted
the two boats of Amun and the king. This representation is described by a
contemporary black granite stela erected by Amenhotep III in his western temple,
behind the columns of Memnon. The Third Pylon in the Temple of Amun was built by
Amenhotep III, and his stela describes the principal monuments that he had built in
honor of the god Amun. Hence, we learn
"...making form him [Amun] an august temple to the west of Thebes, preceded by a a
very large pylon called 'Amun has received the divine barque,' a place of repose for
the lord of the neters at his 'Feast of the Valley,' from the time of Amun's voyage to the
west, to see the neters of the west."

He next describes the temple of Luxor, but goes on to say:

"King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nebmare, part of Ra, son of Ra: Amenhotep (III),
ruler of Thebes. I made another mionument for him who begat me, Amun-Re, lord of
Thebes, who established (me) upon his throne, making for him a great barque for the
'Beginning-of-the-River,' (named) 'Amun-Re-in-the-Sacred-Barque [Userhat],' of new
cedar which His Majesty cut in the countries of God's-Land [the land of the neters]. It
was dragged over the mountains of Retenu (Rtnw) by the princes of all countries. It
was made very wide and large; there is no instance of doing the like. Its [hull] is
adorned with silver, wrought with gold throughout. The great shrine [naos] is of
electrum so that it fills the land with its (brightness).
Its bows, they repeat the (brightness). They bear great [atef] crowns, whose serpents
twine along its two sides... Flag-staves are set up before it wrought with electrum, two
great obelisks are between them; it is beautiful everywhere. The gods of Pe make
jubilee to it; the gods of Nekhen praise it, the two Nile-gods of the South and North,
they embrace its beauty, its bows make Nun to shine as when the sun rises in heaven,
to make his beautiful voyage at his feast of Apet on his western voyage of a million
years."
Thus, we have a
contemporary description
of the image of the barque
we find on the rear wall of
the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon. The does not
seem to exaggerate the
beauty of this boat, and
even omits the delicate
reliefs the decorate its hull
and still retain some
traces of the yellow paint
that was used to depict the
vessel's gold coating. We
know from the Harris
papyrus that the barque
Userhat was around 68
meters long.
We see in the center of the
boat the naos which
contained the sacred
barque of Amun, which is placed on a pedestal preceded by a staircase holding up the
masts and the obelisks. Before this pedestal are three jackal headed figures and seven
Nile gods who worship Amun. In the rear behind the naos the king is navigating the
boat by holding the steering oar himself. The king also appears in the front of the boat,

offering gifts of vegetables and purification incense.

A human-headed sphinx with a cheetah body is perched on his roost atop the wedjat
eye that is apparently always to be found on the prow of the barques. Between the
sphinx and the king sits an offering table. It should be noted that all of this scene has
been reworked by Amenhotep III.
Originally the two royal
representations were smaller and traces
of these earlier scenes remain on the
prow, on the offering table and toward
the stern on the flabellum held by the
ankh.
There may have originally been the
two smaller barques of Khonsu and
Mut behind the naos, as in the barque
of Seti I in the Hypostyle hall, but if
so, there images have been carefully
removed, whereas those of the two
original kings were preserved.
The inside part of the royal boat that
towed the barque of Userhat at the end
of a rope is the only section of that
depiction which has survived.
Originally, there were sixty oarsmen
that propelled it, though only those of
the back section can still be seen. They are profiled on the immense cabin that is
adorned with a double frieze of ovals and uraei.
Four priests are leaning with their faces turned toward the stern between the first
oarsman and the standing king. Two of the priests hold censers and flabellums.
On a small kiosk situated toward the prow, the king was depicted striking down and
treading upon Egypt's enemies.
On the south wing at the rear (east face) of the third pylon of Amenhotep III is
inscribed a very long text of some seventy-one vertical lines, though only the lower
section survives. A sample of this text reads:
"He is one who taketh thought, who maketh wise with knowledge...without his like, the
good shepherd vigilant for all people...
searching bodies, knowing that which is in the heart, whose fame apprehends the
(evil)...
adorning the splendid Great House of him who began him, with monuments of beauty

and splendor forever"

Hence, this text apparently proclaims Amenhotep III's accomplishments and qualities.
Beyond the rear of the Third Pylon is the
doorway of the Fourth Pylon which,
according to an inscription on the architrave
of the campaniform colonnade of the Great
Hypostyle Hall, was the true entrance to the
Temple of Ipet-Sut of Amun. Hence, the area
between these two pylons would have been
its approach. The most notable construct in
this small area is the slightly leaning obelisks
of Tuthmosis I, which is one of two
originally erected by Tuthmosis I at this
location. The pedestal of Tuthmosis I's
missing obelisk does remain. There were two
additional obelisks erected by Tuthmosis III,
Tuthmosis I's grandson, but alas both of those
are also gone. The missing obelisk of
Tuthmosis I was originally left without
inscription and was later inscribed under
Tuthmosisi III. it was still standing in 1737,
according to a report by the English traveler
Pococke. The erection of these two obelisks
are mentioned by the chief of all the works at
Karnak, Ineni, who tells us that:
"I inspected the erection of two obelisks...built the august boat of 120 cubits in length,
40 cubits in width, in order to transport these obelisks. (They) came in peace, safety,
and prosperity, and landed at Karnak."
This Obelisk stands between 19.5 and almost 22 meter in height according to various
sources. Including the pedestal, which is 1.8 meters square, it stands at least 23 meters
tall. Most estimates place its weight between 128 and 143 tons. The obelisk is made of
red granite.

Floor plan of the Obelisk of Tuthmosis I

On this obelisk, each side is inscribed with three columns of text. However, only the
central inscription on the east is from the reign of Tuthmosisi I. The later columns
were inscribed under Ramesses IV, and added to by Ramesses VI. The central
inscriptions of the north and south faces provides us with the complete list of
Tuthmosis I's titles. His dedication is inscribed on the east and west sides. Below the
name of Horus and the royal cartouche can be read:
"He has raised as a memorial to his father Amun-Re, chief of the Two Lands, two
great obelisks at the double doorways of the temple..."
As seen from the east, in the lateral columns of the text, the cartouches in the name of
of Ramesses IV have been added on to by Ramesses VI. The tableau on the base as
added by Ramesses II.
Back | Home | Next
See Also

The Approach to the First Pylon (Western)

The First Courtyard in the Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns
The Interior Walls
The Obelisk Courtyard (Between the Third and Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the Temple Proper
The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of
Tuthmosis III Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons
The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak

The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

4th and 5th Pylons in the Temple of Amun at Karnak

by Jimmy Dunn

As we pass through the ruins of the

fourth pylon at Karnak (the Temple of
Amun in Modern Luxor which was
ancient Thebes), we enter the vast
complex of the Temple of Ipet-Sut of
Amun proper. This was the original
gate of the temple. Here, between the
fourth and fifth pylons is what has
been termed the "Hypostyle Hall" of
the temple of Ipet-Sut, not to be
confused with the Great Hypostyle
Hall which precedes it. The wall that
surrounds the whole of this element of
the temple was erected by Tuthmosis
III, but decorated at certain places on
the inside by Ramesses II.
Just within the gate to either side of
the interior of the fourth pylon are
Osirian Pillars. These are fitted into
niches and those to the north probably
wore the Red Crown, while those to
the south wear the white crown. Within this small asymmetrical area we find to the
north (left) the obelisk of Hatshepsut, which dominates this area of the temple. North
of this obelisk are two rows of three columns each. At one point, there was a
complimentary obelisk to the south (right), but that is now gone. South of that obelisk
were two rows of four columns each.
This pair of obelisks was produced
from granite on the island Sehel at
Aswan under the supervision of the
steward Amen-hotep. Their transport
by ship and the erection of both
obelisks at Karnak is shown in detail
in the so-called "Hall of O" in the first
portico of the temple of Hatshepsut at
Deir el-Bahari. A relief in her Red
Chapel also provides a report about the
donation of these two obelisks.
The standing, northern obelisk of
Hatshepsutt must be considered one of
the most famous single monuments
within the whole of the Karnak
complex. Originally, she erected four
obelisks at Karnak, but only this one
remains. However, at approximately
29.56 meters tall, it is the largest
standing obelisk in Egypt. Built of red

granite, it weighs some 323 tons (note that various figures are given by different
sources for the obelisk's height and weight). The bottom part of the obelisk has a
slightly different tint than the top, because it had been walled up by her successor,
Tuthmosis III.
On its base are thirty-two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs, eight lines to each side, that
describe why she had constructed this obelisk. The inscription reads in part:
"I was sitting in the palace and I remembered the One who created me; my heart
directed me to make for him two obelisks of electrum [a natural alloy of gold and
silver], that their pyramidions might mingle with the sky amid the august pillared hall
between the great pylons of [Tuthmosis I].... My Majesty began to work on them in the
year 15, the second month of Winter, 1st day, continuing until Year 16, fourth month of
Summer, 30th day, spending 7 months in cutting it from the mountain.... I acted for
him with a straightforward heart, as a king does for any god... Let not anyone who
hears this say it is boasting which I have said, but rather say, 'How like her it is, she
who is truthful to her father.' The god knows it in me [namely] Amun, Lord of the
Thrones of the Two Lands.... I am his daughter in very truth, who glorifies him."
To a significant degree, historians owe what
little they know of obelisk raising from
archaic sources to this inscription.
All four sides of the obelisk are carved with
a central column of inscriptions and, on the
upper half, eight tableaux on which the king
(in Egypt, the female ruler was not termed a
queen, but a king), is directed toward Amun
going from the northwest corner towards the
southeast corner. On the north face, the
central inscription begins with Hatshepsut's
titles, including the Horus, the Two
Goddesses and the Golden Horus names:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies
'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and
Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. Her father Amun had
established her great name 'Maat-Ka-Ra'
on the Ished tree, her annals are million of
years, duration and power, son of Ra
'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, as [reward for this good, enduring and excellent
monument], that she had donated to him (at the occasion) of the first royal jubilee
( sed festival). May she live forever."

On the west side, after the same title, the text reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies 'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. She made (it) as her monument for her father Amun, Lord of the Throne
of the Two Lands, erecting for him two large obelisks at the great gate [Pylon) 'Amun
is Great in-Terror', wrought with very much electrum, which illuminates the Two
Lands like the sun. Never was the like made on earth since the beginning. It was done
for him (Amun) by the sun of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', may she live forever
like Ra.
Hence, Hatshepsut specifies that these obelisks were intended to be erected in front of
the fifth pylon. On the east facade of the obelisk, her title includes only the Horus
name and she affirms that the building of these obelisks was for her father:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', beloved of
Amun-Ra. Her majesty has made the name of her father established on this enduring
monument, so that the King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' ( Thutmosis I) will be praised by the majesty of this god, when the
two great obelisks were erected by her majesty on the first time ( of her royal jubilee).
The King of Gods (Amun) said: 'Your (fem.) father, the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt "Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' had given the command to erect obelisks. Your (fem.)
majesty will repeat the monuments. (So that) you may live forever."
The Southern facade likewise provides only Hatshepsut Horus' name as well, and
reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', brilliant
emanation of Amun, whom he has caused to appear as king upon the throne of Horus
'Holy of Holiest' of the Great House, whom the ennead of gods have brought up to be
mistress of the circuit of the sun. They have united her with life, power and joy of the
heart, the First of the Livings, son of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the
Gods, may he
(Hatshepsut) live
forever like Ra."
The upper part of the
southern obelisk,
broken into pieces, is
mounted on concrete
blocks in the proximity
of the sacred lake. The
base of Hatshepsut's
missing southern
obelisk is not without
inscriptions. Like the

northern standing obelisk, there are eight lines of inscriptions carved horizontally on
its four sides. The text starts with the top line of the southern facade of the base with
the titles of the queen and her recounting of the erection of two great obelisks made
from southern (Aswan) granite on the occasion of her first renewal (sed-festival). It
reads: "Two great obelisks of enduring granite of the South, (their) summits
[pyramidions] being of electrum of the best of every country."
On the west side of the base, the queen affirms that she has acted under the command
and supervision of Amun, recognizing his divinity. Hatshepsut implies that she has
conceived of nothing without following his laws (of proportion) because her "heart
was in sia (wisdom)". She affirms that "Karnak is the horizon on earth [the first
appearance], the August Ascent of the beginning, the sacred eye of the All-Lord, the
place of his heart". On the north side of the base, after a long oath of faith where the
queen affirms that her power over the earth is due to divine kindness and that she will
descend into the amenti and exist "in eternity as an "Undying One", she specifies that
these two obelisks were extracted from the mountains and erected in seven months,
during the fifteenth year of her reign.
On the east side of the base, the queen recounts how, following her desire to embellish
the obelisk, she measured the best electrum by the "hekat, more than the entire Two
Lands had (ever) seen. The ignorant, like the wise, knoweth it".

Interestingly, the pyramidian of the second obelisk suffered more at the hands of
Akhenaten than by Tuthmosis III. During the Amarna period, the electrum and the
relief on it were mostly destroyed, but restored after Akhenaten's death by Seti I.
The wall that was built by Tuthmosis III around the Hatshepsut's obelisk stood as high
as the third tableau. At the foot of this wall is a limestone column pedestal that is
presumed to have originally supported a cedar column. To each side papyriform
columns flank it. The rearmost of these two columns provides, above the floral
decoration, a ring of three interesting lines of text. Here, Tuthmosis III recounts:
"My Majesty had raised four columns in addition to the two columns of the north end,
a total of six columns wrought with electrum...in solid sandstone...[of which] the
height is 31 cubits (a little over 16 meters) on the two sides of the august doorway."
Hence, the two northernmost columns in this court preserve the name of Tuthmosis I,
while the four between them and the standing obelisk were erected by Tuthmosis III, if
indeed there were several cedar columns in the north.
This section of the Temple of Amun is relatively small, but its importance should not
be overlooked. While much of it is ruined, nevertheless it contains many fine reliefs
and as noted above, is distinguished as the original entrance to the Temple of Ipet-Sut
Back | Home | Next
See Also:

The Approach to the First

Pylon (Western)
The First Courtyard in the
Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview
and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns
The Interior Walls
The Obelisk Courtyard
(Between the Third and
Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the
Temple Proper
The Colonnade of
Tuthmosis I and the
Vestibule and Antechamber
of Tuthmosis III Between
the Fifth and Sixth Pylons

The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak

The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I

and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III
Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

In the Temple of Amun proper at

Karnak in ancient Thebes (modern
Luxor), beyond the small Hypostyle
Hall situated between the fourth and
fifth Pylons is a vestibule and
antechamber that lies between the
fifth and sixth pylons. This is a
relatively narrow, symmetrical space
divided by a doorway in the name of
Tuthmosis III that divides a colonnade
of Tuthmosis I.
On the outer walls of this doorway, to
the north we see the king wearing the
red crown and in the south, the white
crown. Just beyond this doorway is
that of the sixth pylon, where the king
once again wears the white and red
crowns corresponding to the direction
he faces.

Originally, this whole space was a colonnade built by Tuthmosis I, but Tuthmosis III
divided the space with a wall made of granite blocks, pierced by a doorway with
sandstone doorposts. Hence, it forms a sort of vestibule, closed on the north and south,
that provides access to the
antechamber of the sixth pylon. This
antechamber opens to provide access
to the columned wings to the north and
south.
The "royal ascent" is depicted on the
two granite doorposts that frame the
vestibule door that provides access to
the antechamber. Normally, this scene
would show the king framed by Montu
and Atum, going towards Amun, but
here, the scene is separated into two
tableaux. On the north, the king,
wearing the red crown, is led by Atum
of Heliopolis, while on the south he
wears the white crown and is led to
Amun by Montu of Thebes. These two
half-scenes are directed toward the
south instead of being oriented to the
general axis of the temple.
Within the antechamber, on the west doorpost of the northern door is a scene upon
which the king can be seen wearing the
red crown. There is a granite statue in
the corner. On the eastern doorpost he
wears the white crown. When
Tuthmosis III built the vestibule and
antechamber here, he included within
the thickness of the walls two of
Tuthmosis I's portico columns. Here, a
sixteen sided polygonal column of the
northern sector can be seen. It carries
the titles of Tuthmosis I on the middle
of the east side.
The king, wearing the red and white
crowns, is repeated on the southern
door of the antechamber. The king is
holding in one hand the makes cane
and the white hedj club and is
extending his other hand toward the
entranceway.

The doorway gives access to the peristyle court of Tuthmosis I, where the remains of
the shafts for sixteen-sided polygonal columns can be seen. Within this courtyard, on
the northern wall is a curious representation of Amun carved in light relief. Actually,
the entire profile of the head is deeply carved, perhaps to receive the face and
headdress of precious gems and metals. On the extension of the throne's pedestal,
Queen Ahmose-Nefertari (the well known wife of Ahmose, founder of the 18th
Dynasty and hence, Egypt's New Kingdom), also sculpted in relief, presents the god
with a sistrum and the menat. Behind her, Ramesses III, who is carved in sunk relief,
offers Ma'at to the god. What is interesting about this depiction is that the outline of
Amun and the deified queen are very light, giving the god a phantom appearance in
comparison to the king, emphasizing the spiritual nature of Amun.
The granite doorposts of the sixth pylon is
adorned on both sides with sandstone
curbing upon which are carved five
horizontal lines of prisoners mentioning the
nineteen cities conquered during the course
of the famous military exploits of Tuthmosis
III. that are recounted in the "chamber of the
Annals". Those on the north wing are towns
conquered in Syria and Palestine, while
those on the south represent towns in Nubia.
Above, a scene of "ritual massacre" can be
discerned. In his "Text of the Youth",
Tuthmosis III says that he built for this
pylon:
A great panel fashioned from new cedar,
worked with gold mounted in true black
copper and ... copper. The great name above
it is in electrum, gold that has been twice
refined, and black copper".
The "great name" he refers to is the "August
gate Menkhe Perre beloved of Amun Mighty with prestige". The doorway of the Sixth
Pylon leads through to the Naos of Philip Arrhedaeus.

Floor plan of The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III

Back | Home | Next

See Also:

The Approach to the First Pylon (Western)

The First Courtyard in the Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns
The Interior Walls
The Obelisk Courtyard (Between the Third and Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the Temple Proper
The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of

Tuthmosis III Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons

The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak

The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

by Jim Fox

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun

at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first
pylon is a construction platform built of
brick caissons enclosing packed earth
between retaining walls perpendicular to the
pylon, which is evidence that the first pylon
was still under construction when the work
was abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of
Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large,
somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two
sides by a portico with columns built during
the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I
(Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns
here undecorated except for the five
standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the capitals.
The capitals themselves or in the form of closed buds.

About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the
Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the surrounding
pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard torus (a large
convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central doorway
measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.

The foundation, the first

course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
quartzite that probably
came from Gebel el-Ahmar
near Cario. The rest of the
building is made of more
ordinary sandstone,
probably from Gebel elSilsila. Hence, this edifice
is made of white blocks of
sandstone from the South
placed on red stones
coming from the north. The
quartzite blocks of the first
course of stone also have a
much more pronounced
slope than the rest of the
building.
In the eastern area of the northern facade of the building we find depictions in two
registers of tableaux presenting Seti II offering to the Theban gods. In the lower of
these registers the gods are upright and walking, while in the upper they are seated on
a cubic throne and holding the was scepter and the ankh (the key of life). The west
side of this facade is divided lengthwise by a vertical column of text. here, the king on
the left, facing west, claps Amun Re Kamutef around the waist. On the Right, the king
is turned to the east, and gives unction to his father, the ithyphallic Amun Re.
It has three deep chambers for the
barques of Mut (left), Amun (center)
and Khonsu (right). These chambers
have no common entryways. The
sanctuary consecrated to Mut has
two niches in the back and on its
wall is a depiction of the barque of
of that god. The central chamber has
three niches in its rear wall, and
likewise contains representations of
the barque of Amun. Here, however,
is inscribed the name of Menmaatre
(Seti I) rathe than Set II. On the
doorway to the Khonsu chamber,
neither the lintel nor the jamb of
which is adorned with any
decorations. However, on the
sandstone partition to the right of the
doorway are representations of
"Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep", and

Thoth, who resides in Hermonthis preceded by Amun. In the chamber for the barque
of Khonsu, there are two niches on the rear wall, as well as three more on the east
wall. All of these niches probably at one time held statues. Also on the east wall of the
Khonsu chamber is a stairway that gives access to the roof of the structure.
Opposite this triple shrine is a small sphinx, we believe, with the features of
Tutankhamun.
The Kiosk of Tahraqa
Centered in the courtyard are the
the remains of a huge kiosk of
Tahraqa (Taharqa), which was
usurped by Psammetichus II
(Psamtik II), and the restored
during the Greek Period. It
originally consisted of ten, tall,
slim papyrus columns linked by a
low screening wall, though open
at its eastern and western ends.
This building now retains only
one great column and a large
block of Egyptian alabaster
(calcite) that resembles an altar
that perhaps was once surmounted
by a pedestal. However,
Champollion tells us that:
"Twleve (?) columns, or rather
twelve large scale imitations of
the wadj amulets that served as
props for the sacred tokens of
Amun and the king who inhabited this building, were once in the center of the large
courtyard of the palace. It should in fact be noted that these constructions posses in no
way the curve of a column but are lengthier and narrower below the bell of the
capital...
It becomes obvious in view of this decoration that the author of the pillars is the king
Taharqa, who, after the expulsion of the Ethiopians under Psamtik, the first of the
dynasty, has replaced the inscriptions left by the foreign king with those of the native
king. However, the proper name of the former, although hammered out, is still quite
visible on the second ring of the column of the first Babastite portico."

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

by Jim Fox

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun,

Karnak

In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun

at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first
pylon is a construction platform built of
brick caissons enclosing packed earth
between retaining walls perpendicular to the
pylon, which is evidence that the first pylon
was still under construction when the work
was abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of
Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large,
somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two
sides by a portico with columns built during
the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I
(Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns

here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the capitals. The capitals themselves or in the form of
closed buds.
About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the
Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the surrounding

pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard torus (a large
convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central doorway
measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of
quartzite that probably
came from Gebel el-Ahmar
near Cario. The rest of the
building is made of more
ordinary sandstone,
probably from Gebel elSilsila. Hence, this edifice
is made of white blocks of
sandstone from the South
placed on red stones
coming from the north. The
quartzite blocks of the first
course of stone also have a
much more pronounced
slope than the rest of the
building.
In the eastern area of the northern facade of the building we find depictions in two
registers of tableaux presenting Seti II offering to the Theban gods. In the lower of
these registers the gods are upright and walking, while in the upper they are seated on
a cubic throne and holding the was
scepter and the ankh (the key of
life). The west side of this facade is
divided lengthwise by a vertical
column of text. here, the king on the
left, facing west, claps Amun Re
Kamutef around the waist. On the
Right, the king is turned to the east,
and gives unction to his father, the
ithyphallic Amun Re.
It has three deep chambers for the
barques of Mut (left), Amun (center)
and Khonsu (right). These chambers
have no common entryways. The
sanctuary consecrated to Mut has
two niches in the back and on its
wall is a depiction of the barque of
of that god. The central chamber has
three niches in its rear wall, and

likewise contains representations of the barque of Amun. Here, however, is inscribed

the name of Menmaatre (Seti I) rathe than Set II. On the doorway to the Khonsu
chamber, neither the lintel nor the jamb of which is adorned with any decorations.
However, on the sandstone partition to the right of the doorway are representations of
"Khonsu in Thebes Neferhotep", and Thoth, who resides in Hermonthis preceded by
Amun. In the chamber for the barque of Khonsu, there are two niches on the rear wall,
as well as three more on the east wall. All of these niches probably at one time held
statues. Also on the east wall of the Khonsu chamber is a stairway that gives access to
the roof of the structure.
Opposite this triple shrine is a small sphinx, we believe, with the features of
Tutankhamun.
The Kiosk of Tahraqa
Centered in the courtyard are the
the remains of a huge kiosk of
Tahraqa (Taharqa), which was
usurped by Psammetichus II
(Psamtik II), and the restored
during the Greek Period. It
originally consisted of ten, tall,
slim papyrus columns linked by a
low screening wall, though open
at its eastern and western ends.
This building now retains only
one great column and a large
block of Egyptian alabaster
(calcite) that resembles an altar
that perhaps was once surmounted
by a pedestal. However,
Champollion tells us that:
"Twleve (?) columns, or rather
twelve large scale imitations of
the wadj amulets that served as
props for the sacred tokens of
Amun and the king who inhabited this building, were once in the center of the large
courtyard of the palace. It should in fact be noted that these constructions posses in no
way the curve of a column but are lengthier and narrower below the bell of the
capital...
It becomes obvious in view of this decoration that the author of the pillars is the king
Taharqa, who, after the expulsion of the Ethiopians under Psamtik, the first of the
dynasty, has replaced the inscriptions left by the foreign king with those of the native
king. However, the proper name of the former, although hammered out, is still quite

visible on the second ring of the column of the first Babastite portico."

Left: Colonnade of Taharqa; Right: Heiroglyph Wadj Symbol

Champollion believe that these columns were standard holders. Indeed, the columns
the average diameter of the shaft of these columns is round one-seventh the size of the
total height, whereas normally this proportion is hardly greater than one-sixth. Their
total height is 21 meters, with the aver diameter being 2.99 meters.
Traditionally, this building has been considered to be another barque chapel, yet, the
fact that it was an open structure suggests otherwise. Some Egyptologists today
believe that it may have had a function in ritual activities associated with a "uniting
with the sun" ceremony, as was practiced in later times at Dendera and elsewhere.
However, others maintain that this structure was not open at all, but roofed with timber
and was used as a way station for the sacred barques. Indeed, the columns appear to
have an abacus (though this is called a dado), usually used to support an architrave.
This area was later paved with irregular slabs of red granite.
First Barque Chapel of Ramesses III
In the Harris Papyrus written during the 20th Dynasty, Ramesses IV, recording on
behalf of his father Ramesses III, said:
"I made for thee a mysterious horizon in thy city of Thebes over against thy forecourt,
O lord of gods (named): 'House (pr) of Ramesses Ruler of Heliopolis, L.P.H., inn the
House of Amun", abiding like the heavens bearing the sun. I built it, I laid it in
sandstone, having great doors of fine gold. I filled its treasury with the things which

my hands carried off, to bring them before thee every day."

He was most likely
speaking of Ramesses III's
barque chapel in the right
(southern) part of the first
courtyard of the Temple of
Amun at Karnak. This
temple is built on a platform
with the profile of a cavetto
cornice. The facade of the
building is in the form of a
pylon, in front of which
once stood two squat, six
meter royal statues carved
from red sandstone.
Champollion tells us that
the pylon would have been
much larger, but its upper portion is destroyed today, so it is missing the cornice, the
frieze and the upper section of the tableaux that decorated it. In fact, in antiquity, this
was probably a much larger edifice.
The chapel is indeed an elaborate barque chapel today, but originally it was designed
as a miniature version of this king's mortuary temple at Medinet Habu. The monument
was entirely crowned with a grooved cornice capping the standard torus that also
bordered the corners of the pylon. Champollion described the two underpinnings of
this pylon very well, telling us that:
"On the left underpinning, the king Ramessses Meryamun, wearing the pschent [white
crown over the red], holds a group of begging prisoners by the hair as he massacres
them with his white club. Facing him, Amun-Re presents the harpagon to the pharaoh
and holds with his left hand the bonds to which the captives with the coats of arms are
attached. These are the people of the North and the Central regions."
A similar scene on the right underpinning portrays the king wearing the red crown.
Legrain adds that:
"The door posts and the cornice are of gray speckled granite. This was the great
doorway of the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, Usermaatre Meryamun. Hardly any
of the blocks that composed it remain."
The splay of the right door post as one enters this chapel from the first courtyard is
adorned with horizontal inscriptions of royal titles alternating with baskets that are
surmounted with three symbols, including a was, ankh and djed, meaning prosperity,
life and stability.
The first court is lined with eight Osride statues of the king, with those to the west

wearing the crown of the red crown of the south, while those on the east, the while
crown of the north. The Osirde statues on the west hold the hek scepter in the left and
and the nekhakha scepter in their right. The architrave surmounting the Osride pillars
(see also Osiris), which once supported a grooved cornice, provide the dedication
written by Ramesses III, in two lines, which states:
"He has made the house of Ramesses, sovereign of Heliopolis in the house of Amun, in
perfectly sound white stone"
The interior walls are decorated with various festival scenes and texts.
Beyond the court is a vestibule on a higher level that was also
fronted by similar Osiride pillars between which runs a parapet
1.83 meters high, except for the central area. The east face of the
pillar to the left of the entranceway provides an excellent example
of the royal name of Ramesses III, Usermaatre Meryamun, and
below that the name of Mut (the vulture) is carved. A row of bud
papyriform columns is set behind the Osiride pillars. Here, the
walls are adorned with scenes of sacred processions. The remains
of two large statues of Sekmet produced in black granite, similar
to those in the temple of Ptah, were found on each side of the
doorway that communicates with the next chamber (they
hypostyle hall). On the pedestal of the statue on the left was
written, "Beloved of Mut-Sekhmet, lady of Asheru", while on that
of the right, "Beloved of Sekhmet-Menhit".
A small, shallow hypostyle hall follows with two rows of four bud
columns each. The shafts of these columns emerge from eight
leaves that are carved above the pedestals. Two of the royal
cartouches, with a uraei crowned by the solar disk, are engraved in sunk relief,
alternate between each of these leaves. Surmounting these cartouches is a register of
tableaux carved in very light relief. Above the five constrictive bands of the shaft of
these columns, and just below the abacus, the two cartouches found at the bottom of
the shaft are repeated, though here only is flanked by uraei. These cartouches are
crowned by solar disks. Scenes within this hall portray the daily worship of Amun,
with the king entering the room followed by two gods, including Montu.

In the rear of the

hypostyle hall, a
darkened area contains
three contiguous
chapels for the barques
of Karnak triad, as well
as a few small rooms.
Here, the ceiling was at
one level except for the
sanctuary of Amun and
its flanking rooms, so
that a row of clerestory
windows at the rear of
the hypostyle hall
lighted the back of the
temple, with additional
light provided by slots
between the slabs of the
ceiling.
There was a drainage system for water here on the roof, with three gargoyles on each
side of the temple. The roofing slabs were placed perpendicular to the longitudinal
axis, except above the vestibule.
The Bubastite Portal
Just beside this temple between it and the second pylon is the so called "Bubastite
Portal", which gives access to the now famous scenes of Sheshonk I (Shoshenq I),
believed to be the Shishak of biblical fame (1 Kings 14: 25-26). The inscriptions on
the architrave and pillars that frame the portico are in the name of Sheshonq I and his
successors of the 22nd Dynasty. The scenes depict this Libyan king smiting captive
enemies on the south face of the main temple's walls. These scenes graphically portray
his successful campaign into Palestine, which is believed to be recounted in 1 Kings
14, and 2 Chronicles 12 of the Bible. Sheshenq himself is presented on the posts of
the doorway, along with his son, Iuput, high priest of Amun at Karnak.
A portal on the courtyard's opposite, northern side communicates with the open-air
museum where a number of small monuments have been reconstructed from
dismantled blocks found within the temple's walls and pylons. These include the
nearly complete limestone barque chapel of Senusret I, shrines of Amenhotep I and II,
and Hatshepsut's red quartzite "Chapelle Rouge", which has only recently been
reconstructed.
The Second Pylon
At the rear of the courtyard is the second pylon and a vestibule that precedes it, but
architecturally forming one building. The western section of the vestibule preserves

the vestiges of the tableaux carved in the name of Horemheb, but who's cartouches
were subsequently added on to by Ramesses I and II. On the south wall of the
vestibule is carved a relief of Amun, who is holding the scythe in his right and and the
was scepter in his left.
This pylon was fronted by two striding
colossi of Ramesses II, of which only the feet
of one remain. Fronting these is a third,
standing statue of the king with the small
image of his daughter and queen, Bent'anta,
standing between his feet. The statue was
later usurped by both Ramesses VI of the
20th Dynasty, and Pinudjem I of the 21st
Dynasty. This pylon was begun during the
reign of Horemheb, but was not completed
until perhaps the reign of Seti I (though also
perhaps Ramesses I). Now removed, its core
was filled with many sandstone talatat blocks
of an earlier temple of Akhenaten. In the
southwest corner of the second pylon is an
unfinished Anta Pillar with a depiction of
Prince Osorkon I being breast fed by Hathor.
Like the first pylon, this one also has grooves
(four) for flagstaffs in each tower. A staircase
in the northern tower rises to the top of the
pylon. There are decorations on this pylon that were begun by Horemheb and
completed by several of his successors. The gateway of this pylon was called
"Illuminating Thebes". The Greeks entirely reworked this large doorway.

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

by Jim Fox

The First Courtyard at the Temple of Amun, Karnak

In the first courtyard of the Temple of Amun at Karnak, on the inside of the courtyard
abutted up against the inside of he first pylon is a construction platform built of brick
caissons enclosing packed earth between retaining walls perpendicular to the pylon,
which is evidence that the first pylon was still under construction when the work was
abandoned.
The first, western pylon of the Temple of Amun at Karnak (in modern Luxor, ancient
Thebes) forms the facade to a large, somewhat square courtyard measuring some
84.12 by 99.4 meters. It is bordered on two sides by a portico with columns built
during the 22nd Dynasty rule of Sheshonk I (Shoshenq I) , though he left the columns
here undecorated except for the five standard bands indicating constriction that
separate the column shafts from the capitals. The capitals themselves or in the form of
closed buds.

About in the center of the northern enclosure wall behind the columns is an enigmatic,
but interesting depiction. This is the so called magic image of Amun. Here, the
pharaoh is referred to as per-aa in the two cartouches, and he is making libation in the
presence of a very strange image. The representation has the head of Amun, wearing a
crown topped by a solar disk surmounted by two large feathers, which emerge from a
goatskin bottle embraced by the extended wings of Ma'at. In turn, this depiction
surmounts a pedestal crowned
by a uraeus, in front of which is
a lion whose chest comes up to
the level of the shafts. It would
seem that this "magic image of
Amun" was perhaps paraded
during processions. This scene
then sits upon a table fronting a
series of lotuses, each of which
is giving birth to a new lotus
framed by two buds.
The first open courtyard in the
Temple of Amun at Karnak was
originally outside the temple
proper, so the row of
Cryosphinxes outside the
temple would have continued
unabated within. However, the statues that once occupied the space within the
courtyard (some were completely removed) had to be repositioned. They were placed
further to the side, just before the columns of the courtyard's flanking porticos. This
courtyard includes edifices dating over a thousand year period that extended from the
end of the 18th Dynasty to the Ptolemaic Period.
Barque Chapel of Seti II
As one passes through
the first pylon, to the
left is the quartzite and
sandstone triple Barque
Chapel of Seti II,
sometimes referred to
as the repository of Seti
II but known in ancient
times as "Castle of Seti
Merneptah in the Temple of Amun". Its facade, reaching some 7.1 meters above the
surrounding pavement, is marked by sloping walls that are capped by the standard
torus (a large convex molding, semicircular in cross section) and cornice. The central
doorway measures 4.5 meters high, while the side doorways are each 3.79 meters.
The foundation, the first
course of stone, and the
doorway are all made of

The Open Air Museum at Karnak

by Jimmy Dunn

The Open Air Museum is

located across from the
Great Court, opposite to the
entrance to Ramesses III's
temple in the Temple of
Amun.. It is accessed to the
left of the first courtyard
just before the Second
Pylon at Karnak in modern
Luxor (ancient Thebes) It
has a collection of
monuments that were
discovered elsewhere at
Karnak, particularly inside
the Second and Third Pylons.
We can find blocks from the beautiful Red Chapel of Hatshepsut, which have only
recently been reconstructed into an actual structure. That Chapel served as a shrine for
the baroque of Amun.
We can also see the remains of the splendid White Chapel of Senwosret I, the oldest
monument at Karnak. The scenes carved on the stones show the king offering to his
mighty god Amun- Re and Amun in his ithyphallic form. The ancient administrative
areas of Egypt are listed in the form of columns on the parapet. The entire region of
Egypt is represented on the chapel of the Pharaoh who is the guarantor of the order
established by Amun.
The Alabaster Chapel of Amenhotep I is located north of the museum. It is considered
the oldest shrine for the Barque. Inside, the king is shown presenting offerings to the
sacred barque.
Back | Home | Next

See Also:

A feature Story on the Karnak Open Air Museum

The Approach to the First Pylon (Western)
The First Courtyard in the Temple of Amun, Karnak
The Open Air Museum
The Great Hypostyle Hall
Part One, An Overview and the Exterior Walls
Part Two: The Columns
The Interior Walls
The Obelisk Courtyard (Between the Third and Fourth Pylons)
The Hypostyle Court of the Temple Proper
The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of
Tuthmosis III Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons
The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III, The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
The Central Courtyard and the Festival Hall of Tuthmosis III
The Temple of the "Hearing Ear", The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, the
Colonnade of Taharka and the Gate of Nectanebo I at Temple of Amun at
Karnak
The Courtyard of the Cachette
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part I
The Courtyard of the Cachette, Part II
The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Southern Pylons
The Eighth, Ninth and Tenth Pylons and the Courtyards Between them
The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak

The Sacred Lake and the Scarab

The Great Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Amun, Karnak, Part I

An Overview and the Exterior Walls
by Jim Fox

An Overview
It is difficult for one to think of Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern Luxor), much less the section
known as the Temple of Amun, without picturing
the Great Hypostyle Hall. This is the large area just
behind the second pylon in the Temple of Amun,
which is a veritable forest in stone, and measures
some 99.4 by 51.82 meters.. At one point, it was
called "The Temple of Seti Merneptah is
Lumininous in the House of Amun" and was
described by the ancient Egyptians as "the resting
place of the Lord of gods, beautiful sojourn of the
Ennead" and "the beautiful sojourn of the Ennead,
where Amun rests, the place of appearance of the
Lord of the gods at his annual feast". It was also
designated as the "Hall of the two crowns", which
perhaps points to the ceremony of the coronation
being performed in it, a ritual which is depicted
upon its walls. It has been described as one of the
most monumental achievements in Egyptian
architecture and is the largest known example of a
typical hypostyle hall.
The 134 colossal papyrus columns surge into the
sky in an impressive array of ancient workmanship.
The center 12 columns are larger, standing some 21 meters tall, with open capitals,
while the remaining 122 columns outside of these stand 15 meters high and have
closed capitals. It is difficult to actually understand their size. Consider for example,
that a crowd of fifty people could easily stand atop the capital of the largest of the
mammoth structures.
The 12 larger columns were perhaps raised by Amenhotep III, but at the latest, by
Horemheb. The other columns surrounding these are a later addition.

Originally the abacuses above the capitals, supporting stone architraves supported a
massive roof, with only small clerestroy windows, of which a few survive.
Purposefully, this would have provided only muted illumination for the primeval
papyrus swamp which the
hall represented. The taller
columns represent papyrus
plants that are further
developed in their growth,
owing to their being nearer
to the daylight, while the
smaller once are less
developed due to their lack
of access to the light.
Amidst the columns stood
literally throngs of statues
depicting gods and kings, a
few of which have been
restored to this location in
recent times.
This hall was begun by Amenhotep III, though not until Seti I were the decorations
initiated. They were completed by his son, the great Ramesses II. The latter's work can
be differentiated from the earlier decorations by their more hurried and less subtle
sunk reliefs. The theme of these decorations include celebrated military exploits of
Seti I and Ramesses II in Syria and Palestine, including the Battle of Kadesh (See also
the Egyptian Account of the Battle of Kadesh), on their exterior, while inside are
depictions of rituals including processional scenes and mythical topics such as the
king interacting with various gods. This hall is terminated by the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon.
Excavations have revealed a foundation wall under the first row of lower columns to
either side of the central nave in the Hypostyle Hall. This has lead archaeologists to
believe that a foundation wall once enclosed the central alley of columns, before the
hall was enlarged. Prior to this enlargement, this would have been a colonnade
forming the approach between second and third pylons.
The Exterior Walls
The exterior walls (consisting of the North and South walls, not the outer pylon walls)
of the Great Hypostyle Hall in the Temple of Amun at Karnak mostly portray the
military actions of Ramesses II (the south wall) and of his father, Seti I (the north
wall), and in this respect, historically, are some of the most important areas of this
famous region at Karnak. In particular, the southern exterior wall portrays the famous
Battle of Kadesh.
Southern Wall

Chapollion recounted that

all the exterior southern
facade of the hypostyle hall
"was formerly adorned with
historical tableaux relative
to the conquests of
Ramesses the Great; but
they are almost entirely
effaced and one can hardly
recognize the subject of the
two registers still visible
above the heaped-up piles
of dirt and blocks".
Today, of course, these
walls have been cleared.
However, little of the reliefs
remain. In fact, it appears
that Ramesses II may have
usurped himself on these
walls. Originally, scenes
from Ramesses II's Battle for Kadesh were recorded upon the walls, but subsequently,
the battle scenes were recarved with new scenes of Palestinian conquests, even though
the textual record was largely left untouched. It almost seems as though his artists had
run out of temple real estate and had to record newly commissioned scenes over older
ones. After all, Ramesses II had this famous battle also recorded in the temple of
Luxor and the Ramesseum. However, some of the material from the Battle of Kadesh
with the Hittites and other enemies clearly remain.
There are only three
registers that are visible
today. The two lower
registers begin at the
western edge with acts
of conquest, after which
the king begins his
return journey home as
the scenes move toward
the temple entrance,
where he presents his
defeated enemies to
Amun. On each side of
the doorway the scenes expand in height so that they take up the first two registers,
and represent the "ritual massacre of the vanquished". At the east end of the southern
wall is carved the narration of the Battle of Kadesh in a long text of vertical columns
below a large scene in which the king and the princes are bringing a bound group of

prisoners before Amun.

Superimposition of Amun and a scene of struggle

In addition to the reliefs concerning the Battle of Kadesh, there is also, on the wall
protruding from the exterior southern wall of the Hypostyle hall, reliefs that depict the
surrender of the fortress of Askalon. This was a city about ten miles north of Gaza and
about 40 miles south of Joppa. This scene depicts the pharaoh's soldiers staving in the
doors of the fortress with axes, while others scale it by means of ladders. Also, on a
nearby hill, Egyptian soldiers are exterminating the fleeing enemy.
Northern Wall
This wall, divided by a doorway, depicts combat at both of its extremes, and then
converge toward the center doorway with the king's victorious return to the temple of
Amun.
The southern exterior wall of the
Hypostyle hall, perhaps because it was
for the most part not reused as was its
northern counterpart, is perhaps
somewhat better in condition. It
records several military campaigns of
Set I into the Levant, as well as one
battle with the Libyans in the west.
In the lower half of the eastern section
of the wall, we see scenes depicting
the taking of the fortress of Pekanan.
They begin on the east edge of this
wall with the king's departure from
Raphia (now Rafah or Rafiah) for the
desert road. This is followed by the
Bedouin's ambush and scenes
depicting the waterholes along the
desert path. The next scene heading
west depicts return of Seti I to the
Egyptian boarder, followed by the
offering of booty to Amun. Beyond
this and next to the doorway is a
scene, taking up both upper and lower
registers, depicting the ritual massacre of the vanquished.
The upper part of the wall scenes on the eastern facade of the wall, beginning on the
eastern end, depict the "new version of the great chieftains of Lebanon". The eastern
most upper section depicts the capture of Yamoam, followed by the binding of the
vanquished. Next comes a scene showing the capturing of prisoners, followed by the
offering of booty to the Theban triad.
On the western half of the northern wall, the lowest of three registers on the western
end, begin by depicts an archery battle against the Kheta (Hittites), followed by the

return to Egypt with Khetan captives. Further east we find the offering of booty to the
gods, Amun, Sekhmet-Mut,
Khonsu and Ma'at. This in turn is
followed by another portrayal next
to the doorway, two registers high,
of the ritual massacre of the
prisoners before Amun, which
mirrors that on the western half of
the doorway.
The next level of scenes, beginning
on the far western edge of the wall
represent javelin combat against
the Libyans. This is followed by
the return to Egypt with Libyan
captives, and the offering of booty
to the Theban triad.
Above these scenes is another
register, which begins on the
western extreme of the western
part of the wall with archery
combat at Kadesh, the land of
Amor. Finally, above the scene
depicting the ritual slaughter of the
vanquished next to the western edge of the doorway is a scene depicting tribute that is
being presented to this temple.
In this final scene of slaughter, which is depicted on both sides of the northern
doorway, the king wears the red crown of the North, and holds a dozen prisoners tied
together by their hair. The king holds them secure with his right hand, while with his
left he brandishes the white hedj club. Before him stands the god Amun, presenting the
harpagon in his right hand while in his left holding the key of life and the bonds of the
prisoners with the escutcheons representing the conquered towns. Amun speaks the
words:
O my son of my body...
I bring to thee the chiefs of the southern countries...
(I turn) my face to the north, I work a wonder (for thee), snaring the rebels in their
nests...
I turn my face to the east, I work a wonder for thee,
I bind them all for thee, gathered in thy grasp...
I turn my face to the west, I work a wonder for thee,
consuming for thee every land of Tehenu...
I turn my face to heaven, I work a wonder for thee....The gods of the horizon of heaven
acclaim to thee when Ra is born every morning...
I turn my face to the earth, (I work a wonder for thee, I appoint for thee victories in

every country).
On the west door jamb of the northern entrance to the hypostyle hall, on the upper
register the king has removed his warrior attribute and is now clad in a triangular
apron and wears upon his forehead a diadem. Here, he offers the sacred lettuce to
Amun-Re, here the ithyphallic prince of Thebes, who is followed by Isis.
Below, on the lower register, the king is clad in a long linen robe and presents
bouquets of lotus flowers to Amun, who walks before Ptah. These sunk reliefs were
completed by Ramesses II.
On the door splay, the king wears the blue war helmet and is depicted as he enters the
doorway with the key of life in his left hand and his right hand extended towards
Amun. This carving has been reworked on several occasions.

The Great Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Amun, Karnak, Part 2:

The Columns
by Jim Fox

See also: Part 1: Overview and exterior

walls
Within the Great Hypostyle Hall of the
Temple of Amun at Karnak in what was
ancient Thebes (modern Luxor), there are
four groups of columns, separated by the
central aisle which is oriented to the
longitudinal axis of the temple, and by a
transverse path perpendicular to this axis
with access by the doors in the northern and
southern walls.
As we peer through the second, western
pylon of the temple we see an aisle bordered
by twelve huge columns with open papyrus
capitals. These columns measure 18.5
meters, from the top of their base to the top
of their capitals and twenty-one meters
including their bases and abacuses. The
architrave above the abacus measures
another two meters. The circumference of the capitals reach about 21 meters so that
they are equal to the height of the columns, including the base and abacus.
One common denominator of these columns is that there is a ring, high up, on which
the hieroglyphs of the Horus name of Ramesses II converge toward this king's
vertically elevated double cartouche, which is than surmounted by a register depicting
the two forms of Amun alternating with one another. Above these images, the
enormous campaniform capitals imitate the tuft of the blossoming papyrus above
stems encased, or constricted by five concentric grooves just below the capital. In
between these plants on the capital are again the cartouches of Ramesses II.

Left: East end of the Grand North Colonnade showing the upper sections of the shafts and
capitals;
Right: The arris is visible to the right.

The shaft of these largest columns, which resemble a papyrus stalk in the Hypostyle
Hall, actually have three moldings that divide their cross section into three parts
spanning 120 degrees. The arris (seam) where these moldings meet runs the entire
length of shafts. While the axis of the temple itself is aligned bout 27 degrees north of
the true east-west line, the eastern arris of the northern colossi columns alights almost
exactly to the east, while the western arris of the southern columns aligns almost true
west. One arris on both the northern and southern center columns points across the
aisle to the other.

Left: The central "nave": the principal aisle with the Obelisk of Tuthmosis I in the background;
Right: The north central window and open bud columns clearly showing cartouches

Below the king's vertically elevated

double cartouches are scenes
depicting the king and various
gods. This register of reliefs is
divided into three tableaux scenes
by the three arrises. In each
tableaux, the center of focus is the
center of the tableaux, so that the
gods or the king on the edge of the
molding face away from those on
the other side of the arris. Amun is of course depicted in these tableaux, but others
include Khonsu, Mut and Ma'at. Champollion tells us that:
"Each large column is decorated by three tableaux that continue around the shaft to....
The largest portion represents worship and offerings made to the Theban triad... But it
is not always the same pharaoh presenting the offerings... The worshiper in the two
tableaux that are visible when walking between the two rows of large columns is
always the pharaoh Ramesses the Great (Ramesses II). The third tableau, which
covers the back part of the shaft on the side of the small columns, belongs to the reign
of [Ramesses IV]."

The larger columns of the central avenue are first surmounted by an abacus, and then
architraves running own the longitudinal axes of the temple. The architrave of the
campaniform columns of the row south of the nave bear two lines of inscriptions in
relief dating from Seti I, who's cartouche
was, however, usurped by Ramesses II. On
the lower line he had inscribed the
dedication of this part of the temple, "He
has made a splendid sanctuary [akh]
Ramesses Meryamun in the house of Amun
before Ipet-sut". Underneath these
architrives, ankh symbols are often found
intermixed with royal cartouches.
Flanking the central avenue of huge
columns is one row of seven smaller
monostyle closed bud columns to either
side. These two rows of columns are cut
short by the antechamber of the third pylon,
while the six additional rows of monostyle
columns to either side of these have nine
columns each. All of these monostyle
columns are aligned with each other, but not with the central open bud columns. These
columns are split at the fourth row from the second pylon by a transverse aisle,
followed by five additional rows prior to the third pylon. At this split, recorded on the
underside of the architrive on the first and second rows of columns out from the
central open bud columns, is the ankh symbol flanked on both sides by a bulrush of
the south and a bee of the north. This marks the axis of the transverse way.

The ankh symbol flanked on both sides by a bulrush of the south and a bee of the north

The columns of the first bay have the cartouches of Ramesses II in sunk relief carved
upon their abacus and the architrave is also carved in this fashion. However, the upper
section of the capitals appear to have been somewhat reworked. They also have the
cartouches of Ramesses II carved in
horizontal sunk relief on a ring
about the base of their shafts.
On the second row of these
monostyle columns, the
inscriptions on the architrave, the
abacus and the top of the capital, in
light relief, are in the name of Seti
I, and his legend continues to be
engraved on the remaining rows of
monostyle columns.
However, it is easy to see that all
the capitals and the tops of the
shafts of the eastern columns have
received additional cartouches,
while those on the west have
retained their original decorations,
at least in the first bay.
Champollion tells us that:
"The decorations of the little columns on the right are of two kinds. Those of the first
four rows (going across) seen on entering the hypostyle hall have retained their
original decorations, which was that given to them under Ramesses the Great. The
colors have in large part survived. With these we have an example of the first stage of
all the little columns on the right and left of the hypostyle hall before the additions of
Ramesses (IV)".

The first northern lateral avenue looking out on Hatshepsut's Obelisk

Two bands of inscriptions surround the

shaft above the tableaux and under the
base of the capital. These are the
cartouches of Ramesses IV. On the
bottom of these shafts, the original
decoration included only eight leaves,
among which, above the the three
flowers of the south, is the plover resting
on the basket who worships "Ramesses
beloved of Amun [Ramesses II] in the
morning [dwa]". Ramesses IV added his
cartouches, surmounted by a disk and
feathers and flanked by crowned uraei,
over the leaves.
The tableaux, like those of the larger
open bud columns flanking the center
isle, depict gods who's orientation is
dictated by a vertical line. These gods
also include Mut, Isis and the ithyphallic Amun. In addition, the king is portrayed on
each column.

Surmounting the architrave of the first bay of monostyle columns is a torus (a rounded
protrusion) and cornice. Along the cornice appear triglyphs separated by cartouches of
Ramesses II. Above this, running along the axis of the lower architrave but recessed
from the cornice are great pillars
joined by an upper architrave, which
rises to the height of the architrave
over the central open bud columns.
This arrangement allowed the central
section of the hall between the large
columns a higher ceiling then in the
remainder of the hall. Between these
upper pillars above the monostyle
columns were set two enormous stone
slabs which were cut with twelve bars
to allow light into the hall. Only the
central windows has kept it's grill of
recessed stone between the square
pillars, which correspond to each
column of the first bay.
On the interior side of these pillars
between these windows are carved
depictions of Ramesses II welcoming
and receiving life and other gifts from
Amun-Re. On the exterior side are
recorded the Horus name of Seti I, which faces Amun-Re. On the exterior of the
architrave above the window are carved falcons that overshadow the two cartouches of
Menmaatre Seti Meryenptah crowned by a disk and feathers placed above the nub
necklace which is symbolic of gold.

The ankh of the axis of the north-south transverse way

with a clear view of the abacus, architrave, torus, cornice,
surmounted by an upper pillar and architrave framing a window.

The Great Hypostyle Hall at the Temple of Amun, Karnak, Part 3

The Interior Walls
by Jim Fox

In examining the interior walls of the Great Hypostyle Hall

in the Temple of Amun at Karnak, beginning on the inside
of the north wing of the second pylon, it would be almost
impossible to describe every scene, so we must here limit
our narration to specific examples.
Champollion tells us that the space between the central
doorway and the architraves of the second row of
monostyle columns, on the eastern facade of the northern
wing of the second pylon, is decorated:
"by an immense tableau whose figures are more than
twenty feet high, sculpted in a very beautiful style of relief.
Amun-Re is seated on his throne; standing behind the god
is the goddess Mut, who is ordinarily enfeoffed
(subservient) with him. A second enfeoffed goddess [our of
whose horns the solar disk emerges] holds a [sistrum] and
flowers in her right hand raised before Amun-Re; with the
left hand she holds the hand of pharaoh with a scratchedout figure of enfeoffment, who is holding [the hek scepter
and the nekhakha scepter] on his shoulder and is bowing as he approaches AmunRe...
Behind the king, the god [Khonsu] is standing, disk and crescent, the enfeoffment of
the prince, necklace, body clad in a girdle, the one hand holding a panegyric scepter,
the other designating a notch with the gnomon. He is performing the duties of Thoth
here, for whom he is the prototype."
These depictions apparently overlay
earlier depictions and in fact, the great
disk carved in sunk relief above the face
of Seti I is from one of these earlier
scenes. Legrain believed it might have
surmounted the head of the rams that
adorned the prow and stern of the barque
of Amun.
After this large depiction, the height of the
northern interior wall of the Second Pylon
within the Temple of Amun at Karnak is
divided into four registers of ritual scenes
including numerous vestiges of earlier
reliefs overwritten by later pharaohs.
Hence, the earlier depictions probably
date from the period when the wings of
the pylon fell outside of the central
avenue of columns before the expansion

of the Hypostyle Hall. The main scene in these original decorations occupied the
entire length of the north wing and was at least as tall as the current second and third
registers.
In the first scene of the fourth register, which depicts Ramesses I offering fire and
water to Montu, Atum, Shu, Tefnut, Geb, Nut, Osiris and Isis, the sky cuts the figures
of the previous decorations down to the waist. This original scene represented Amun's
great Barque towed by another large, barque. These boats push towards the central
doorway and the south, in the direction of Luxor.
Many of the original scenes depicted on this wall were simply modified at the time of
the enlargement of the Hypostyle Hall. For example, the colossal barque was replaced
by a smaller one that was no longer towed by oarsmen but rather by the king and three
gods. Legrain tells us of the new depiction:
"The Userhat (the royal barque) was towed by a fairy barque that moved forward by
itself over the waters of the Nile. No mast, no sail, no oars nor oarsman. Only the
rudder oars that no pilot steered could be seen on the prow."
However, the new barque scene does retain traces of the oars of the previous scene.
Champollion also describes the two barques of Seti I:
"A bari or barque. On the prow three standards are fixed [the Upwat, the falcon, the
royal cartouche]. On the bari following, Upper Egypt, supplicating hands extend from
the side of the prow [sic]. Four figures are pulling an immense bari with a rope
behind the first barque. The head of the first towing figure is broken. He was jackal
headed [Upwat]. The second is the king Meneptah I in normal attire, the third is ramheaded, the fourth is falcon-headed."
Legrain, in Les Temples de Karnak, goes on to tell us that:
"A fragment of text that is located in front of the God Aupuaitu in the towing barque
indicates that it and the barque of Amun are going to Apitu of the South, that is, the
temple of Luxor. That is why they are represented with their prows pointing south."
Champollion goes on to add that:
"Next comes the great bari of Ammon-Ra; on the prow and on the stern [a ram's head
bears the atef crown flanked by two uraei on the horns of Khnum]. In the middle
stands a kind of temple or palace supported by two columns. Above the cornice is the
anaglyph of the king's given name, which is repeated without variation for the entire
length of this cornice. This palace contains a naos, a cornice crowned by a uraeus
with a disk, a frieze [Isis knots and djed pillars] in which the bari of the god sits on a
pedestal with the customary adornments. On the door or veil that closes the kibotos
can be seen the anaglyph of the king's given name overshadowed by cherubs.
Behind the great kibotos [the palace] on the stern, the bari of khons and that of Muth
(destroyed)...
The great kibotos or palace, which encloses all the rest, is preceded by

The Obelisk Court of Amenhotep III

In The Temple of Amun at Karnak
by Jim Fox

The small area between the Third

Pylon and the Fourth Pylon, which
was during the time of Tuthmosis I
the front of the the Temple of Amun at
Karnak, is sometimes referred to as
the Obelisk Court or the Court of
Amenhotep III.
During the course of the Great Feast
of Opet and the Feast of the Valley at
Thebes which occurred each year, the
sacred barques of Amun, Mut and
Khonsu were led in a procession to
the Temple of Luxor, Opet of the
South, and the funerary temples of on
the West Bank. Their boats departed
Karnak and were towed by other boats
that were propelled by oarsman.
Covering almost the entire width of
the eastern face (rear) of the north
wing of the third pylon are depicted
the two boats of Amun and the king. This representation is described by a
contemporary black granite stela erected by Amenhotep III in his western temple,
behind the columns of Memnon. The Third Pylon in the Temple of Amun was built by
Amenhotep III, and his stela describes the principal monuments that he had built in
honor of the god Amun. Hence, we learn
"...making form him [Amun] an august temple to the west of Thebes, preceded by a a
very large pylon called 'Amun has received the divine barque,' a place of repose for
the lord of the neters at his 'Feast of the Valley,' from the time of Amun's voyage to the
west, to see the neters of the west."

He next describes the temple of Luxor, but goes on to say:

"King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Nebmare, part of Ra, son of Ra: Amenhotep (III),
ruler of Thebes. I made another mionument for him who begat me, Amun-Re, lord of
Thebes, who established (me) upon his throne, making for him a great barque for the
'Beginning-of-the-River,' (named) 'Amun-Re-in-the-Sacred-Barque [Userhat],' of new
cedar which His Majesty cut in the countries of God's-Land [the land of the neters]. It
was dragged over the mountains of Retenu (Rtnw) by the princes of all countries. It
was made very wide and large; there is no instance of doing the like. Its [hull] is
adorned with silver, wrought with gold throughout. The great shrine [naos] is of
electrum so that it fills the land with its (brightness).
Its bows, they repeat the (brightness). They bear great [atef] crowns, whose serpents
twine along its two sides... Flag-staves are set up before it wrought with electrum, two
great obelisks are between them; it is beautiful everywhere. The gods of Pe make
jubilee to it; the gods of Nekhen praise it, the two Nile-gods of the South and North,
they embrace its beauty, its bows make Nun to shine as when the sun rises in heaven,
to make his beautiful voyage at his feast of Apet on his western voyage of a million
years."
Thus, we have a
contemporary description
of the image of the barque
we find on the rear wall of
the Temple of Amun's
Third Pylon. The does not
seem to exaggerate the
beauty of this boat, and
even omits the delicate
reliefs the decorate its hull
and still retain some
traces of the yellow paint
that was used to depict the
vessel's gold coating. We
know from the Harris
papyrus that the barque
Userhat was around 68
meters long.
We see in the center of the
boat the naos which
contained the sacred
barque of Amun, which is placed on a pedestal preceded by a staircase holding up the
masts and the obelisks. Before this pedestal are three jackal headed figures and seven
Nile gods who worship Amun. In the rear behind the naos the king is navigating the
boat by holding the steering oar himself. The king also appears in the front of the boat,

offering gifts of vegetables and purification incense.

A human-headed sphinx with a cheetah body is perched on his roost atop the wedjat
eye that is apparently always to be found on the prow of the barques. Between the
sphinx and the king sits an offering table. It should be noted that all of this scene has
been reworked by Amenhotep III.
Originally the two royal
representations were smaller and traces
of these earlier scenes remain on the
prow, on the offering table and toward
the stern on the flabellum held by the
ankh.
There may have originally been the
two smaller barques of Khonsu and
Mut behind the naos, as in the barque
of Seti I in the Hypostyle hall, but if
so, there images have been carefully
removed, whereas those of the two
original kings were preserved.
The inside part of the royal boat that
towed the barque of Userhat at the end
of a rope is the only section of that
depiction which has survived.
Originally, there were sixty oarsmen
that propelled it, though only those of
the back section can still be seen. They are profiled on the immense cabin that is
adorned with a double frieze of ovals and uraei.
Four priests are leaning with their faces turned toward the stern between the first
oarsman and the standing king. Two of the priests hold censers and flabellums.
On a small kiosk situated toward the prow, the king was depicted striking down and
treading upon Egypt's enemies.
On the south wing at the rear (east face) of the third pylon of Amenhotep III is
inscribed a very long text of some seventy-one vertical lines, though only the lower
section survives. A sample of this text reads:
"He is one who taketh thought, who maketh wise with knowledge...without his like, the
good shepherd vigilant for all people...
searching bodies, knowing that which is in the heart, whose fame apprehends the
(evil)...
adorning the splendid Great House of him who began him, with monuments of beauty

and splendor forever"

Hence, this text apparently proclaims Amenhotep III's accomplishments and qualities.
Beyond the rear of the Third Pylon is the
doorway of the Fourth Pylon which,
according to an inscription on the architrave
of the campaniform colonnade of the Great
Hypostyle Hall, was the true entrance to the
Temple of Ipet-Sut of Amun. Hence, the area
between these two pylons would have been
its approach. The most notable construct in
this small area is the slightly leaning obelisks
of Tuthmosis I, which is one of two
originally erected by Tuthmosis I at this
location. The pedestal of Tuthmosis I's
missing obelisk does remain. There were two
additional obelisks erected by Tuthmosis III,
Tuthmosis I's grandson, but alas both of those
are also gone. The missing obelisk of
Tuthmosis I was originally left without
inscription and was later inscribed under
Tuthmosisi III. it was still standing in 1737,
according to a report by the English traveler
Pococke. The erection of these two obelisks
are mentioned by the chief of all the works at
Karnak, Ineni, who tells us that:
"I inspected the erection of two obelisks...built the august boat of 120 cubits in length,
40 cubits in width, in order to transport these obelisks. (They) came in peace, safety,
and prosperity, and landed at Karnak."
This Obelisk stands between 19.5 and almost 22 meter in height according to various
sources. Including the pedestal, which is 1.8 meters square, it stands at least 23 meters
tall. Most estimates place its weight between 128 and 143 tons. The obelisk is made of
red granite.

Floor plan of the Obelisk of Tuthmosis I

On this obelisk, each side is inscribed with three columns of text. However, only the
central inscription on the east is from the reign of Tuthmosisi I. The later columns
were inscribed under Ramesses IV, and added to by Ramesses VI. The central
inscriptions of the north and south faces provides us with the complete list of
Tuthmosis I's titles. His dedication is inscribed on the east and west sides. Below the
name of Horus and the royal cartouche can be read:
"He has raised as a memorial to his father Amun-Re, chief of the Two Lands, two
great obelisks at the double doorways of the temple..."
As seen from the east, in the lateral columns of the text, the cartouches in the name of
of Ramesses IV have been added on to by Ramesses VI. The tableau on the base as
added by Ramesses II.

he Hypostyle Hall between the

4th and 5th Pylons in the Temple of Amun at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

As we pass through the ruins of the

fourth pylon at Karnak (the Temple of
Amun in Modern Luxor which was
ancient Thebes), we enter the vast
complex of the Temple of Ipet-Sut of
Amun proper. This was the original
gate of the temple. Here, between the
fourth and fifth pylons is what has been
termed the "Hypostyle Hall" of the
temple of Ipet-Sut, not to be confused
with the Great Hypostyle Hall which
precedes it. The wall that surrounds the
whole of this element of the temple was
erected by Tuthmosis III, but decorated
at certain places on the inside by
Ramesses II.
Just within the gate to either side of the
interior of the fourth pylon are Osirian
Pillars. These are fitted into niches and
those to the north probably wore the
Red Crown, while those to the south wear the white crown. Within this small
asymmetrical area we find to the north (left) the obelisk of Hatshepsut, which
dominates this area of the temple. North of this obelisk are two rows of three columns
each. At one point, there was a complimentary obelisk to the south (right), but that is
now gone. South of that obelisk were two rows of four columns each.

This pair of obelisks was produced

from granite on the island Sehel at
Aswan under the supervision of the
steward Amen-hotep. Their transport
by ship and the erection of both
obelisks at Karnak is shown in detail
in the so-called "Hall of O" in the first
portico of the temple of Hatshepsut at
Deir el-Bahari. A relief in her Red
Chapel also provides a report about the
donation of these two obelisks.
The standing, northern obelisk of
Hatshepsutt must be considered one of
the most famous single monuments
within the whole of the Karnak
complex. Originally, she erected four
obelisks at Karnak, but only this one
remains. However, at approximately
29.56 meters tall, it is the largest
standing obelisk in Egypt. Built of red
granite, it weighs some 323 tons (note
that various figures are given by different sources for the obelisk's height and weight).
The bottom part of the obelisk has a slightly different tint than the top, because it had
been walled up by her successor, Tuthmosis III.
On its base are thirty-two horizontal lines of hieroglyphs, eight lines to each side, that
describe why she had constructed this obelisk. The inscription reads in part:
"I was sitting in the palace and I remembered the One who created me; my heart
directed me to make for him two obelisks of electrum [a natural alloy of gold and
silver], that their pyramidions might mingle with the sky amid the august pillared hall
between the great pylons of [Tuthmosis I].... My Majesty began to work on them in the
year 15, the second month of Winter, 1st day, continuing until Year 16, fourth month of
Summer, 30th day, spending 7 months in cutting it from the mountain.... I acted for
him with a straightforward heart, as a king does for any god... Let not anyone who
hears this say it is boasting which I have said, but rather say, 'How like her it is, she
who is truthful to her father.' The god knows it in me [namely] Amun, Lord of the
Thrones of the Two Lands.... I am his daughter in very truth, who glorifies him."

To a significant degree, historians owe what

little they know of obelisk raising from
archaic sources to this inscription.
All four sides of the obelisk are carved with
a central column of inscriptions and, on the
upper half, eight tableaux on which the king
(in Egypt, the female ruler was not termed a
queen, but a king), is directed toward Amun
going from the northwest corner towards the
southeast corner. On the north face, the
central inscription begins with Hatshepsut's
titles, including the Horus, the Two
Goddesses and the Golden Horus names:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies
'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and
Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. Her father Amun had
established her great name 'Maat-Ka-Ra'
on the Ished tree, her annals are million of
years, duration and power, son of Ra
'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, as [reward for this good, enduring and excellent
monument], that she had donated to him (at the occasion) of the first royal jubilee
( sed festival). May she live forever."
On the west side, after the same title, the text reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', the Two Ladies 'Flourishing of Years', Golden Horus
'Divine of Appearances', King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Maat-Ka-Ra'. She made (it) as her monument for her father Amun, Lord of the Throne
of the Two Lands, erecting for him two large obelisks at the great gate [Pylon) 'Amun
is Great in-Terror', wrought with very much electrum, which illuminates the Two
Lands like the sun. Never was the like made on earth since the beginning. It was done
for him (Amun) by the sun of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', may she live forever
like Ra.
Hence, Hatshepsut specifies that these obelisks were intended to be erected in front of
the fifth pylon. On the east facade of the obelisk, her title includes only the Horus
name and she affirms that the building of these obelisks was for her father:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', beloved of
Amun-Ra. Her majesty has made the name of her father established on this enduring
monument, so that the King of Upper and Lower Egypt and Lord of the Two Lands
'Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' ( Thutmosis I) will be praised by the majesty of this god, when the

two great obelisks were erected by her majesty on the first time ( of her royal jubilee).
The King of Gods (Amun) said: 'Your (fem.) father, the King of Upper and Lower
Egypt "Aa-kheper-ka-Ra' had given the command to erect obelisks. Your (fem.)
majesty will repeat the monuments. (So that) you may live forever."
The Southern facade likewise provides only Hatshepsut Horus' name as well, and
reads:
"Horus 'Powerful of Kas', King of Upper and Lower Egypt 'Maat-Ka-Ra', brilliant
emanation of Amun, whom he has caused to appear as king upon the throne of Horus
'Holy of Holiest' of the Great House, whom the ennead of gods have brought up to be
mistress of the circuit of the sun. They have united her with life, power and joy of the
heart, the First of the Livings, son of Ra 'Hatshepsut, unified with Amun', beloved of
Amun-Ra, King of the Gods, may he (Hatshepsut) live forever like Ra."
The upper part of the
southern obelisk,
broken into pieces, is
mounted on concrete
blocks in the proximity
of the sacred lake. The
base of Hatshepsut's
missing southern
obelisk is not without
inscriptions. Like the
northern standing
obelisk, there are eight
lines of inscriptions
carved horizontally on
its four sides. The text
starts with the top line
of the southern facade of the base with the titles of the queen and her recounting of the
erection of two great obelisks made from southern (Aswan) granite on the occasion of
her first renewal (sed-festival). It reads: "Two great obelisks of enduring granite of the
South, (their) summits [pyramidions] being of electrum of the best of every country."
On the west side of the base, the queen affirms that she has acted under the command
and supervision of Amun, recognizing his divinity. Hatshepsut implies that she has
conceived of nothing without following his laws (of proportion) because her "heart
was in sia (wisdom)". She affirms that "Karnak is the horizon on earth [the first
appearance], the August Ascent of the beginning, the sacred eye of the All-Lord, the
place of his heart". On the north side of the base, after a long oath of faith where the
queen affirms that her power over the earth is due to divine kindness and that she will
descend into the amenti and exist "in eternity as an "Undying One", she specifies that
these two obelisks were extracted from the mountains and erected in seven months,
during the fifteenth year of her reign.

On the east side of the base, the queen recounts how, following her desire to embellish
the obelisk, she measured the best electrum by the "hekat, more than the entire Two
Lands had (ever) seen. The ignorant, like the wise, knoweth it".

The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I

and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III
Between the Fifth and Sixth Pylons at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

In the Temple of Amun proper at

Karnak in ancient Thebes (modern
Luxor), beyond the small Hypostyle
Hall situated between the fourth and
fifth Pylons is a vestibule and
antechamber that lies between the
fifth and sixth pylons. This is a
relatively narrow, symmetrical space
divided by a doorway in the name of
Tuthmosis III that divides a colonnade
of Tuthmosis I.
On the outer walls of this doorway, to
the north we see the king wearing the
red crown and in the south, the white
crown. Just beyond this doorway is
that of the sixth pylon, where the king
once again wears the white and red
crowns corresponding to the direction
he faces.

Originally, this whole space was a colonnade built by Tuthmosis I, but Tuthmosis III
divided the space with a wall made of granite blocks, pierced by a doorway with
sandstone doorposts. Hence, it forms a sort of vestibule, closed on the north and south,
that provides access to the
antechamber of the sixth pylon. This
antechamber opens to provide access
to the columned wings to the north and
south.
The "royal ascent" is depicted on the
two granite doorposts that frame the
vestibule door that provides access to
the antechamber. Normally, this scene
would show the king framed by Montu
and Atum, going towards Amun, but
here, the scene is separated into two
tableaux. On the north, the king,
wearing the red crown, is led by Atum
of Heliopolis, while on the south he
wears the white crown and is led to
Amun by Montu of Thebes. These two
half-scenes are directed toward the
south instead of being oriented to the
general axis of the temple.
Within the antechamber, on the west doorpost of the northern door is a scene upon
which the king can be seen wearing the
red crown. There is a granite statue in
the corner. On the eastern doorpost he
wears the white crown. When
Tuthmosis III built the vestibule and
antechamber here, he included within
the thickness of the walls two of
Tuthmosis I's portico columns. Here, a
sixteen sided polygonal column of the
northern sector can be seen. It carries
the titles of Tuthmosis I on the middle
of the east side.
The king, wearing the red and white
crowns, is repeated on the southern
door of the antechamber. The king is
holding in one hand the makes cane
and the white hedj club and is
extending his other hand toward the
entranceway.

The doorway gives access to the peristyle court of Tuthmosis I, where the remains of
the shafts for sixteen-sided polygonal columns can be seen. Within this courtyard, on
the northern wall is a curious representation of Amun carved in light relief. Actually,
the entire profile of the head is deeply carved, perhaps to receive the face and
headdress of precious gems and metals. On the extension of the throne's pedestal,
Queen Ahmose-Nefertari (the well known wife of Ahmose, founder of the 18th
Dynasty and hence, Egypt's New Kingdom), also sculpted in relief, presents the god
with a sistrum and the menat. Behind her, Ramesses III, who is carved in sunk relief,
offers Ma'at to the god. What is interesting about this depiction is that the outline of
Amun and the deified queen are very light, giving the god a phantom appearance in
comparison to the king, emphasizing the spiritual nature of Amun.
The granite doorposts of the sixth pylon is
adorned on both sides with sandstone
curbing upon which are carved five
horizontal lines of prisoners mentioning the
nineteen cities conquered during the course
of the famous military exploits of Tuthmosis
III. that are recounted in the "chamber of the
Annals". Those on the north wing are towns
conquered in Syria and Palestine, while
those on the south represent towns in Nubia.
Above, a scene of "ritual massacre" can be
discerned. In his "Text of the Youth",
Tuthmosis III says that he built for this
pylon:
A great panel fashioned from new cedar,
worked with gold mounted in true black
copper and ... copper. The great name above
it is in electrum, gold that has been twice
refined, and black copper".
The "great name" he refers to is the "August
gate Menkhe Perre beloved of Amun Mighty with prestige". The doorway of the Sixth
Pylon leads through to the Naos of Philip Arrhedaeus.

Floor plan of The Colonnade of Tuthmosis I and the Vestibule and Antechamber of Tuthmosis III

The Peristyle Court of Tuthmosis III,

The Naos of Philip Arrhidaeu and the
Sanctuary of Hateshpsut Beyond the Sixth Pylon
in the Temple of Amun At Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

Beyond the Sixth Pylon in the

Temple of Amun at Karnak in
Thebes (modern Luxor) is an
inverted T-shaped area where the
top of the T is made up of the
peristyle court of Tuthmosis III,
and the leg of the T is a barque
sanctuary filled by the granite
naos of Philip Arrhidaeu, who was
Alexander the Great's immediate
successor for a brief period of
time.
After building the Sixth Pylon,
Tuthmosis III divided the peristyle
court beyond the pylon into three
sections, by two walls that formed
a central chamber in front of the
sanctuary built by Philip
Arrhidaeu, which itself replaced
an earlier repository build during
the reign of Tuthmosis III. On the
walls of this chamber, together
with the east facade of the sixth
pylon and the outer walls of the sanctuary, Tuthmosis III had inscribed a record of his
twenty years of campaigns abroad, resulting in the name, "chamber of the Annals",
being given to this section of the temple. At one time, the chamber was covered by a
roof with architraves resting on so-called heraldic pillars.

In the southern wing of this chamber, on the interior (east side) of the Sixth Pylon, to
the right are the remains of the granite doorpost of the pylon's doorway. On the
sandstone revetment to the left we
find Amun introducing the king.
Behind Amun there is a line of
inscriptions recording Horemheb's
restoration in this part of the temple,
which is followed by the two last
lines of the famous text of the Annals
of Tuthmosis III on the walls of the
sanctuary where he recounts the
events related to the building of a
fortress in Lebanon. His Majesty
returned, disembarking at Thebes,
and celebrated the victory feast for
his first campaign of the year 23.
Then, "while the majesty of that
august neter [Amun] navigated his
way toward Ipet of the South
[Luxor]", the king deposited very
large offerings of all kinds at the
entrance to this temple.
In a long list of these gifts, which
consisted of slaves, livestock,
precious metals, gemstones as well as
territories, there is a record of three cities, including Yanoam, from which he received
"flocks of geese for the sacred pool", offerings for his new sed-festival temple, for his
obelisks, for his statues and for the feast of Min's emergence. Tuthmosis III also tells
us of the creation of a new garden "planted with all manner of pleasing trees" for the
daily plant offerings.
"Thus, My Majesty has created all monuments, all laws, all regulations...To my father
Amun...for great is my knowledge of his glory. I was instructed within his perfection,
resting within his body..."
The final two lines here provide additional offerings, including 318 white breads,
which were cakes in the shape of the pyramidian crowning an obelisk.

In the northwest corner of the chamber

is a statue of Amun in profile in front
of the inner wall of the north wing of
the sixth pylon, and behind it is text
recording the tributes received during
the course of Tuthmosis III's final
campaigns during the years 39 and 42
of his reign. It ends with a text that
reads:
"Behold, His Majesty commanded the
recounting of the victories he has won
from the year 23 to the year 42, when
this inscription was written upon his
sanctuary..."
Legrain tells us that:
"There are two statues erected in front
o the north doorway of the foresanctuary {Chamber of the Annals), on
the east side one in the image of
Amunet, on the west, Amun. These colossal statues measure around six meters in
height. They are carved out of the deep-toned red sandstone."
The statue of Amun was found, but it was broken into many pieces. However, behind
the feathers on his headdress an inscription provides the Horus name of Tutankhamun
and over his cartouches
those of Horemheb. The
fragmentary body of
Amunet was also
discovered, but there
was no head. Both
statues were doubtless
erected during the reign
of Tutankhamun and
usurped by Horemheb.
They were probably
destroyed during the
Roman or Coptic
period.
In front of his original
naos that Philip
Arrhidaeu built over in
the sanctuary,
Tuthmosis III erected

two granite pillars that bear four scenes on their east and west sides and symbolic
plants of the Two Lands on their north and south sides which show admirable detail.
These are the only examples of their type known, and their architectural role has been
the subject of some scholarly debate. On the southern pillar, the king wears the white
crown and in the top register he is embraced by Amunet, while below by Amun. On
the northern pillar, the king wears the red crown and is embraced by Hathor and then
Amun. On the southeast corner of the southern pillar, above the plants is the cartouche
of Tuthmosis Neferkhepru, and above this we see the king embraced by the Goddess,
Mut. Mut once again embraces the king in the upper section on the east side of the
northern pillar.

Left: The king embraced by Mut on the

South Pillar;
Middle: The king embraced by Mut on the
North Pillar;
Right: The King embraced by Amun

To either side of the Chamber of the

Annals is the peristyle court of
Tuthmosis III, where he erected a
portico of fasciculate columns with
sixteen cusps each. Their bases were
finely worked, and they front small
chapels to the far north and far south of
each wing, respectively. In the north
wing, on the outer southern facing walls
of the chapels, are several interesting
depictions. On one, the king holds the
akh bird, an Ibis, in one hand and four
long stakes in the other, perhaps for
holding the net for a bird hunt. He
makes the "great stride" before Hathor

who presents him with the menat. She also holds the palm of the years. Hathor's son,
Ihy, who is completely nude, is in front of her, holding a sistrum toward the inscription
that provide the name of the chapel, House of Horus.

Above the lintel of one of the other northern chapels is a very curious depiction of a
small individual standing in the back of a papyrus boat behind a person of larger
proportions who is
probably the king.
The King in such a
boat is not
uncommon, and we
find similar
representations in
the temple of Luxor
and the tomb of Ay.
However, what is so
unusual about this
depiction is that the legs and feet of the smaller individual are completely formed of
duck heads. Thanks to an old photograph of a neighboring block which has now
disappeared, we know that the smaller figure is actually that of an obscure god named
Kheddw, an ancient fishing deity.
Beyond these pillars is the sanctuary and the granite barque naos of Philip Arrhidaeu
that replaced the more ancient repository build during the reign of Tuthmosis III. It is
divided into two halves, with an outer area where offerings were made to the gods, and
the inner where the god's barque reposed. Originally, a structure stood before it with
sandstone pillars that were bored with small holes at their bases, probably to hold
either electrum or gold plating. P. Barquet suggests that within the structure was
placed the two obelisks "of clear electrum" amounting to 2,500 talents that
Ashurbanipal was said to have brought away from Thebes in 656 BC, "where they had
been erected before the doorway of the sanctuary". Electrum is a blend of gold and
silver, and their weight, which would have been equivalent to 37,875 kilograms,
would have made their height an estimated 6.9 meters.
It is on the northern wall
of this sanctuary that the
annals of Tuthmosis III
begin, and it has been
said that this wall has in
fact caused more
commentary among
scholars than any other
area in the entire temple
of Karnak. Here,
Tuthmosis III holds the
makes cane and the white
hedj club in one hand
and the sekhem scepter
in the other, consecrating
the wealth of offering
before him on behalf of
Amun.
The offerings include

The "Central
Courtyard" and
the Festival Hall
of Tuthmosis III
in the Temple of
Amun at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

Beyond the 6th

Pylon and past the
peristyle courtyard
of Tuthmosis III, the
Chapels of
Hatshepsut and the
Naos of Philip
Arrhidaeus in the
Temple of Amun at
Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern
Luxor), is the
sanctuaries of the
Middle Kingdom
and beyond those,
the sed festival
buildings of
Tuthmosis III. To
the north of the Middle Kingdom sanctuaries, which are at the heart of the temple, are
the continuation of Tuthmosis III's north chapels.
Unfortunately, the Middle Kingdom chapels, sometimes called the central court, is
now an open area upon which the very earliest temple at this site probably once stood.
This was where the primary image of the god Amun was kept. However these
buildings were plundered during antiquity for their stone, and now the area contains
little more than the large calcite or "alabaster" slab on which a shrine once stood. The

North Chapels of Tuthmosis III, consisting of a series of long chambers, are more
interesting, for here the king recorded the ritual of laying the foundation. On a stela he
provides specific details on the monuments he constructed on the site of an older one,
which he spoke of in his "Text of the Youth":
My majesty desired to make a monument to my father Amun Ra in Karnak [Ipet-sut],
erecting a dwelling [sanctuary], beautifying the horizon, adorning for him Khaftethir-nebes, the favorite place of my father from the beginning...I made it for him upon
this block of enduring stone, exalting and magnifying greatly [what was already at
this site?] to the shrine [naos] of Nun [the primordial waters]..."

Ground Plan of this section of the Temple of Amun at Karnak

Within one of the chapels on its

southern wall is recorded the temple
foundation ceremony and the
consecration of the temple with natron
(salt). Here, the king buries a stake in
the earth with a mallet. This scene
depicts "stretching the cord between
the two stakes", but unfortunately it is
now missing. In the second scene, the
king, wearing the atef crown, digs out
a furrow using a hoe and then refills it
with the contents of a bushel basket.
The king also molds a brick and then
offers a series of briquettes, which
were often made of precious material,
for the four corners of the temple. We
are informed by a stela that:
"My majesty ordered that the
foundation ceremony should be
prepared at the approach of the day
of the Feast of the New Moon...In the
year 24, second month of the second season, the last day (of the month), on the day of
the tenth feast of Amun..."
There is a scene of the king
consecrating the temple just to the
east of the foundation ceremony.
Here, the king stands with a cane
in his hand, encircling the temple
with natron, which is stylized here
in the form of a long ribbon. A
small vessel contains the natron.
In the next chapel to the east, on
the northern wall beginning to the
west, we first find a scene
depicting the Feast of the White
Hippopotamus", which is very
rare. Only one other example of
this ceremony is known, from a
fragment of a Saite period artifact
now in the Brussels Museum.
Here, the king wears the red
crown and holds a baton and the
white club in his hands. He wears
a long ribbon hanging from his

left shoulder.
In back of the king are the two half-heavens that accompany the scene of the "great
stride". Before him are two small dancing figures surmounted by the name of a city,
and above that is a hammered-out hippopotamus with a brief caption recording the
"Feast of the White [Hippopotamus]. It should be noted that the red, male Sethien
hippopotamus, who was an enemy of Horus, must be distinguished from the white,
female hippopotamus that here is a symbol of Apet.
To the east of this scene is one depicting the erection of Min's Mast. In these scenes,
the king wears the white crown and holds a long cane and the once again the white
club in one hand, while in the other he carries the nehbit scepter, with which he makes
a gesture of consecration. In front of the
king are two rows of men stretching
ropes around a raised mast which is
supported by four poles. Little figures,
each with a feather on its head, climb
the poles. All of these scenes are related
to the temple foundation
Beyond the open court of the ruined
Middle Kingdom sanctuaries lies the
last section of the Temple of Amun on
the main axis, the relatively complete
Festival Temple of Tuthmosis III.
Tuthmosis III is said to have built this
structure on the site of the brick
enclosure of an older sanctuary for Nun.
It is one of the more interesting, as well
as one of the more unusual features at
Karnak. He built it as a sort of
memorial to himself and his ancestral
cult and named it the "Most Splendid of
Monuments". The entrance was
originally flanked by two statues of the
king wearing a festival costume. It is at
the building's southwest corner and leads into an antechamber with magazines and
other rooms to the right and left of the temple's great columned hall. The roof of this
hall is supported around its perimeter by thirty-two square pillars, while the central
portion contains his famous tent pole style columns. There were originally twenty of
these. They may recall ancient religious booths, but more likely symbolize the military
tent that was so familiar to the great warrior pharaoh. Irregardless, these columns with
cylindrical shafts, painted bright red that thicken slightly going from bottom to top and
then abruptly flare out above five bands painted yellow and blue, to support a king of
capital in the form of a flower adorned with large triangular leaflets, but reversed, are
unique. During the Christian era, the hall was reused as a church and here and there,
atop several of the columns, can be seen haloed icons. There are several ruined statues

to the north of the hall, in an area

which was used as a church in the
Coptic era.
On the northeast end of the festival
hall is a stairway that leads to a room
sometimes referred to as the
"Chamber of the Clepsydras".
Clepsydras were water clocks and
they no longer exist, but there
remains a libation table with a drain.
At the back of the hall is a room that
gives access to three tiered chapels
where the ceremonies of the sed
festival are represented. It contains
eight, sixteen-sided polygonal
columns.
Another interesting chamber in the
rear of the festival hall is the
sanctuary of Alexander. Here,
Tuthmosis III's work was entirely worked over with thicker reliefs of Alexander the
Great, who inscribed his cartouches on its walls. On the lintel we find the king
wearing the white crown and another depiction of Hathor embracing him. On the back
wall of this sanctuary are very curious reused blocks set in such as way that they
completely lack continuity.
Other chambers in the building
include a "chamber of Ancestors"
and suites of rooms dedicated to the
god Sokar, the sun god in his
morning manifestation (to the north)
and to Amun. The "chamber of
Ancestors", sometimes referred to
as the "chamber of the kings", is
located at the southwest corner of
the main hall. Here, a royal list of
62 kings of Upper and Lower Egypt
once existed, but was taken to Paris
in 1843 where it now resides in the
Louvre Museum.
In the Chapel of Amun is a massive
quartzite pedestal which once
supported the shrine of the god, and
the vestibule of this temple is the

famous "Botanical Room", with

its representations of exotic
flora and fauna encountered
during Tuthmosis III's foreign
military campaigns. This room
is located to the rear of the
festival hall off center to the
north. It contains four
fasciculate columns. The room
measures about six meters in
width and almost fifteen meters
in length. Its columns are about
7.5 meters tall. On the south
wall of the room we find birds
going toward the west. Two of
the birds include the lapwing
(Vanellus cristatus) and the red
casarca (Asarka rutila). Another
bird is almost certainly an ibis,
while two others are not
identified. Pomegranates surmount the depictions of the birds.
On the northern corner of the east wall is an inscription that states:
"Year 25, under the majesty of the king of Upper and Lowwer Egypt, Menkheperre,
forever living, plants that His Majesty has found in the land of Retenu (Syria).
Here, various plants are depicted in
various stages. They include
Dracunculus vulg (Arum
dracunculus), a type of calenchoe,
probably Calenchoe deficiens Forsk
or Calenchoe aegyptiaca, probably a
chrysanthemum, an Arum italicum,
a Dipsacus, a flower from an iris,
fruites of the Punica granatum
(pomegranates), Vitis vinifera
(grapevines), a female gazelle, a
goose, a migrating grasshopper and
a raven or crow among others.
On the west wall, various birds have
been identified as probably the
jackdaw (Monedula turrium), the
ash-colored crane (Grus cinera), an
anhinga (Plotus levaillantii), a Rock
dove (colomba livia), a turtledove

(turtur), a Frigate eagle or "sea-eagle" (Tachypetes aquilus), a Greek partridge (Perdrix

graeca), a spiny hoplopterous or "lapwing" (Hoplopterus), a gull, and Egyptian cuckoo
(Centropus aegyptus), a wild good, an ordinary plover and a white egret (Herodias
alba).
Various calves and a few plants are depicted on the south wall, while on the western
section of the north wall, we find Blue lotus (Nymphea caerulea), sycamore seedpods,
pomegranates and perhaps a desert raven. On the right are the last lines of the text
concerning the plants brought back from the "Divine Land", which reads:
"All plants that grow, all flowers that are in God's Land (which were found by) his
majesty when his majesty proceeded to Upper Retenu, to subdue (all) the countrie(s),
according to the command of his father, Amun, who put them beneath his sandals from
(the year 1) to myriads of years.
His majesty said; 'I swear, as Ra (loves me) as my father, Amun, favors me, all these
things happened in truth - I have not written fiction as that which really ahppened to
my majesty. [The spirits of my majesty have caused their birth and growth to glorify
his foods].
My majesty hath done this from desire to put them before my father Amun, in this great
temple of Amun [Akhmenu], (as) a memorial forever and ever'."
The back walls of this part of the complex are ruined, and it is possible to exit the
main temple here and examine the niche shrines that were built against the temple's
rear walls. This is where the common Egyptians brought their petitions. This was
known as a temple of the hearing ear.

The Temple of the "Hearing Ear",

The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II,
the Colonnade of Taharka
and the Gate of Nectanebo I
at Temple of Amun at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

Ramesside period scenes adorn the

north, south and east facades of the
outer Tuthmosis walls of the Great
Temple of Amun at Karnak in ancient
Thebes (modern Luxor), that
terminate at the two sides of the
eastern sanctuary. For example, the
bas-reliefs of the northern partition of
the third Tuthmosian enclosure are in
the name of Ramesses II. His Horus
name is discernable here, carved in
very fine hieroglyphs, under Amun
and Mut receiving offerings. The
spiral of Mut's double crown winds
around within the body of a small,
earlier figure of Amun on which an
inscription is outlined that reads,

"Mut, mistress of Heaven, queen of the neters".

On the southern portion of the east facade of the
enclosure wall, Ramesses II had scenes carved
in his name that are oriented in the direction of
the alabaster naos of Tuthmosis III.
In the middle of the outer east wall of the third
enclosure that surrounded the Great Temple of
Amun is located the eastern sanctuary of AmunRe, which is known as a Chapel of the "Hearing
Hear". It is a small sanctuary which contained
no entrance to the inner temple because it was
built for common Egyptians, who were not
generally allowed into much if any of the temple
proper, in order to allow them to worship and
partition the all important god, Amun.

Common ancient Egyptians frequently built within their houses small altars to worship
their gods, as well as small private temples for communal use. However, state temples
built for the benefit and worship of the gods were rare, and mostly consisted of small
structures attached to the rear, closest to the actual inner sanctuaries, of major temples.
Such temples never had access to the main temple to which they were attached, but
they must have played a significant role for religious worship by the common
Egyptians.
Today, this eastern sanctuary consists mostly of an enormous alabaster monolith of
Tuthmosis III which is flanked by lateral chambers. This huge, single piece of
alabaster is preceded by a large
hall that opens on the east side.
Each of the two outer walls of
this naos contained scenes in
which Tuthmosis III presented
offerings to fifteen figures of
Amun in sheaths. Each of the
images is seated upon a throne
and holding the was scepter
with both hands. On the north
wall, which is the best
preserved, the king holds the
cane and the club in his left
hand and consecrates the
offerings with his right, "To
Amun in each of his names."
This monument presses directly
against the back of the wall of
the principal temple, which has
been slightly hollowed out for
the structure. It contains two
engaged statues, both greatly
damaged. It is presumed that
the statue on the north represents Tuthmosis III, though the one on the right is difficult
to identify. It has been suggested that this second statue may be that of Mut
(Champollion), Hatshepsut (Steindorff), Amun (Borchardt) or perhaps Nekhebet
(Lubicz).

The facade of this hall

is adorned by
quadrangular pillars
decorated externally
with engaged, Osirian
statues. This entire
group of structures is
then framed by the
bases of two broken
obelisks of Queen
Hatshepsut (now
destroyed) that are
enclosed within two
chapels of Nectanebo I.
These latter have been
established in the face
of two large images of
Amun, which were
probably highly
venerated, that form the
final point of two long series of tableaux depicting Ramesses II before the great state
god.
Just behind the Temple of Amun's primary axis at Karnak in ancient Thebes (modern
Luxor), is the Eastern Temple of Ramesses II, followed by a colonnade built by
Taharka which finally leads to the gate of Nectanebo I in the very back of the complex
set in the enclosure wall.
The small temple of Ramesses II was conceived of as a peristyle court, with two
Osirian pillars in the center. Between it and the main temple complex is an offering
table.

All the columns of the temple of

Ramesses II and the small room
preceding the area where a single
obelisk once stood are made from the
shafts of ancient Tuthmosian polygonal
columns, recovered with plaster and
bearing the cartouches of Ramesses II.
The central doorway that currently
provides access between these two
rooms was only opened during the
reign of Ptolemy VII, according to the
dedication inscribed on the south
doorpost. Also, on the southern part of
the splaying of this new doorway is a
depiction of worship of the "souls of
the east" by four baboons. On the north
it is the "souls of the west".
The missing obelisk was removed from
Karnak by the emperor Constantine
around 330 AD and transported to Rome in 357 by his son, who installed it in the
Circus Maximus. It was rediscovered there, broken in three pieces, in 1587. The
following year, Pope Sixtus V had it raised in the square of Saint John Lateran where
it currently remains in a very non-pagan setting.
The upper four faces of the obelisk each
bear three vertical lines of inscriptions.
The central columns are those of
Tuthmosis III, while the lateral columns
are of Tuthmosis IV. On the lower part of
the southern face of this obelisk below the
title of Tuthmosis III, the king specified
that he had a single obelisk created,
destined to be erected in the forecourt of
the temple of Ipet-sut, and he emphasized
the fact that this was the first time an
obelisk was raised alone. On the same
southern face, Tuthmosis IV records that
he finished this single obelisk of his
"father" after it had remained resting on
its side in the hands of the royal engineers
for thirty-five years. He erected it in
Karnak as instructed by his "father",
making its pyramidion of electrum.
Actually, we must note that Tuthmosis IV
was really the grandson of Tuthmosis III.

Tuthmosis IV also provides that, "He has made as his memorial for His Father AmunRa [the act] of erecting for him an obelisk of great size next to the upper gate of Ipetsut next to Thebes", which explains its location at the southern end of the temple.
The Eastern Temple of Ramesses II actually opens on the east, opposite to the main
complex. It is proceeded by a colonnade built by Taharka that consists of four rows of
five columns each linked together by small walls of intercolumniation on which are
represented the nomes and the characteristic scenes of the "royal ascent:" to the
temple. The central colonnade borders a red granite pavement.
Beyond this colonnade, set in what was once the enclosure wall of the Temple of
Amun, is the gate of Nectanebo I. This portal stood nearly 20 meters tall. It was set
into the outer enclosure wall that was itself constructed on a bed of bricks that are
alternately convex and concave, thus forming an undulation.
Champollion said of the gate of Nectanebo I:
"This immense gate, for which the upper portion is made of enormous blocks and the
doorposts from smaller stones but assembled with a great deal of care, provides
entrance into the great enclosure of Oph (Karnak) on the east side. The large
enclosure of baked bricks touches on both the left and right side of this propylon,
which has never been adorned with any sculpture, either on its top or jambs, on the
inside as well as outside of the enclosure, except that toward the back on the left side
(when exiting) there are t3wo tableaux of worshiping carved in the thickness of the
doorway."
On the west, the lintel is
formed of two
enormous monolithic
blocks, with a third
from which the mold of
the torus has been cut
out. On the stone
monolith of the
cornice's first course, a
large rectangle facing
the setting sun is
worked in relief, at the
site of the uraei-flanked
disk. On the east side,
the torus, the disk
facing the rising sun
and the uraei are
sculpted, rather than in
relief.
Much of the decoration of the gate was never completed. On the east facade of the

lintel, on the left, only the upper part of Ptolemy II Philadelphus offering Ma'at is
carved out, while Amun has only his feathers, his lower limbs and his throne. Behind
him the upper portion of Mut's body is carved in sunk relief, while the lower part is
simply marked out. Aside from her crown, Queen Arsinoe is entirely drawn out in
dots, while in the next figure only her forearms and her right hand are marked. On the
right, the king, Amun and Khonsu are sculpted down to the waist and cut in half by the
joint. The lower parts of their bodies are completely missing.
These structures terminate the Temple of Amun proper at Karnak on its southeastern
end.

Ground plan of the eastern region of the Temple of Amun at Karnak

The Courtyard of the Cachette in the Temple of Amun at Karnak

Part I

The Great Temple of

Amun at Karnak in
Luxor (ancient Thebes)
is built on two axis. The
main axis is usually
referred to as being
oriented east-west,
though the temple is not
really aligned on these
precise coordinates at
all. Rather, it is aligned
to the Nile River, that in
general runs north south
and the main axis is
perpendicular to it. The
north-south axis of the

temple is the secondary axis which branches

off from the main axis between the 3rd and
4th Pylons of the main axis. Traditionally,
Egyptologists think of the entrance to the
main axis of the temple as the first pylon at
Karnak and working in through that to
successively numbered pylons, the
numbering of the pylons in the north-south
axis works outward with the 7th as the
innermost pylon and the last pylon at Karnak
being the 10th on this axis. Between each of
these pylons is a court, with the first located
closest to the main east-west axis. This first
court is frequently referred to as the court of
the Cachette because of the 20,000 or so
statues and stelae that were discovered there
at the beginning of the twentieth century.
Famous as it might be, this court does not
offer a great deal to see these days, though

from there it offers a nice overall view of the Sacred Lake and the Southern Pylons,
with the Temple of Khonsu and the Gate of Euergretes in the background. Actually,
within the court there are in fact several artifacts, including the remains of an alabaster
stela of Seti I, pillars built by Senusret I and a few others. On the north facade of the
Seventh Pylon there are also several statues. Of note are the colossus fronting the east
wing. The westernmost of these is a striding statue with the cartouche of Tuthmosis III
on its belt. On the left shoulder is the name of Ramesses, while on the right is that of
Heqamaatre (Ramesses IV). To the east is an Osirian colossus which bears the same
cartouches on its shoulders and the name of Usermaatre Setepenamun (Ramesses IV)
on the vertical band. Both statues were the white crown.
On the east wing of the north facade of the seventh pylon is a list of 119 Palestinian
towns that appear to have been conquered during the first campaigns of Tuthmosis III,
while the following 240 names refer to sites between Labanon and the Euphrates that
he overran in year 33 of his reign during his eighth campaign, in which he overthrew
Mitanni and Naharin.
Many of the statues and stela discovered.
These artifacts were discovered between
1903 and 1905 by Georges Legrain working
under the supervision of Gaston Maspero,
and represent the largest find of statuary
ever made in Egypt and perhaps anywhere in
the world. The extraction was messy, due to
the Nile flood, which resulted in a high
water table, but the work progressed anyway
in the oozing mud. Beneath the floor of this
courtyard, Legrain's workmen uncover on
December 26, 1903, a large alabaster slab
that proved to be a stela of Seti I. Some
centimeters below this, he found three
magnificent statues of considerable size,
including a figure of Amenemhet, carved
from an intensely greet stone, and below
them even more statues were revealed. By
the end of December in 1903 some forty
intact statues and another twenty that were
incomplete had been fished out of the mud,
along with numerous corroded bronze
figures and ritual fittings. Very soon, these
totals had risen to 751 statues and fragments
in stone, including a funerary figurine of Amenhotep III, some 17,000 bronzes,
"numerous wood statuettes, though impossible to preserve, a range of stale, obelisks
and offering tables, quantities of ram bones, the animal sacred to Amun, some vessels
in metal and stone, and a range of architectural elements.

This huge cache appears to have been deposited on a single occasion, probably during
or immediately after the Ptolemaic period. Most were clearly votive objects deposited
at Karnak by pious individuals who had visited the Karnak shrines As sacred objects,
they could not be destroyed, so the only option available to the priests, who must by
that time have been
drowning in a sea of
such objects, was burial
within the precinct.
However, it must be
noted that Egyptologists
speculate other reasons
for the burial of these
artifacts.
Legrain had to take
serious measures to
avoid being
overwhelmed by the
continuous stream of
objects that emerged each day from his work. Almost immediately after word of the
miraculous find spread, questionable characters began to crowd in from all directions,
just waiting for the moment they might move in to snatch some valuable tidbit. As
soon as objects were dug from the muck, they were speedily put under guard in
storehouses. Nevertheless, Legrain could not prevent thieves from carrying off from
the Antiquities Service House two
of the beautiful statues discovered
during the beginning of his
excavations. Luckily, and
investigation pursued and the
statues were soon recovered. The
guards themselves were found
guilty and four of them were
promptly sentenced to three years'
forced labor.
Apparently, at the end of his efforts,
the statues were sent to the Cairo
Museum. Hence, in 1905, ten
railway carriages left Luxor station
at five o'clock in the afternoon that
would reach Cairo the next
morning, In addition, two boats
belonging to the Antiquities Service
were also employed, each making
two or three trips.
Yet, all of the caution could not

prevent some of the finds from turning up missing. With certainty, some of the
statues, particularly those of medium size, mysteriously disappeared, either while
work was still underway, during transportation, and even after their arrival at the
Egyptian Museum. In fact, it has been said that practically no Egyptian collection of
any importance in either Europe or the United States does not possess some object
from the cachette. Certainly theft was the major cause for this dispersal, though in fact
some of the objects may have been disposed of in the Sales Hall of the Museum. At
that time, the museum would offer to sell objects that it already had in sufficient
numbers. Some objects were also probably mishandled and newly registered under
another inventory number.
Regrettably, only the most important of the sculptures were ever published, and very
few of the excavator's notes have survived, even though Legrain wrote that, "I have
studied each single one of them, I have copied and translated the inscriptions covering
it, prepared its file, its genealogy, and photographed it as soon as it was discovered." If
he really did complete this documentation, then its loss could be considered one of the
greatest calamities to have befallen Egyptology. However, he did publish some
objects, between 1906 and 1925, in three volumes of the Catalogue General du Musee
du Caire, which lists about two hundred and fifty statues, mostly from the cachette,
and arranged in Chronological order up to the end of the 25th Dynasty. Since then,
about fifty statues have been published by Egyptologists in specialized journals. Yet,
even now, only about half of the statues have been fully published, leaving much work
to be done.
Interestingly, the cache of objects was never exhausted. Legrain ceased work in midJuly, 1905 because of the dangers posed by the water-table, not because all of the
objects had been found. Hence, those walking in this area tread over what may still be
buried treasures.

The Courtyard of the Cachette in the Temple of Amun at Karnak

by Jimmy Dunn

The statues unearthed in the Karnak Cachette

provide a remarkable compendium of Egyptian
statuary, and form a sort of art history of
sculpture throughout Egypt's history. Objects in
the cachette date from the Old Kingdom
through the late Ptolemaic Period, covering the
spectrum of ancient Egyptian history.
Prominent are statues and objects from the New
Kingdom, the Third Intermediate Period and
the 25th Dynasty, periods when Thebes was
most active, while fewer objects are found from
the Old and Middle Kingdoms. Also in the 26th
Dynasty, the kings transferred central power to
the north once more, and this is reflected in a
noticeable decline in the number of statues
from that period. The number of statues once
again increased during the 30th Dynasty and
during the entire Ptolemaic Period. Most of the
material dates to the last four centuries BC.
The material clearly reflects the rise and decline
of Thebes. During the New Kingdom and until
the beginning of the 26th Dynasty, not only
kings set up their statues in the Temple of
Amun at Karnak, but also high-ranking priests, as well as civil and military officials,
in order to show their devotion to Amun. After the seat of power switched back to the
north, mostly only temple staff continued to erect more statues in the temple.
Even though the Old Kingdom is poorly represented, Legrain unearthed the lower part
of a striding statue of the 5th Dynasty King, Niuserre in the cachette, the upper part of
which is now in the National Museum of Beirut. Statues from the Middle Kingdom
are more numerous, and include royal statues of Senusret I, Senusret III and
Amenemhet III, very significant figures of the 12th Dynasty. Most of these were true
masterpieces. There are even objects from the Second Intermediary Period, though
limited and lacking originality.
During the 18th Dynasty, royal statuary from the cachette is well represented. The
reign of Tuthmosis III was a high point in this dynasty, and evidenced by no fewer
than nineteen statues of the king, some so masterful they are considered to be some of
the grandest works of Egyptian art history.
The Ramesside Period is less well represented than the 18th Dynasty, with a relatively
small number of true works of art. There were eight statues of Ramesses II, and
another two upright statues of Ramesses III, including one of colossal size.
Afterwards, only Ramesses VI is represented by two notable statues that are rather
stylized and conventional. Statue from the periods after the 18th Dynasty are often
executed in a rather cold manner, lacking sensibility.

The following statuary (click on a picture for a larger view), is as chronologically

ordered as possible.

Statue of Amenemhet Statue of Ramessunakht,

III
High Priest of Amun-Re

Statue of the Father of the Statue of Amenhotep II

Vizier, Ankhu

Statue of Amenhotep
II with Meretseger

Head of a Statue of
Amenhotep III

Statue of Amenhotep III

Statue of Senenmut
with Neferure

Block Statue of
Senenmut with
Neferure

Statue of Isis, Mother of

Tuthmosis III

Sphinx of Tuthmosis III

Statue of Tuthmosis III

Head of a Statue

Colossal Statue

Statue of Ramesses III as a

Statue of the Priest

Standard-Bearer of AmunPriest of Amun,

Re
Ramessunakht, with the
Theban Triad

Standard-Bearer
Statue Usurped by
Sheshonq

Statue of the Vizier Hor Block Statue of Nakhtefmut Block Statue of Hor,
Son of Ankhkhonsu

Block Statue of Hor Block Statue of Irethorru,

Son of Nesineheret

Statue with Stela

Statue of Pakhnum

Statue of the Scribe

Nespaqashuty

Statue of Montuemhet

Statue Group of
Statue of Petamenhotep as Block Statue of Ahmes,
Montuemhat and his Son,
a Scribe
Son of Pakharkhonsu
Nesptah

Statue of a Ptolemaic
Queen

The Courtyard of the Cachette in the

Temple of Amun at Karnak
by Jimmy Dunn

The statues unearthed in the Karnak Cachette

provide a remarkable compendium of Egyptian
statuary, and form a sort of art history of
sculpture throughout Egypt's history. Objects in
the cachette date from the Old Kingdom
through the late Ptolemaic Period, covering the
spectrum of ancient Egyptian history.
Prominent are statues and objects from the New
Kingdom, the Third Intermediate Period and
the 25th Dynasty, periods when Thebes was
most active, while fewer objects are found from
the Old and Middle Kingdoms. Also in the 26th
Dynasty, the kings transferred central power to
the north once more, and this is reflected in a
noticeable decline in the number of statues
from that period. The number of statues once
again increased during the 30th Dynasty and
during the entire Ptolemaic Period. Most of the
material dates to the last four centuries BC.
The material clearly reflects the rise and decline
of Thebes. During the New Kingdom and until
the beginning of the 26th Dynasty, not only
kings set up their statues in the Temple of
Amun at Karnak, but also high-ranking priests, as well as civil and military officials,
in order to show their devotion to Amun. After the seat of power switched back to the
north, mostly only temple staff continued to erect more statues in the temple.
Even though the Old Kingdom is poorly represented, Legrain unearthed the lower part
of a striding statue of the 5th Dynasty King, Niuserre in the cachette, the upper part of
which is now in the National Museum of Beirut. Statues from the Middle Kingdom
are more numerous, and include royal statues of Senusret I, Senusret III and

Amenemhet III, very significant figures of the 12th Dynasty. Most of these were true
masterpieces. There are even objects from the Second Intermediary Period, though
limited and lacking originality.
During the 18th Dynasty, royal statuary from the cachette is well represented. The
reign of Tuthmosis III was a high point in this dynasty, and evidenced by no fewer
than nineteen statues of the king, some so masterful they are considered to be some of
the grandest works of Egyptian art history.
The Ramesside Period is less well represented than the 18th Dynasty, with a relatively
small number of true works of art. There were eight statues of Ramesses II, and
another two upright statues of Ramesses III, including one of colossal size.
Afterwards, only Ramesses VI is represented by two notable statues that are rather
stylized and conventional. Statue from the periods after the 18th Dynasty are often
executed in a rather cold manner, lacking sensibility.
The following statuary (click on a picture for a larger view), is as chronologically
ordered as possible.

Statue of Amenemhet Statue of Ramessunakht,

III
High Priest of Amun-Re

Statue of Amenhotep
II with Meretseger

Head of a Statue of
Amenhotep III

Statue of the Father of the Statue of Amenhotep II

Vizier, Ankhu

Statue of Amenhotep III

Statue of Senenmut
with Neferure

Block Statue of
Senenmut with
Neferure

Statue of Isis, Mother of

Tuthmosis III

Head of a Statue

Colossal Statue

Standard-Bearer
Statue Usurped by
Sheshonq

Sphinx of Tuthmosis III

Statue of Tuthmosis III

Statue of Ramesses III as a Statue of the Priest

Standard-Bearer of AmunPriest of Amun,
Re
Ramessunakht, with the
Theban Triad

Statue of the Vizier Hor Block Statue of Nakhtefmut Block Statue of Hor,
Son of Ankhkhonsu

Block Statue of Hor Block Statue of Irethorru,

Son of Nesineheret

Statue of the Scribe

Nespaqashuty

Statue of Montuemhet

Statue with Stela

Statue of Pakhnum

Statue Group of
Statue of Petamenhotep as Block Statue of Ahmes,
Montuemhat and his Son,
a Scribe
Son of Pakharkhonsu
Nesptah

Statue of a Ptolemaic
Queen

The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Pylons

In the Temple of Amun at Karnak in Luxor, Egypt
by Jimmy Dunn

Beyond the Courtyard

of the Cachette in the
Temple of Amun at
Karnak in Luxor
(ancient Thebes) is the
second court defined
between the Seventh
and Eighth Pylons of
Karnak's secondary
north-south axis.
Walking through the
Seventh Pylon, the
interior doorpost west
of the passage includes
a stylobate with niches
surmounted by
cartouches of Tuthmosis
III and the winged disk.
Between the niches is
Amun-Ra, who is
seated on a throne and
extending the key of life
to the falcon of the royal Horus name. The two cartouches crowned with feathers have
been reworked in the name of Seti II. Note that the lintels of the two niches and the
gap between them are made from one sole block. On the top register the king, perhaps
accompanied by Atum and Montu, is completing the great stride towards the
sanctuary. Note also the delicate nature of the carving and the perfection of the
draftsmanship in this extremely durable crystalline granite.
Inside the courtyard,
there are two colossi of
Tuthmosis III, which
are unfortunately badly
damaged and broken.
These colossi were
carved in red Aswan
greanite, and the
remaining ruins are
remarkable for the crisp
lines of the loincloth
pleats and the detail of
the musculature of the
knees and the first
lateral peroneal
muscles, as well as for
the lifelike way the fist
lies along the body.
These are technical
masterpieces in a

material that is extremely hard and difficult to work. Interestingly, the sole tools
known for carving such stone are made of bronze, and this metal had to undergo
special preparation to be able to work this granite. However, the procedure remains
unknown at the present time. Under the left leg of the Colossus fronting the east
doorpost, Ramesses II is carved in sunk relief, standing and wearing the nemes
headdress, with the hek and nekhakha over his right shoulder.
Behind the colossus on the eastern wing of the
seventh pylon, to the left, is the southern facade
of the doorpost where "the doorway
Menkheperre-Amun-Ra-Great-in-appearance" is
horizontally inscribed on the uppermost of the
two bottom lines. The cartouche on the lower line
has been modified in the name of Heqamaatre
Meryamun Ramesses (Ramesses IV), who also
added his name to the statuary of the north facade
in the Courtyard of the Cachette.
The king above wears the white crown of the
South and holds the white club, and stands before
Amun-Ra. The vertical inscription is in the name
of Menmaatre (Seti I), who is said to have
"renewed" this monument. On the right is a
partially destroyed scene of the massacre of the
defeated that has a counterpart on the west wing
of this pylon. Here, the prisoners are from Nubia
and the Sudan.
On the western wing of the southern facade, the
king is depicted wearing the red crown of the North. He holds the white club "to strike
down he great of Retenu [from] all the mountains, [from] all the inaccessible
[mysterious] lands joined together under his fists. Here, the vanquished raise their
arms and kneel in three superimposed rows. They are Asian warriors as evidenced by
their recognizable beards and
countenances. The makes baton held in
the king's other hand separates them
into two groups facing the opposite
direction from each other. Under this
scene is text that reads, "prisoners with
escutcheons" indicating conquered
cities. This list includes only the
Palestinian cities that were captured.
Beyond the Seventh Pylon, on the
outside north wall of the courtyard is
the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis
III. Upon the entrance of the sanctuary
we are told that each wall is made of a
single piece of alabaster. Each of these

The Courtyard Between the Seventh and Eighth Pylons

In the Temple of Amun at Karnak in Luxor, Egypt
by Jimmy Dunn

Beyond the Courtyard

of the Cachette in the
Temple of Amun at
Karnak in Luxor
(ancient Thebes) is the
second court defined
between the Seventh
and Eighth Pylons of
Karnak's secondary
north-south axis.
Walking through the
Seventh Pylon, the
interior doorpost west
of the passage includes
a stylobate with niches
surmounted by
cartouches of Tuthmosis
III and the winged disk.
Between the niches is
Amun-Ra, who is
seated on a throne and
extending the key of life
to the falcon of the royal Horus name. The two cartouches crowned with feathers have
been reworked in the name of Seti II. Note that the lintels of the two niches and the
gap between them are made from one sole block. On the top register the king, perhaps
accompanied by Atum and Montu, is completing the great stride towards the
sanctuary. Note also the delicate nature of the carving and the perfection of the
draftsmanship in this extremely durable crystalline granite.

Inside the courtyard,

there are two colossi of
Tuthmosis III, which
are unfortunately badly
damaged and broken.
These colossi were
carved in red Aswan
greanite, and the
remaining ruins are
remarkable for the crisp
lines of the loincloth
pleats and the detail of
the musculature of the
knees and the first
lateral peroneal
muscles, as well as for
the lifelike way the fist
lies along the body.
These are technical
masterpieces in a
material that is
extremely hard and difficult to work. Interestingly, the sole tools known for carving
such stone are made of bronze, and this metal had to undergo special preparation to be
able to work this granite. However, the procedure remains unknown at the present
time. Under the left leg of the Colossus fronting the east doorpost, Ramesses II is
carved in sunk relief, standing and wearing the nemes headdress, with the hek and
nekhakha over his right shoulder.
Behind the colossus on the eastern wing of the
seventh pylon, to the left, is the southern facade
of the doorpost where "the doorway
Menkheperre-Amun-Ra-Great-in-appearance" is
horizontally inscribed on the uppermost of the
two bottom lines. The cartouche on the lower line
has been modified in the name of Heqamaatre
Meryamun Ramesses (Ramesses IV), who also
added his name to the statuary of the north facade
in the Courtyard of the Cachette.
The king above wears the white crown of the
South and holds the white club, and stands before
Amun-Ra. The vertical inscription is in the name
of Menmaatre (Seti I), who is said to have
"renewed" this monument. On the right is a
partially destroyed scene of the massacre of the
defeated that has a counterpart on the west wing
of this pylon. Here, the prisoners are from Nubia
and the Sudan.

On the western wing of the southern facade, the king is depicted wearing the red
crown of the North. He holds the white club "to strike down he great of Retenu [from]
all the mountains, [from] all the inaccessible [mysterious] lands joined together under
his fists. Here, the vanquished raise their arms and kneel in three superimposed rows.
They are Asian warriors as evidenced
by their recognizable beards and
countenances. The makes baton held in
the king's other hand separates them
into two groups facing the opposite
direction from each other. Under this
scene is text that reads, "prisoners with
escutcheons" indicating conquered
cities. This list includes only the
Palestinian cities that were captured.
Beyond the Seventh Pylon, on the
outside north wall of the courtyard is
the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis
III. Upon the entrance of the sanctuary
we are told that each wall is made of a
single piece of alabaster. Each of these
monoliths is some eight meters long.
This naos may have been intended to
shelter the sacred barque. The
sanctuary was originally a simple
peripteral kiosk, built during the king's
first royal jubilee, and was
subsequently enlarged and adorned
with a second row of pillars. At one time, in front of its facade, which depicts a
miniature pylon, were two statues of in pink granite. On the outside north wall of the
sanctuary, the central tableau depicts the king making the "great stride", holding the
oar and rudder in his hands, in the presence of Amun. Amun wears a headdress
crowned by two feathers that are each divided into fourteen sections.

After the Alabaster Sanctuary of Tuthmosis III, on the east wall near the Eighth Pylon
is a doorway that connects this courtyard with the sacred lake. Here, an inscription
carved on the inside of the gateway is by Amenhotep, son of the high priest
Ramessesnakht, a contemporary of Ramesses II. The text recounts "that he
reconstructed the
dwellings of the
high priests
formerly raised by
Sesostris I (Senusret
I)"
in the domain of
Amun. These
building very
probably are the
same as the
remnants of the
ancient dwellings
unearthed east of
the
lake, near the
enclosure with
bastions attributed
to
Tuthmosis III. The deepest levels passing beneath the enclosure go back to the Middle
Kingdom, and objects dating back to the Old Kingdom have also been recovered.
On the exterior of this eastern wall connecting the Seventh and Eighth Pylons are two
tableaux that record
the gifts of gold,
sliver and all manner
of precious things,
made during the reign
of Ramesses IX as a
donation to the high
priest of Amun,
Amenhotep. To the
left, the high priest,
facing the king, raises
his arms and looks
toward the north. He
is framed by two
smaller officials,
resting their hands
upon his linen robe.
His name and title are
inscribe in front of his
face as, "The vizier,
great confidante of his
mater, first prophet of
Amunresonther,
Amenhotep,

maa'kheru [righteous of voice]". Other text tell us that the king credits him with acts of
bravery and countless good deeds.
To the right, the priest is turned to the south and the two minor officials are now
behind his robe. Here, texts records that:
"The king in person said to the great and to his companions that were at his sides,
'Give numerous tributes, countless rewards in fine gold and silver and thousands of
good things to the first prophet of Amunresonther, Amenhotep...because of the
numerous and perfect monuments that he has made in the house of Amunresonther
[inscribed] in the great name of neter-nefer."
Also on the outside of the court, on the lintel of the doorway that opens onto the
staircase of the east wing of the Eighth pylon, is depicted two kneeling priests facing
each other with their hands raised in gestures of adoration toward the now erased royal
cartouches. On the left
(south) the priest is
named Roy, while on
the right he is called
Rome. Actually, these
are both the same
individual. Rome-Roy
was a first prophet of
Amun near the end of
the reign of Ramesses
II, and he remained the
head of the Thebes'
clergy for about twentyfive years, until the
reign of Seti II.
In front of two priests
with shaved heads who
wear formal linen robes
who represent RomeRoy and his son,
Beknekhonsu, to the right of the doorway, is a long inscription dating to the reign of
Seti II. The first six lines of this inscription consist of an adoration by Amun's first
prophet, Rome:
"I come to you, master of the neter, Amun, who was at the beginning, neter of neters
(gods), creator of all that exists, master of neters and men, chief of Heliopolis, prince
of Thebes, great bearer of the crown in Het-Berber {the sun temple at Heliopolis];
when the eyes of men gaze upon you, the breath comes forth from your mouth towards
every nostril...
Thou didst grant me long life carrying thy image, while my eye beheld thy two uraei

every day, and my body was endowed with health, being without sorrow and free from
all fear, O powerful king of eternity, thy food is with me, thy favors come due, thy
name is protection for me."
Beginning with the seventh line, the text is now apparently in the name of Roy:
"Greatest of Ra-Atum's seers in Thebes, second prophet of Amun, first prophet of
Amun, Roy... he says, 'O wab priests, scribes of the house of Amun, excellent servants
of the divine offerings, bakers, mixers, confectioners, makers of loaves...performing
all their duties (?) for their lord, thou who enter this workshop each day that is within
the house of Amun, 9may all of you0 utter my name each day and remember me with
good thoughts...
I found this room in complete ruins, its walls falling, the woodwork rotted, the
doorposts of wood perishing (as well as) the paint of the bas-reliefs. I restored it in its
entirety, more vast than it had been, heightening, widening... excellently (?); and I
made its doorposts of sandstone, and mounted upon them doors of true pine; (I made)
a (comfortable) workshop (for) the bakers and mixers who are in it. I made it in work
that was better than before, for the protection (of the personnel?) of my neter Amun,
master of neters."
The Eighth Pylon, which
terminates this courtyard and is
one of the best preserved on the
secondary axis at Karnak, is
believed to have been
constructed during the reign of
Hatshepsut. On the bottom
register of the east wing's north
facade is a depiction of
Tuthmosis I, Hatshepsut's
father, and a twenty-line text
recorded by Hatshepsut that
pays homage to her father, as
well as confirming her as
"king". In the top register is the
sacred barque, carried on the
shoulders of priest towards the
east and preceded by the king
who is introduced by the great
lion-headed magician followed by Hathor. This is followed by the king who now
wears the white crown and presents himself before Amun in front of fifteen neters in
three rows. Tuthmosis II's titles are carved on the west doorpost, while on the east
doorpost is that of Tuthmosis III, but with a combination of his cartouche and that of
Queen Menkheperkare.
Within the passage of the Eighth Pylon that leads to the next courtyard, we also find

Ramesses II, who is holding the hek and nekhakha scepters over his shoulder,
receiving the panegyrics from a seated Amun. Here, the king is introduced by MontuRa and Mut, the great lady of Asheru (who replaces Tum here), before Amun, who
gives him the panegyrics. These tableaux are from Ramesses II, but the horizontal
legend is from Ramesses III. There are small, square and rectangular cavities which
were intended to hold ceramic plates, of which several were found intact and in place.

After the Eighth Pylon in the Temple of Amun

at Karnak in Luxor (Ancient Thebes), Egypt
by Jimmy Dunn

The north-south secondary

axis of the Temple of Amun
at Karnak in ancient Thebes
(modern Luxor) consists of
four courtyards divided and
terminated by four pylons.
In reality, the first two
courtyards fall along a
straight axis, while the
second two (southernmost)
are expanded in size and
take a somewhat more
easterly axis, with the third
courtyard larger than the
second and the last being
largest of all.

On the west doorpost of the eighth pylon's southern facade is the cartouches and titles
of Tuthmosis II, while on the east doorpost are those of Tuthmosis III. Next to the
cartouche of Tuthmosis II (his Son of Ra name) is a niche that has been hollowed out,
almost certainly by the early Coptic Christians, in which the upper section is in the
form of a seashell. On each wing of the eighth pylon between the niches for the
flagpoles is one lone tableau that depicts the massacre of the prisoners Here,
Amenhotep II, with a curly hairstyle brandishes the white club fitted with a curved
blade to strike down the defeated prisoners who, unusually, are standing.
Fronting these scenes are seated colossi made from several materials. There are two
made of limestone and one of quartzite
on the west, and only one, made from
white limestone, which remains on the
east wing. On the west wing, the white
limestone colossus, representing
Amenhotep I, is carved from a single
block. The king is seated with his right
hand closed and his left hand open,
resting on his knees. Note the emphasis
that has been placed on the carving of
the breasts. To his left is a small statue of
a seated female figure. The colossus to
the west of the Eighth Pylon doorway is
made out of red quartzite from Gebel elAhmar. On the belt and side of the
throne are the cartouches of Tuthmosis
II, who is believed to have had this
statue carved. The finely sculpted feet
of the colossus are engaged with the
pedestal on which they rest. On the
east facade of the pedestal is a delicate,
unfinished image of Amun, whose
headdress is cut short. The scepter that
he holds is barely outlined, and the
only legend states, "Words spoken by
Amun-Ra, master of Heaven, master of
Earth".
There is also a doorway on the western
end of the west wing of the eighth
pylon. Here, three registers can be
found that depict the presentation of
fattened cows, crowned and bedecked
with ribbons similar to scenes in the
Court of Ramesses II at the Temple of
Luxor. They are part of a procession of
priests carrying flowers towards the
eighth pylon.

There is little to be seen in the courtyard between the Eighth and Ninth pylons. The
Ninth pylon is built on an axis of and perpendicular to the avenue of sphinxes that
leads to the temple of Mut. The fact that the temple of Mut was constructed by
Amenhotep III suggests that the ninth pylon, which was build during the reign of
Horemheb, might have replaced an older pylon made from brick, and probably built
by Amenhotep III. Like the Second Pylon in the Temple of Amun, the Ninth Pylon is
hollow. It measures some 66 meters, with a Width of about 11.5 meters. The
construction of the Ninth Pylon consists of exterior stone facings formed from a single
tier of blocks of varying thickness. All the
rest of the construct is hollow, with the
exception of the stairway passage. The
staircase climbs from the east entrance up to
the level of the doorway's lintel and from
their a second staircase crosses the west
wing and leads to the terrace. The upper
section of the pylon is held in place only by
the enormous weight of the cap that works
much like a keystone in an arch.
Unfortunately, if this cap is compromised,
than the structure will collapse, which is
what has happened to the two hollow pylons
at Karnak.
On the west wing of the Ninth Pylons
northern facade, the bottom was covered by
two registers in which the king is proceeding
from east to west (therefore entering the
temple). However, the barques carried by the
priests on the top register are going in the
opposite direction out of the temple. On the
east wing of the pylon are bas-reliefs of Ramesses IV.
Within the last courtyard of the secondary north-south axis on the west wing of the
Ninth Pylon to the left of the large flagpole niche is an almost obliterated scene that is
framed by a sort of bas-relief false door. Flat inlaid stones mark out the site of the
cornice, providing the sole protrusion beneath a frieze of uraei. This scene is said to
the the counterpart of the inscription that recounts the marriage of Ramesses II with
the eldest daughter of the king of the Hittites, which is represented on the southern
face of the east wing, which in turn is said to be a replica of the famous "marriage
stela" of Abu Simbel.

Left: Interior Facade of the Passageway of the Eighth Pylon's Doorway

Right: White Limestone Colossus before the Eighth Pylon's West Wing

After signing a peace treaty the two ancient foes met in friendship when the Kheta
leader came to Egypt, in the middle of winter, accompanied by his eldest daughter and
a large escort laden with rich presents. Ramesses II married the daughter and have her
the titles of "Great royal wife", "Mistress of the Two Lands" an Maatneferure {she
who sees the beauty of Ra}". To the right is an offering scene that has been reworked
at least several times. The style is that of Horemheb, but the cartouches are in the
name of Ramesses II. A great colossus of Ramesses II once stood before the Ninth
Pylon's southern facade, but now all that is left is a piece of the foot on the pedestal.
Within the last
courtyard, on the
eastern wall, is a
monument built by
Amenhotep II.
Borchardt believed
that this small
building was a sedfestival kiosk of
Amenhotep II,
which had been
destroyed by
Akhenaten. He
believed that it was
restored in its
original site by Seti
I, with the addition of several blocks of Akhenaten. However, Charles Van Siclen III,
an American Egyptologist who recently reconstructed the building thinks that the

structure once stood in the area before the Eighth Pylon and that it was removed, stone
by stone, during the reign of Horemheb, to be rebuilt in its current location. The
building was constructed entirely upon a stylobate (a flat surface upon which columns
are normally constructed), and consists of a large square room with a roof supported
by pillars, and two small lateral sanctuaries that were fronted on the west by a portico
of twelve square pillars. The building is nearly symmetrical in plan and very shallow
and broad. A ramp ascends to the portico. The large square hall has four row of five
square pillars each that form a central nave bordered on either side by two aisles. In
the passage along the inner face of the wall an architrave with cornice crowns the
pillars. There was once probably a back doorway to the hall which was replaced with a
false door.
The temple's central hall contains some
finely carved reliefs that retain much of
their original color, though the figures of
Amun were desecrated by the agents of
Akhenaten. Seti I is known to have at
least repaired these images. In the
southeast corner of the large, central
chamber, the square-sectioned pillars rest
on a small pedestal and are topped by a
capital in the form of a grooved cornice
with a torus at the base and an abacus
under the architrave. While this
architecturally is rare, it can be found
however in the tomb paints of the 18th
Dynasty. Various scenes which include
the king are depicted on these columns.
The king, wearing different crowns in
succession, is proceeding Amun in a west
to east direction. The two horizontal lines
of text under the scenes specify that the
king is celebrating his sed festival. On
some of the pillars, the king is depicted in
light relief, striding to the south and wearing the white crown, while on others, he is
depicted in sunk relief, proceeding to the north, and wearing the Red Crown.
Beyond the Amenhotep II monument, on the wall between it and the Tenth and last
pylon, we find the king presenting Amun with the presents brought by the high chiefs
of Punt. He wears the characteristic wig with five rows of curls. Behind him are two
rows of chiefs from the land of Punt with twisted goatees. They carry sacks of gold,
skins, feathers and cloth. Here, text proclaim them as friends of Egypt:
"The great chiefs of the land of Punt say: 'Glory to thee, king of Egypt, sun of the Nine
Bows. As truly as thou art in life we have not known of the black land [Egypt] and our
fathers have not trampled it down."

Further along this wall, after an opening, we find a scene depicting the presentation of
Aegean and Syrian tributes. With his right hand, the king presents the delicately
wrought vessels, the horns and the sacks of precious materials that are arranged before
the naos of the seated Amun. He holds in his left hand the hek scepter, together with
the coiled ropes that bind three rows of prisoners behind him. Here, text tells us that
they are, "The miserable lords of Hannebu [Aegeans], the vile chiefs of Retenu
[Syria]... terror is in their hearts". Here, the king's cartouche is in the name of
Horemheb, but some scholars believe that this scene is attributable to the reign of
Tutankhamun.
Before the Tenth Pylon's
northern facade are several
colossal statues that frame its
great gate. On the pedestal of the
while limestone colossus to the
east, decorating three sides, are
"the prisoners with the
escutcheons", who symbolize the
Nine Bows who are the
vanquished enemies. Upon the
pedestal is also a smaller statue
of the Queen, Mut-Nefertari,
who is clad in a finely pleated
linen robe held by a belt that is
knotted under her chest. She
wears a wig that is encased by
the Mut vulture and capped by
the double feathers. The queen
rests her hand on the king's calf
at the level of the ham. On the
pedestal of the colossus on the
western side of the gate we find
Asian warriors, who are also bound.
It was Horemheb who built the last, Tenth Pylon, reusing many blocks from the temple
of Akhenaten. The gate of this pylon measures 15.60 meters under the lintel and the
double lintel adds another 2.47 meters, which gives the gate a height of 18.07 meters,
not including the cornice. On the gate are four registers of scenes in the name of King
Horemheb. From bottom to top, these scenes depict the offering of wine to Amun-Ra,
water to Amun-Ra Kamutef, censing to Amun-Ra and on the top, the worshiping of
Mut, then Khonsu, repeated four times.

On the inner side of the passage by

the east doorpost, there are three
scenes. On the bottom, the king is
making offerings to a seated Amun.
Amun's throne is surrounded by a
border depicting the gold framing that
is inlaid with a glass paste the color of
lapis lazuli, turquoise and carnelian.
The throne rests upon a mat
surmounting the pedestal, on which
the feet of the god rests. His ankles
are adorned with bracelets. The king
wears the triangular skirt over which
falls a front panel of pearls with a
uraeus framed by ribbons. On the
middle register the king is making the
"great stride". He wears the white
crown.
On the exterior of the Tenth Pylon,
and therefore of the north-south
secondary axis, as on the north
facade, the doorposts include four
registers. The register at the bottom is
partially covered by a fore-gate that splits Amun off from he king, who is making an
offering of bread, which is in the form of a long cone. The king is girded by a diadem
over his blue ibes wig
topped by the horns of
Khnum around which two
uraei uncoil and fall to
either side of the king's
face.
Just in front of the Tenth
Pylons outer wall is a
colossus of Amenhotep III,
of which only the feet
remain. This statue is said
to have been the
masterpiece of Amenhotep,
son of Hapu, who says
that:
"My lord made me chief of
all works. I established the
name of the king forever. I
did not imitate that which

had been done before. I fashioned for him a mountain of gritstone, for he is the heir of
Atum...I conducted the work of his statue, immense in width, taller than his column, its
beauty marred the pylon. Its length was 40 cubits in the august mountain of
gritstone..."
The statue was carved in a monolith of quartzite sandstone and represented the
standing and crowned Amenhotep III, with one foot forward. Both of his feet rested on
the pedestal made from a separate block of the same quartzite, which in turn rested on
a second pedestal of red Aswan granite. The measurements provided plus the size of
the feat indicate that the statue would have once stood 20.95 meters tall.

A horizontal line of text

on the facade of the
quartzite pedestal, on
both sides of the ankh of
the axis, gives the
cartouches of Nebmaatre
(Amenhotep III) which
are labeled fraction of Ra
on the side with the
setting sun and heir of Ra
on the side with the rising
sun. Below are two male
figures (Iunmutefs, pillar
of his mother) who wear
the braids of a crown
prince falling over their
shoulders. Each holds a
panther paw in their left
hands, while with the
right they present their
speech. In the center on both sides of the disk, two falcons wearing the double crown
are perched on the Horus name of the king framed by the ka which rests on an ensign
holder provided with two arms, one of which holds up the long staff crowned with the
emblem of the royal ka. On the west face of the quartzite pedestal, the first eight
nomes of Lower Egypt are represented.
The facade of the lower pedestal of granite is divided into three parts. In the median
axis of the central one,
the flowers of the North
and South are linked
around the sma sign and
at the same time serve
to bind prisoners by the
neck. On the east side
are the prisoners of the
south, while on the west
side they are Asians.
Beyond the temple's
north-south axis is the
avenue of sphinxes that
leads from the tenth
pylon to the temple of
Mut. The avenue was
created in the name of
Horemheb, and
stretches more than 310 meters in length. As of the time when Champollion
investigated the temple, there were 120 sphinxes to which Seti II had had added his

cartouches. To the east of the avenue is a stylobate constructed of fourteen large

granite blocks, of which six were cut during the reign of Amenhotep III. These six
blocks from the pedestals of three black granite statues, two of which must have been
of very great height. It has been suggested that these statues originally stood at the
funerary temple of this king.
Off course, the tenth pylon served as the southern entrance to the precinct of Amun
and led, through its gate, past the two limestone colossi to the sphinx-lined avenue
which was a processional way, connecting the precinct of Amun with that of Mut.
It should be noted that the area south of the Seventh Pylon was undergoing restoration
work by a combined Franco-Egyptian team, though apparently this work is now
finished.

The Osirian Temple of Taharqa at Karnak in Egypt

by Jimmy Dunn

South of the main eastwest axis of the temple

of Amun at Karnak in
Luxor (ancient Thebes),
and east of the
secondary north-south
axis is the Sacred Lake
of the temple. A number
of structures surround
the lake, including a
small building on its
northwest corner that is
known as the Osirian
Temple of Taharqa.
Though this structure is
not specifically attached
to the main temple
complex, it is in
alignment with the main
axis and attached to the
Sacred Lake, and
should probably be considered as a part of the temple of Amun. This structure looks
not unlike an almost square mastaba style tomb with a torus at each corner but no
doors on any of its outer walls. A study of the east wall which is composed of blocks
that are at times scored and sometimes unfinished, suggests that there existed at this
location an access ramp that lead to the terrace of the structure. Therefore, one would
have had to cross the terrace from east to west to reach a staircase that then descended
into the chambers located in the northwest corner of the monument. The direction of
the walk from east to west
would be in conformity with
that of the king represented on
the north facade of the building,
but opposite to the general
advance of the king inside the
temple.
A study of the cartouches and
the hammered out double ureus
on the blocks of this structure
allow it to be dated to the 25th
Dynasty, Nubian reign of
Taharqa, with blocks reused
from his predecessor, Shabaka.
Psamtik II (Psammetichus II)
subsequently added his
cartouches to the building.
On the outside northern facade
of this building we find several

interesting scenes. Here, the king is purified by a double stream made up of the ankh
and the was (Life and Power) that falls in a dome around him. His two open hands
show the palm of one and the back side of the other. Two falcons cross their wings
over the king's chest under his three-row user necklace. As is the Nubian style, the
musculature of the kings legs is prominent. Here, the cartouche of Taharqa has been
etched out and replaced by that of Psamtik II.
To the left of this scene is
another where the king is
clad in a pleated loincloth
with a triangular front panel.
He offers incense to his
father Atum. He holds a
"cubit of incense" which he
sprinkles into a fire.
Within the structure are
additional support walls that
rise about 1.5 meters that
contain a large number of
reused stones from the
Nubian period, of which
several still retain the
cartouche and the two uraei,
not hammered out, of
Shabaka. This whole area,
with the exception of the
several rooms in the
northwest corner of the
building, is thought to have
been filled with dirt or
debris.

Within the structure, in the corner northwest room, on its southern wall is a depiction
of the king and behind him are six baboons, They face the east, and are called "the
eastern souls who worship Ra" when he rises. There may have originally been two
groups of four baboons each
facing east. The classic tests,
according to A. Piankoff, states:
"To worship the sun and cause it
to rise, by the spirits of the east.
The sprits of the east are the four
neters (gods) who worship the
sun. It is they who make the sun to
rise and who open the doors of
the four gates of the sky's eastern
horison"
The Egyptians chose the baboon
for this symbolism because the
animal seems to greet the morning
sun, and is said to give a howl at
every hour and urinate twelve
times during the day and twelve at
night during the equinox.
On the interior north wall of this
chamber is a scene depicting the
solar barque. The surface on
which this bas-relief is sculpted has been flattened out, removing the base of a dozen
columns of hieroglyphs from which the cartouches have been visibly removed or cut
away. The solar barque is proceeding from east to west, in the direction of the sun's
daily path. In the middle is Atum in his naos, who is surmounted by the single word
"iuf", which means flesh.

The solar barque as depicted in the temple

To the southeast of this chamber is another that in turn leads into an inner chapel.
Here, carved on the lintel to the doorway into the chapel is a very strange and
extremely rare representation. On one side, a female figure draws a bow with her left
arm pulled behind her back, while on the other side, a male figure, who holds a club in
his left hand, is making the "great stride". This is Taharqa and his mother. In the center
is depicted a tree which juts up from a hemispheric mound drawn within a rectangle.
Text here describes this as the shndt tree (spiny acacia of the chest). The name of
Osiris is on the mound. A similar representation on a Saite sarcophagus explains that
"This is the mound that hides what it holds; this is the hill of Osiris"

Taharqa and his mother on the lintel of the door leading to the inner chapel

Along the northwest wall of this structure on the inside runs the staircase leading to
the terrace. On the wall next to the staircase are representations of androcephalic
figures and mummified baboons, each of which correspond to a stair, climbing from
north to south above a solar disk. In the Royal Tombs of the West Bank, when present,
the Book of the Night is usually found on the western walls, while the Book of the
Day is on the east. The ascension of the figures here very probably correspond to the
last hours of the night.
During excavations conducted between 1949 and 1950, two additional walls of
unbaked brick were unearthed that lead off of the north and south ends of the east wall
of the main structure. Apparently this was a sort of courtyard that preceded the "pure
wells" from which the water for purifications of the daily ritual were drawn. The
southern brick wall is interrupted at its easternmost end by the opening of a staircase
that descends to the sacred lake, perpendicular to its border wall.

The Sacred Lake and the Monumental Scarab at

The Temple of Amun at Karnak in Egypt
by Jimmy Dunn

To the south of the

girdle wall of Ramesses
II at the Temple of
Amun at Karnak in
ancient Thebes (modern
Luxor) is a rectangular
Sacred Lake, dug by
Tuthmosis III. It is the
largest of its kind, that
we know of, and is
lined with stone and
provided with stairways
descending into the
water. It measures some
120 meters (393 feet)
by 77 meters (252 feet). We believe that most temple precincts included a sacred lake.
Water from the lake, filled with groundwater, was used by the priests for ritual
ablutions and other temple needs, and was also home to the sacred geese of Amun.
However, it was symbolically important in the ancient Egyptian's concept of creation,
representing the primeval waters from which life arose. Like all the monuments at
Karnak, according to Legrain, it to has its legend:
"On certain nights, a golden barque emerges from the waters of the lake, as
resplendent as in days of yore, and the king who steers it is in pure gold, and his
sailors are of silver. And when the moon shines, the barque sails, leaving behind a
long wake of precious stones. At times it comes to the dock, as well, and then if some
brave soul with a heart thrice bound in bronze comes forth to dare the great
adventure, he climbs aboard the phantom ship, then, victorious, returns to his home
laden with fabulous treasure; but everyone knows that if he makes the slightest sound,
the merest sigh, the fairy barque, the gold king, and the silver sailors will sink
immediately below the waves of the lake, which will engulf the foolhardy one
forever....

However, the appearances of the mysterious boat are becoming more and more rare;
for more than thirty years no one can boast of truly seeing it... It is not, alas! soon to
reappear, for my storyteller added that it would not be seen again until there was no
longer a liar or a thief within the country."
At the northern corner
of the lake between it
and the Osirian Temple
of Taharqa was located
a huge granite statue of
a scarab dedicated by
Amenhotep III and,
according to A. Varille,
brought from his West
Bank mortuary temple.
However, others believe
that it actually came
from Kom el-Heitan,
where another funerary
temple of Amenhotep III was built. The front face of the cylindrical pedestal on which
the scarab rests has been flattened to form a stela, and is carved entirely in sunk relief.
On it, the kneeling king makes an offering of two nu vessels to Atum of Heliopolis.
The solar disk set between the two extended wings that crown the text forms part of
the name of Nebmaatre that is inscribed in the vertical axis of this stela. The text
carved on the side of the stela explicitly states that it concerns "Khepri who rises from
the earth".
Among the most significant restoration projects, and being achieved totally by
Egyptian restorers, is the consolidation and removal of Amenhotep III's red granite
scarab, which has now been relocated to the lake's western side in order to make more
space for the influx of tourists inside the temple. Before the removal comprehensive
consolidation and cleaning took place. As a side note to this structure, the local guides
tell tourists that if one walks around the scarab seven times, he or she will never again
have love problems. So it is common to see the tourists making laps around the
scarab.

The lake's rough-hewn stone edging

is punctuated on the southern side by
the opening of a stone tunnel
through which the domestic geese of
Amun were released into the lake
from the fowl-yards a little further to
the south. However, geese were not
the only birds that adorned the
surface of this lake, for a variety of

ducks were also included in the aviary.

On the sacred lake is also the remains of the priests' homes, which now lie beneath the
seating erected for the sound and light show. These ruins are located on the eastern
side of the lake, and have been the subject of excavations since the 1970s. Recently,
archaeologists have discovered here a number of ceramic fragments, tokens, seal
imprints and coins dating from the reign of Shoshenq I of the 22nd Dynasty, as well as
clay pots from the 26th and 27th Dynasties. Silver ingots and two silver coins,
originally from northern Greece and dating from about the 27th Dynasty, were found
at house number five. "This new discovery puts the emphasis on the wealth of its
owner, and is much appreciated as giving a chronological fix, given that it places this
treasure in history at the moment of the Persian debacle," Abdel-Aziz said. He added
that the excavations revealed that the inhabitants of the houses were without doubt of
high rank. Various titles of priests have been found, among them the priest in charge of
opening the golden naos (shrine) of Amun.
The priests of Karnak probably did not purify themselves in the water of the sacred

lake directly, because its waters were not pure enough for this purpose. Rather, the
water was probably itself purified before being used by the priests.

An Overview of the Ancient Egyptian Cult

by Jefferson Monet

Unlike our modern

religions, ancient Egyptian
religion was not based on a
set of theological principles,
nor did it really depend on
the content of canonical
writings. Rather, it evolved
around how people
interacted with their gods,
and these actions are termed
by Egyptologists as "cult",
which is roughly
synonymous with "ritual".
In the ancient Egyptian
language, there is no
specific word for "ritual". They variously referred to these interactions with the gods
as irt ht (doing things), irw (things done) or nt (regular procedures).
Cults were focused on ntr, which since the Ptolemaic (Greek) period has been
translated as god. However, the ancient Egyptians applied this term to people and
things which we today would hesitate to call gods. In fact, Dimitri Meeks has recently
suggested that the common feature of all entities called ntr by the ancient Egyptians is
that they were the beneficiaries of ritual. However, we might better define these

entities by separating them into several classes.

First of all, there were of course beings who originally existed as gods. Rituals served
to preserve their existence as gods through providing them with sustenance and other
benefits. The second class were entities that became ntr through ritual. This general
category can be further divided between those who became ntr during their lifetimes,
and those who became ntr after death. Examples of the first type include the king and
special animals who were thought to be manifestations of the gods. Examples of those
who became ntr after death include various common people who became deified, the
most famous of which was probably Imhotep, and mummified animals.
In order to conduct the cult of the gods, the Egyptians constructed religious facilities
that remain some of the most elaborate structures ever built. These temples were
called by the ancient Egyptians, hwt-ntr, meaning "the house of the god". These
temples actually usually served several gods, and in order to sustain these cult
activities, considerable resources, such as extensive networks of land, livestock and
personnel were required. These necessary resources that were required to support the
activities of a temple were referred to as r-pr, meaning "temple estate".
Most temples prior to the New
Kingdom appear to have not
survived. Scholars sometimes
attribute this to their construction
using perishable materials, which is
probably true of the earliest of these
structures. However, it is also likely
that materials from well built
temples of, for example the Middle
Kingdom, may have often been
reused in later building projects.
Nevertheless, beginning with the
New Kingdom and continuing
through the Greco-Roman periods,
the Egyptians built enormous stone
temples that provide us with our
primary source of information on
cult activity.
We know that important Egyptian
temples employed a large number of
priests and servants who performed a wide variety of tasks. Theoretically, only the
king, who was the only living person in Egypt considered to have the status of ntr,
could officiate in the cult before the gods. It was he who was considered to be the high
priest of all the gods and goddesses of Egypt, and on who's shoulder's fell the
responsibility for their contentment. However, in reality the king delegated to the
various priesthoods who served the gods the responsibility of their welfare. Though
many major priestly appointments were made by the king himself, others could be

made by local officials, and at various times during Egyptian history, priestly offices
could be inherited.
Priests were usually divided into four groups that were
called "gangs of the service", to which the Greeks gave
the name, phyles. Each group served one lunar month
in rotation, so that during the year each one served for
three months with three months off between months of
service. This actually allowed some priests to hold
priesthoods in several temples. In the mature ancient
Egyptian cult, there were two main classes of priests.
Those of the highest class were called hm-ntr, meaning
"god's servant". They functioned in the presences of
the god's statue, and the Greeks translated hm-ntr as
"prophet", because it was these priests who interpreted
the oracles of the gods. The chief priests of a temple
were designated by ordinal numbers and so the high
priest of a temple was called hm-ntr tpy, or "first
prophet". In some temple cults, the high priest
received special titles. For example, the high priest of
Ptah was called "he who is great at directing the crafts,
while the high priest of Re was "he who is great at
seeing. The high priest of Thoth was "the arbitrator
between the two" and that of Khnum was "the modeler
of limbs".
The lower class of priests were called the "pure ones".
They served such functions such as carrying the god's bark, pouring water for libations
during temple services, as overseers of craftsmen, artisans or scribes, or as craftsmen
themselves, producing sacred objects for the cult. There was also a third class of priest
known as it-ntr, or "god's father". It has been suggested that these priests were senior
members of the lower class priesthood who had perhaps reached the level of prophet,
but who were not yet formally inducted into that office. At least one of their functions
seems to have been to walk in front of the god's image in processions and sprinkle
water to purify the path.

Some priests were also specialists. For example, the hry-hb who "he who carries the
festival roll", and it was his responsibility for reading the hymns and spells which
accompanied many rituals.
The "scribe of the house of
life" was given the duty of
copying the papyri used in
temple and funerary rituals.
During the Old Kingdom,
women could hold the
office of priestess (hmt-ntr)
of Hathor or Neith.
However, they rarely served
as priestess in the cult of a
male god. Before the New
Kingdom, the office of
priest was not considered a
full-time position, but with
the later introduction of the
professional priest, women
could no longer hold
priestly titles. Mainly, they
served as musicians, singers
and dancers of the cult.
Later, however, they could hold a vary prestigious title at Thebes, known as the Divine
Adoratress, which was a prominent position indeed.
The continued existence and prosperity of Egypt was
considered to depend on the successful performance of
cult activities, carried out by the priesthood in the
temple. At the very point of creation, the ancient
Egyptians believed that there was a small space of order
that appeared in the midst of chaos. Only within the
space of this order was life possible, and in order to
keep chaos from engulfing the created world, it was
necessary to perform the cult of the gods. These cult
activities primarily consisted of rituals that were
conducted on a daily basis, and those carried out
periodically during specific festivals.
The focus of all the cult activity was usually a statue of
the god known as an "image". These were usually small
objects, averaging about 50 centimeters (22 inches) in
height, that resided in a naos or bark shrine in the chapel
of the temple's inner sanctuary. Made of wood, stone, or
sometimes precious metals, since most temples housed
more than god, they also contained more than one cult

statue. However, these statues were usually produced with only the most permanent or
symbolically significant materials. The skin of the gods was considered to be pure
gold, so divine images were often gilded or made entirely with this precious metal.
The hair of the gods was said to be like lapis lazuli, so this was the semi precious stone
that was often inset into statues of deities to signify their hair and eyebrows.
Like the mummies of the deceased, once these statues were completed by the
craftsmen, they underwent a ritual called the "Opening of the Mouth", which
transformed the statue, allowing it to be used by the god to manifest itself and in
which the divine ka and ba could take up residence. However, it should be noted that
the statue itself was not the subject of worship. They were simply one means by which
the gods could receive worship.
At any particular point in time, the daily temple ritual took essentially the same form
in every temple in Egypt. This ritual evolved from that for the sun god Re at
Heliopolis, which evolved around the rebirth of the sun each morning. Elements of the
Osirian belief were later incorporated into this daily ritual, symbolizing the restoration
and revivification of the dismembered body of Osiris. For the purpose of the ritual, the
cult-statue became to be identified as both Re and Osiris.
Our understanding of these rituals comes basically from two main sources, which
include the temple reliefs that depict the king performing the various tasks of the
ceremony, and papyri that list the rituals and the hymns which accompany them.
Though these sources have allowed scholars to reconstruct the various events of the
daily ritual, they do not provide the sequence of activities.
However, we might suppose that
before dawn, two priests may have
been responsible for filling
containers with water from the
sacred well of the temple and
replenishing all of the libation
vessels. In the kitchens, priests
would have been busy preparing
offerings for the gods. The main
officiating priest, a hm-ntr, would
then go to the "house of the
morning" where he would be
ceremonially purified, dressed, given
a light meal, and prepare to conduct
the morning ceremony.
As the sun rose, the bolt was drawn
back and the door opened to the
shrine that contained the god's
image. Since only the king was
considered to be able to confront the

god, as the officiating priest approached the statue, he would declare that "it is the king
who has sent me to see the god". Now the priest prostrated himself before the image,
and the chapel was ritually purified with water and incense before a small figure of the
goddess Ma'at was presented to the god, symbolizing the proper order established for
the world at creation.
Next, the image of the god was probably removed from its shrine, and the clothing and
ointment provided the statue the previous day were removed. We believe that the
statue was placed on a pile of clean sand and the shrine was then purified with water
and incense. The image of the god would then be adorned with green and black eye
paint, as well as anointed with several oils. The statue was then dressed in clothes that
were colored white, green, blue and red. The white and red cloths would protect the
god from his enemies, while the blue hid his face and the green ensured his health.
The god's image was then presented with his regalia, such as crowns, scepter, crook,
flail and wsh-collar.
Finally, the face of the statue would be anointed, sand scattered around the chapel and
the statue replaced in its shrine, before the door was once more bolted and sealed. As
the priest performed the final purifications and left the sanctuary, he would drag
behind him a broom in order to obliterate his own footsteps.
Though at what point it took
place is unclear, at some time
during the morning ritual, the
offering would take place. This
provided the god with his
"breakfast, and may have
occurred before the final
purification of the chapel in
preparation for placing the statue
in the shrine. Other scholars
believe it may have taken place
before the undressing and
dressing of the statue. Though an
enormous meal consisting of
meat, bread, cakes, beer, milk,
honey, vegetables and fruit was
prepared for this purpose, only a
small, symbolic portion of it was
actually placed before the statue.
There was an offering formula
listing the various items that was
recited by the priest, and incense
was burned and libations made in order to purify and sanctify the offerings. Of course,
the god did not actually consume the offerings, but rather took from them their
essence, so they could be shared with the other deities of the temple.

In fact, the offerings were also used in the ritual of the royal ancestors, where they
were provided to the king's royal predecessors, often depicted in the form of a list of
their names. Next, the offerings were finally provided to the statues of other
individuals found in the temple, before ultimately becoming the property of the
priests. The priests received a share of the offerings based on their rank, and this was
one manner in which the priests were compensated for their service.
Though the morning ritual was the primary ceremony of the day, there were also less
elaborate ceremonies that took place at noon and in the evening. However, during
these services, the doors of the god's chapel were not opened. They consisted mainly
of pouring water libations and burning incense before the shrines of the gods.
There were other rituals that
were performed throughout
the night and day,
consisting mostly of
apotropaic dramatic rituals
meant to repel threats
against the gods.
Frequently, these threats
originated in the form of
Seth, the murderer of
Osiris, or Apophis, the
serpent who tried to stop the
daily voyage of Re thereby
bringing an end to creation.
On Re's behalf, hymns were
sung during the twelve
hours of the day and the
twelve hours of the night to
protect Re on his journey.
Images of these enemies were created from wax or clay and then destroyed, thereby
bringing about the enemies destruction through magic.
There were also a number of festivals (hbw) that were celebrated throughout the year,
though their nature could vary considerably over Egyptian history. Workers, as
evidenced by records at Deir el-Medina, were given days off for festivals. During the
reign of Tuthmosis III, we know that in the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, some fiftyfour festivals were held, and at Ramesses III's temple at Medinet Habu, sixty festival
days were celebrated. Some of these festivals were small, but others could last as
many as twenty-seven days and require large expenditures of food and beverages for
participants. Records recording one festival related to Sokar record that 3,694 loaves
of bread, 410 cakes and 905 jars of beer were distributed.
Some of the more important of these festivals include the celebrations for New Year's
Day, the festival of Osiris at Abydos, during which the "mysteries" of this god were
celebrated, the festival of Hathor, when her statue was bought before the royal cult

complex and the festival of the Coronation of the Sacred Falcon of Edfu. There was
also the Beautiful Festival of the Valley during which the statue of Amun-Re was
taken from Karnak to the temple at Deir el-Bahri, as well as other royal cult
complexes on the west bank of the Nile River (particularly that of the reigning king).
This was also a celebration for the people, who would visit the tombs of their relatives
and observe an all-night vigil where they shared a feat with their deceased relatives.
During the festivals, the focus
remained on the statue image of
the god, but the statue would
now be housed in bark shrines.
The Egyptian gods always
traveled in boats. Sometimes
the boat was real, when the god
traveled on water, but at other
times the bark was a symbolic
boat carried over land on the
shoulders of priests. During
these festivals, the journey
could be as short as a
procession through the temple,
or the god could leave the
temple to visit another deity some distance away. The bark shrine was carried along
processional avenues which were often lined with sphinxes. Along the way, essentially
open-ended buildings were placed as stations on which the priests could rest the bark.
At these points, the priests would perform fumigations and provide libations and
hymns to the god's image.
These festivals and processions provided the general population with access to the
gods, which was otherwise not available, since the farthest most people were admitted
into the temples was the open forecourt. Though most scholars believe that the bark
shrine was closed during these processions, hiding the image from the onlookers, Dirk
van der Plass argued that numerous texts describe the desire of people so see the
image of the god, and therefore believes that the shrine was left open. The ancient
Egyptians believed that individuals could be healed of various illness by beholding the
god's image.
People could also approach the gods during festivals in order to seek an oracle, though
the first clear evidence for oracles only occurs as early as the New Kingdom.
However, John Baines has suggested that evidence for the existence of oracles may
exist as early as the First Intermediate Period, and that even earlier examples may
exist. This practice consisted of placing questions with simple yes or no answers
written out on small flakes of limestone or ostraca before the gods. These were often
questions regarding relatively everyday matters. The movement of the bark-shrine
carried on the shoulders of the priests indicated affirmative, if moved forward, nor
negative if the priests moved the shrine back.

It should be noted that not

all cult worship took place
in the normal temple
environment. Though
during the New Kingdom a
type of public chapel,
known as a "Chapel of the
Hearing Ear" was
sometimes built into the
rear of regular temples for
the general public, there
also came to exist,
particularly during the New Kingdom, sites at Amarna and Deir el-Medina that
evidence public chapels which would have contained either a small cult statue, or
more commonly a stela with an image of the god. Areas in some private homes were
even set aside for worship. At Amarna, upper-class homes had domestic shrines
containing statues of Akhenaten and his family, or stelae showing the royal family
venerating the Aten (sun disk). Also, many of the houses at Deir el-Medina contained
household shrines consisting of a wall niche which could be equipped with an offering
table or libation trough. Such areas might be found in any room, including the kitchen.
Popular gods for such shrines included Mertseger, Renenutet, Sobek, Amun, Taweret
and Hathor, though deceased relatives were frequently worshipped as the "able spirit
of Re".
Small, public chapels were usually served by lay priests, but we have little information
about the cult practices in these, or in home shrines. Doubtless, offerings of food,
libations and incense were made, but what other forms of rituals took place is
unknown. These shrines served as places where people could make specific requests
of their gods in prayer.

he Royal Cults of the Kings of Ancient Egypt

by Jefferson Monet

Ancient Egyptian cults can be divided

into several categories, including
Divine Cults, which worshipped actual
existing gods, Royal Cults for the
worship of the king, Private Cults,
animal cults and what might be referred
to as other Funerary Cults for the
worship of deceased private
individuals. Of these, perhaps the
second most important, after Divine
Cults, were the Royal Cults.
The cult of the king was one of the
most prominent features of ancient
Egyptian religion. The Egyptian ruler,
because of his status as a ntr, or god,
received both a cult during his life and
after his death. He (or she) acquired and
maintained his divinity as a result of
specific kingship rituals, of which, the
coronation was clearly the most
important. In this ceremony, the king
was transformed into a god by means of
his union with the royal ka, or soul. All
previous kings of Egypt had possessed the royal ka, and at his or her coronation, the
king became divine as "one with the royal ka when his human form was overtaken by
his immortal element, which flows through his whole being and dwells in it".
As a god, the King became the son of Re, the sun god, and he was a manifestation of
Horus, the falcon god, as well as the son of Osiris. Also, from the Middle Kingdom,
there was increasing emphasis placed on his relationship with Amun-Re, and he was
described as the son of Amun, the king of the gods.
Thus, the king became an intermediary between mankind and the divine, responsible
for sustaining the balance of the universe through maintaining ma'at, or divine order.
Upon his death, the ancient
Egyptians believed that he
became fully divine and
assimilated with Osiris and
Re.
The kings status as a god
depended on his or her
union with the royal ka, and
therefore various rituals
were intended to reinforce
this relationship during the
king's reign. An obvious

example was the Opet festival that was held each year at the temple of Amun-Re at
Karnak during the fourth month of the inundation. There, the king had his union with
the royal ka renewed and therefore his right to rule reconfirmed. After (almost always)
thirty years, the king also celebrated his first sed-festival, which served to reconfirm
his relationship to the royal ka as well as to restore his vitality.
The practice of the king receiving a royal cult during his lifetime became especially
prominent during the New Kingdom, beginning with the reign of Amenhotep III. This
cult followed very closely the pattern of the daily temple rituals of other gods, and
kings erected for themselves statues, sometimes colossal, so that offerings could be
received. There are depictions of the king making offerings to his deified self. These
statue represented the royal ka of the living king, and when he or she worships their
own statue, they are actually worshipping the concept of deified kingship as
represented in the royal ka, which the king embodies.
Cults associated with the living pharaoh were more significant during certain periods,
and may have been linked with various political, economic and religious trends. For
example, this type of cult may have been emphasized during periods of coregency.
Evidence suggests that, during the Middle and New Kingdoms, some successors could
have been coronated prior to the death of the elder king. In these cases, the elder ruler
may have been projected into a fully divine role, perhaps conceptualized as a living
Osiris.
However, clearly the most important development in the cult of the living king
occurred during the New
Kingdom, focusing on his
or her divine birth. The key
here is that the pharaoh was
engendered not by the seed
of his actual paternal father,
but rather by that of Amun
himself. Cults focused on
the divinity of the ruling
monarch could have been
linked to a need to
legitimize the king's claim
to the throne by rulers such
as Hatshepsut, the Early
18th Dynasty female ruler.
Yet, the expanded role of
the cult of the living
pharaoh persisted through
the New Kingdom. It's
strength perhaps may be
seen as a means of
contributing to royal power

and legitimacy over an increasingly complex governmental and religious system. The
cult of the living king probably had it's greatest emphasis during the Amarna period,
when Akhenaten focused the state religion on the supreme power of the sun disk
known as Aten. His religious program emphasized the indispensable role of the king
as the sole intermediary between mankind and the life giving force of the sun disk.
Direct worship of the Aten was actually limited to Akhenaten himself, while the king
and his royal family were intended to be the object of worship by the population at
large. There have been unearthed offering stelae depicting the royal family belonging
to private households, and such veneration of the king within domestic spheres
represents an emphasis on kingly divinity not seen in other periods. However, after the
Amarna period, royal cult buildings continued to be erected, such as that of Ramesses
II at Abu Simbel, that presented the royal cult as an inseparable part of the divine
order.
The Temple of Luxor may be seen as the greatest surviving monument relating to the
divine, living king. Though the building was begun during the Middle Kingdom, it
underwent major additions and restorations during the reign of Amenhotep III and
later during the Ramessid period. This building can best be understood as a cult place
of the living king and his divine association with the Theban triad. It was the focal
point of the great Opet festival, when the image of Amun journeyed from his sanctuary
at Karnak and the living king celebrated his divine origins.
Of course, the worship of the divine king continued after his or her death, and from the
very beginning of Egyptian history, the royal burials included a place where the dead
ruler's spirit could receive offerings of food and drink. Early evidence for the
development of the royal funerary cult occurs in the mortuary structures built by the
Early Dynastic kings at Abydos. The burial places of the 1st and 2nd Dynasty kings
have associated "valley enclosures" and there is evidence for long term presentation of
offerings in a few of these.
The famous Step
Pyramid of Djoser
at Saqqara is the
first known fully
articulated funerary
monument. It
includes various
architectural
elements that were
designed to
perpetuate the role
of the king in the
afterlife, including
symbolic components of the royal palace, both above ground as well as below the
pyramid where the king could rule for eternity. An integrated element of this
architecture was a full offering cult, which was housed in a mortuary temple
positioned on the north side of the pyramid.

As early as the 4th Dynasty, kings erected for themselves a mortuary temple complex
situated on the east side of their larger pyramids for their funerary cult. The colossal
size and investment that went into these pyramid complexes of the 4th Dynasty attests
to the central importance of the pharaoh and his cult during this period of very early
Egyptian history. In fact, considering the resources that went into these structures,
much of the central government during the Old Kingdom must have been focused on
the construction of these funerary complexes, and so the royal cult became a driving
force in the political and economic of the Old Kingdom state.
Royal pyramid complexes from the 4th, 5th and 6th dynasties typically had two main
cult buildings, including the mortuary temple on the pyramid's east side, and a valley
temple at the edge of the Nile River floodplain. Like normal divine cults, the mortuary
temples were manned by rotating teams of priests in order to receive offerings and
carry on the cult rituals. The valley temple, on the other hand, was adorned with
scenes and statuary expressing the king's association with a wide variety of deities.
Specifically, the valley temples seems to have been a structure used particularly to link
the royal cult with other temples through periodic festivals and processions.
Beginning with the
pyramid of King
Userkaf, the first
king of Egypt's 5th
Dynasty, there was
a false door in the
mortuary temple
that became the
focal point for
offerings to the
king's spirit.
However, beginning
with the pyramid of
Unas, the last ruler
of the 5th Dynasty,
a major source of
information on
royal funerary cults
is the Pyramid Texts, where were inscribed on the walls of the burial chambers. These
texts provide a complex series of magical spells and religious statements intended to
aid the king during the afterlife. They record embalming and burial rituals, as well as
written versions of he offering formulae and of the offering ritual itself.
During the Middle Kingdom, the construction of pyramid complexes continued, but
there were some basic theological shifts. For example, the first royal mortuary
complex build during the eleventh dynasty, belonging to Montuhotep, represents a
departure from the complexes of the Old Kingdom in its emphasis on venerating the
newly important state god of Thebes, Amun-Re. Now, the king's legitimacy is
provided through his or her association with that deity. Hence, the complex of

Montuhotep focuses on the Thebian triad, consisting of Amun, Mut and Khonsu, but
integrates a cult statue for the king.
The association
between the the
deified king and
other gods was
emphasized during
this period, and later
with the ritual
known as the
"Beautiful Festival
of the Valley",
which was held
annually. During
this ceremony, the
image (statue) of Amun was carried on his sacred bark to the west where he visited the
king's funerary temple.
Later, during the Middle Kingdom, there were at times efforts to return to Old
Kingdom cult practices, but there were nevertheless significant changes in conceptions
of kingship that effectively restructured ideas on the nature of the king's role. Changes
reflected in the design and decoration of royal cult buildings of the later Middle
Kingdom and afterwards emphasis the veneration of the gods, with the king's cult
appended and legitimized through his association with important gods. By late in the
12th Dynasty, the term "mansion of millions of years" appears in some records
referencing the funerary temple of Amenemhet III at Hawara. This term can be
understood to apply to royal cult complexes where the king's cult was important, but
nevertheless subordinate to the cult of major deities.
This late 12th Dynasty practice ushered
in the New Kingdom, when the
mansion of millions of years became
the standard type of royal cult building.
They were built on the West bank of
the Nile at Thebes, and the best
remaining examples are the
Ramesseum of Ramesses II of the 19th
Dynasty and Medinet Habu built by
Ramesses III. who ruled during the
20th Dynasty. These temple complexes
were built some distance from the
actual tombs of these rulers, who were
buried further in on the West Bank in
the Valley of the Kings.
Now, rather being independent, these temples were considered a part of the domain of

Amun and so were connected administratively with the great temple of Amun at
Karnak. They were surrounded by various precincts that included storerooms and
housing for priests and officials who ran the economic foundations that sustained their
cults.
These complexes, usually referred to as mortuary temples, were actually built and
dedicated to Amun-Re. The cult of the king was mediated by his or her divine
association with that deity. The "Beautiful Festival of the Valley" survived the Middle
Kingdom and continued as one of the most important ritual links during the New
Kingdom between the royal funerary temples and the temple of Amun at Karnak.
However, there were mansions of
millions of years built elsewhere.
One important example is that of
Seti I at Abydos, where the royal
cult was linked to one of Egypt's
other principal gods, Osiris. The
ancient Egyptians believed that
Osiris was a deceased king of
Egypt who was reborn to rule in the
netherworld. Thus, Seti I's temple
was also a monument dedicated to
the institution of kingship itself as
embodied in Osiris.
Seti I's temple also illustrates
another type of cult, which venerates the royal ancestors through cult activity
mandated by the living king. Known as the Cult of the Royal Ancestors to modern
Egyptologists, this type of worship is known from as early as the Old and Middle
Kingdoms, but became particularly visible during the New Kingdom. This type of cult
activity could be established through patronage of existing temples, such as at Karnak,
or the dedications of Senusret III within the mortuary temple of Montuhotep.
However, it could also be articulated within a newly founded building such as that of
Seti I at Abydos.
There was also a place for the royal cult within the temples of more normal gods.
Kings from the earliest dynasties expressed their association with the gods by
dedicating statuary and other religious objects, and in many of the large state temples,
the cults of the gods and king became well linked. We find in the temples such as
those of Horus at Heirakonpolis and Montu at Medamud considerable remains of royal
dedicatory material, and there is no doubt that such temples also maintained a
substantial royal cult.
Those in such divine state temples, the king's cult may have been represented by his
statue that received a portion of the daily offerings, in other instances and particularly
in large state temples, entire ancillary buildings were built to link the royal cult with
the divine god's cult. There are often referred to as ka-chapels, and can be found in

such locations as Bubastis, Dendera, Heirakonpolis, Abydos and Tell el-Dab'a.

Other structures within the gods' temples were intended to emphasize overtly the
king's connection with the divine. A fine example of these structures is the birth
houses known as mammisi, which are decorated with scenes of the divine birth of the
pharaoh and can be found at locations such as the Temple of Hathor at Dendera.
On a popular level, the king might receive a cult following in a more spontaneous
fashion outside the framework of mortuary and normal state temples. In this regard,
the royal cult displays many of the characteristics found in the worship of local gods.
A good example of such a cult is that of Amenhotep I at the community of the royal
tomb builders at Deir el-Medina.
From the 18th through the 20th
dynasty, Amenhotep I was
venerated for his role in
establishing the workers village,
where he became the patron deity.
There, his cult was celebrated at a
popular level during periodic
festivals and processions. There
were similar royal cults found at
other locals, such as the Sinai,
where during the Middle Kingdom,
Egyptian miners carried out a cult
for Sneferu. In the Second Cataract
(rapids) region well south of
modern Aswan, Senusret III was
also venerated as a local god.
Just as in the case of divine cults,
the most important element of royal
cult ritual was the daily offering.
Basically, this entailed interaction
between priests and the statue of
the king which allowed it to be a
suitable abode for the ka of the king. There are elements of the offering cult present as
early as the Pyramid Texts. However, the daily rituals are best documented in the 19th
Dynasty temple of Seti I at Abydos, and in the Ptolemaic period temple of Horus at
Edfu. The daily routine involved a series of ritual acts accompanied by magical spells
and offering formulae uttered by the priests, and included the statue's awakening,
cleansing, anointing and dressing. Some parts of the the more involved morning ritual
would be repeated several more times during the day, and in large royal cult temples, it
was enacted for multiple images (statues) and subsidiary cults within the temple. Of
course, as explained earlier, there were also periodic festivals and processions in
which a royal cult statue was taken to nearby gods' temples, providing for interaction
between the surrounding community and the royal cult.

The Animal Cults of Ancient Egypt

by Jefferson Monet

During the classical

age, there was no
other aspect of
Egyptian religion
that elicited more
derision from
writers than the
aspect of Egyptian
animal worship.
Among the various
cults established by
the ancient
Egyptians, it seems
to many even today
to be one of the
most strange and
mysterious. There is
evidence of animal
cults that dates back
to at least the fourth
millennium BC in Egypt, including predynastic ritual burials of animals such as
gazelles, dogs, cattle, monkey and rams at sights such as Badari, Naqada, Maadi and
Heliopolis. Erik Hornung notes that "the care with which these animals were buried
and provided with grave goods is evidence for a cult of sacred animals".
There is really no evidence of very early animal cults during Egypt's neolithic period,
but by the last centuries of prehistory, there can be scarcely any doubt that the
Egyptians worshipped divine powers in animal form. While the earliest evidence of
the cult surrounding the Apis bull dates to the reign of King Aha of the 1st Dynasty,
various animal cults received considerable emphasis beginning with the twenty-sixth
dynasty, perhaps as a part of a resurgence of Egyptian nationalism.
In reality, animals were rarely if ever worshipped as gods in ancient Egypt, but were

instead thought of as manifestations of the gods. Like cult statues, they were actually
one vehicle through which the gods could make their will manifest, and through which
the faithful could demonstrate their devotion to the gods. Therefore, individual
animals were cot considered gods, but the god could take up his abode in them and
they become become an image of the god and a vessel for him.
In fact, the keeping of sacred
animals seems a very logical
extension of early many cult
statues. Horus, for example,
was frequently depicted in
statuary and on temple walls
in his manifestation as a fully
formed falcon, so it is
understandable that the
ancient Egyptians might also
venerate the living, breathing
animal.
We may categorize three
different types of sacred
animals that were honored by
the ancient Egyptians. The
temple animals, one type,
functioned very similarly to
the cult statues in temples.
These animals lived in or near
a temple and were
distinguished by special
markings. The Apis bull of
Memphis, for example, had to
be a black bull with a white
triangle on its forehead, a crescent moon on its chest and another on its flanks, as well
as having black and white in its tail. It was though to be the ka manifestation of Ptah,
and like cult statues, these animals could visit other deities in their temples as well as
give oracles. At certain times of the day, the bull would be released into a courtyard
where worshippers would gather to see him and receive oracles. Oracles were
questions that had either a yes or no answer, and this answer was received when the
bull entered into one of two stables. Upon the death of the Apis bull, it was elaborately
embalmed and there was a time of general mourning. It was then buried in an
enormous stone sarcophagus in the Serapeum at Saqqara, after which a search would
be made for its replacement.
There were a number of other bulls that were worshipped in this manner, including the
Mnevis bull at Heliopolis, which was the manifestation of Atum-Re and the Buchis
bull at Hermonthis, which represented Montu and was particularly important during
the reign of Nectanebo II. Other animals included the ram of Mendes, which was

considered the manifestation of Osiris-Re, and the ram of Elephantine which was
associated with Khnum.
A second class of sacred animals were those kept in large numbers near a temple. In
animal cults, we encounter the ability of Egyptian gods to extend their existence
almost endlessly so that they could be manifest not just in one ibis or crocodile, but in
all ibises or all crocodiles. At Saqqara, for example, there was an extensive complex of
buildings dedicated to the priestly care of large flocks of ibises, considered to be the
manifestation of Thoth, and of falcons, who represented Horus. These flocks provided
the enormous number of animal burials found in Egypt, which included literally
millions of mummified animals in necropolises throughout the country. Besides the
ibis necropolis at Saqqara, there are necropolises for cats at Bubastis, rams at
Elephantine, crocodiles, snakes, falcons and ibises at Kom Ombo and ibises and
falcons at Abydos.
The burial of sacred animals
were frequently paid for by
pilgrims during visits to the
temples at festivals or when
seeking divine blessings, and
this must have created a
considerable priestly industry
for animal mummification.
The mummified animal
corpse served as a votive
offering for the god, and the
devotee obviously expected
to earn the goodwill of the
deity by providing for the
burial of one of its sacred animals. For example, one inscription preserved on a jar
containing an ibis mummy is a prayer asking Thoth to be benevolent toward the
woman who had embalmed his sacred animal. One wonders whether these animals
were kept for this specific reason, and to profit the temple, for while only one temple
animal was kept at any one time, which received a cult, this second class of sacred
animal was kept in large numbers and really received no cult. Obviously the burial of
the temple animals was also much more elaborate.
A third type of sacred animal were those kept in private homes as representative of the
gods. They included snakes, cats, dogs and other animals, which were kept in cages
and buried upon their death. This practice is analogous to the construction of
household shrines to allow for domestic worship. However, one must wonder how
Egyptologists distinguish between animals kept in private homes for spiritual reasons,
and those that were simply kept as pets.

Abydos in Egypt

by Marie Parsons
>> Abydos
Abydos, or Abjdu, lies in the eight nome of Upper Egypt, about 300 miles south of
Cairo, on the western side of the Nile and about 9.5 miles from the river. It spreads
over 5 square miles and contains
archaeological remains from all
periods of ancient Egyptian history. It
was significant in historical times as
the main cult center of Osiris, the lord
of the netherworld. At the mouth of the
canyon at Abydos, which the
Egyptians believed to be the entrance
to the underworld, one of the tombs of
the 1st dynasty kings was mistaken for
the tomb of Osiris, a thousand years
later, and pilgrims would leave
offerings to the god for another
thousand years. The area is thus now
called Umm el Qaab, "Mother of
Pots."
Abydos was the burial place for the
first kings of a unified Egypt. But it contains remains from earlier, in the Predynastic
period. In 1900 the Predynastic cemetery of el-Amra was excavated with hundreds of
graves from all Predynastic phases. Other important cemeteries were found at Naga
ed-Deir, el-Mahasna, Mesheikh, Beit Allam and the various cemeteries at Abydos
itself. In addition, settlements have been found, most representing small farming
villages. El-Mahasna had beer-brewing facilities.
The Predynasty/Early Dynastic cemetery is located in the low desert. It consists of
three parts: predynastic Cemetery U in the north, Cemetery B in the middle with royal
tombs from Dynasty 0 and the
early 1st Dynasty, and in the south
the tomb complexes of six kings
and one queen from the 1st dynasty
and two kings from the 2nd dynasty.
Most of the 1st dynasty tombs show
traces of immense fires. Many had
also been plundered many times.
In 1977 a tiny ivory label was
discovered bearing the "nar" name
of Narmer, and the king is seen
smiting an enemy in the Delta.
Cemetery U contains several hundred graves and offering pits. Ceramics are from the
Naqada culture. Of particular importance is the tomb named U-j, uncovered in 1988.
It is dated to 150 years before Aha and the beginning of the 1st dynasty.

The tomb is elaborate, brick-lined, with doors and windows. It has twelve chambers
and measures about 27 feet x 24 feet. It still contained much funerary equipment.
There were large amounts of different
kinds of Egyptian pottery, and more than
200 wine jars imported probably from
Palestine. There were also about 150 labels
of ivory or bone, many of which were
apparently attached to linen bolts.
Many of the inscriptions on the labels are
readable with clear glyphs and signs. The
most frequent sign was a scorpion,
sometimes together with a plant. It is speculated that either King Scorpion was buried
here or that he was a known figure. Hundreds of wine jars imported from Canaan
were also unearthed in one of the tombs store-rooms.
There were traces of a wooden shrine on the floor in the burial chamber, and in the
northeastern corner a complete crook-shaped scepter of ivory.
Many of the earliest tombs are in the
location known as Umm el Ga'ab. Ten
royal enclosures in total must have been
built; but only eight have been located.
Some of the royal owners have been
identified: Djer, Djet (Tomb), Queenmother Merneith (Tomb), of the 1st
Dynasty, Den (tomb) and Peribsen
(Tomb) and Khasekhemwy (Tomb)of
the 2nd Dynasty. At least some of these
burials were surrounded by subsidiary
graves for attendants killed and buried
along with the royal funeral.
Cemetery B contains three double-chamber tombs, currently attributed to King Aha
(Tomb), and his Dynasty 0 predecessors of Narmer (tomb), Ka (tomb) and possibly
another King named Iry-Hor (tomb). Pottery shards have been found here which are
inscribed with the name-signs of these kings.

Royal graves at Abydos became more elaborate, until the last and largest royal tomb
built there for Khasekhemwy, last king of the 2nd Dynasty. His tomb, called Shunet
es-Zebib, the Storehouse of the Flies, measures about 230 feet long and varying
between 56 and 33 feet
in width. Near
Khentyamentius
temple, a mile north of
the Umm el Gaab
(Qa'ab) cemetery and
nested among the
enclosures were
fourteen (found to-date)
large boat graves The
remains of the ancient
ships, dating to the 1st
Dynasty, were
uncovered in the desert.
Each averages 75 feet
in length and had been
encased in a structure
two-feet thick with
whitewashed mudbrick walls. Whether
they were meant to
represent solar barques,
anticipating the ship
built by Khufu and
found within his
Pyramid at Giza, is not
yet known.
North Abydos contains an ancient settlement and also the remains of a large stone
temple from the 30th Dynasty, along with a portal structure of Ramesses II, and a
fairly recently discovered temple built by Tuthmosis III. Most of the early town lies
beneath modern groundwater and the remains of later settlements. Another temple,
that of Khentyamentiu which was later identified with Osiris as his temple, dates from
the later third millennium BCE. Royal cult buildings or ka chapels were built here by
kings from the Old Kingdom through the New Kingdom. Buildings to the west and
southwest of the cult buildings proved to be houses spanning the period from late
Predynastic to the 2nd Dynasty.
A residential and industrial section have also been found to the southeast of those
excavations, dating to the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period. A number of
mudbrick houses, consisting of between 7 and 10 small rooms, courtyards and a
narrow street have been found. A workshop, the earliest and most complete faience
workshop in Egypt, was also uncovered, complete with kilns.
The Northern cemetery was the principal burial ground for non-royal individuals at
Abydos during the Middle Kingdom, and continued to be so used through the GraecoRoman period.

The tombs of the first kings of unified Egypt were deep brick-lined structures topped
with mounds of sand, later called mastabas, the Arabic word for bench, since their
square or rectangular shapes resembled benches. Later in the 1st Dynasty, one
structure was placed underground, supported by a retaining wall, and the second
mastaba was placed above ground directly over the first, to protect the lower one.
The most striking standing buildings are the enclosure of King Khasekhemwy from
the 2nd Dynasty, the well-preserved New Kingdom temples of Seti I (temple) and
Ramesses II (temple) from the 19th Dynasty, and the walled enclosure now called the
Kom es-Sultan, the location of the early town and main temple dedicated to Osiris.
The 19th Dynasty Seti temple contains seven sanctuaries set in a row, each dedicated
to a different deity, Ptah, Ra-Harakhty, Amun-Ra, Osiris, Isis and Horus. Seti I
himself was included with his funerary shrine. The unusual L-shaped plan of the
temple is caused by a southeast wing appended to the main rectangular-shaped
temple. This wing contains rooms dedicated to Sokar and Nefertum and other
funerary deities. There is also a King list to the south of the sanctuaries. Since the
temple was unfinished when Seti died, his son and successor Ramesses II finished the
work.
Immediately behind the chambers dedicated to the Osiris cult is another structure,
subterranean, called the Osireion. It contains offering scenes and other scenes from
the Book of Gates and the Book of the Dead.
South Abydos was developed as a zone for royal cult complexes, two well-preserved
ones so far identified as belonging to Senusret II of the 12th Dynasty and Ahmose of
the 18th Dynasty, who built a small pyramid here. .
Relief fragments at the complex of King Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom
and conqueror of the Hyksos invaders, have been found near his pyramid and funerary
complex at Abydos. One fragment represents a group of three arcers, teams of bridled
chariot horses, ships with oars, and fallen warriors recognizable as Asiatics. Other
fragments bear the names of Apophis, the leader of the Hyksos, and that of Avaris, the
capital city of the Hyksos.
As work proceeds at ancient Abydos, a home of the dead for so many millennia, more
and more of the history and religious beliefs of the ancient Egyptians is returning to
life.

The Temple of Ain el-Muftella in the Bahariya Oasis

by Brian Rosewood

The Temple of Ain el-Muftella may have once served as the city center of El Qasr
which is today the modern town of Bawiti in the Bahariya Oasis. It was most likely
built around the time of the 26th Dynasty, though some sections of the temple may
date from earlier in the New Kingdom. The temple was probably added to by both the
Greeks, and later the Romans.
We know that parts of the temple were built by a high priest named Zed-Khonsuefankh who's brother, Sheben-Khonsu was governor of the district during the reign of
Ahmose II. After the death of Sheben-Khonsu, Zed-Khonsu-efankh also took on his
brother's role as governor.
Fakhry investigated the site in 1939 leading to his mistaken opinion that the structures
were four separate chapels. However, when the site was again examined in 1977, it
was determined that
the these structures
were in fact one
temple.
The temple center
does in fact consist
of four chapels that
are decorated with
painted, sunk relief
and are of a style
similar to what
might be found in other Egyptian temples of this period. The first chapel, which has
two large halls,
once had vaulted
ceilings painted
with geometrical
designs. Each of the
halls were adjoined
by small storage
rooms.
Rural temples such
as this one in Egypt
may have been
required to be serve

as a general purpose place of worship for a number of different gods. Scenes in the
first hall depict Zed-Khonsu-efankh, and sometimes his brother Sheben-Khonsu, along
with Ahmose II, who wears the double crown of Upper and Lower Egypt, standing
side by side making offerings to thirteen gods, who include Mahesa, Bastet, Amun,
Mut, Khonsu, Harsaphis (Herishef or Arshaphes), Hathor, Thoth, Nehem-awa (the
consort of Thoth), Amun (ram headed), Anubis and Isis. Occasionally, the god Ha (a
god of the Western Desert) is also included in the procession.
Another set of reliefs in the side entrance depict Ahmose II standing with an ankh in
his right hand along side the hippopotamus goddess, Taweret, Horus and the cow
goddess, Hathor. Behind them is another scene depicting a child, several
unrecognizable gods and goddesses, and the goddess Ma'at with her feather, who are
all facing the gods Montu, Horus and Sekhmet.
In the second chapel, which was also probably built by Zed-Khonsu-efankh, we find a
scene portraying the high priest with a shaved head worshipping Osiris. Another scene
shows Zed-Khonsu-efankh, Sheben-Khonsu And Ahmose II before a similar
procession of gods
as in the first
chapel, but with the
addition of Seshat,
the goddess of
writing. Other
scenes in this chapel
show the sisters of
Osiris mourning his
death, along with a
list of the names of
various deities.
The wall to the right of the entrance to the second chapel displays a scene depicting an
unknown priest making offerings to Osiris, and then the king standing before Thoth.
On the west wall we find a mummified Osiris.
The third chapel was probably dedicated almost exclusively to the goddess Bes. It has
two entrances at either end of the chapel that are built of dolerite and sandstone, and
one wall within this chapel id devoted exclusively to a large figure of that deity,
though only the bottom half remains.
The fourth chapel, probably also built by Zed-Khonsu-efankh, is perhaps more simple,
made of brick and stone, but probably never painted. The only notable scene in this
chapel depicts Ahmose II in the presence of Khnum and Horus.
A number of artifacts have been recovered from this temple over the years.
Discoveries in the first chapel consist of a statue of the goddess Bastet, a stone
emblem of a head of Hathor, a statuette of an unknown king, another statuette of

Thoth, and fragments of a bronze vase.

More recent discoveries include a three inch high faience statuettes of Isis holding
Horus in her lap and Sekhmet with the sun disk behind her for protection. Several
small scarabs were also unearthed, including one with a small depiction of a man
holding a stick on the bottom. Other artifacts include a statuette of Seth with a
donkey's head and a Wedjat-eye amulet.

Akhmim (Ipu)
by Alan Winston

Akhmim, is an area on the east bank of the Nile opposite modern Sohag. The ancient
Egyptians called it Ipu or Khent-min. To the Coptics it was Khmin or Shmin, and so
the Greeks called it Khemmis. It was once a great center in Egypt, and the capital of
the 9th Upper Egyptian nome. Regrettably, very little of its monuments remain today,
as most building material was dismantled and used in nearby villages during the
Middle Ages. Its ancient necropolis has never been systematically excavated.
Northeast of Akmin there is a rock chapel at el-Salamuni
that was dedicated to the local god Min. The Greek god
Pan was associated with Min, so the town was also called
Panopolis. The chapel was probably build during the
reign of Tuthmosis III. The chapel was probably
decorated by the "First Prophet of Min, Nakhtmin during
the reign of Aya. These reliefs show Aya and his wife,
Teye worshipping local gods. Some one thousand years
later, the "Chief Priest of Min, Harma'kheru, also
decorated the tomb with representations of Ptolemy II
Philadelphus also worshipping local gods. We also know
that Psammuthis was an active builder in the area.
Left: Lid of the outer coffin of Espamai, A priest at Akhmim in
the 26th and 27th Dynasties.

There are also ruins of two temple that once stood west of
the modern town of Akhmim. They were built for Min
and the goddess Repyt (Triphis), who was regarded as
Min's companion. We believe they date from the Greek
and Roman periods, although some building material is
older. It is not clear whether these blocks were part of an
older construct of the temples, are were reused from other
locations.

There are also a number of rock-cut tombs of various dates in the area, particularly at
el-Hawawish, northeast of Akhmim and at el-Salamuni. Some are decorated with
painted circular zodiacs, and belong to officials of the nome from the late Old
Kingdom and early Middle Kingdom. Apparently, these local rulers were able to
acquire a great deal of wealth and some power. Amenhotep III, and 18th Dynasty
Pharaoh, even married the daughter (Tiy) of Yuya, who was
an official at Akhmim. Tiy became a very important Queen
during this period, and is believed to have been the mother
of Akhenaten, the heretic King. The tombs in this area were
first excavated by Percy Newberry in 1912, but
unfortunately had been largely plundered during the 1880s.
The tombs were more recently re-examined and recorded
by Naguib Kanawati.
Right: Colossal Statue of Meryetamun, which measures 21 feet (6.5
meters) tall. She was the principal consort of Rameses II after the
death of Nefertari.

In addition, and not surprisingly, Christian cemeteries have

also been found in the area which were excavated in the
late nineteenth century. Sohag across the Nile is considered
a major Christian center in Egypt. These provided many
examples of wool, linen and silk fabric which have helped
to define a chronological framework for the study of
textiles between the Hellenistic and Islamic periods.
Recent excavations by Egyptian archaeologists have uncovered a colossal statue of
Rameses II and Meryetamun.
There are many artifacts in various museums, including stelae and coffins, which are
known to have come from Akmim. Unfortunately, the circumstances around their
discoveries are mostly unknown.

Coffin of a woman named Tamin from the Roman period cemetery at Akmin

The Mortuary Temple of Amenhotep III

on the West Bank at Luxor
by Mark Andrews

Amenhotep III built not only the

largest temple at Thebes (on the West
Bank at Luxor), but in Egypt,
measuring 700 by 550 meters. It
covered 385,000 square meters
(4,200,000 square feet). It was even
larger than the temple of Amun-Re at
Karnak. The temple's architect was
also named Amenhotep, but was the
son of Hapu. Unfortunately, it seem
that the temple began to decay rapidly,
and during the reign of Merenptah, it
was actively used as a source of
limestone blocks for the temple of that
ruler.
The reason for this was perhaps a
brilliant, but regrettable religious
concept. The temple was apparently
uniquely built on the flood plain. The
temple was purposely built so low that
the inundation of the Nile would flood
its outer courts and halls, probably
leaving only the inner sanctuary, built
on a knoll above water level, dry. Thus, when the water receded, the whole temple
symbolized the emergence of the world from the primeval waters of creation. Of
course, this did nothing for the temple's preservation, particularly considering that
many of the temple walls were built of mudbrick. Aggravating the destruction, many
of the massive sandstone pylons and columns were far too heavy for the weak or even
missing foundations upon which they were built.
However, we do have Amenhotep III's own description of the complex:
"He did (it) as his monument for (his) father Amen, lord of the throne of the two lands,
making for him a splendid temple on the right of Thebes; a fortress of eternity out of
good white sandstone - worked with gold throughout. Its floors were purified with

silver, all its doorways were of electrum..."

Much of the temple was build during the last ten years of Amenhotep III rule and in
conjunction with his three Sed-festivals.
Though this temple has
never been fully
investigated, the only
real remains seem to be
the two huge statues we
call the Colossi of
Memnon, along with a
few fragments of
pylons, and various
statues and column
fragments A quartzite
stela which has been reerected but was
probably originally one
of a pair set up at the
entrance to the court
describes Amenhotep
III's building
accomplishments. Also,
in the vicinity of the
Solar court there are
many column bases,
though they are
overgrown and difficult
to spot, along with
fragments of standing statues of Amenhotep III as Osiris. Some of the huge column
bases are important to Egyptologists, because they reveal foreign place names known
in the time of Amenhotep III, including references to the Aegean.
Other statues discovered in the area depict the goddess Sekhmet, sphinxes, some with
the bodies of crocodiles and other deities. Ancient documents tell us that there was one
seated and one standing statue of Sekhmet for each day of the year. Many other
colossal statues were built here, including a pair of striding figures of the king that
flanked the northern entrance to the temple, fragments of which also still remain. In
fact, some Egyptologists believe that some of the colossal statues in the Ramesseum,
including the famous fallen statue of "Ozymandia", were probably usurped from the
Amenhotep III complex.

Of course, the Colossi of Memnon actually portray Amenhotep III. Due to an

earthquake in 27 BC, these statues became known for a bell like tone that usually
occurred in the morning due to rising temperatures and humidity. Thus they were
equated by the early Greek travelers with the figure of
Memnon, the son of Aurora who's mother, Eos, was the
goddess of dawn. The Roman emperor Septimius Severus,
seeking to repair the statues, inadvertently silenced them
forever.
Left: Side of the Colossi of Memnon showing Nile gods uniting
plants of Upper and Lower Egypt

These colossal statues set at the front of the temple, which

was located almost directly across the Nile from the Temple
of Luxor at Kom el-Hetan. Behind them were two massive
courtyards with other seated, colossal statues. There were a
total of three pylons. In front of the second set of pylons
were two additional quartzite colossal statues, and before
the third pylon stood two additional colossal statues made
of alabaster. Betsy Bryan has suggested that this was the
largest sculptural program in history.
A long processional way similar to that built by the king in the Luxor Temple, lined
with sphinxes, stretched from the innermost pylons to a large peristyle solar court.
A considerable part of the temple was dedicated to Amen, but it is also known that the
northern part of the temple was devoted to the Memphite deity Ptah, or Ptah-SokarOsiris to whom Amenhotep also built a temple in honor of in Memphis.
There is also a small, separate limestone temple dedicated to Ptah-Sokar-Osiris in the
northern part of the compound. It had its own gateway flanked by two quartzite
standing statues of Amenhotep III. However, it was so destroyed by stone thieves that
we can barely guess at its ground plan.

Arial view of the Colossus of Memnon

Bani Hasan al Shurruq

by Dr. Susan L. Wilson

A really neat, off the beaten track, site to

visit is Bani Hasan (also spelled Beni
Hasan). Located in Middle Egypt near to
Al-Minya, Bani Hasan is one of the few
Middle Kingdom sites (ca. 2040 1782
BCE, Dynasties 11 and 12) that survived
the massive reconstruction of the New
Kingdom. It is a full days excursion
from Cairo (about 4 hours by train then a
short drive to the site). Another great
option, is to stop for a night in Al-Minya
when traveling by train between Cairo
and Luxor. Spend the night and enjoy
the beauty of Al-Minya, the closest city to Bani Hasan. Before going, you should make
arrangements with a travel agent for a tour guide and transportation to Bani Hasan and
other sites in the area. This is another one of the places where you will need fast speed
film because no flashes are allowed within the tombs.

Al-Minya is a beautiful city that has had little tourist traffic over the past decade, so
you wont find the usual kiosks so prevalent at traditional tourist sites. Quiet and easygoing, Al-Minya offers a serene example of traditional life along the Nile. Here, you
will feel life away from
the hustle and bustle of
the big city and away
from the tourist centers
visited my most guests
to Egypt. Al-Minya has
one of the loveliest
green areas along the
river you will find
anywhere in Egypt.
Take time to sit and
view river traffic or
take a short stroll along
the rivers edge. You
can also find places to
get traditional Egyptian
food in the city proper.
To get to Bani Hasan from Al-Minya, you will need to take a car, taxi, or bus for
approximately 20 km to Abu Qurqas where you will get a ferry for the East Bank and
Bani Hasan (this is why you need to make prior arrangements through a travel agent).
The ferry takes about 20-30 minutes to cross from the landing on the west bank to the
east. The landing site is located not too far from the Rest House where you will start
your climb to the tombs overlooking the valley. Dont forget to take some water with
you and to wear good walking shoes. The vertical climb from the rest house is listed as
being about 80 meters. Broad, deep limestone steps lead you to the distant tombs on
the cliff face (probably only about on-half mile away, but it looks further).
The area is named for the Bani Hasan Arabs who settled here during the 18th century.
In ancient times, it was the Necropolis of the Governors of the Oryx Nome. All of the
tombs of Bani Hasan are Middle Kingdom, 11 and 12 Dynasties. The short version of
Middle Kingdom history is as follows. The Middle Kingdom follows the First
Intermediate Period, a time of disunity throughout Egypt. Dynasty 11 is generally
listed as beginning in the First Intermediate Period. The Middle Kingdom, hallmarked
by the reunification of Egypt, occurred in the 11th Dynasty under the rule of
Mentuhotep I (sometimes these kings are shifted, with Mentuhotep I referred to as
Mentuhotep II, and so on), who was the first king of that dynasty. After a series of
battles with northern rulers, Mentuhotep I gained control of the whole of Egypt by the
39th year of his reign. Apparently, the 12th Dynasty began when Mentuhotep III
(Mentuhotep IV) was overthrown by Amenemhet I, (probably the formers vizier),
who ruled for 29 years. Under Amenemhet, the Theban god Amun began a rise to
prominence. Prior to his murder, Amenemhet shared his rule with his son Senusret I
for the last ten years of his reign. Later in the 12th Dynasty, Amenemhet III pushed

south beyond Egypts boundaries to protect the southern border and safeguard access
to trade routes and the gold in Nubia. The Middle Kingdom is characterized by being a
highpoint in Egyptian literature and a revival in the quality of art.
Bani Hasan has some 39 tomb-chapels. Most are not decorated, so you dont go to
these. In front of the tombs are the shaft graves of officials and servants, referred to as
chapels rather than tombs since the burials were in the shafts in the rock-cut chambers.
The tombs of Bani Hasan fall into three types.

Most numerous are tombs of the 11th Dynasty with un-columned single rooms
and a false door on the inner wall.
Second, are the tombs with the delicately carved lotus bud fluted columns.
Many of the columns were cut away sometime in the past, so there is only the
top part "hanging" from the ceiling.
Third, the 12th Dynasty tombs consist of an ant-chamber with two columns and
an inner room with burial shafts in the floor.

The main group of tombs is

decorated with paintings of
prayers written to Osiris
and Anubis, but lacks
depiction of the gods. The
wall murals in Bani Hasan
are among the first
decorated with brush and
paint only, a departure from
the older styled paintedrelief sculptures. You can
also find full frontal face
illustrations, which are
different from older
paintings. The paintings are
well preserved and the colors are outstanding. One of the most interesting aspects of
Bani Hasan paintings is the representation of recreation. My personal favorites are
depictions of wrestling, dancing, and acrobatics, but you can also find juggling. Many
details of everyday life also can be found on the tomb walls: fishing, hunting,
weaving, war, bird trapping, voyages, and animal and bird scenes. It is one place
where you can look at the paintings and actually feel as though you are experiencing
just a little of real life in the Nile Valley some 4,000 years ago.

The Temple of Beit el-Wali in Nubia

by Craig Hildreth

Beit (Beyt) el-Wali, today,

is located just south of the
Aswan High Dam, very
close to the Kalabsha
Temple, making it easily a
part of any tour that
explores Nubia's
monuments. Of the cluster
of moments that were
moved to New Kalabsha
during the construction of
the High Dam in order to
avoid their burial beneath
this great lake, this temple
is the oldest, and for a long
time, was by far the oldest
though now the Temple of Gerf Hussein also dating to the reign of Ramesses II resides
on the island after having been dismantled since its rescue from the rising waters of
Lake Nasser back in the 1960s. However, Beit el-Wali probably even predates that
temple by a few years. Beit el-Wali was rescued from Lake Nasser by a Polish
archaeological team financed by a joint Oriental Institute of Chicago/Swiss Institute of
Cairo Project.

Artists Illustration (Rosellini) of a scene in which

Ramesses II strikes a Nubian chief

Beit el-Wali represents another of Ramesses II's

Nubian monuments dedicated principally to Amun,
together with other gods, that was carved from the
sandstone hillside and is probably unique as the
smallest of its gender. The other monuments located
here, consisting of the Kalabasha temple, a birth
house and the kiosk of Qertassi, all dating to the
Roman era of Egypt's history and the Temple of Gerf
Hussein.
This temple was originally located in a remote area
from any towns. It was built probably for show rather
than public worship, and the conducting of temple
services by small priestly staffs may have been only
occasionally maintained, or minimally observed.
Though the temple was altered during the Christian
era, the brightly painted reliefs in the inner part of the
temple are well preserved. In fact, this temple is
sometimes also referred to as "the house of the holy
man", because it was also once used as a hermit's
dwelling.
The temple was probably originally fronted by a brick pylon not unlike that at Gerf
Hussein and Abu Simbel. The temple itself was built on a symmetrical cruciform plan,
and consisted of a deep hall, a transverse antechamber with two columns and a
sanctuary. Known as a speos, the temple was mostly hewn from the surrounding rock,
except for the front wall of the deep hall with its central doorway.

Ramesses II Charging Nubians, South Wall, Forecourt of Temple

Originally, a pathway along both inside walls of the deep hall was roofed over with a
vault, while the central portion of the this hall was left open to the sky. Here, the low
reliefs are of considerable historic value because they provide depictions of the Syrian,
Libyan (right wall), and Ramesses II's triumph over the Nubians (left wall). The
scenes of the Nubian
campaigns also depict
several sons of Ramesses II
engaged in battle, including
Amunhershepeshef, the
original crown prince, and
Khaemwese, later famous
as a High Priest of Ptah in
Memphis near modern
Cairo. However, at this time
the older could not have
been much older than eight,
while Khaemwese was
probably only about five, so
in reality, while they may
have accompanied their
father on the Nubian
campaigns, they could not
have actually been evolved
as warriors in the battles.
There are also records of the tribute paid to the king by the Nubians. Interestingly, the
style of these reliefs shows a certain freedom in their rendering. They feature some
slight forms of perspective, and there sometimes even appears to be humor. While
their execution is rather simple and even sketchy, their artistic value is considerable.

Nubians providing tribute to the king

The wall at the end of the hall is well worn and battered. Here, there is a central
doorway, to which to lateral ones were later added, that communicates with a
transverse antechamber measuring some 4.15 by 10.4 meters and somewhat over three
meters high. Its rock ceiling
is supported by two
architrave oriented northsouth, in turn supported by
two sturdy fluted columns.
The columns are rather
unusual, being a type
known as "proto-Doric",
with four vertical plane
sides, inscribed, having
entasis, a blank horizontal
fillet at the top, and a square
abacus.
At each end of this
transverse hall in the rear wall is a niche containing a statuary group consisting of
Ramesses II between two deities. Behind the plinth are low-relief scenes depicting
religious motifs. Here, paint inside a red outline has been applied on a thin stucco
layer. A frieze of Kheker elements crowns the walls, just below the ceiling. In the
middle, the ceiling is decorated with a series of vultures with outstretched wings.

Interior of the two columned vestibule showing a statue niche and the two, massive pillars

From the rear wall of the antechamber, a single doorway gives way to the single
sanctuary, which measures 2.8 meters by 3.6 meters and with a ceiling about 1.7
meters high. In the rear wall of this chamber, a niche with three statues representing
Ramesses II between two deities, is cut into the wall.

Ramesses II making offerings in a wall relief at Beit el-Wali

Archaeologists have suggested that there were as many as four stages of construction
resulting in this small temple, and perhaps as many as three artists who's hands
sculpted the walls. During the early Coptic era, the temple was transformed into a
church. The deep hall became a basilica with three aisles that was roofed over with
three brick vaults on supports. At that time, the niche in the sanctuary was further
hewn into an altar.

Left: Anukis, the "lady of Elephantine", suckles Ramesses II as an adult;

Right: Ramesses II grasps the hair of a kneeling Syrian captive

The Temple of Bes at Bawiti in the Bahariya Oasis

by Brian Rosewood

The ancient Egyptian god, Bes, who may not

have originated in Egypt but who was certainly
made into a pure Egyptian god, had a number of
attributes which changed over time. In the Old
Kingdom, he was shown to be associated with
fertility, circumcision and various harvest
rituals. By the Middle Kingdom, he had evolved
into a guardian of the home, infants and new
mothers and was a protector of pregnant women.
As time passed, his depiction as a dwarf became
common, sometimes shown with drums or a
tambourine, playing the flute or dancing in his
role associated with joy, sex and pleasurable
pursuits. By the Greco-Roman Period, his
appearance became more menacing, and he was
often shown with knives and swords and thus
took on the role of protector in warfare against
evil forces.
However, during the Greco-Roman Period in the
Bahariya Oasis, Bes was honored perhaps for his
earlier attributes related to pleasure, and at El Bawiti, the major community in the
Oasis, he was the god of wine made from grapes and dates. The importance of these
products to the region is evidenced by the only known temple dedicated to Bes in
Egypt.
This temple was discovered by a resident of El Bawiti in 1988, so as discoveries go in
Egypt, it is fairly recent. This individual discovered an inscribed piece of basalt within
the old section of El Bawiti, which prompted
the local antiquity authorities to investigate the
site. Interestingly, this artifact was carved with
the cartouche of Akhenaten, and is the only
evidence of this heretic pharaoh that has been
found in the oasis.
This temple dates from the Greek period, but
there is evidence that the cult and temple
operated into the 4th century AD. The ruins
measure about sixty by forty feet, oriented
north-south and was made of mudbrick on a
limestone block foundation.
Originally, there was apparently a ramp or
causeway, probably lined with sphinx, that lead
to the temple's northern entrance. Fragments of
the sphinxes were discovered, and Dr. Hawass,
who investigated the site, believes that they
were probably destroyed by early Christians of

the Oasis. The entrance communicated with a long hall that was probably a public area
for worshipping Bes. On the stucco floor of this hall a statue of Bes was discovered in
three pieces. It is probably the best preserved statue of this god ever found in Egypt,
measuring about four feet in height with features that are finely carved and still show
traces of the original paint used to adorn the figure.
Here, there was also discovered copper vessels that may have originally held offerings
to Bes (undoubtedly including some of the best wine produced in the Oasis). There is
a small door that leads off this hallway down a sort ramp to a water shaft that was
apparently used for cult purposes.
Behind the main entrance hall was an inner sanctuary surrounded by private rooms
and annexes. However, there is evidence that suggests that this inner section of the
temple originally took the form of two main halls that were converted into nine
smaller rooms at the end of the Roman period.
A number of artifacts were discovered in the inner sanctuary. They included a faience
figure, presumed to be a shabi, but wearing a tight dress and adorned with a royal false
beard. This figure was carved with his hands across his chest and a tight fist holding a
tool in the shape of the hieroglyph for a pyramid. An amulet made of red copper was
also found in the form of a seated cat, along with a miniature statuette of Horus. In
addition, a round game board made of sandstone was discovered with two concentric
circles. Within these circles were small depressions that most likely held game pieces.
Along with the game, a die with faces numbered one through six was also found.

Other items found within the

sanctuary include two copper
bowls, one of which was decorated
with plants. These were probably
used to hold wine, but another
copper dish on three legs was
probably used for burning incense.
Finally, a bowl made of red Nile
clay was unearthed that probably
dates to as late as the third or forth
century AD.
Bes was a fairly major Egyptian
god, and considering that this is the only known temple dedicated to him in Egypt, the
site is of considerable importance. In fact, some other ruins in the Oasis have been
discovered where figures of Bes exist, certainly making this one of the main areas for
the worship of this god.

The Temple of Dakka in Nubia

by Craig Hildreth

A view of both the Temple of Thoth (Dakka) and the small Maharraka temple

The temple of Dakka,

dedicated to Thoth of the
Sycamore Fig, was
originally located about 100
kilometers south of the
Aswan High Dam in what
we refer to today as Nubia,
though much of that ancient
land is covered by Lake
Nasser. El-Dakka was
known to the Egyptians as
Pselqet and to the Greeks as
Pselchis. Because of the
impending flooding of the
region as a result of the
High Dam, it was moved to the site of el-Sebua, about 40 kilometers upstream,
between 1962 and 1968.
The temple we see today was actually begun by the Meroitic (Nubian) king, Akamani,
who the Greeks called Ergamenes, in about 220 BC, though this date is somewhat
disputed, with some scholars maintaining that it dates as earlier as Ptolemy II
Philadelphus 282-246.
However, it is more likely
that, while Akamani may
have been alive early in the
reign of Ptolomy II
Philadelphus, it is more
likely that the temple dates
to the reign of Ptolomy IV
Philopator (222-205).
Irregardless, together with
his son named Arka
(probably Argamani, Greek
Ergamenes II), it's construction appears to have become a combined effort between
these Nubian kings and the line of Greek Pharaohs in Egypt, probably commencing
with Ptolomy IV, though its construction continued through the reigns of Ptolemy
VIII Euergetes II and into the Roman rule of Augustus and Tiberius.

Above Left: One of the Capitals that fron the Temple of Thoth pronaos
Above Right: A depiction of Anqet, the Goddess of the Nile at Aswan
Below Left: The pharaoh offers the goddess Ma'at, a personification of universal order
Below Center: An old photograph showing the axis of the temple through the pylon
Below Right: The god, Khnoum, one of the decorations provided by Augustus

Today, Dakka sits dramatically on a small bluff. This is the only Nubian temple with a
facade that faces to the north and oriented north-south to parallel the course of the
Nile. The pylon of the temple is now separated from the remainder of the temple due
to the missing enclosure walls of the open court. Above the entrance in the pylon, a
solar disk with a uraeus extends its wings. On the southern side of the temple, a small
entrance leads into the interior of the pylon and to a stairway that communicates with
several internal rooms.

After the open courtyard, the facade of the pronaos is

adorned with reliefs of a Ptoemaic King sacrificing to
various deities. The portal of this section of the temple
is engaged to two columns that support an architrave.
Beyond the pronaos, the temple has two sanctuaries,
which include that built by Arkamani and then a second
one added by Augustus. By far the Nubian reliefs
within the temple are the most interesting. They are
small and precise in detail, depicting the Nubian king
making offerings to local gods of Aswan. Some of
these best of these reliefs portray Anqet, the goddess of
Aswan with her elaborate feathered headdress, and the
lion-headed goddess Sekhmet. Other scenes depict the
king making offerings to not only Thoth, but also Isis
and Tefnut.

When the temple was moved, it was discovered to contain a number of reused blocks
from an earlier structure dedicated to Horus of Baki (Quban) that was built by
Hatshepsut and Tuthmosisi III, though this earlier New Kingdom temple may have
been constructed on the opposing shore of the Nile. However, unlike many New
Kingdom temples built in Nubia that seem to have been constructed more as symbols
of power, but isolated and having perhaps no
real public worship functions and limited
priesthood, this temple was apparently built in
an urban center were an active cult was more
likely.
It should also be noted that at the modern site
of the el-Dakka temple, not only do we find the
temple of el-Sebua, but also the small
Maharraka temple, dating from Roman times and dedicated to Serapis and Isis.
Interestingly, this small temple contains the only spiral staircase in any Nubian temple.
However, this temple's decorative theme was never competed. It to was moved to this
location from its original site about 81 kilometers to the north.

Left: Agustus wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt and presenting three ostrich feathers to,
perhaps Osiris and Isis or Hathor; Right: A relief of the Lioness Sekhmet as she angrily faces a
baboon from a small chamber within the temple

Deir el-Bahri
By Marie Parsons

Hatshepsut is one of the more mysterious figures of

ancient Egyptian history. Much is known of her
reign as King, yet so many questions remain
unanswered. Questions such as why late in the
reign of her successor Tutmosis III, 40 years after
her death, did he suddenly seem to embark on a
campaign to erase her name and memory from the
lists of Kings.
In any case, Hatshepsut has left a legacy of
architectural and statuary elegance. Her temple
built in the area of Thebes, at modern Deir elBahri, stands as a beautiful monument to her reign.
Lying directly across the Nile from the Great
Temple of Amun at Karnak, the rock amphitheater
of Deir el-Bahri provides a natural focal point of
the west bank terrain and an inviting site for the temples of many rulers. The natural
rock amphitheater, a deep bay in the cliffs, was an important religious and funerary
site in the Theban area. The remains of the temples of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II,
Hatshepsut, and Tutmosis III, as well as private tombs dating to those reigns and
through to the Ptolemaic period can be found here. The most important private tombs
at Deir el-Bahri are those of
Meketra, which contain many
painted wooden funerary models
from the Middle Kingdom, and even
the first recorded human-headed
canopic jar, and the tomb of
Senenmut, Hatshepsuts adviser and
tutor to her daughter..
An 11th Dynasty shaft tomb at the
southern end contained a cache of
forty royal mummies from the Valley
of the Kings. The bodies had been
re-interred there by 21st Dynasty priests, probably to safeguard against further
attempts at robbery. The cache included the mummies of King Seqenenre Taa II,
Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Tutmosis I, II and III, Seti I and Ramesses II, III, and IX,
Pinudgjem I and II and Siamun. Later on, a cache of 153 reburied mummies of the
priests themselves were also found in a tomb here.
The first monarch to build here was the Middle Kingdom ruler Nebhepetre
Mentuhotep, whose temple became a template for similar later structures such as the
much larger mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.
Temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep
Nebhepetre Mentuhotep was the first ruler of the 11th Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom,

and is often listed as I or II on modern dynastic king-lists. The Theban kings of the
family Inyotef came to power as Egypt was once again unified
after the First Intermediate Period. The Inyotef Kings have left
almost no remains of temples associated with their cults.
Nebhepetre continued his predecessors practice of combining
cult structures with tomb.
The temple is called Akh Sut Nebhepetra, "Splendid are the
places of Nehepetre". It was the first to be built in the great bay
of Deir el-Bahri, just south of the tombs of his ancestors. The
temple was discovered in the 1860s and was excavated after the
turn of the century. It continued to be studied later on.
The temple is smaller and not so well-preserved as is the later temple built by
Hatshepsut. Unlike the later mortuary temples it also functioned as a tomb, and
differed from them in its multi-level construction and plan. A processional causeway
led up from a small valley temple to a great tree-lined court beneath which a deep
shaft was cut. This shaft led to unfinished rooms believed to have originally been
intended as the kings tomb. Howard Carter found a wrapped statue of the king there.

The front part of the temple was made of limestone and was dedicated to Montu-Ra,
local deity of Thebes before Amun. The rear of the temple was made of sandstone and
was the cult center for the king.
The sides of the ramp leading to the upper terrace were colonnaded, and the upper
terrace itself was given a colonnade on three sides. Octagonal columns surround a
large squire structure, a funerary chapel. The enclosure also contained six chapels and
shaft tombs for his wives and family members.
The inner part of the temple consists of a columned courtyard, beneath which was the
entrance to the kings tomb cut into the rock. At the level of the terrace, the hypostyle
hall contained the sanctuary of the royal cult. A statue of the king stood in the niche
carved into the rock face.
Temple of Tutmosis III
Tutmosis III, the successor to Hatshepsut, built a temple complex here. It was only

discovered in 1961, when restoration and cleaning work between the monuments of
Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut was underway. The complex, perched on the rising rock
of the cliffs, was built to Amun, as was a chapel to Hathor. The structure was probably
intended to receive the barque of Amun during the Feast of the Valley, and thus would
have replaced the temple of Hatshepsut.
After a landslide seriously damaged the temple at the end of the 20th Dynasty, it was
apparently abandoned. It then became a quarry, and later, a cemetery for the nearby
Coptic monastery.
Temple of Hatshepsut
The temple of Hatshepsut is
the best-preserved of the
three complexes. Called by
the people Djeser-djeseru,
"sacred of sacreds",
Hatshepsuts terraced and
rock-cut temple is one of
the most impressive
monuments of the west
bank.
Situated directly against the rock face of Deir el-Bahris great rock bay, the temple not
only echoed the lines of the surrounding cliffs in its design, but it seems a natural
extension of the rock faces.
The temple was little more than a ruin when first excavated in 1891, but it has led to a
great deal of successful reconstruction. The temple took 15 years to build and was
modified throughout that time. The approach to the temple was along a 121-foot wide,
causeway, sphinx-lined, that led from the valley to the pylons. These pylons have now
disappeared

It consisted of three broad courts separated by colonnades, probably imitating the

earlier funerary complex of Mentuhotep to its south. These terraces were linked by
ascending ramps, and bounded by dressed limestone walls. Hatshepsut recorded that
she built the temple as "a garden for my father Amun," and the first court once held
exotic trees and shrubs brought from Punt.
Its portico was
decorated on its
northern side
with scenes of
the marshes of
Lower Egypt,
and on the south
side, with scenes depicting the quarrying and transportation of the great obelisks in
Upper Egypt. The portico on the second court was carved on its southern side with
relief scenes of the exploits of her soldiers on the famous trading mission to Punt, and
on the north side of this portico are depicted the birth scenes showing Hatshepsuts
divine conception as daughter of Amun himself.
The site of Deir el-Bahri was traditionally connected with the goddess Hathor, chief
deity of the Theban necropolis, and long sacred to the goddess. At the southern end of
the second colonnade is a complete Hathor chapel, originally with its own entrance.
The chapel contains a vestibule with the characteristic Hathor-headed pillars, a 12columned hypostyle hall and inner rooms also decorated with various scenes of
Hatshepsut and Hathor. At the northern end of the same colonnade is a somewhat
smaller chapel of Anubis, again with a 12-columned hall and inner rooms.
The upper terrace had an entrance portico decorated with Osiride statues of the female
king, that is, statues of Hatshepsut sculpted to appear as the god Osiris, before each
pillar, though most of these statues have been destroyed. The portico opened to a
columned court flanked on the left with a chapel dedicated to the royal cult, and on the
right by a chapel of the solar cult, with open court and altar.
Eighteen cult niches, nine on each side, flank the rock sanctuary of Amun, which was
the focus of the entire complex. During the Amarna period, many of the images of
Amun were destroyed
During the Ptolemaic time the sanctuary was expanded to include the cults of
architects Amenhotep son of Hapu, who oversaw works for Amenhotep III, and
Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. In the 7th century ACE,
the temple area became the site of a Coptic monastery, from which the Arabic name
Deir el-Bahri is derived.

Deir al-Hagar Temple

in the Dakhla Oasis of Egypt
By Jimmy Dunn

Deir al-Hagar (Deir elHagar, Deir el-Haggar) can

be translated as "Monastery
of Stone", and in ancient
times this was a lone
Roman Period temple
located south of the
cultivated area of the
Dakhla Oasis about ten
kilometers from el-Qasr in
the desert. Its ancient name
was Setweh, Place of
Coming Home.
This is a sandstone temple
erected during the reign of
the Emperor Nero (54-67
AD), and decorated during
the time of Vespasian (69-79 AD), Titus (79-81 AD) and Domitian (81-96 AD), who
decorated he monumental gateway. Other Roman rulers made small contributions to
the decorations, with the latest inscriptions dating to the 3rd century AD. The temple
was mainly dedicated to
the Theban triad,
consisting of Amun-Re,
Mut and Khonsu,
though Seth, who was
the principle god of the
Oasis, was also honored
here. Here, Seth is
depicted with a falcon
head and a blue
anthropomorphic body.
There are cartouches of Roman emperors on the temple walls mixed among more
recent additions, for almost every traveler who came to Dakhla in the nineteenth

century etched there names, including Edmondstone, Houghton, Hyde and Cailliaud,
as well as the entire Rohlf expedition. Edmondstone recorded the date of his visit as
February 1819, at Aim Amur as
evidence of his departure from the
Dakhla Oasis. This demonstrates
that he visited the Oasis prior to
Drovetti. Drovetti, in his diary,
maintained that he visited the
temple "toward the end of 1818,
which would have made him the
first. He only recorded his name at
Deir al-Hagar, but an ex-Napoleon
solder who deserted in 1801 and
remained in Egypt accompanied
Drovetti on his journey to Dakhla.
He recorded the date of the visit as
26 F. 1819. It was almost 100 years
before another foreign traveler
passed by, found the inscriptions at
Deir al-Hagar and Ain Amur, and
offered proof that Edmondstone had
actually discovered Deir al-Hagar.
Edmondstone found the temple half filled in with sand and he tried to clear it, though
he soon abandoned the project and simply measured the structure. At that time, the
sanctuary still had a roof and parts of three front columns were standing. Rohlfs
related that Remele removed the sanctuary roof to clear the sand.
There is an interesting
legend surrounding the visit
of Gerhard Rohlf to the
temple. Local residents
believe that he came to the
oasis, with a treasure book
in hand, to find a buried
treasure. When he was
unsuccessful, they believe
he sacrificed one of the
workers of his group to the
afrit, a spirit, who was
guarding the entrance to the
treasury. Then he took the
treasure and departed.
In 1995, restoration efforts
on the temple were carried out by the Dakhla Oasis Project under the direction of the
Supreme Council of Antiquities. The restoration was done entirely with the technology

and materials used by the original craftsmen. Many stones were replaced, as were the
doors, and a fence of palm branches
was erected to protect the temple
grounds from encroaching sands. A
visitors' center was also erected,
which includes photographs
depicting the restoration efforts.
Today, the temple of Deir el-Hagar
represents one of the most complete
Roman monuments in this Oasis.
The temple building measures 7.3
by 16.2 meters and has a well
preserved outer mudbrick enclosure
wall where some remains of
painted plaster can still be seen.
The main gate is situated in the
eastern side of the enclosure wall,
though there is another gateway on
the south side, in the temenos wall
of the sanctuary. This is where most
of the early travelers recorded their
names, but there are also later Greek inscriptions. There is a processional way that
leads from the main gate up to the temple entrance, and along it are the remains of
round, mudbrick columns which would have been part of pillared halls flanking the
entrance. A few small sphinxes found in this area can now be seen in the Kharga
Heritage Museum.
Entrance into the temple was gained through a
screen wall that led into a wide pronaos, which
contains two columns. From there, a doorway
leads to a small hypostyle hall with four
columns, which in turn gives way into a hall of
offerings before reaching the central sanctuary.
The sanctuary is flanked by two side chambers.
The one to the south contains the stairway that
would have given access to the roof. To the
north, the second chamber was a storage annex.
The sanctuary was decorated with a magnificent
astronomical ceiling, dating to the rule of
Hadrian (117-138 AD), which had pained reliefs
including an arching figure of the goddess Nut,
representing the sky and the god Geb, who
symbolized the earth. In the center of the ceiling,
the god Osiris is represented by the constellation
of Orion, while other astronomical features are

represented by various deities whose task was to maintain the universe. It is on the
west wall at the rear of the sanctuary where the main Theban gods, Amun-Re and Mut
are depicted, while on the south wall the Triad of Amun-Re, Mut and Khonsu are
represented, along with Seth, Nephthys, Re-Horakhty, Osiris, Isis and Min-Re. The
north wall includes the Theban Triad alongside
the Heliopolitan creator gods, consisting of Geb,
Nut, Shu and Tefnut.
Also on the northern wall is an important
representation of the Dakhla god, Amun-Nakht,
and an inscription in the sanctuary records his
earliest known visit to the oasis. This desert god,
who appears to have characteristics of both
Amun-Re and Horus, is shown with his consort,
Hathor. Thoth, who is frequently depicted
elsewhere in the Oasis, is also represented with
his consort, Nehmetaway.
All about the temple are the other ancient
remains, much of it evidencing the Roman
farms that surrounded the temple. Many of these
are pigeon houses in various stages of ruin.
There is a field containing cut, stone blocks to the west of the enclosure, and about
800 meters to the northwest of the temple is a Roman Period cemetery with about 250
tombs. Here, very crude, human headed terracotta coffins of the roman period were
unearthed. When Rahlfs excavated the cemetery, he found a complete terracotta coffin
in one tomb, and seven mummies covered with a mat in another.

Grand Festivals in Ancient Egypt

by Ilene Springer and Jimmy Dunn

There was nothing

better than breaking the
routine of life with a
grandiose festival for
the ancient Egyptians.
Religious or political,
festivals allowed both
rich and poor to put
away their cares for a
day or two, and
sometimes longer, to
celebrate the best of
ancient Egypt.
From extant data we can reconstruct a cultic calendar for the major deities of Egypt,
such as Amun at Thebes, Hathor of Dendera, Horus of Edfu and others. Frequently,
inscribed on the walls of such temples are detailed lists of feasts, all presented in a
systematic manner. Such festival calendars were also copied and kept in the scrolls of
the temple archives. From these, we can often determine whether a feast took place
within the civil calendar or according to the moon.
However, festival calendars tend to list the details of these celebrations, such as their
date, the deity honored and perhaps a sentence concerning the involvement of a
specific priest in a rather terse fashion. There in fact existed comprehensive records
connected to such celebrations, but ordinarily we possess only a fraction of these
original texts today. Fortunately, the walls of the the Greco-Roman temples at
Dendera, Edfu, Esna, Kom Ombo and Philae provide additional information not
included in the festival calendars, which allow us to reconstruct the events in greater
detail. Furthermore, papyri scrolls and fragmentary biographical texts reveal intriguing
and often hidden details such as processions, morning, noon and evening ablutions of
the deity; chants; and speeches.
There was also the
endowments required
for the performance of
these feasts. From the
Old Kingdom onward,
festival calendars also
contained explicit
references to the
offerings that were
required by the deities
associated with these
events. Particularly for
major events, the
economic support of the
king was required.
Much of our knowledge
about this function of festivals is found at Medinet Habu, which presents remarkable

details, such as the exact number of bread loaves, cakes, beer containers, meat, fowl,
incense, cultic charcoal and such, which is listed beside each event. Even the amount
of grain that went into making a certain type of loaf, or a specific type of beer can be
determined by a specific integer that refers tot he cooking or brewing that was
undertaken. This is called the "cooking ratio".
Frequently in the introduction of segments of the temple calendars, or placed next to
the respective religious celebrations, are details of the provenance of such offerings,
together with the amount of grain that went into producing a certain number of beer
jugs or loaves of bread. In conjunction with the cooking ratio, we can therefore
determine the exact amount of grain that was needed for these festivals. Hence, we can
add up the total amount of grain that was needed for the subsistence of a cult, at least
for the major ceremonies.
From this data, scholars have been able to determine quantitatively how wealthy a
specific major temple was and approximately how many priests were necessary for the
preservation of the .
Most of the festivals that we know of from ancient Egypt are cultic, rather than civil.
There were probably plenty of civil celebrations, but our sources are mostly religious.
For example we know that an annual celebration was established by Ramesses III to
honor his victory over the Libyans (Meshwesh), who had unsuccessfully invaded
Egypt, and another secular occasion was the coronation of kings, the date of which
was frequently included in religious calendars. Since Sothis had no specific cult, the
heliacal Rising of Sothis (the star Sirius) might be considered a secular celebration.
This event was recognized as being very important because the reappearance of Sothis
after a period of seventy days' invisibility originally marked the emergence of the New
Year and later was thought of as the ideal rebirth of the land.
Most of the festivals took place were fixed within the civil calendar. They either took
place on a specific date, or were spread out through a number of days. Such festivals
are typically called "annual festivals" by scholars.
Although festivals were a very important part of the lives of the ancient people
throughout Upper and Lower Egypt (many nomes or districts had their own local
festivals), there were a few festivals that were known throughout the land.
New Year's Day (Wep-renpet)
The first celebration of the year was, of course, the New Year's festival. For the
ancient Egyptians, this was not only the first day of the year, but also the time when
rejuvenation and rebirth ideally took place.
Feast of Wagy
Seventeen days after New Year's day, there was also the more somber feast of Wagy,
which eventually became associated with the festival of Thoth on the nineteenth day

of the year. This event was connected with the mortuary rituals of ancient Egypt and
was celebrated by private individuals outside of official religious circles as well as
within the precincts of the major temples in Egypt. Our first evidence of this
celebration is from the 4th Dynasty, making it one of the oldest in ancient Egypt. The
original date of the festival was set according to the lunar basis and this was never
discarded. Hence, during the historical period, there were actually two separate Wagy
feasts, one set according to the cycle of the moon and a later one firmly placed at day
eighteen of the first civil month.
The Festival of Opet

Centered in Thebes, this boisterous festival, known as the Beautiful Feast of the Opet,
held in the second civil month and was set according to a lunar calendar. It was
perhaps not as old a celebration as some of the other feasts, though during the New
Kingdom particularly, the celebration of Opet was predominate. Its duration of twentyseven days in the 20th Dynasty shows how significant the celebration became.
However, we know virtually nothing about the celebration prior to the 18th Dynasty
and the rise of Thebes.
Theban citizens and their guests from afar celebrated the fruitful link between their
pharaoh and the almighty god, Amun, who in the New Kingdom became a state god.
During the celebration it was thought that the might and power of Amun were ritually
bequeathed to his living son, the king. Therefore, the celebration belonged to the
official royal ideology of the state and, not surprisingly, witnessed the personal
involvement of the pharaoh.
Because of the flooding, work was temporarily suspended in fields. The people joined
in a dramatic procession honoring Amun that began at the Temple of Amun in Karnak

and ended at Luxor Temple one and a half miles away at the south end of the city.
At Karnak, the people watched the high priests disappear in the temple. Inside, the
priests bathed the image of the god and dressed him in colorful linen and adorned him
with jewelry from the temple treasury including magnificent necklaces, bracelets,
scepters, amulets and trinkets of gold or silver encrusted with lapis lazuli, enamel,
glass and semi-precious gems. The priests then enclosed the god in a shrine and then
placed the shrine on top of a ceremonial barque or boat, often supported by poles for
carrying.
When the priests emerged from the temple, they carried the barque on their shoulders
throughout the pillared halls and courtyards of Karnak. Then they moved into the
crowded streets where people elbowed each other to catch a glimpse of the sacred
vessel. Many a small Egyptian child was lucky to be placed on his or her parents
shoulder to be able to see.
In Hatshepsuts time, the complete journey was accomplished on foot, while stopping
at different resting stations. Later, the boat was carried to the Nile and then towed
upriver to Luxor Temple by high government officials who vied for the enviable
honor.
The pharaoh himself was there to greet Amun and escort him to Luxor Temple. The
people heard the steady beat of soldiers drums and watched as men from Nubia
danced to songs of devotion sung by the priests.

After reaching Luxor, the pharaoh and priests left the crowd behind and maneuvered
the boat into the dark recesses of the temple. Incense filled the air. There was a
ceremony communing with another holy image of Amun, Amun-Min, who
inseminated the earth, according to the ancient beliefs of creation, and brought about
plentiful harvests.

Now the pharaoh emerged from the sanctuary. The citizens greeted him wildly and
praised his accomplishments; any wrongs he had committed were automatically
forgiven. "He was once more the embodiment of divine strength and generosity, the
source of bounty and well-being for Egypt."
During the Festival of Opet, Thebans could ask the god questions (oracles) that could
be answered by a simple yes or no. A man might ask if his brother in another town was
in good health, If the barge dipped forward, the answer was yes; if it backed away, the
reply was no. Commoners were also allowed to put questions to a god in his temple.
For these exceptional times, the fortunate citizens who were allowed into the temple
were escorted to special audience rooms. The priests would convey the answers either
through a concealed window high up in the wall or from inside a hollow statue.
More than anything, the ancient Egyptian population enjoyed the generosity of the
gods during these festivals. During one Opet festival in the 12th century BC, it is
recorded that temple officials distributed 11,341 loaves of bread and 385 jars of beer to
the citizens.
The Festival of Choiak or Sokar
The festival of Choiak or Sokar rivaled that of Opet during the New Kingdom, but was
a much older celebration. It was celebrated in the fourth month of the Egyptian civil
calendar, lasting for six days during the interval of days 25 through 30, though by the
Late Period, the festival grew to be much longer. Its importance is derived from its
connection with the ancient importance of the god of the underworld, Osiris, and his
link with the archaic powers of Memphis.
This festival is known from the Old Kingdom and it grew in importance due to the
establishment of Egypt's capital at Memphis during the dawn of Egyptian history. We
find it first mentioned in private feast lists of the Old Kingdom. However, it is also
clear that the deity, Sokar predates the unification of Egypt and thus, Egyptian history
itself.
The Sokar festival was indeed a somber celebration, completing the first season. The
last days of the feast were in fact observed with no small amount of agony and
sadness. This part of the festival soon came to be associated with Osiris, who was
considered to be dead by the central date of the Sokar feast (day 26).
The Rebirth Celebration of Nehebkau
After the Festival of Sokar, it is not surprising that day one of month five had its own
New Year's day of rebirth, occurring just five days after the death of Osiris. The
intervening days were left for the eventual rebirth of the god and later connected to the
rebirth of the king as the living Horus. Hence, the celebration of Nehebkau paralleled
the New Year of the first day of month one, and evidently almost the same rituals and
performances took place on both occasions.

The Festival of the Fertility god Min

This festival also opened a new season and was carried out in the ninth civil month,
although its date was set according to the moon. It is perhaps not surprising that this
fertility ritual is also known from Egypt's most distant past, though most of what we
know of the festival is from sources that date from the New Kingdom onward.
In this celebration, the king cut the first sheaf of grain, which symbolically supported
his role as life-sustainer of his people. It should be noted that this festival, associated
with Min, was clearly one of fecundity and the virility of rebirth, and therefore the
third festival of the year focusing on birth, with the agricultural aspect predominating.
The Beautiful Feast of the Valley

Another annual event for Egyptians to look forward to was again centered in Thebes,
allowed the living to commune with their loved ones in the afterworld. It was held in
the tenth civil month. Though the celebration can be traced back to the Middle
Kingdom, it became important during the New Kingdom.
The festivities began at Karnak temple on the east bank where the sacred image of the
god Amun was placed atop a ceremonial boat and carried down to the Nile by the
priests, very similarly to how it occurred in the Opet Festival. Eventually, the image of
the god Amun was accompanied by the images of his wife Mut and their child,
Khonsu.
At the riverside, the shrines were loaded onto barges and towed across the Nile to the
west to visit the pharaohs mortuary temple and the temples of other gods. This
journey was attended by a very joyous and colorful procession of Egypts citizens.
Acrobats and musicians entertained the masses of people who participated, while
women played sistrumsa kind of rattle instrument that made a soft jangling sound
like the breeze blowing through papyrus reeds. This sound was said to soothe the gods
and goddesses.
The procession ended at the necropolis that was filled with tomb chapels where the

ancient people honored their dead relatives by performing various rituals for them.
Every family wealthy enough to afford a chapel entered the sanctuary and made
offerings of food and drink for their dead. (Archaeologists have uncovered many
offering tables and bowls that you can see in any major museum collection.) The
celebrants themselves ate heartily and drank a lot of wine until they entered what was
believed to be an altered state (including intoxication) that made them feel closer to
their departed loved ones.
Though certainly different in many ways, these private affairs parallel some present
customs of modern Egypt and other cultures in which people celebrate a holiday on
the grass of cemeteries in which their dead ancestors are buried.
Heb-Sed Festival
One of the most significant aspects of this festival is that it was probably witnessed by
citizens only once in a lifetime. The Heb-Sed Festival was usually celebrated 30 years
after a kings rule and thereafter, every three years. This very important ritual
symbolized regeneration and was meant to assure a long reign in the pharaohs
afterlife. The rituals were meant to bring back the harmony between the king and the
universe and in the case of illness or just old age of the king. The official rituals were
supposed to be performed after 30 years of a kings reign, but there is evidence that the
festival was sometimes scheduled earlier. It usually began on New Years Dayday
one of the peret seasonand started with an imposing procession, as did all ancient
Egyptian festivals.
Many of the Sed ceremonies, dating from predynastic times, were performed in front
of officials and commoners who were lucky enough to be a part of the festival. For
this purpose, special courtyards were often built or reconstructed for the Sed Festival,
with the throne at one end and the audience at the other end. The open court of the
Step Pyramid at Saqqara seems to have been used for the function of Djosers HebSed Festival. Sculptors also reproduced shrines of local deities for the Sed Festival to
show the extent of the kings power over all of Egypt.

Those who were privy to participate in this festival of the kings revitalization

witnessed several different rituals. One was the king giving offerings to the goddess
Sechat-Hor, who had fed Horus (the king) with her holy milkthe drink of
immortality. After that the nobles would come before the king and offer their services
and rededicate their devotion to him.
What followed next was the most famous and important ritual to show the kings
continued potency, according to La Civilisation de LEgypte Pharonique: the king
would run around the field (or within the Sed courtyard) while carrying several ritual
articles in his handsthe imyt-pera list of possessions that basically gave the king
the right to possess Egypt.
In the course of the festival, priests led the king into two pavilions where he received
the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt, symbolically renewing the crowning
ceremony. In later times the king shot four arrows into the four directions to frighten
off evil powers and to enforce the right of Egypt to rule over the world.
We can imagine that this most significant festival was accompanied by the usual feasts
including lavish food, drink, music and dance. For now matter how serious the
meaning or the nature of the festival, the ancient Egyptians knew how to celebrate
with gusto.

Abu Simbel
(The Temple of Ramesses II)
(The Temple of Nefertari dedicated to Hathor)
See Also Feature Article by Marie Parsons on Abu Simbel

Not only are the two temples at Abu Simbel among the most magnificent monuments
in the world but their removal and reconstruction was an historic event in itself. When
the temples (280 km from Aswan) were threatened by submersion in Lake Nasser, due
to the construction of the High Dam, the Egyptian Government secured the support of
UNESCO and launched a world wide appeal. During the salvage operation which
began in 1964 and continued until 1968, the two temples were dismantled and raised
over 60 meters up the sandstone cliff where they had been built more than 3,000 years
before. Here they were reassembled, in the exact same relationship to each other and
the sun, and covered with an artificial mountain. Most of the joins in the stone have
now been filled by antiquity experts, but inside the temples it is still possible to see
where the blocks were cut. You can also go inside the man made dome and see an
exhibition of photographs showing the different stages of the massive removal
project.
Abu Simbel was first reported by J. L. Burckhardt in 1813, when he came over the
mountain and only saw the facade of the great temple as he was preparing to leave
that area via the Nile. The two temples, that of Ramesses II primarily dedicated to ReHarakhte, and that of his wife, Nefertari dedicated to Hathor, became a must see for
Victorians visiting Egypt, even though it required a trip up the Nile, and often they
were covered deeply in sand, as they were when Burckhardt found them.

The Temple of Re-Harakhte

(The Sun Temple of Ramesses II)

The main temple was dedicated to Ramesses II and to the four universal gods Ptah,
Re-Harakhte, Amun-Re, and to Ramesses II himself. Of the seven temples he built,
Abu Simbel is considered to be the most impressive.
The facade of the main temple
is 108 feet high and 125 feet
wide with four colossal seated
statues about 65 feet high
wearing the double crown and
having the cartouches of
Ramesses II. They are taller
than the colossi of Memnon at
Thebes and are carved out of
solid rock. At the feet of the
calossus, beginning on the left
are Queen Nofretari, Prince
Amenhirkhopshef, the Kings
mother Muttuya, Princess
Bent'anta, unnamed, but
probably Esenofre, Princess
Nebettawy, Queen Muttuya, Princess Nofretari, Princess Merytamun, Princess
Beketmut, Prince Ri'amsese, and Queen Nofretari, who where all members of
Ramesses II's family. (Editor's Note: We wonder if Ramesses II bribed his kids to
make good grades. Bring home an A and I'll put you in my new Colossus.)

Above the doorway in a niche stands the sun god, a falcon headed representation of
Ramesses, holding a war-scepter which shows the head and neck of an animal which
is read as user, in his right and a figure of Ma'at in his left. This cleverly creates the
Kings throne name of User-Ma'at-Re. At the top of the facade is a row of baboons
which are thought to be greeting the morning sun and indeed the monument looks best
at that time. The sides of the thrones next to the entrance are decorated with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt, while below are prisoners, representing conquered
nations, to the left, African and to the right, Asian.
The entrance leads into a Grand Hall which is 57 feet high and 52 feet wide and was
cut from the rock. It is supported with eight pillars with statues of Ramesses. The
statues on the north side of the hall wear the double crown, while those on the south
the white crown of upper Egypt. Just as other temples in Egypt, the floor and ceiling
taper off to draw focus to the sanctuaries in the back of the temple. The reliefs on the
north wall of the Grand Hall show scenes from the Battle of Kadesh. Other walls
depict the king slaughtering captives in front of the gods Amun-Re and Re-Harakhte,
and storming a fortress with his three sons.
To either side of the Grand Hall are smaller rooms, two to the South and four to the
North. Most suggest that these rooms were for storage (treasure rooms) but elsewhere
it is suggested that they were used for festivals related to the Kings Jubilee.
Beyond the Grand Hall is the second hypostyle hall with its
flowered pillars. Scenes in this hall show the King and his
wife, Nefertari making offerings to Amun and Re-Harakhte
(the Sun God), and beyond that is the three chapels, the
central one containing the four deities worshipped in the
temple (including Ramesses II). A Solstices occurs twice a
year on or about February 20-22nd and October 20-22nd
when the rays from the sun enter the front of the temple and

bathe the statues of the Gods 200 feet inside the temple with light. Interestingly
enough, all but Ptah, the source of Chthonian life.
On either side of the Facade are two small chapels. At the Southeast corner of the
facade there are three stelae. One of these is called the Marriage Stela and documents
the marriage of Ramesses II to the daughter of the King of the Hittites. (Editors Note:
The question is, what did she look like? Did Ramesses consider this a heroic deed?)
On the other side of the Facade is the Sun Chapel, an open court dedicated to the sun.
Here, there are pillars with cavetto cornices. The one with steps held four praying
baboons, the other a chapel with images of Khepri and Baboon-Thoth. The latter is
now in the Antiquities Museum in Cairo.

The Ramessuem on the West Bank at Luxor, Egypt

By Mark Andrews

Ramesses II built his fabulous

mortuary temple on the site of Seti I's
ruined temple, where he identified
himself with the local form of the God,
Amun. It was begun early in his reign,
and took twenty years to complete. It
was described by Diodorus as the 'tomb
of Ozymandia' which inspired a verse
by the great poet, Percy Bysshe
Shelley. Diodorus also mentions a
'sacred library' at the temple, though
modern Egypologists have found no
evidence to support this claim. This
great temple reportedly rivaled the
wonders of the temple at Abu Simbel,
and is very similar both in reliefs and architecture to Ramesses III's mortuary temple at
Medinet Habu. However, Ramesses built the temple too close to the Nile and the flood
waters took their toll. Only a single colonnade remains of the First Courtyard.
The main building where the funerary cult of the king was celebrated was a typical
stone-built New Kingdom temple. It consisting of two successive courtyards with
pylon entrances, and a hypostyle hall with surrounding annexes. The pylons, some of
the oldest examples of such structures, are decorated with scenes from the Battle of
Qadesh (Kadesh). These scenes show Ramesses fighting the Hittites. He is depicted in
a heroic counterattack, standing in his chariot firing arrows with deadly precision at

the fleeing Hittites.

The second court is much more complete
then the first. It is flaked both east and
west by pillarered porticos with Osiride
statues of Ramesses. These statues show
Ramesses being summoned to rebirth in
anew life, tightly wrapped in a shroud with
his arms crossed, holding his scepters.
The hypostyle hall has a well preserved
ceiling in the center. It was lit by traceried
windows. Behind the facade on the interior
(south) wall is a scene showing the capture
of the Syrian fortress of Dapur, while
across the hall at the far end of the west
wall, Ramesses Ii si depicted receiving his
scepters from Amun-Re. The Hall lead to a
room for the sacred bark (a ritual boat) and
sanctuary.
The remains of the complex include a royal palace and a large number of mud-brick
granaries and storerooms, as well as a small temple dedicated to Ramesses' mother,
Tuya, and wife, Nefertari.
Beneath the floor of the mortuary temple is a shaft tomb of a Middle Kingdom priest
that was excavated by James Quibell in the late nineteenth century. This very
interesting find revealed religious and magical artefacts, including a statuette of a
woman wearing a lion mask and holding two snake wands (now in the Manchester
Museum), an ivory clapper, a section of a magic rod, a female fertility figure, a bronze
cobra wand (now in
the Fitzwillima
Museum,
Cambridge) and a
box of papyri in
scribed with a wide
range of religious,
literary and magical
texts.
It is also likely that
there was a school
for scribal training
in the complex, as
evidenced by a large
pile of ostraca. A
number of papyri of

the Third Intermediate Period have been found at the site, as well as an elite cemetery
of about the same time period.
In front of the ruins is the base of the colossus of Ramesses that once stood 17m
(about 69 feet) high. The statue would have weighed more than 1,000 tons and was
bought from Aswan in one piece. On the granite colossus's shoulder is an inscription
describing Ramesses as the "sun of Princes". The statue fell into the Second Court and
the head and torso remain there, but the other broken pieces are in museums all over
the world. It is this statue that Shelly's poem, though completely incorrect, alludes to:
I met a traveller from an antique land
Who Said: Two vast and trunkless legs of stone
Stand in the desert, Near them, on the sand,
Half sunk, a shattered visage lies, whose frown,
And wrinkled lip, and sneer of cold command,
Tell that its sculptor well those passions read
Which yet survive, stamped on these lifeless things,
The hand that mocked them, and the heart that fed.
And on the pedestal these words appear:
"My name is Ozymandias, king of kings;
Look on my work, ye Might, and despair!?
Nothing beside remains, Round the decay
Of that colossal wreck, boundless and bare,
The lone and leve sand stretch far away.

Colossi of Memnon

Amenhotep III (18th Dynasty) built a mortuary temple in Thebes that was guarded by
two gigantic statues on the outer gates. All that remains now are the 23 meter (75 ft)
high, one thousand ton statues of Amenhotep III. Though damaged by nature and
ancient tourists, the statues are still impressive.

Ancient Egyptians called the southern of the two statues "Ruler of Rulers". Later
travelers called them "Shammy and "Tammy", which may have been a corruption of
the Arabic words for "left" and "right". Today they are known locally as "el-Colossat",
or "es-Salamat". The statues are made from carved blocks of quartzite quarried either
at Giza or Gebel es-Silsila. The Northern statue depicts Amenhotep III with his
mother, Mutemwia, while the southern statue is of Amenhotep III with his wife, Tiy
and one of his daughters. On the sides of the statues are reliefs depicting Nile gods
joining together plants symbolizing Upper and Lower Egypt.
Due to an earthquake in 27 BC, these statues became known for a bell like tone that
usually occurred in the morning due to rising temperatures and humidity. Thus they
were equated by the early Greek travelers with the figure of Memnon, the son of
Aurora who's mother, Eos, was the goddess of dawn. To be granted a song meant that
you were very much in favor of the gods. Visitors came from miles around to hear the
music, including Emperor Hadrian, in 130 A.D. The Roman emperor Septimius
Severus, seeking to repair the statues in 199 AD, inadvertently silenced them forever.

A Tour Egypt Support Document

Kadesh
The city of Kadesh was located on the Orontes River in western Syria. It controlled the
northern part of the Bika Road linking the coast to Anti-Lebanon.
It is mentioned for the first time in Egyptian sources when Tuthmose III defeated a
Syrian insurrection under the leadership of the prince of Kadesh at Megiddo in
Palestine. It remained an Egyptian outpost until it came under Hittite rule (c. 1340 BCE,
during reign of Akhenaten). King Shutatarra of Kadesh was one of the foreign rulers
mentioned in the Amarna letters. Later, it was
Leading Up to the Battle of Kadesh
(The Battle of Kadesh, Part I)
by Troy Fox

The Battle of Kadesh is one of the most well known military campaigns of history
because it is the earliest battle that can be reliably reconstructed in detail from various
records on both sides of the conflict. Fought between Ramesses II, one of Egypt's best
known pharaohs, and the Hittites under Muwatallish (along with a number of allies),
this battle over control of Syrian territory has received considerable attention by many
analysts over the years.
However, in order to completely understand this historical event, it is necessary to
examine the history that led up to this famous battle, for it was very literally hundreds
of years in the making.
From almost the beginning of recorded
history, Egypt was active in the Levant
region of southern Syria, particularly at
the port of Byblos, where the earliest
inspirational evidence of an Egyptian
king was that of Khasekhemwy of
Egypt's 2nd Dynasty. From that time
onward, Egypt had some involvement in
the region, if only in the realms of
diplomacy and trade.
However, over an extended period of
time, the great powers of the Ancient
Near East sought to control Syria in
order to exploit the economic resources
and trade of the region. Syria was the
cross roads of world commerce during
Egypt's New Kingdom, where goods
from the Aegean and beyond entered the
Near East by way of ports such as
Ugarit. The ships that docked in these
ports dominated maritime trade in the
eastern Mediterranean. They carried a
rich variety of goods, including copper,
tin, chemicals, tools, glass ingots, ivory, faience, jewelry, luxury goods, timber, textiles
foodstuff together with other products that were then distributed throughout the Near
East and beyond over a network of extensive trade routes. In turn, these same land
routes were used by traders who brought raw material such as precious metals, tin,
copper, lapis lazuli and other merchandise from as far away as Iran and Afghanistan to
sell in the Syrian markets.

Hence, it is easy to understand Egypt's

involvement in the region. However,
though Senusret III (12th Dynasty), seems
to have fought one campaign in southern
Syria culminating in the capture of the City
of Shechem, the early Egyptian's appear to
have been, for the most part, rather
indifferent regarding this important region.
But beginning with Senusret III, who
operating out of the new northern capital
named Itjtawy established by Amenemhat I
in the area of Lisht, the scene was set for a
more vigorous foreign policy. Regular
envoys began to be sent to such Syrian citystates as Ugarit and Byblos, and there was
both an increase in foreign trade and in the
fortification of Egypt's northeastern
frontier. Overall however, the Egyptian policy in the Levant during the Egypt's Middle
Kingdom was relatively naive, ultimately resulting in the Second Intermediate Period.
By the 18th Dynasty, Egyptian rulers were adapting a more mature approach to
international relations and as early as the reign of Ahmose, who founded the New
Kingdom, they began laying down the foundations of an Asiatic empire by
campaigning in southern Syria. At the same time, there was an increase in the use of
diplomacy resulting in a framework of alliances and treaties.
The ancient Near East had an early, strong tradition by which power blocks were built
and maintained. There were basically two types of treaties as early as the second
millennium BC, distinguished by the Akkadian terms, riksu (a parity treaty) and ade
(essentially an oath of loyalty or vassal treaty). While Egypt would become deeply
involved in the southern Syria, the use of Akkadian and Babylonian dialects as the
primary language of these treaties and related correspondence, however, suggests that
Egypt was simply absorbed into an existing network of international diplomacy, the
origins of which probably lay in Mesopotamia.
During Egypt's New Kingdom, Syrian
control was synonymous with "world"
power among the predatory empires
that sought to use the region's wealth
for their own benefit. Hence, over a
period of several hundred hears, Egypt,
and their primary enemies in the region,
Mitanni and Hatti, among other
empires, applied considerable effort,
including bloody warfare, to control
this vitally strategic region. While the
motivation of the various "great
powers" of the region are clear, more
specifically, we can examine more

The Actual Battle of Kadesh

(The Battle of Kadesh, Part II)
by Troy Fox

The Traditional Account

Traditionally, the story of the Battle of Kadesh begins with the army of Ramesses II
advancing upon the city of Kadesh in four corps. Ramesses II himself was with the
lead element of the corps, known as Amun. While crossing the River Orontes (Arnath)
to begin the approach to the city from the south, two Bedouin tribesmen, secretly in
the employ of the Hittite king, led what appears to have been a gullible Ramesses the
Great into believing that the
Hittite army was many
miles away to the north.
Ramesses II, believing he
had stolen a strategic
advantage, having arrived
on the battle grounds early,
ordered the army of Amun
onward without delay.
However, after making
camp to the northwest of
Kadesh, Ramesses II was
rather unnerved to discover
from captured enemy scouts
that the Hittite army had
already arrived. Located behind the Kadesh tell, they were even now ready for battle.
Hearing this news, Ramesses II sent his vizier to the army (really, more of a division)
of Re some miles back to hurry them forward. However, they were ambushed by
2,500 Hittite chariots as they crossed the plain of Kadesh and so were overcome. This
force then wheeled north and attacked Ramesses II's encampment, overrunning them
as well. Though many of Amun's troops panicked and abandoned Ramesses to his fate,
the Pharaoh donned his armor and from his chariot, almost single handedly held off
the Hittite chariotry inflicting heavy losses on them. However, Ramesses II may
really have been saved by the vision of booty within his camp, which seems to have
occupied the enemy troops.

Overseeing the battle and observing the fate of his original chariot attack, the Hittite
king ordered a further 1,000 chariots into the battle arena. However, just as these
additional warriors reached the battle front, Ramesses II was saved by the arrival of
the Ne'arin. This was a second body of troops that Ramesses II had detached from the
main campaign and ordered to approach Kadesh from the north. With the aid of these
troops, Ramesses II was able to fend off the Hittite attack and win the battle, leaving
many of the enemy
dead on the battle field
and the survivors faced
with the humiliation of
having to swim back
across the Orontes
River to escape the
wrath of the Pharaoh.
Some accounts of the
battle have the two
warring parties facing off once again the next day, but the ultimate results of the
contest was a truce, after which the Egyptians and Hittites withdrew to their respective
homelands (Ramesses II, having crushed his enemies).
The above is basically the Egyptian account of the Battle of Kadesh, and it probably
does provide a framework for the overall action, though over the years, hardly any
detail has escaped the attention of analysts. Though the battle may indeed be the
earliest military action recorded in detail, there are many specifics that are either
missing or are subject to considerable debate. In fact, Ramesses II certainly presented
the battle with an obvious prejudice, particularly towards his own actions and deeds,
but indeed, even the main three sources that we have of the battle, consisting of a
poem, bulletin and reliefs, even disagree on some of the facts, and the scattered
information derived from Hittite sources only confuse the matter additionally.
Prelude to the Battle of Kadesh
The Battle of Kadesh fought by Ramesses II was a long time in the making, and not
the first to be fought between the Hattities and Egyptians over this small, but
strategically located vassal state. Ramesses II had probably accompanied his father,
Seti I on one similar campaign prior to his ascending the throne of Egypt. However,
though Seti I may have taken Kadesh, by the time of Ramesses II's reign, it was back
in the hands of the Hattities.
From the onset of Ramesses II's reign, it is apparent that he intended to renew the
struggle for domination in southern Syria, and so almost immediately he began
preparing for the coming hostilities. He added a fourth field army to his military
establishment, and expanded the eastern Delta city of Pi-Ramasses, his new capital, to
act as a staging point for operations in the Levant.
In his fourth year, during the spring of 1301 BC, Ramesses led his army into southern

Syria for the first time as king, reaching as far as Simyra and succeeding in returning
the Amurru kingdom to the Egyptian fold.

Map of the General Region

It soon became evident to the Hittite king, Muwatallish, that in order to protect his
holdings in Syria, he would have to confront the Egyptians in a major military
campaign. The venue of this coming battle was never in doubt by either party. They
would meet beneath the walls of Kadesh in order to settle once and for all the future of
their respective empires in Syria.
In fact, it is likely that the Hittites and the Egyptians agreed on the site, as well as the
time of battle in advance. Certainly, there is an inference of this considering that the
two sides arrived on the scene of Kadesh at about the same time during the month of
May, 1300 BC. It should be noted however that this was not an ideal battleground for
the Egyptians. The Hittites were operating in a region that was under their control
where their supply lines were short. They probably staged their campaign out of
Carchemish, not far from Kadesh at all. Furthermore, the city of Kadesh, currently
under their command, was large enough to accommodate the Hittite army should
matters go awry. It provided a good defensive position, surrounded by both a mote
and the Orontes River itself.

Ramesses II would also have to

contend with one of the largest
armies ever assembled by the
kingdom of Hatti. Though no
substantiating sources have ever
been unearthed, Ramesses speaks
of the Hittites having eighteen
allied and vassal states providing
some 3,700 chariots and 37,000
infantry. We know that these
included Aleppo, Khatti,
Naharin, Arzawa, Dardany,
Keshkesh, Masa, Pidassa, Arwen
(?), Karkisha, Luke, Carchemish, Ugarit, Dedy, Nuhashshe, Mushanet, Kadesh as well
as the country of Kizwadna (Kizzuwadna), whom he commissioned to:
"...send one hundred horses equipped (with chariots) and a thousand foot soldiers to
the army of the Sun, who will provide for them."
Throughout the months of March and April, Pi-Ramasses must have been a beehive of
activity, as individual units were mustered into the four field armies (also sometimes
referred to as divisions in some texts). One sign of times to come was the notable
increase in the number of foreign troops in the regular Egyptian army. These included
Nubians, Sherden, Libyans and Canaanites. The four armies were each made up of
about 5,000 troops, for a total of 20,000 combatants. While no mention is actually
made of the army's chariot strength, by this date the Egyptians should have been able
to muster a significant force.
Ramesses left Egypt in April, probably taking the coast road to Gaza. It was there that
Ramesses sent the Ne'arin, probably an elite unit, northward from Gaza along the
coast road to Canaan, probably to secure the loyalty of the Canaanite coastal cities. On
a specific day, they were probably ordered to arrive at Kadesh by way of the
Eleutheros Valley in Amurru. The main body of his forces followed the route inland
through Canaan, traversing the eastern side of Lake Galilee afterwards entering the
Bekaa Valley in order to reach Kumidi.
Ramesses II had arrived near Kadesh and was encamped with the army of Amun about
one day's march south from Kadesh. The location of their camp has been identified as
a high, conspicuous mound known as Kamuat el-Harmel. We are actually not certain
about the day that Ramesses II arrived at this location, but rather that he was at the
camp on the ninth day of the month of Shemu (late May). The other three armies,
named P'Re (Re), Ptah and Sutekh (Set), lay to the rear of the army of Amun, each
separated by a distance of about 10.5 kilometers (one iter). While Ramesses II has
been criticized for this division of his forces, it was standard operating procedure to
distance the armies in this manner.
Unfortunately, we have no further specific references to time within the accounts of

the battle, and many military analysts believe that the following events may have
occurred over a broader length of time than what the fluid accounts of the battle might
lead us to believe.
First Encounters with the Enemy
Ramesses II and the Army of Amun began to strike camp on the ninth day in order to
cross the Orontes probably by the ford at Shabtuna (or nearby). It must have taken
some considerable period of time for this to have been effected. Five thousand men,
perhaps along with additional (and probably, considering the retinue that followed the
King, substantial) support personnel, their equipment, including chariots, had to move
down the ridge through the Labwi
(Robawi) forest and ponderously cross
the Orontes. This all probably took a
great deal of time and even if the Army
of Amun broke camp (a major
undertaking in itself) early on the ninth
day, they probably did not complete the
crossing until at least mid-afternoon.
Shortly after the crossing, two Shasu
Bedouin were encountered and brought
before the pharaoh. It has been generally
assumed that they were a deliberate
plant by the Hittite king to misinform
Ramesses II, and indeed, they informed
him that the Hittite army was some
distance to the north in the land of
Aleppo.
In bronze age encounters, this would
have given Ramesses II considerable
advantage. One of the most important
aspects of such a battle, after a long march by opposing armies, was a period of rest
and reorganization for battle readiness. Ramesses obviously took considerable
assurance that he was in a superior position to the Hittite forces, and even the Egyptian
accounts of the campaign do not attempt to hide his gullibility on this matter.
However, historians may be too quick to lay blame on Ramesses II. The king clearly
followed normal army operating procedures, and it was common for a screening force
of chariots or horsemen to move ahead of the marching army. This advanced element
was either absent, or may have shared the overconfidence of the pharaoh, but in any
event, it would not have been the task of the king to oversee every operation of his
army, for he had senior officers for that purpose.
At any rate, the Army of Amun arrived in a somewhat casual manner at their campsite
on the plains of Kadesh, northwest of the city, perhaps late on the ninth day, not
realizing that the entire Hittite army was camped on the opposite side of the Kadesh

mound. While we do not know the precise location of his camp, it is likely that he
used the same site as that of Seti I some years before. The Egyptian's no doubt set up
camp with the
expectations of an
extended stay, for at the
center of the camp they
erected a shrine to the
god Amun, together with
the great tent of the
pharaoh where Ramesses
II "took his seat on a
throne of gold".
Certainly it seems that if
reconnaissance of any manner was ordered previously it was ineffectual, but now the
Egyptian scouts made good by returning with two prisoners found lurking near the
Egyptian camp. Refusing at first to talk, they were beaten before being dragged before
Rameses II. The historical documents record that:
"Then said His Majesty, 'What are you'? They replied, 'We belong to the ruler of Hatti!
He sent us out to see where Your Majesty was.' Said His Majesty to them, 'Where is he,
the Ruler of Hatti? See, I heard it said that he was in the land of Aleppo, north of
Tunip.' They replied, 'Behold, the Ruler of Hatti has already come, together with many
foreign lands that he brought as allies...See, they are poised armed and ready to fight
behind Old Kadesh?'"
It must have been a great shock to Ramesses II, who, only moments before, had
figured he held an advantage to his adversary, having arrived on the plain of Kadesh
first. As the full implications of this new information sank in, Ramesses must have
understood that he and his army stared absolute disaster in the face. Not only was the
Hittite army rested and ready for battle, but he had arrived at Kadesh with only a small
part of his overall forces.
A conference was quickly called with his senior staff, where the king revealed to them
their dire predicament. This resulted in the realization that all would be lost unless
their forces could be quickly consolidated, and therefore, the king's vizier was quickly
sent south in order to implement a rapid advance by Egypt's other forces. However, at
this point the events that follow become somewhat difficult to recount.
If indeed the Egyptian Army left their camp and crossed the Orontes River on the
ninth day, then it must have been somewhat late that day that the Hittite scouts were
discovered, and even later by the time they were handed over to Ramesses after being
tortured. Some authorities believe therefore that the vizier would not have reached the
closest forces to Ramesses, the Army of Re, until the morning of the tenth day.
However, that army had probably advanced northward just as the Army of Amun had,
camping perhaps in the same location that the Ramesses II had occupied previous to
his crossing of the Orontes. Hence, it is very possible that the vizier did in fact reach

the southern forces late on the day of the ninth.

The Forces Engage
We know that the Army of Re mustered their forces and, as soon as they could break
camp, attempted to close ranks with the Army of Amun as the vizier continued south
in order to warn Egypt's other forces. Soon the Army of Re was crossing the River
Orontes but Ramesses II would be disappointed if he expected their timely arrival.
However, whether this division of the Egyptian army crossed the River late on the
nine day of the month of Shemu or early on the tenth day is open to speculation.
regardless, what transpired next could not have been as much of a surprise as the
ancient text makes of it.
As the Army of Re crossed the Orontes
River, they were set upon by Hittite
chariotry, who emerged from the tree
line to the right of the column about
three quarters of a mile distant.
However, it should be noted that some
time must have elapsed between the
dispatch of the vizier and the Army of
Re's crossing of the Orontes. They,
along with the Army of Amun under
the direct command of Ramesses, had
some period of time to prepare
themselves for the ensuing hostilities,
for it must have taken time for the
vizier to both have reached and warned
the army of Re, as well for that division
to have struck camp and crossed the
Orontes.
Yet, this apparently did not prevent the
destruction that followed. Having
emerged from their cover the Hittite
chariots crashed into the Army of Re, as they had been trained, causing widespread
havoc. Many, if not most Egyptologists disagree with Ramesses stated figure of 2,500
chariots, for this would have been an overwhelming force that, first of all, would have
required a significant time to cross over the Orontes but having succeeded, could have
very likely decimated all of the Egyptian forces. For this reason, many analysts believe
that the Hittite chariot forces that attacked the Army of Re were much smaller, perhaps
only one fifth of the size documented by the Egyptians. This could explain much of
what happened next. However, it must also be remembered that by this point, half of
the Egyptian forces, consisting of some ten thousand men, along with half of the
Egyptian chariotry were now on the plains of Kadesh, so the force of Hittite chariots
may have been substantial given the initial destruction that was caused. Furthermore,
the Hittite forces may not have had to cross over the Orontes proper, but rather a fairly

small tributary.
Certainly the Hittite chariots scattered the Army of Re, but probably did not actually
decimate it. After crashing through the ranks of the Egyptian column, they wheeled to
the north following the vanguard of this division as they rushed to the perceived safety
of the Amun lines. The army of Amun
had little time to secure a combat stance,
but given the alarming information
provided by the Hittite scouts, they must
have been in a state of readiness to some
extent. It is doubtful that the column of
Re, which probably stretched on for
some two and one half miles, was
completely overcome by the Hittite
attack. As the remnants of the Army of
Re approached the camp of Amun,
followed in hot pursuit by the Hittite
chariotry, lookouts should have seen the
advancing storm, signaled by the dust
plume created by such a disturbance,
and alerted at least some of the camp to
the impending battle.
Nevertheless, the Hittite chariots very
quickly crashed through the front lines
of Ramesses II's camp, but were quickly
slowed by the impending obstacles of
such a large camp. Even so, they created widespread panic amongst these troops as
well, scattering the forces as they had evidently done with the army of Re. Yet,
pharaoh had been alerted by this time to the attack, and in what seems to have been a
rather cool, collected effort on his part, first instructed his court, which probably
included a few princes, on their defense, and then proceeded to dress himself in armor
and prepare his immediate guard for a battle which he would heroically lead.
By this time, the Hittite chariotry forces were concentrated within the camp and
perhaps at a point where they had become somewhat disorganized. They were
probably also in a position where maneuverability of their much larger chariots was
difficult because of obstacles within the camp. Further, after attacking the Re column
and wheeling northward for the camp of Amun, their horses must have surely been
exhausted. Doubtless, they had even lost a few of their kind in the running battle that
was even now continuing.
Now, it was Ramesses II who:
":...appeared in glory like his father Montu, he assumed the accoutrements of battle,
and he girded himself with his corslet"

However, before engaging in the battle, he sought safety for his family members that
traveled with him, but thereafter, in a fit of valor, Ramesses II's, together with his
personal guard, attacked the charging Hittite forces and, with the superior
maneuverability of their chariots, wheeled about in successive attacks on the slower
forces of the Hittites.
We are told by Ramesses II that:
"I found the 2,500 chariots, in whose midst I was, sprawling before my horse. Not one
of them found his hand to fight...and they were unable to shoot. They found not their
hearts to seize their javelins."
The results were that the Egyptians began to pick off the overextended Hittite
chariotry. Of course, the fact that the Hittite forces could be dealt with at this point by
what was apparently only a fairly small force of Egyptians is another reason why
historians believe that there were less then 2,500 chariots in the Hittite
attack. However, Ramesses II tells us that he:
"caused them to plunge into the water (of the River Orontes), even as crocodiles
plunge, fallen upon their faces. I killed among them according as I willed".
However, there may have also been a
somewhat larger number of Egyptian
forces who stood against the Hittite
forces rather than running in the
cowardly manner that the reliefs depict.
It is difficult to imagine, having been
warned of their dire circumstances by
the Hittite scouts, that the Amun camp
was not highly alert and that the five
thousand troops of that division were
not in a state of battle readiness. It is
more than somewhat likely, given his
vanity on such matters, that Ramesses
II empathized his own heroism on the
walls of his temples at the expense of
his armed forces.
Irregardless, the Hittite forces began to
lose their initial advantage.
Overlooking the battle scene along with
the nobles and high officials who had
accompanied the Hittite army,
Muwatallish monarch appears to have been shaken by the Egyptian recovery that he
witnessed within the running battle at Ramesses II's camp. In order to save his
dwindling forces, he ordered another thousand chariots to the attack. This force
appears to have consisted of the high nobles who surrounded the king. However,

several pieces of information should be closely examined at this point.

First, it is argued that this second force could not have been as great as one thousand
chariots, for the logistics of quickly sending that large of force immediately into battle
would have been difficult, if not impossible. However, the fact that the nobility within
the Hittite forces were now sent
into battle also suggests that the
initial commitment of Hittite
chariotry must have been
substantial. Though perhaps not
as many as 2,500 chariots, it
seems to have left the Hittites
with only the elite nobility in
reserve.
Secondly, it has been suggested
by highly authoritative sources that the initial chariot attack was actually
unintentional. Some scholars believe that the Hittite chariots may have simply been
scouting the Egyptian forces, but when they broke from the scrub trees and saw the
Army of Re, they had little choice other than crashing through the Egyptian column.
These analysts argue that, had the attack been intentional with a force as large as 2,500
chariots, they could have and should have completely decimated the Egyptian forces.
However, the fact that
Muwatallish was in fact
observing the battle with
forces ready to reinforce the
initial chariot attack, seems
to indicate that the battle
was no accident, though
many questions do remain
on this matter. For
example, during the entire
event, no Hittite infantry
seem to have ever been
committed to the battle, which leaves us with an awkward gap in our understanding of
the battle.
As the Hittite reinforcements entered the fray, the Egyptian forces must have
themselves been exhausted from their initial encounter with the enemy forces. If they
were aware of the second wave of Hittite chariotry as they charged the camp, the men
surrounding Ramesses II must have surely felt doomed. However, Ramesses II seems
to have been a lucky man throughout his long life, and now he was particularly
fortuitous. As the Hittite forces approached the Egyptian camp, suddenly, and
seemingly out of nowhere, the Ne'arin appeared, turning the impending disaster into a
route of the Hittite forces.

It is probable that the Hittites did not

know about the Ne'arin. This term means
"young men" and infers that they were
perhaps a crack Canaanite unit who's
loyalty to Ramesses II was beyond
reproach. It has been suggested that,
rather than an elite unit, this may have
actually been the Army of Set, though the
reliefs indicate otherwise. It was probably
no accident that they showed up at this
point, though the exact timing was
certainly lucky. These forces had probably
been ordered to join up with the main
body of the Egyptian army on a specific
day.
Nevertheless, the Hittite forces were sent
scurrying back across the Orontes river
and we are told that many nobles and men
of importance within the Hittite
confederation lay dead on the battle field, or were swept away by the river in their
panicked retreat.
The next day, there may have been some additional fighting according to some
accounts, but this may have also referenced the lashing that Ramesses II would give
his troops for their cowardly actions. In the reliefs documenting the battle, Ramesses II
states that:
"None of you was there...None rose to lend me his hand in my fight...None of you came
later to tell the story of his heroic deeds in Egypt...The foreigners who saw me, praise
my name to the end of all lands where I was not known...Since ancient times a man
was honored for his fighting abilities, but I will not reward any of you, as you have
abandoned me when I was alone fighting my enemies."
It has even been suggested that, even as Muwatallish overlooked the scene, Ramesses
II may have dispatched a number of his troops to the netherworld.
More importantly, what happened next almost negates the resounding victory claimed
by Ramesses II. He agreed to a truce with the Hittite King, who we are told pleaded
with Ramesses II stating:
"Suteh are you, Baal himself, your anger burns like fire in the land of Hatti... our
servant speaks to you and announces that you are the son of Re. He put all the lands
into your had, united as one. The land of Kemi, the land of Hatti, are at your service.
They are under your feet. Re, your exalted father, gave them to you so you would rule
us. It is good that you should kill your servants?... Look at what you have done
yesterday. You have slaughtered thousands of your servants....You will not leave any

inheritance. Do not rob yourself of your property, powerful king. glorious in battle,
give us breath in our nostrils."
Of course, this text obviously offers a view by the Egyptians. It may be that both
parties to the truce realized that additional battles might have decimated both armies to
the extent that they may ver well have become vulnerable to other powers within the
region. Furthermore, Ramesses II was obviously facing a crises within the ranks, so
we are told that:
"His Majesty turned back in peace to Egypt, together with his infantry and his
chariotry being with him"
Ramesses II later signed a peace treaty with the Hittites which would forever place
Kadesh out of Egyptian hands. From this, it is evident that no real victory took place,
or at least not one that gave Ramesses II an obvious edge over his enemies. In fact, it
would seem that the Hittites army even shadowed the Egyptian forces as they headed
home.

A drawing of the reliefs at the Temple of Luxor depicting the Battle of Kadesh.
The bottom register shows Ramesses II single-handedly charging the enemey

Eventually, what Ramesses II failed to do to the Hittites would be accomplished

instead by the Sea People, who would infiltrate the Hittite lands and eventually cause
that empire to collapse. But for now, the Hittites were no longer Egypt's great enemy,

for later, Ramesses II would take perhaps several of Hattusilis III's (successor to
Muwatallish) daughters as his queens and there would be much correspondence
between the two courts.

Egyptian Account of the Battle of Kadesh

Beginning of the victory of King Usermare-Setepnere Ramses II, who is given life,
forever, which he achieved in the land of Kheta and Naharin, in the land of Arvad, in
Pedes, in the Derden, in the land of Mesa, in the land of Kelekesh, Carchemish, Kode,
the land of Kadesh, in the land of Ekereth, and Mesheneth.
Behold, his majesty prepared his infantry and his chariotry, the Sherden of the
captivity of his majesty from the victories of his word - they gave the plan of battle.
His majesty proceeded northward, his infantry and his chariotry being with him. He
began the goodly way to march. Year 5, the second month of the third season tenth
month, on the ninth day, his majesty passed the fortress of Tharu, like Montu when he
goes forth. Every country trembled before him, fear was in their hearts; all the rebels
came bowing down for fear of the fame of his majesty, when his army came upon the
narrow road, being like one who is upon the highway.
Now, after many days after this, behold, his majesty was in Usermare-Meriamon, the
city of cedar. His majesty proceeded northward, and he then arrived at the highland of
Kadesh. Then his majesty marched before, like his father, Montu lord of Thebes, and
crossed over the channel of the Orontes, there being with him the first division of
Amon named: "Victory-of-King-Usermare-Setepnere."
When his majesty reached the city, behold, the wretched, vanquished chief of Kheta
had come, having gathered together all countries from the ends of the sea to the land
of Kheta, which came entire: the Naharin likewise, and Arvad, Mesa, Keshkesh,
Kelekesh, Luka, Kezweden, Carchemish, Ekereth, Kode, the entire land of Nuges,
Mesheneth, and Kadesh. He left not a country which was not brought together with
their chiefs who were with him, every man bringing his chariotry, an exceeding great
multitude, without its like. They covered the mountains and the valleys; they were
like grasshoppers with their multitudes. He left not silver nor gold in his land but he
plundered it of all its possessions and gave to every country, in order to bring them
with him to battle.
Behold, the wretched, vanquished chief of Kheta, together with numerous allied
countries, were stationed in battle array, concealed on the northwest of the city of
Kadesh, while his majesty was alone by himself, with his bodyguard, and the division
of Amon was marching behind him. The division of Re crossed over the river-bed on
the south side of the town of Shabtuna, at the distance of an iter from the division of
Amon; the division of Ptah was on the south of the city of Aranami; and the division
of Sutekh was marching upon the road. His majesty had formed the first rank of all
the leaders of his army, while they were on the shore in the land of the Amor. Behold,
the wretched vanquished chief of Kheta was stationed in the midst of the infantry
which was with him, and he came not out to fight, for fear of his majesty. Then he
made to go the people of the chariotry, an exceedingly numerous multitude like the

sand, being three people to each span. Now, they had made their combinations thus:
among every three youths was one man of the vanquished of Kheta, equipped with all
the weapons of battle. Lo, they had stationed them in battle array, concealed northwest
of the city of Kadesh.
They came forth from the southern side of Kadesh, and they cut through the division
of Re in its middle, while they were marching without knowing and without being
drawn up for battle. The infantry and chariotry of his majesty retreated before them.
Now, his majesty had halted on the north of the city of Kadesh, on the western side of
the Orontes. Then came one to tell it to his majesty
His majesty shone like his father Montu, when he took the adornments of war; as he
seized his coat of mail, he was like Baal in his hour. The great span which bore his
majesty called: "Victory-in-Tebes," from the great stables of Ramses II, was in the
midst of the leaders. His majesty halted in the rout; then he charged into the foe, the
vanquished of Kheta, being alone by himself and none other with him. When his
majesty went to look behind him, he found 2,500 chariotry surrounding him, in his
way out, being all the youth of the wretched Kheta, together with its numerous allied
countries: from Arvad, from Mesa, from Pedes, from Keshkesh, from Erwenet, from
Kezweden, from Aleppo, Eketeri, Kadesh, and Luka, being three men to a span,
acting in unison.

Year 5, third month of the third season, day 9; under the majesty of Horus: Mighty
Bull, Beloved of Truth; King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Usermare-Setepnere; Son of
Re; Ramses-Meriamon, given life forever.
Lo, his majesty was in Zahi on his second victorious campaign. The goodly watch in
life, prosperity and health, in the tent of his majesty, was on the highland south of
Kadesh.
When his majesty appeared like the rising of Re, he assumed the adornments of his
father, Montu. When the king proceeded northward, and his majesty had arrived at the
locality south of the town of Shabtuna, there came two Shasu, to speak to his majesty
as follows: "Our brethren, who belong to the greatest of the families with the
vanquished chief of Kheta, have made us come to his majesty, to say: 'We will be
subjects of Pharaoh and we will flee from the vanquished chief of Kheta; for the
vanquished chief of Kheta sits in the land of Aleppo, on the north of Tunip. He fears
because of Pharaoh to come southward.'" Now, these Shasu spake these words, which
they spake to his majesty, falsely, for the vanquished chief of Kheta made them come
to spy where his majesty was, in order to cause the army of his majesty not to draw up
for fighting him, to battle with the vanquished chief of Kheta.
Lo, the vanquished chief of Kheta came with every chief of every country, their
infantry and their chariotry, which he had brought with him by force, and stood,
equipped, drawn up in line of battle behind Kadesh the Deceitful, while his majesty
knew it not. Then his majesty proceeded northward and arrived on the northwest of
Kadesh; and the army of his majesty made camp there.

Then, as his majesty sat upon a throne of gold, there arrived a scout who was in the
following of his majesty, and he brought two scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta.
They were conducted into the presence, and his majesty said to them: "What are ye?"
They said: "As for us, the vanquished chief of the Kheta has caused that we should
come to spy out where his majesty is." Said his majesty to them: "He! Where is he,
the vanquished chief of Kheta? Behold, I have heard, saying: 'He is in the land of
Aleppo,'" Said they: "See, the vanquished chief of Kheta is stationed, together with
many countries, which he has brought with him by force, being every country which
is in the districts of the land of Kheta, the land of Naharin, and all Kode. They are
equipped with infantry and chariotry, bearing their weapons; more numerous are they
than the sand of the shore. See, they are standing, drawn up for battle, behind Kadesh
the Deceitful."
Then his majesty had the princes called into the presence, and had them hear every
word which the two scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta, who were in the
presence, had spoken. Said his majesty to them: "See ye the manner wherewith the
chiefs of the peasantry and the officials under whom is the land of Pharaoh have
stood, daily, saying to the Pharaoh: 'The vanquished chief of Kheta is in the land of
Aleppo; he has fled before his majesty, since hearing that, behold, he came.' So spake
they to his majesty daily. But see, I have held a hearing in this very hour, with the two
scouts of the vanquished chief of Kheta, to the effect that the vanquished chief of
Kheta is coming, together with the numerous countries that are with him, being
people and horses, like the multitudes of the sand. They are stationed behind Kadesh
the Deceitful. But the governors of the countries and the officials under whose
authority is the land of Pharaoh were not able to tell it to us."
Said the princes who were in the presence of his majesty: "It is a great fault, which the
governors of the countries and the officials of Pharaoh have committed in not
informing that the vanquished chief of Kheta was near the king; and in that they told
his report to his majesty daily."
Then the vizier was ordered to hasten the army of his majesty, while they were
marching on the south of Shabtuna, in order to bring them to the place where his
majesty was.
Lo, while his majesty sat talking with the princes, the vanquished chief of Kheta
came, and the numerous countries, which were with him. They crossed over the
channel on the south of Kadesh, and charged into the army of his majesty while they
were marching, and not expecting it. Then the infantry and chariotry of his majesty
retreated before them, northward to the place where his majesty was. Lo, the foes of
the vanquished chief of Kheta surrounded the bodyguard of his majesty, who were by
his side.
When his majesty saw them, he was enraged against them, like his father, Montu, lord
of Thebes. He seized the adornments of battle, and arrayed himself in his coat of mail.
He was like Baal in his hour. Then he betook himself to his horses, and led quickly
on, being alone by himself. He charged into the foes of the vanquished chief of Kheta,
and the numerous countries which were with him. His majesty was like Sutekh, the
great in strength, smiting and slaying among them; his majesty hurled them headlong,
one upon another into the water of the Orontes.

"I charged all countries, while I was alone, my infantry and my chariotry having
forsaken me. Not one among them stood to turn about. I swear, as Re loves me, as my
father, Atum, favors me, that, as for every matter which his majesty has stated, I did it
in truth, in the presence of my infantry and my chariotry."

Peace Treaty between Ramesses II and Hattusili III

The Hittite version
It is concluded that Reamasesa-mai-amana , the Great King, the king (of the land of
Egypt) with Hattusili, the Great King, the king of the land of Hatti, his brother, for the
land of Egypt and the land of Hatti, in order to establish a good peace and a good
fraternity forever among them.
Thus speaks Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the land of Egypt, the hero of the
whole country, son of Minmuaria, the great king, the king of the land of Egypt, the
hero, son of the son of Minpahiritaria, the Great King, the king of the land of Egypt,
the hero, to Hattusili, son of Mursili , the Great King, the king of the land of Hatti, the
hero, son of the son of Suppiluliuma, the Great King, the king of the land of Hatti, the
hero.
Look, I have established a good fraternity and a good peace now forever among us, in
order to establish this way forever a good peace and a good fraternity between the
land of Egypt and the land of Hatti.
Look, in what refers to the great king's relationship, the king of the country of Egypt,
and of the great king, the king of the Hittite country, since eternity the gods don't
allow, by reason of an eternal treaty, that the enmity exist among them.
Look, Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, will
establish the bond that the Sun God [Ra] has wanted and that the god of the Tempest
[the great Hittite god] has wanted for the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti
according to the eternal bond, for not letting enmity settle between them.
But now Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, has
established this bond by treaty on a silver tablet with Hattusili, the great king, the king
of the country of Hatti, his brother, starting from this day, to settle forever among
them a good peace and a good fraternity.
He is a brother to me and he is at peace with me; and I am a brother to him and I am
forever at peace with him.
Look, we are united and a bond of fraternity already exists among us and of peace,
and it is better than the bond of fraternity and of peace that existed between the
country of Egypt and the country of Hatti.
Look, Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, is at
peace and fraternity with Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti.

Look, the children of Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt,
they will be forever in state of peace and of fraternity with the children of Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti. They will remain in the line of our
bond of fraternity and of peace; the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti will be
forever be in a state of peace and of fraternity as it is with us.
Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, shall never
attack the country of Hatti to take possession of a part (of this country). And Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall never attack the country of Egypt
to take possession of a part (of that country).
Look, the order fixed for eternity which the Sun God and the God of the Tempest have
created for the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti, (that is) peace and fraternity
without leaving place among them to any enmity. Look, Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the
great king, the king of the country of Egypt, has established peace starting from this
day.
Look, the country of Egypt and the country of Hatti live forever in peace and
fraternity.
If a foreign enemy marches against the country of Hatti and if Hattusili, the king of
the country of Hatti, sends me this message: "Come to my help against him",
Reamasesa-mai_Amana, the great king, the king of the Egyptian country, has to send
his troops and his chariots to kill this enemy and to give satisfaction to the country of
Hatti.
If Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, rises in anger against his
citizens after they have committed a crime against him and if, for this reason, you
send to Reamasesa the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesamai-Amana has to send his troops and his chariots and these should exterminate all
those that he has risen in anger against.
If a foreigner marches against the country of Egypt and if Reamasesa-mai-Amana, the
great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, sends to Hattusili, the king
of the country of Hatti, his brother, the following message: "Come to my help against
him", then Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, shall send his troops and his chariots
and kill my enemy.
If Reamasesa, king of the country of Egypt, rises in anger against his citizens after
they have committed a wrong against him and by reason of this he sends (a message)
to Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, my brother, has to send
his troops and his chariots and they have to exterminate all those against, and I
shall ....
Look, the son of Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti, has to assure his sovereignty
of the country of Hatti instead of Hattusili, his father, after the numerous years of
Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti. If the children of the country of Hatti transgress
against him, then Reamasesa has to send to his help troops and chariots and to give
him support.

If a great person flees from the country of Hatti and if he comes to Reamasesa, the
great king, king of the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa, the great king, the king of
the country of Egypt, has to take hold of him and deliver him into hands of Hattusili,
the great king, the king of the country of Hatti.
If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they come to Reamasesa, to serve
him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and deliver them into the hands of
Hattusili, king of the country of Hatti.
If a great person flees from the country of Egypt and he escapes to the country of
Amurru or a city and he comes to the king of Amurru, then Benteshina, king of the
country of Amurru, has to take hold of him and take him to the king of the country of
Hatti ; and Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, shall have him to
be taken to Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt.
If a man or two men who are unknown flee, and if they escape from the country of
Egypt and if they don't want to serve him, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of
the country of Hatti, has to deliver them into his brother's hands and he shall not allow
them to inhabit the country of Hatti.
If a nobleman flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, and if they don't want to
serve the king of Hatti, and if they flee from the Great King's country, the king of the
land of Hatti, in order not to serve him, then Reamasesa has to take hold of them and
order them be taken to Hattusili, the Great King, king of the land of Hatti, his brother,
and he shall not allow them to reside in the country of Egypt.
If a nobleman or two flee from the country of Egypt and if they leave for the Land of
Hatti, then Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to take hold
of them and make them be taken to Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the
country of Egypt, his brother.
If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two men, or three men, and if they come to
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, his brother, then
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, has to take hold of them
and to order them to be taken to Hattusili, his brother, since they are brothers. As for
their crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled
out; their ears and their feet are not to be cut off; their houses with their wives and
their children are not to be destroyed.
If a (man flees from the country of Reamasesa, the Great King, king of the country of
Egypt), or two men, or three men, and if they come (to Hattusili, the Great King), the
king of the country of Hatti, my brother, then Hattusili, the Great King, king of the
country of Hatti, my brother, has to take hold of them and to order them to be taken to
Reamasesa, the Great King, the king of the country of Egypt, because Reamasesa, the
Great King, king of the country of Egypt, and Hattusili are brothers. As for their
crime, it should not be imputed; their language and their eyes are not to be pulled out;
their ears and their feet are not to cut off; their houses with their wives and their
children are not to be destroyed.

If a man flees from the country of Hatti, or two people, and if they flee from the
country of Hatti, and if they come to the country of Egypt, and if a nobleman flees
from the country of Hatti or of a city and they flee from the country of Hatti to go to
the country of Egypt, then Reamasesa has to order them to be taken to his brother.
Look, the sons of the country of Hatti and the children of the country of Egypt are at
peace.
If some people flee from the country of Egypt to go to the country of Hatti, then
Hattusili, the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, has to order them to be taken
to his brother. Look, Hattusili the great king, the king of the country of Hatti, and
Reamasesa, the great king, the king of the country of Egypt, your brother, are at
peace.
If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt don't observe this treaty, then
the gods and the goddesses of the country of Egypt and the gods and goddesses of the
country of Hatti shall exterminate the descendants of Reamasesa, the Great King, the
king of the country of Egypt.
If Reamasesa and the children of the country of Egypt observe this treaty, then the
gods of the oath shall protect them and their [...]
They who observe the words that are in the silver tablet the great gods of the country
of Egypt and the great gods of the country of Hatti shall allow them to live and
prosper in their houses, their country and with their servants.
They who do not observe the words that are in this silver tablet , the great gods of the
country of Egypt as well as the great gods of the country of Hatti will exterminate
their houses, their country and their servants.

Who Were the Hittites?

by Troy Fox

The History of the Hittites

The Hittites were a people who once lived in what is
modern Turkey and northern Syria. Most of what we
know about them today comes from ancient texts that
have been recovered. It would seem that the first
indication of their existence occurred in about 1900
BC, in the region that was to become Hatti. There, they
established the town of Nesa. Over the next three
hundred years, their influence grew until in about 1680
BC, a true empire was born.
This original kingdom was founded by a leader known
as Labarna, and the kingdom was expanded by later
rulers all across Anatolia and down to the
Mediterranean Sea. So strong was this kingdom that in
1595 BC, they were able to raid Babylon. However,
this initial serge of the Hittite empire was staggered due
to the lack of a clear custom for the succession of
Kings. Hence, the kingdom was only as strong as the
current ruler, and within about 120 years, it began to
crumble.
In Egypt, when their empire became weak as it did
during three intermediate periods, usually due to a
decentralization of government, the Nubians to the
south, Egypt's only true neighbors, most often prospered. They frequently took back
land gained by the Egyptians when Egypt was strong, only to lose it once more when
Egypt recovered.
So it apparently was with the Hittites. As their empire weakened around 1500 BC, The
Mitanni empire to the south seems to have gained in strength. We believe that the
control over the Hittite kingdom soon passed to the rulers of the Hangilbat region,
who apparently forged alliances with the Egyptian kings. Within what was left of the
old Hittite kingdom, a new ruling class of aristocracy took over.
This weak Middle Kingdom lasted for about one hundred years While the Old Hittite
Kingdom was indeed strong, the New Hittite Kingdom, lasting from about 1400
through 1193 BC was even more powerful. In fact, at the time, it was one of the most
powerful kingdoms in the known world, rivaling Egypt, Babylonia and Assyria.
During this period, the Hittites were almost constantly at war, either in order to claim
territory from their neighbors, or to protect their territory from other neighbors. It was
the period in which we see the greatest contact, or at least the most extensively
documented contact, between the Hittites and the Egyptians. Eventually, the kingdom
declined, towards the first millennium BC. This was most likely the result of
continuous migration from people around the Mediterranean who had been displaced,
and in fact, the Sea People, who were also a problem to the Egyptians, perhaps

eventually bought the empire crumbling down.

The Hittites in Conflict with Egypt
However, at its greatest
level of power during the
Hittite New Kingdom, this
empire, along with the other
great powers of the Ancient
Near East all wished to
dominate and exploit the
economic resources and
trade of the Syria region. At
this time, Syria was the
crossroads of world
commerce. Products from the Aegean and even beyond entered the Near East by ports
such as Ugarit, who's ships dominated maritime trade in the eastern Mediterranean.
The merchandise from these ships was then distributed over an extensive network of
trade routes, which were also used by merchants who brought raw materials such as
precious metals, tin, copper, lapis lazuli and other merchandise from as far away as
Iran and Afghanistan to trade in the emporia of Syria.
Hence, Syria offered a considerable motive for the predatory powers of the region.
Therefore, it is perhaps understandable that the great powers of Egypt, Mitanni and
Hatti expended much effort, along with blood to control this vitally strategic region.
In the first half of the 14th century BC, the Hittite kingdom came under the rule of a
vigorous leader by the name of Suppiluliumas, who began a systematic, as well as
successful campaign against the Kingdom of Mitanni in northern Syria.
In his earliest campaigns in Syria, Suppiluliumas conquered the Mitanni vassal states
of Aleppo, Alalakh, Nuhashshe and Tunip, all in northern Syria. In the second Syrian
war, he crossed the River Euphrates into the land of Ishuwa and marched directly
south. He totally surprised Mitanni, attacking the empire directly and in a very rapid
campaign, occupied and sacked the capital Washukkanni. Afterwards, the small
kingdoms in Syria fell to him one after the other.
This resulted in the destruction of a status quo in the region which was the culmination
of the peace treaty between Egypt and the Kingdom of Mitanni arranged during the
reign of Tuthmosis IV. In fact, it was the early efforts of the Hittite kingdom to whittle
away at the Mitanni Empire that had caused the truce between Egypt and Mitanni in
the first place, so that they might avoid a two-front war with the Hittites on one side
and the Egyptians on the other. However, these efforts did not stop the Hittites from
the destruction of the Mitanni empire, and in the end, the Egyptians had to contend
with the Hittites over the Syrian region as the Mitanni empire fell apart.

Valley of the Queens

The Valley of the Queens is located on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes).
There are between 75 and 80 tombs in the Valley of the Queens, or Biban al-Harim.
These belong to Queens of the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties. These include
The Tomb of Khaemwese (Tomb 44): Scenes in Khaemwese's tomb show him being
presented to the guardians of the gates to the afterlife along with his father. He is
making an offering in the scene, and is dressed in a robe, wearing a necklace and the
sidelocks of youth.
The Tomb of Queent Titi (Tomb 52): She is probably the queen of a 20th Dynasty.
She is depicted with the sidelocks common to the Egyptian young of the period and in
the presence of the gods Thoth, Atum, Isis and Nephthys. In the next chamber the
queen is shown making offerings to Hathor the cow, and in the last chamber the gods
Neith, Osiris, Selquit, Nephthys and Thoth.
The Tomb of Amenhikhopeshef (Tomb 55): Amenhikhopeshef was a son of Ramesses
III and scenes show him with his father and the gods Thoth, Ptah and others. He was
probably about nine years old when he died. Scenes show him being presented to
various gods, including Anubis, the Jackal-headed god of the dead, by his father,
Ramesses III. A premature baby was also found in to tomb. This belonged to this
mother, who aborted upon learning of Amenhikhopeshef's death.

Nefertari
The Tomb of Nefertari (Tomb 66): One of five wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari was
his favorite and the tomb here has been is said to be one of the most beautiful in
Egypt. The tomb is completely painted with scenes though out. In most of these,
Nefertari, known as 'the most beautiful of them', is accompanied by gods. She is
usually wearing a golden crown with two feathers extended from the back of a vulture

and clothed in a white, gossamer gown. Be sure not to miss the side room where one
scene depicts the queen worshipping the mummified body of Osiris. Near the stairs to
the burial chamber is another wonderful scene with Nefertarti offering milk to the
goddess Hathor.

Valley of the Queens

The Valley of the Queens is located on the West Bank at Luxor (ancient Thebes).
There are between 75 and 80 tombs in the Valley of the Queens, or Biban al-Harim.
These belong to Queens of the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties. These include
The Tomb of Khaemwese (Tomb 44): Scenes in Khaemwese's tomb show him being
presented to the guardians of the gates to the afterlife along with his father. He is
making an offering in the scene, and is dressed in a robe, wearing a necklace and the
sidelocks of youth.
The Tomb of Queent Titi (Tomb 52): She is probably the queen of a 20th Dynasty.
She is depicted with the sidelocks common to the Egyptian young of the period and in
the presence of the gods Thoth, Atum, Isis and Nephthys. In the next chamber the
queen is shown making offerings to Hathor the cow, and in the last chamber the gods
Neith, Osiris, Selquit, Nephthys and Thoth.
The Tomb of Amenhikhopeshef (Tomb 55): Amenhikhopeshef was a son of Ramesses
III and scenes show him with his father and the gods Thoth, Ptah and others. He was
probably about nine years old when he died. Scenes show him being presented to
various gods, including Anubis, the Jackal-headed god of the dead, by his father,
Ramesses III. A premature baby was also found in to tomb. This belonged to this
mother, who aborted upon learning of Amenhikhopeshef's death.

Nefertari
The Tomb of Nefertari (Tomb 66): One of five wives of Ramesses II, Nefertari was
his favorite and the tomb here has been is said to be one of the most beautiful in
Egypt. The tomb is completely painted with scenes though out. In most of these,
Nefertari, known as 'the most beautiful of them', is accompanied by gods. She is

usually wearing a golden crown with two feathers extended from the back of a vulture
and clothed in a white, gossamer gown. Be sure not to miss the side room where one
scene depicts the queen worshipping the mummified body of Osiris. Near the stairs to
the burial chamber is another wonderful scene with Nefertarti offering milk to the
goddess Hathor.

Mut
Patron of: the sky, mothers.
Appearance: A vulture-headed woman or a woman wearing a vulture for a crown.
Description: The very word Mut means "mother" and Mut was the great mother
goddess of Egypt, even outranking Isis. Often Mut was believed to be a sort of
grandmother figure, as Isis was the mother figure for the world. She was said to be the
consort of Amun, and their son was the moon-god Khonsu.
The three formed a sort of heavenly family for their people. Each year a festival
would be held celebrating the marriage of Amun and Mut. The high priest of Amun
would lead a procession from Karnak to the temple at Luxor.
Worshipped: Amun, Mut and Khonsu were worshipped as a trinity in Luxor.

Khenmu
Other Names: Chem, Kemu, Khem, Khnum
Patron of: the creation of people and animals.
Appearance: a man with the head of a ram.
Description: Khenmu formed a triad with Anuket and Satis, and was possibly a
Nubian god originally. The worship of Khenmu dates to the earliest of times in Egypt,
the Unas Pyramid Text indicates that his cult was already old when that ancient
document was written. Called "the Great Potter," Khenmu was the creator of people.
He sculpted them out of clay from the Nile, held them up so that Ra could shine his
life-giving rays upon them, and then placed them in the womb. His wife was the
lioness-goddess Menhit, and their son was Hike. Originally a primal force deity of
creation like Ptah, his role was later modified to fit him into the pantheon of the state
religion.
Worship: Worshipped throughout Nubia and Egypt, his cult centers were
Elephantine, Sunnu, Abu, and Semnut.

Thoth
Other Names: Tehuty, Djehuty

Patron of: knowledge, secrets, writing, and scribes

Appearance: A man with the head of an ibis holding a scribe's palette and stylus. He
was also shown as a full ibis, or sometimes as baboon.
Description: Thoth is an unusual god. Though some stories place him as a son of Ra,
others say that Thoth created himself through the power of language. He is the creator
of magic, the inventor of writing, teacher of man, the messenger of the gods (and thus
identified by the Greeks with Hermes) and the divine record-keeper and mediator.
Thoth's role as mediator is well-documented. It is he who questions the souls of the
dead about their deeds in life before their heart is weighed against the feather of Maat.
He was even sent by Ra to speak with Tefnut and ask her to return when she abdicated
her position and went to Nubia. He is also the great counselor and the other gods
frequently went to him for advice.
Thoth is considered a lunar deity and is often depicted wearing the lunar crescent on
his head. There is a story told of how Thoth won a portion of Khonsu's light, and this
may be the reason. As a lunar deity his totem animal is the baboon, a nocturnal animal
that goes to sleep only after greeting the new day.
Worship: Worshipped widely throughout all of Egypt, his cult center was
Hermopolis.

Thoth, God of the Moon, Magic and Writing

By Caroline Seawright

\\
The wisest of the Egyptian gods was Thoth (Djhuty, Djehuty, Tehuty), the baboon and
ibis god of the moon. Thoth was the god who overcame the curse of Ra, allowing Nut
to give birth to her five children, with his skill at games. It was he who helped Isis
work the ritual to bring Osiris back from the dead, and who drove the magical poison
of Set from her son, Horus with the power of his magic. He was Horus' supporter
during the young god's deadly battle with his uncle
Set, helping Horus with his wisdom and magic. It
was Thoth who brought Tefnut, who left Egypt for
Nubia in a sulk after an argument with her father,
back to heaven to be reuinted with Ra.
Tefnut, the Eye of Ra, became estranged
from her father and fled into Nubia, taking

all of her precious water with her. In this land, she transformed herself into a
lioness. She raged through the countryside, emitting flames from her eyes and
nostrils. Viciously, she drank the blood and fed on the flesh of both animals
and humans. As time went on, Ra missed his Eye, and longed to see her again Egypt had dried, and the land was in chaos. He summoned Shu to him, along
with Thoth, who was the messenger of the gods and famous for his eloquence.
Ra issued the command that Shu and Thoth must go to Nubia and bring back
his recalcitrant daughter. Before they set off on their journey Shu and Thoth
disguised themselves as baboons. The baboon is an animal sacred to Thoth.
Eventually, Thoth and Shu found Tefnut in Begum. Thoth began
at once to try and persuade her to return to Egypt. Tefnut,
however, wasn't interested. She liked hunting in the desert and
was perfectly happy where she was. Thoth would not give up
though, and wove stories to depict to her how gloom had
descended upon Egypt since she had left. The people of Egypt
would do anything for her if she'd just return home. Ultimately,
wooed by Thoth's promises, Tefnut relented and returned to
Egypt accompanied by the two baboons. All the way there,
Thoth kept her entertained with stories. Tefnut made a
triumphant entry back into the homeland, accompanied by a host of Nubian
musicians, dancers and baboons. She went from city to city, bringing back
moisture and water, amid great rejoicing, until finally she was reunited with
her father, and restored to her rightful position as his Eye.
When Ra retired from the earth, he appointed Thoth and told him of his desire to
create a Light-soul in the Duat and in the Land of the Caves, and it was over this
region that the sun god appointed Thoth to rule, ordering him to keep a register of
those who were there, and to mete out just punishments to them. Thoth became the
representation of Ra in the afterlife, seen at the judgement of the dead in the 'Halls of
the Double Ma'at'.
The magical powers of Thoth were so great, that the Egyptians had tales of a 'Book of
Thoth', which would allow a person who read the sacred book to become the most
powerful magician in the world. The Book which "the god of wisdom wrote with his
own hand" was, though, a deadly book that brought nothing but pain and tragedy to
those that read it, despite finding out about the "secrets of the gods themselves" and
"all that is hidden in the stars".
He was one of the earlier Egyptian gods, thought to be scribe to the gods, who kept a
great library of scrolls, over which one of his wives, Seshat (the goddess of writing)
was thought to be mistress. He was associated by the Egyptians with speech,
literature, arts, learning. He, too, was a measurer and recorder of time, as was Seshat.
Believed to be the author of the spells in the Book of the Dead, he was a helper (and
punisher) of the deceased as they try to enter the underworld. In this role, his wife was
Ma'at, the personification of order, who was weighed against the heart of the dead to
see if they followed ma'at during their life.
Thoth was usually depicted as an ibis headed man or as a full ibis, or with the face of a
dog-headed baboon and the body of a man or, again, as a full dog-headed baboon. The
ibis, it is thought, had a crescent shaped beak, linking the bird to the moon. The dog-

headed baboon, on the other hand, was a night animal that was seen by the Egyptians
who would greet the sun with chattering noises each morning just as Thoth, the moon
god, would greet Ra, the sun god, as he rose.
In keeping with his many attributes, he was depicted with a variety of symbols.
As a god of Egypt, he carried the ankh, the symbol of life, in one hand, and in
the other he held a scepter, the symbol of power. In the 'Book of the Dead', he
was shown holding a writing palette and reed pen to record the deeds of the
dead. As voice of the sun-god Ra, he carried the utchat, or Eye of Ra, the
symbol of Ra's ubiquitous power. Thoth was variously depicted wearing a
crescent moon on his headdress, or wearing the Atef crown, or sometimes, the
crown of Upper and Lower Egypt.
Originally, Thoth was a god of creation, but was later thought to be the one who
civilized men, teaching them civic and religious practices, writing, medicine, music
and magic. He took on many of the roles of Seshat, until she became a dual, female
version of Thoth.
The god of learning was also reputed to have been a god of measuring the passage of
time, and thus the god of the Egyptian calendar. It is interesting to note that although
he is related to the solar calendar in myth (where he won five extra days a year from
Khonsu, the moon god), but that as a moon god himself, he was very probably closely
related to Egypt's original lunar calendar:
"...Researchers of the ancient Egyptian calendar agree that the solar calendar of
360 + 5 days was not the first prehistoric calendar of that land. This 'civil' or
secular calendar was introduced only after the start of dynastic rule in Egypt,
i.e., after 3100 BC; according to Richard A. Parker (The Calendars of the
Ancient Egyptians) it took place circa 2800 BC 'probably for administrative
and fiscal purposes'. This civil calendar supplanted, or perhaps supplemented
at first, the 'sacred' calendar of old. In the words of the Encyclopaedia
Brittanica, 'the ancient Egyptians originally employed a calendar based on the
Moon'. According to R. A. Parker (Ancient Egyptian Astronomy) that earlier
calendar was, 'like that of all ancient peoples', a calendar of twelve lunar
months plus a thirteenth intercalary month that kept the seasons in place."
- Zecharia Sitchin, When Time Began
Thoth's centre of worshiped was at Khmunu (Hermopolis) in Upper Egypt, where he
was the creator god, in Ibis form, who laid the World Egg. The sound of his song was
thought to have created four frog gods and snake goddesses who continued Thoth's
song, helping the sun journey across the sky.
He was the 'One who Made Calculations Concerning the Heavens, the Stars and the
Earth', the 'Reckoner of Times and of Seasons', the one who 'Measured out the
Heavens and Planned the Earth'. He was 'He who Balances', the 'God of the
Equilibrium' and 'Master of the Balance'. 'The Lord of the Divine Body', 'Scribe of the
Company of the Gods', the 'Voice of Ra', the 'Author of Every Work on Every Branch
of Knowledge, Both Human and Divine', he who understood 'all that is hidden under

the heavenly vault'. Thoth was not just a scribe and friend to the gods, but central to
order - ma'at - both in Egypt and in the Duat. He was 'He who Reckons the Heavens,
the Counter of the Stars and the Measurer of the Earth'.

The Opening of the Mouth Ritual

By Marie Parsons

When an ancient Egyptian died, he was not buried into the ground, mourned and then
forgotten. Nor was his grave simply visited at certain times and some token words
spoken over it, so that once again he is forgotten until next visit. The ancient
Egyptians believed that ritual existed which would bring sensory life back to the
deceaseds form, enabling it to see, smell, breathe, hear, and eat, and thus partake of
the offering foods and drinks brought to the tomb each day.
Priests would recite hymns such as this one, for Pa-nefer:
"Awake!..May you be alert as a living one, rejuvenated every day, healthy in millions
of occasions of god sleep, while the gods protect you, protection being around you
every day."
Once the deceased was rejuvenated back with all his senses, he could also interact and
watch over the family members, affecting their lives. Letters have been found attesting
to the continued contact, or at least, belief in the continued contact, between deceased
and living. Letters such as this one, from the scribe Butehamun to his deceased wife
Ikhtay, where he asks her to intercede with the Lords of Eternity on his behalf. "If you
can hear me in the place where you areit is you who will speak with a good speech
in the necropolis. Indeed I did not commit an abomination against you while you were
on earth, and I hold to my behavior."

The ritual that would re-animate the deceased was called The Opening of the Mouth
ceremony. It was an important ritual in both funerary and in temple practice. The
Opening of the Mouth originated as
a ritual to endow statues with the
capacity to support the living ka,
and to receive offerings. It was
performed on cult statues of gods,
kings, and private individuals, as
well as on the mummies of both
humans and Apis bulls. It was even
performed on the individual rooms
of temples and on the entire temple
structure.
The effect of the ritual was to
animate the recipient (or, in the case of a deceased individual, to re-animate it). The
ritual allowed the mummy, statue, or temple, to eat, breathe, see, hear and enjoy the
offerings and provisions performed by the priests and officiants, thus to sustain the ka.
. The Egyptian terms for the ceremony are wpt-r and wn-r, both translating literally to
"opening of the mouth." The verb wpi denotes an opening that entails splitting,
dividing or separating, and is used to describe the separation of two combatants, the
dividing of time or even a determination of the truth. The verb wn emphasizes
accessibility and exposure, used in contexts such as wn-hr, literally "open the face",
but more correctly meaning "see" or "be seen".
The earliest Old Kingdom textual references to the ceremony date to the early 4th
dynasty, to the Palermo stone and the decoration of the tomb of the royal official
Metjen. At this time, the ritual seems to have been performed solely to animate statues,
rather than to re-animate the deceased. The Palermo stone states that the ritual takes
place in the hwt nbw, in the goldsmiths quarter, sometimes translated as "Castle of
Gold, (or perhaps referring to the quarry of Hatnub). The textual formula for the ritual
reference is written as "the fashioning and opening of the mouth of (a statue of god X)
in the goldsmiths quarter/Hatnub."
The captions of the scenes in Metjens tomb mention that the ritual is performed four
times, in conjunction with censing and transforming the deceased into an akh. In the
Pyramid Texts and later funerary texts and captions, the rites are also said to be
performed four times. The spells are repeated four times, for Horus, Set, Thoth, and
Dwn-anwy.
It was probably not until the sixth dynasty that the statue ritual was incorporated into
an Opening of the Mouth ceremony already developed independently as part of the
funerary ritual. This ritual itself may have been a symbolic re-enactment of the
clearing of a babys mouth at birth. The earliest implements used were probably the
priests fingers, later replaced by finger-shaped iron blades. In many texts, reference is

made to the fingers of Horus

Earliest references to the ritual comes from the Pyramid Texts, inscribed on the burial
chamber of the pyramid of Unas, dating to the end of the 5th dynasty. One set of
Pyramid Texts referring to the use of the fingers to open the mouth are PT 1329-1330,
translated by Faulkner as "your mouth is split open by Horus with this little finger
of his with which he split open the mouth of his father Osiris."
Other implements besides fingers were added, as indicated
by Spells 11-15 of the Pyramid Texts. They describe the
Opening of the Mouth ceremony using the foreleg of a bull
and an iron wood-working adze. Other inscriptions give an
offering ritual in which two blades of meteoric iron, called
the ntjrwy, are said to open the mouth. Faulkner translates
this spell as "O Osiris the King, I split open your mouth for
you gods iron of Upper Egypt, 1 ingot; gods iron of
Lower Egypt, 1 ingot."
The ritual was thus be performed with various implements,
most commonly a wood-carving adze, which were touched
to the lips by the officiating priest. An adze was an arched
metal blade fasted across the top of a wooden handle with
leather thongs, used in woodworking. The ceremonial adze was made from the metal
of heaven, bi3 n pt, meteoric iron. The adze mimicked carving and sculpture, logical if
the Funerary ceremony evolved from the ritual performed on a statue.
Another implement often depicted in the ceremony was the psh-kef knife. The psh-kef
knife is first attested in prehistoric tombs as early as the Naqada I period.
Psh-kf sets were limestone platters with recesses that usually hold the two ntjrwy
blades, a blunt psh-kf knife, two tiny bottles and four tiny cups. The bottles and cups
are half of light-color and half of black. The same set of implements is listed together
in the inventories of temple equipment found at the mortuary temple of Neferirkare at
Abusir.
The implements used in the Pyramid Text ritual continue to appear in private tombs of
the Middle Kingdom, but a rather different version of the ritual also appears in the
Coffin Texts. Now Ptah joins Horus to open the deceaseds mouth, then Ptah and
Thoth transform the deceased into an akh, and Thoth replaces the heart in the body, so
that the deceased remembers what has been forgotten and can eat bread as desired.
In the New Kingdom, Chapter 23 of the Book of Dead says "my mouth is opened by
Ptah; the bonds that gag my mouth have been loosed by my city-god. Thoth comes
fully equipped with magicmy mouth has been parted by Ptah with this metal chisel
of his with which he parted the mouths of the gods." Here, instead of Horus, the gods
Ptah and Thoth are mentioned. And although in the Pyramid Texts the god Set is
associated with the iron of the adze used to open the mouth, here in the New Kingdom

texts associate the bonds obstructing the mouth with Set. But the adze, the dw3-wr, the
fingers and psh-kf are all included with other older elements.
The earliest complete account of the Opening of the Mouth ceremony dates to the 19th
dynasty, embodied in a long ceremony performed at funerals in or before the tomb.
King Seti I had such scenes depicted on his tomb, and so did the vizier Rekhmire. He
held office under both Tuthmosis III and Amenhotep II. The scenes are among the best
sources on the subject. The stm and lector-priests played central roles, the former
representing the son who was closest to the father, the latter making the correct
recitations.
The ceremony should be carried out in the House of Gold. Once the deceased had
arrived at his tomb, the akhu rituals were performed to bring about his transfiguration
The rite consisted of many acts, the opening of the mouth being just one, but central.
The first part was the lustration or washing. The deceaseds mummy was first set up
on a clean mound of sand, facing south. He should be purified with water poured from
nmst and dshrt jars, and his mouth especially purified with balls of natron from Upper
and Lower Egypt.
The deceased should then be fumigated by incense. This part of the purification harks
back to the Pyramid Texts, such as spells 16-29, where perfume is used. The stm priest
should be awakened. After he is dressed in his panther-skin garb. The stm-priest
identifies himself with Horus and opens the mouth of the statue with his fingers rather
than with the adze.
The ox/bull is butchered and the heart presented to the deceased, its foreleg is severed
and pointed towards the deceased. The hieroglyph for foreleg denoted strength, and
perhaps it was considered that the foreleg transferred the life-force of the bull to the
recipient of the Opening of the mouth (alternately, the bull may have had to do with
reviving sexual powers).
Then the mouth is opened with the ntjrwy tool, and the mummy is presented to the son
"who loves him." More scenes depict the son coming to the House of Gold, opening
the mouth with the mdjdft-tool, and touching the mummys mouth with the little finger
again.
An ostrich feather is presented, the psh-kef knife is presented, and more aromatics are
burned. Grapes and other foods are offered. Then the newly animated mummy is
brought to his place. The ceremony is done.

The Ancient Egyptian Concept of the Soul

by Caroline Seawright

The Ancient Egyptian Concept of the Soul

To the Ancient Egyptians, their soul - their being - were made up of many different
parts. Not only was there the physical form, but there were eight immortal or semidivine parts that survived death, with the body making nine parts of a human.
The precise meaning of ka, ba, ach (akh), `shm (sekhem), and so on is no
longer clear to us. Well-meaning scholars try again and again and again to
force the Egyptian idea of the soul into our traditional categories without
enabling us to understand even a little of it any better
-- J. J. Poortman, Vehicles of Consciousness - the Concept of Hylic Pluralism
The Egyptian's other worldly parts include:
Khat (Kha) - The physical form, the body that could decay
after death, the mortal, outward part of the human that could
only be preserved by mummification.

Ka - The double that lingered on in the tomb inhabiting the

body or even statues of the deceases, but was also
independent of man and could move, eat and drink at will.
(There was both a higher, guardian angel like Ka and lower Ka that came from
knowledge learned on earth.)
Ba - The human headed bird flitted around in the tomb during
the day brining air and and food to the deceased, but travelled
with Ra on the Solar Barque during the evenings.

Khaibit - The shadow of a man, it could partake of funerary offerings and was
able to detach itself from the body and travel at will, though it always was
thought to stay near the Ba.
Akhu (Akh, Khu, Ikhu) - This was the immortal part, the radiant and shining
being that lived on in the Sahu, the intellect, will and intentions of the
deceased that transfigured death and ascended to the heavens to live with the
gods or the imperishable stars.

Sahu - The incorruptible spiritual body of man that could dwell in the
heavens, appearing from the physical body after the judgement of the dead
was passed (if successful) with all of the mental and spiritual abilities of a
living body.

Sekhem - This was the incorporeal personification of the life force of man,
which lived in heaven with the Akhu, after death.

Ab (Ib) - The heart, this was the source of good and evil within a
person, the moral awareness and centre of thought that could leave the
body at will, and live with the gods after death, or be eaten by Ammut as
the final death if it failed to weigh equally against Ma'at.
Ren - The true name, a vital part to man on his journey through life and the
afterlife, a magical part that could destroy a man if his name was obliterated or
could give power of the man if someone knew his Ren - naming ceremonies in
Egypt were secret, and a child lived his whole life with a nickname to avoid
anyone from learning his true name!

The multiplicity of Egyptian thought is so different from the traditional view of

western thought that it can be hard to imagine.
The dead man is at one and the same time in heaven, in the god's boat [Re, the
sun-god's, celestial barge], under the earth, tilling the Elysian fields, and in his
tomb enjoying his victuals.
-- Lionel Casson, Ancient Egypt
In Egypt one person could have multiple afterlives - each
different part of the person would be able to have its own
existence after death, if they survived the trials of the
underworld and the Osirian judgement of the dead with all
of their magic spells.
While the Khat lies in the tomb, ready to be animated by
the Ka, the Ba might be travelling the underworld with Ra.
While the Ab is with the gods, the Khaibit might be with the Ba on the barque, or in
the tomb eating some offerings. At the same time, the Akhu, Sekhem and Sahu might
be contentedly living in the stars, looking down at the earth.
An interesting point to note is that the Egyptians believed that animals, plants, water
and even stones had their own Ka. A human's Ka could move around while a person
slept, and even inhabit a plant if the Ka so desired, rather than the human. The Ka
could manifest itself, as a ghost, to others, both when the person it was 'born' with was
dead or a live. It was even thought to haunt those who did wrong to it - if family failed
to make proper offerings, the starving and thirsty Ka would haunt them until they
corrected this error!
The Egyptians mummified their bodies because their physical form
was an integral part to their afterlife. Being such a practical people,
liking what they could see and touch, an existence without a physical
body was unacceptable to them. Even the destruction of the heart (the
spiritual Ab rather than the physical heart) would mean the death of all
of the other parts of the being, but it meant that the physical heart was
preserved along with the physical body. Other rituals point to the
importance of the physical body after death - the Opening of the
Mouth ceremony allowed the body to breath, while other rituals were performed on
the corpse to allow the deceased to see and hear in the Land of the West.

Death was a complex affair. Originally this was only for the pharaoh, but the rich
soon believed that they could take part in the afterlife, and eventually the poor
believed they could join the ranks of the blessed dead. Other reasons for the
complexity of life after death came from the Egyptian way of clinging to ideas, rather
than discarding them when new ideas came along. The intermingling of peoples, the
different religious ideas and cults all were incorporated into the Egyptian belief
system, giving rise to this elaborate belief system.
From the monuments and papyrus scrolls and tombs left
today, it's no wonder that Egyptians were thought to have
focused their lives around death! But the Egyptians, like
any other people, enjoyed life, and did not look forward
to death. They followed the maxim "live life not that
thou shalt die" - partying and generally trying to enjoy
life. But death, to the Egyptians, was a somewhat better
version of their current life. They would eat, drink and
share good companionship in the stars or in the Land of
the West. They would have servants to do their chores for them. Life, after death,
would be ideal.
The only problem was that there was no guarantee that they would actually get to the
afterlife, and there was always the threat of their names, physical bodies or images
being destroyed, killing their multiple parts in the process. Spells, prayers, tomb
paintings and statues could help, but if everything was obliterated, then they died, too.
No wonder the Egyptians lived their lives to the fullest!

Maat
Other Names: Ma'at
Patron of: truth, law and universal order.
Appearance: A woman wearing a crown surmounted by a huge ostrich feather. Her
totem symbol is a stone platform or foundation, representing the stable base on which
order is built.
Description: Maat was the personification of the fundamental order of the universe,
without which all of creation would perish. The primary duty of the pharaoh was to
uphold this order by maintaining the law and administering justice. To reflect this,
many pharaohs took the title "Beloved of Maat," emphasizing their focus on justice
and truth.
At any event in which something would be judged, Maat was said to be present, and
her name would be invoked so that the judge involved would rule correctly and
impartially. In the underworld, the heart of the deceased was weighed by Anubis
against Maat's feather. If the heart was heavy with wicked deeds, it would outweigh
the feather, and the soul would be fed to Ammit. But if the scales were balanced,
indicating that the deceased was a just and honorable person in life, he would be

welcomed by Osiris into the Blessed Land. Maat's presence in all worlds was
universal, and all the gods deferred to her.
Worship: Worshipped and revered widely throughout all of Egypt. Even the gods are
shown praising Maat.

Ma'at, Goddess of Truth, Balance, Order...

by Caroline Seawright

Ma'at, Symbol of Order

Ma'at, Goddess of Truth, Balance, Order...

Ma'at, unlike Hathor and Nephthys, seemed to be more of a concept than an actual goddess.
Her name, literally, meant 'truth' in Egyptian. She was truth, order, balance and justice
personified. She was harmony, she was what was right, she was what things should be. It
was thought that if Ma'at didn't exist, the universe would become chaos, once again!
For the Egyptian believed that the universe was above everything else an ordered
and rational place. It functioned with predictability and regularity; the cycles of the
universe always remained constant; in the moral sphere, purity was rewarded and sin
was punished. Both morally and physically, the universe was in perfect balance.
Because of Ma'at, the Egyptians knew that the universe, that everything in the universe,
worked on a pattern, just as, later on, the Greeks called the underlying order of the universe
logos (meaning, order, pattern).
"In the beginning was the logos*, and the logos* was with God and the logos* was
God." - John 1:1
* Logos was the 'Word', another name for Jesus.
Egypt, then, was seen to be nothing without Ma'at.
Ma'at was reality, the solid grounding of reality that made the Sun rise, the stars
shine, the river flood and mankind think. The universe itself, all the world around
them, was sacred in the ancient view. "Ethics" is an issue of human will and human
permission. It is a function of the human world of duality. What is "ethical" for one
group is sin for another. But Ma'at, the reality that made all groups what they are is
transcendent of ethics, just as a rock or a flower is amoral, a-ethical, without "truth or

falsehood." How can a flower be "false" or "ethical." It just is. How can the universe
be "ethical or moral, right or wrong"? It simply is. That is Ma'at.
Despite being a winged goddess (like Nephthys), she was judge at the Egyptian underworld
at the Halls of Ma'ati or Halls of the Double Ma'at.
The dead person's heart was placed on a scale, balanced by Ma'at herself, or by the Feather
of Ma'at (her symbol that she wore on her head was an ostrich feather).
Thoth (god of writing and scribes) weighed the heart... if the deceased had been found to not
have followed the concept of ma'at during his life (if he had lied or cheated or killed or done
anything against ma'at) his heart was devoured by a demon (she was called Ammut Devouress of the Dead) and he died the final death. If the heart weighed the same as Ma'at,
the deceased was allowed to go on to the afterlife.
In life, it was the pharaohs' duty to uphold ma'at. "I have done Ma'at" has been spoken by
several pharaohs, as well as being called "beloved of Ma'at".
The ruler who forcibly emphasizes his adherence to Maat on his monuments in
Akhenaten the very king whom later pharaohs considered to have deviated
immensely from her laws.
Ma'at, as would be logical, was also was the justice meeted out in ancient Egyptial law courts.
It is likely that a "Priest of Ma'at" referred to people who were involved in the justice system,
as well as being priests of the goddess herself.
There is a small temple dedicated to Ma'at (in ruins) at Karnak.
The temple is inside Precinct of Montu, the smallest of three
enclosures at Karnak. The temple seems to have been built by
Hatshepsut, then reconstructed by Thuthmose III. You can see a
computer reconstruction of Ma'at's temple at
http://www.ifrance.com/homann/t3maatec.jpg.
Ma'at did not exist until Ra rose from the waters of Nun (various gods and goddesses of
Chaos). She was known as a Neter goddess, and as such, was described as a daughter of
Ra. But without Ma'at, Egyptians believed that Nun would reclaim the universe. She was also
thought to be the wife of Thoth, moon god and god of the wisdom.
She was, really, the most important deity of them all.

Caroline Seawright is a full time worker, part time traveler, anime and manga lover
and HTML programmer! She writes many articles on or about Egypt.

Offering Formula and Ritual

By Marie Parsons

Walk through a cemetery today and take note that on this grave or that,
flowers, cards, and other tokens of memory lie placed by some loving
hand. In some places, some graves might even have food or drink offerings lovingly
placed thereon.
If this is our custom, then we are truly akin to the ancient Egyptians. In the premummification days of the predynastic period, the deceased members of the
community were carefully placed in pits in the hot dry desert sand. The bodies would
desiccate but would otherwise be reasonably preserved. Somehow, in someway, the
ancient Egyptians conceived the idea that, as the body was preserved, so too would be
the style of living, and the need for sustenance, just as in life.
Flinders Petrie discovered such funerary goods. He wrote down his observations: "In
the prehistoric graves there is a full supply for the requirements of the dead. The food
offerings were burnt to ashes at a burning place in the mouth of the cemetery valley; a
dozen or sometimes fifty large jars of the ashes were deposited in the grave. Jars of
beer and of water were also placed, a lesser jar of ointment, cakes of bread and other
food. Toilet objects were providedas a palette for eye paint, a stock of malachite,
combs and hairpins. There were weapons such as large knives, forked flint lances,
copper or flint daggers, stone maces and flaying knives.
The simplest form of offering was found in position at one site: it was a reed mat laid
before the false door of the tomb, with a conical dish on it to hold a pile of flour. The
coloring of the hetep sign in the earliest glyphs at Meidum shows the rush mat and
binding strings and pot exactly like what is found. On the top of a large 6th Dynasty
mastaba at Dendera, the pottery offering dishes and jars were still in place, lying
undisturbed after thousands of years."
It should be noted that what Petrie referred to by the hetep hieroglyph is represented as
a loaf of bread placed as an offering on such a mat, and this sign was used in words
such as "offering" or "altar". Even when the simple mat was replaced by more
permanent stone altars at the beginning of the Old Kingdom, the altar often had the
offering hieroglyph carved on the top, or was made in the form of the offering sign.
The upper surfaces of the tables were often carved with images of loaves, trussed
ducks, and libation or other vessels required. These images would then serve as
magical substitutes for the real food offerings, backed-up by the offering formula and
lists of specific offerings. Often, there were cups, grooves or channels cut into the
surface so that beer, water or wine could be poured onto the table.

The ancient Egyptians believed early on that to obtain eternal life, the individual must
join the gods after death. Since to ancient Egyptians, death was thus merely a
continuation on a different plane of existence of the life they had known, shelter and
material goods were considered necessary for the deceaseds well-being. A tomb
equipped with clothing and everyday utensils as well as food and drink would supply
those needs. Just as offerings were also presented to the images of gods in order to
nourish and sustain them, so also were food and other offerings made to the deceaseds
ka (soul) to nourish and sustain it. The food was brought into the tomb-chapel, where
it was offered to the deceased at the false door, from which his ka would emerge to
partake of the items spiritually.
From predynastic times as Petrie discovered, and probably earlier still, offerings were
made to the gods and to deceased person on small rats of woven reeds. This
sustenance might be supplied for a dead person by the family, generation after
generation, or an officiant might be paid to maintain the necessary daily care. In the
latter case, tomb owners and the priesthood of the local temple contracted to ensure
future sustenance be made as offerings to the deceased individuals ka during the
generations to come.
Yet family lines could come to an end, economic and other situations change. To
safeguard against the cessation of sustenance within the tomb, the magical power of
the written and spoken word was also employed, to ensure a continual supply of
offerings. So hieroglyphs and canonical art were used to substitute for the actual
offerings by providing a ritual guarantee of eternal sustenance, texts and images
creating directly and perfectly the necessary food and drink for the dead forever.
Despite the overabundance of offerings, the material offering was not the essential
thing. The act of devotion was more important than the material gift, as was attested
by the substitute offerings. If actual food offerings stopped for any reason, the offering
formula would guarantee an eternal supply of food and enable the deceased to
dispense with the assistance of the funerary priests for his continued sustenance.
Reciting the offering formula was an adequate substitute for the actual offering. Tombowners often are depicted in text as addressing themselves to passers-by demanding
that the offering formula be read on their behalf. As the owners name is read in the
formula, the author, the tomb-owner, is made to leave on in the memory of posterity.

The hetep-di-nisu, or "a gift which the king gives", is the offering formula or prayer
asking for offerings to be given to the deceased. It first appears as the principal
inscription on the False Door stelae of the Early Dynastic period, which formed the
focus of food offerings in early
private tombs, but it continued
to be used on funerary stelae ad
coffins through to the GraecoRoman period. From at least the
4th dynasty, the deceased was
often depicted sitting or
standing before an offering
table, beside which was an
inscription enumerating all that
was offered. Later on, in the
18th Dynasty, the tombs of the
Theban necropolis portrayed
the offerings as a banquet scene
with guests, servants and
entertaining musicians. As
shown below, the offering
formula was still used far into
the Late Period.
Hetep also means to be pleased,
happy, gracious, to be peaceful,
to become calm, to satisfy, to
pacify. Hetep had to do with
gifts in a perspective of
communication between the
worlds, given in gratitude,
received in happiness and
grace, and leading to
contentment, graciousness, mercy and peace. Because the word hetep could signify the
concept of rest, peace or satisfaction, the sign also appears in the design of jewelry and
other small items made to convey such messages such as "The heart of the gods is
satisfied."
One early example of the "gift [or boon] which the king gives" comes from the Old
Kingdom period, specifically an Inscription in the Giza Mastaba of Princess NiSedjer-Kai, early 5th Dynasty:
"An offering which the king gives and Anubis, lord of the necropolis, first of the gods
hall: May she be buried in the western necropolis at great old age. May she travel on
the good ways on which a revered one travels well. May offerings be given to her on
New Years feast, the Thoth feast, the First of the Year feast, the wag-feast, the Sokar
feast, the Great Flame feast, the Brazier feast, the Procession-of-Min feast, the
monthly sadj-feast, the Beginning of the Month feast, the Beginning of the Half-Month

feast, every feast, every day, to the royal daughter, the royal ornament, priestess of
Hathor, priestess of Khufu, Ni-Sedjer-Kai".
So the offering formula employed in the funerary cult and often inscribed on offering
tables usually began with the phrase "Hetep di nisu:" an "offering which the king
grants"denoting the concept of requisite royal license. The formulae then continue
to name deities such as Osiris and Anubis, through whom the kings grant would be
administered, and to list choice offerings such as beer, bread, oxen, fowl, incense and
clothing, a list of the various quantities of items of food and drink that the ka of the
deceased requires, which were supplied magically by the ritual inscription even if not
actually present.

Typically the first line of the offering formula asks for the king to make gifts to the
gods Osiris or Anubis. But why is the king named herein? After all, arent the
offerings being made by the family in many cases, as said above? This has to do with
the religious practice and procedure of the Egyptian people. The text of the formula
indicates that the sustenance of the ka of the deceased was not simply the
responsibility of the surviving relatives, but that it was necessary for the king, seen as
THE priest or intermediary between the Gods and the people, to intercede on behalf of
the deceased.
Since the king was the main priest, the only actual priest in Egypt, it was only the king
who was evershown making offerings to the gods in the temples. This idea was carried
over into the giving of offerings in the tombs, where the king was also named as the
giver. The formula begins: "An offering that the king gives". The essential role of the
king as intermediary between the gods and mankind required that he should strike a
bargain with the gods, whereby he offered goods to them in exchange for prosperity
and harmony in the land, and also, he would intercede on behalf of the dead to ensure
them a prosperous afterlife. The dead were given offerings on the occasion of the

burial, and their offerings were to be renewed forever, on principle, at certain named
festivals such as the New Year festival, the Thoth festival, the Wag festival, the Sokar
festival and others.
The reason for this was that offerings went from the temple to the necropolis. Since
the Old Kingdom, the practice was that offerings presented to the main god of the
temple were carried out of the sanctuary, presented to gods having subsidiary cults in
the temple, then to statues of kings and private persons placed in the temple courts,
and finally to the necropolis. The offerings were then distributed to the priests and all
the staff involved in the rituals as a reward, or salary, for their work.
The Pyramid Texts contain examples of the hetep di nisu as well:
Utterance 172: A boon which the king and Geb grant to this King; there is given to
you every offering and every oblation which you can desire, whereby It will be well
with you before the god for ever and ever.
Utterance 437: A boon which the King grants, a boon which Anubis grants, your
thousand of bread, your thousand of beer, your thousand of t-wr-bread which came
forth from the Broad Hall, your thousand of all sweet things, your thousand of oxen,
your thousand of everything which you eat and on which you set your heart.
Utterance 599: A boon which the King grants and Geb grants of these choice joints,
invocation offerings for all gods who shall bring into being all good things for the
King and who shall cause to endure this construction and this pyramid of the King, in
accordance with what the King wishes in the matter, for ever and ever. O all you gods
who shall cause this pyramid and this construction of the King to be fair and endure:
You shall be effective, you shall be strong, you shall have your souls, you shall have
power, you shall have given to you a boon which the king grants of bread and beer,
oxen and fowl, clothing and alabaster; you shall receive your gods-offerings, you
shall choose for yourselves your choice joints, you shall have your oblations made to
you, you shall take possession of the Wrrt-crown in the midst of the Two Enneads.
On stelae, the formula phrase is usually accompanied by a depiction of the deceased
sitting in front of an offering table heaped with food. Some tomb paintings also show
Horus, son and heir of Osiris, as the donor, standing with arm upraised in the attitude
of invocation before the shrine, statue or stela of the god, or deceased, and he
pronounces the offering formula. The table was generally physically placed in the
tomb chapel or other accessible place so that physical offerings could be brought in by
the funerary priests, if it was a royal mortuary offering, or by relatives of the deceased.
The earliest examples come from the fourth dynasty at Meidum. These do not mention
the king, but only Anubis. The opening phrases in the Old Kingdom read "An offering
which the king gives and an offering that Osiris gives" introducing the kind and the
god as equal donors. The gifts are not limited to food offerings, but include a good
burial, admission to the realm of the spirits, and even a list of festivals at which the
offerings are to be made. The recitation of the formula is illustrated in tombs by a man

with his right arm outstretched, and in fact the hieroglyph for "to offer" is the
outstretched arm with the hand holding out a loaf. Other men are often also shown
offering poured water, burning incense, kneeling at the offering table and reading the
ritual from a scroll.
By the First Intermediate Period the phrase read "An offering that the king gives TO
Osiris, that he may in turn give invocation offerings." An example of this development
comes from the Stela of Sahathor, whose career began under Amenemhat II in the 12th
Dynasty. He and his wife are shown on the funerary stela beside a pile of offerings.
Captions on either side of the statue-niche describe how many expeditions Sahathor
undertook for the king, and how he supervised work on sixteen statues for the royal
funerary complex.
The offering formula from this stela is translated thus:
An offering-which-the-king-gives to Osiris, lord of Busiris, the great god, lord of
Abydos, an invocation offering of bread and beer, flesh and fowl, alabaster and linen,
incense and unguent, at the Wag festival, at the festival of Thoth, at the procession of
Min(?), at the Burnt Offerings. O you living who are upon earth, who shall pass by
this chapel in the necropolis, going north, going south, may you say "It is pure! A
thousand of bread, a thousand of beer, a thousand of flesh and fowl, oryx and gazelle,
and everything on which a god lives, for the spirit of the blessed one, the assistant
treasurer Sahathor, true of voice."
As time went on, other gods would also be named in the offering formula. An example
of the offering formula from the New Kingdom period comes from Tomb of Paheri at
el-Kab:
An offering given by the King to Amun, Lord of the Thrones of the Two Lands, King of
eternity, lord of everlastingness.and Nekhbet, the White one of Nekhenand Osiris
Khentamentiu, Lord of Thinis, great in Abydos, and Hathor, mistress of the
desert.and Ptah-Sokar, lord of Shetyt, Anubis, lord of Rostau, and the Enneads great
and small, May they give a thousand of bread, beer, beef and fowl, a thousand of foodofferings, a thousand of drink-offerings, all the plants that sprout from earth, a
thousand of all things good and pure, that are offered to the eternal lord.
And from the Late Period comes an example from the Statue Inscription of Harwa:
An offering that the King gives to Montu, lord of Thebes, that he may give provisions
of bread, beer, cakes, oxen, fowl, alabaster and clothing, incense and unguent, all
things good and pure whereon a god lives, which heaven gives, earth produces, and
Hapy brings forth, from the table of the Lord of Eternity, on the monthly feast, the
half-monthly feast, on the Thoth feast, and on every feast, every day, to the ka of the
one honored by Montu, Lord of Thebes, the true, beloved Kings friend, Harwa.
May we today treat our honored dead with at least the same constant memorials that
the Egyptians did.

Apep
Other Names: Apophis, the Destroyer.
Patron of: evil and darkness.
Appearance: a great serpent or crocodile.
Description: Apep was the ancient spirit of evil and destruction who dwelled in
eternal darkness. Every day he would attempt to devour the Sun Boat of Ra as it
sailed the heavens. Set's original role was to battle Apep and keep him from
destroying the boat. Occasionally, Apep would succeed, and the world would be
plunged into darkness (a solar eclipse?). But Set and his companion Mehen would cut
a hole in Apep's belly to allow the Sun Boat to escape.
Apep commanded an army of demons that plagued mankind. Only by putting faith in
the gods of light could people defeat the demons.
Every year, a ritual called the "Banishing of Apep" would be held by the priests of Ra.
They would take an effigy of Apep and in the center of the temple they would pray
that all the wickedness in Egypt would go into the effigy. Then they would trample
the effigy, crush it, beat it with sticks, pour mud on it, and eventually burn and destroy
it. In this way, the power of Apep would be curtailed for another year.

Apophis (Apep), the Enemy of Re

by Jimmy Dunn

With the possible

exception of Aten only
during the Amarna
Period, no single
Egyptian god was
considered to be really
all powerful. Many
lived with the threat of
destruction, and even
one of the greatest of
Egyptian gods faced
such threats every
single night. Apophis
(Egyptian Apep) was
the great adversary of
the sun god, Re. and
was the very
embodiment of the
powers of dissolution,
darkness and non-being.
Hence, he was a sort of
void or "black hole"
forcing those he
swallowed into that non-existence which the Egyptians feared so greatly. Being
completely outside of the natural world, he was believed to require no nourishment
other than to "breathe" his own shouts. He was a huge serpent who was thought to
have existed at the beginning of time in the waters of primeval chaos prior to creation
and his power was so great that it was thought that he would continue to exist in an
endlessly malevolent cycle of attack, defeat and resurgent attack. He is thus known by
many epithets, ranging from evil lizard, opponent and enemy to world encircler and
serpent of rebirth. During the Roman period, he was interpreted as "he who was spat
out" and linked to the saliva of the goddess Neith.
There is no evidence of this god prior to the Middle Kingdom. He seems to have come
into existence in the Egyptian mind during the troubled times just after the pyramid
age. Most of the god's mythology seems to have been developed mostly during the
New Kingdom in funerary texts. There are various accounts of this malevolent force,
but overall, as the sun god made his nightly voyage through the underworld and each
morning as the solar barque was about to emerge into the daylight, it was attacked by
the great serpent whose terrifying roar echoed through the darkness. The serpent was
said to hinder the passage of the solar barque by means of its coils which are described
as "sandbanks", and also by gorging the waters of the underworld river in order to
attempt to strand the barque of Re.
Apophis was sometimes equated with Seth, the god of chaos, yet the nature of
Apophis seems to have always been dark and threatening, while Seth could at times be
beneficial. In some texts, Seth was even enlisted by the sun god in order to defeat the
serpent. According to some mythologies, Apophis hypnotized Re and all of his
entourage who sailed with him, with the exception of Seth, who resisted the serpent's

deadly stare and repulsed him with the thrust of a great spear.

However, in other accounts, Re's companions and even the dead themselves, who
could transform themselves into a form of the god, Shu, were involved in this cyclical
battle for the survival of creation and order. Most notably, in the Book of Gates, Isis,
Neith and Serket, together with other minor deities and some forms of monkey helped
capture the monster with magical nets. Afterwards, he was restrained by deities
including the earth god Geb and the sons of Horus, who cut his body into pieces,
though each night he is revived to attack once more. In fact, in some myths, the sun
god is encircled or swallowed by the serpent who later disgorges him as a metaphor of
rebirth and renewal.
Apophis, like Seth, was also associated with various frightening natural events such as
unexplained darkness such as solar eclipse, storms and earthquakes. Hence, he was
always an underlying threat to the very stability of the cosmos.
Apophis is usually depicted in funerary texts and other settings as a great serpent,
sometimes with tightly compressed, spring-like coils to emphasize his vast size. He is
sometimes described as being over sixteen meters in length, with the first section of
his body made of flint. He is usually shown being restrained, dismembered or in the
process of being destroyed, often by multiple knives. In the tomb of Ramesses VI in
the Valley of the Kings on the West Bank at Thebes (modern Luxor), Apophis is
shown with twelve heads above its back representing those he has swallowed who are
freed, if only briefly, when he is vanquished. Once Re has passed by the snake, the
heads are destined to return into the body of Apophis until freed again, only briefly,
the next night. In the private tombs and funerary papyri, and other scene of a different
type is found where Re or Hathor appear in feline form in order to slay the serpent by
cutting it up with a knife. The serpent is also symbolically portrayed in some temple
scenes (at Dendera, Deir el-Bahri, Luxor and Philae). There, the king strikes a circular

ball-like object which represents the evil "eye of Apophis".

Apophis was, of course, never worshipped. However, he was included in various cults
as a god or demon to be protected against. Various magical texts and rituals were
produced to combat his effects upon the world. In fact, the text that Egyptologists refer
to as the "Book of Apophis" was a collection of these magical spells dating to the late
New Kingdom, though the best preserved example, known as the Bremner-Rhind
Papyrus now in the British Museum, was produced in the 4th century BC. These are
spells for the "overthrowing of Apophis", which provide protection from the powers
symbolized by this deity or from snakes which could be viewed as minor yet
dangerous manifestations of the monster. In the Late Period, these spells were read in
temples daily to protect the world from the threat of the sun god's arch enemy. An
associated ritual involved cutting into pieces and burning with fire a wax model of the
serpent. Other rituals involved drawing a picture of the serpent in green on a new
piece of papyrus, which was then sealed in a box and spat upon for times before being
set on a fire.
However, the deceased also needed to be protected from Apophis, and there were
references to seventy-seven papyri-rolls which are given to a dead person by means of
a spell, containing formulas for bringing Apophis to his place of execution where he is
cut up, crushed and consumed by fire.
As a final point, snakes were certainly not seen always a threatening creatures in
ancient Egypt, as they seem to have been in other societies. In fact, they were
frequently seen as protective and it was Mehen, another snake deity who helped
protect the sun god in the underworld. Likewise, it was the cobra goddess Wadjet who
helped protect the king.

An Overview of the West Bank at Luxor (Ancient Thebes)

by Mark Andrews

The west bank at

Luxor is one of the
most important
archaeological sites
in the world. It is
much more than
what we refer to as
the Valley of the
Kings, though many
have called the
whole of the area by
that name. In fact,
many good books
on the west bank at
Luxor (ancient
Thebes) are titled, "Valley of the Kings", even though they cover the entire area. It can
be a bit confusing for the novice, particularly considering the actual conceptual scope
of the religious concept. If one looks at just the Valley of the Kings, one only sees
tombs, but the tombs were an integral part of larger mortuary complexes. Indeed, the
whole west bank is honeycombed with tombs, not just of the ancient Egyptian Kings,
but of their families and the noblemen who served them.
Layout of the West Bank

As the Valley was in Egypt's Dynastic Period

The west bank necropolis can be divided into a number of zones and sub-zones, of
which the Valley of the Kings is only one zone. The northern sector of the west bank
closest to the Nile River is often referred to as the Tombs of the Nobles, but it can be
divided into about five different sub-zones. Farthermost north is an area known as elTarif, where large, row tombs were dug during the late Second Intermediate Period

and early Middle Kingdom.

Just south of el-Tarif is Dra Abu el-Naga, which is a hillside with about 80 numbered
tombs most belonging to priests and officials of the 17th through 20th dynasty,
including some rulers of the 17th dynasty. Just southwest of Dra Abu el-Naga is an
area called El-Assasif, where there are 40 tombs, mostly from the New Kingdom and
later. Just south of El-Assasif is El-Khokha, a hill with five Old Kingdom tombs and
53 numbered tombs from the 18th and 19th dynasty.
Directly west of El-Khokha is Sheikh Abd el-Qurna. This hill was named for a
mythical Muslim sheikh, and has 146 numbered tombs, most of which are from the
18th Dynasty. Here one finds some of the most beautiful private tombs on the West
Bank.
Just north of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna is Deir el-Bahari, well known for the northernmost
temples in the Valley, including that of Hatshepsut and Mentuhotep.
Finally, south of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna and near the Temple of Merenptah is Qurnet
Murai, a hill with 17 numbered tombs mostly dating to the Ramesside period. Where
there are probably thousands of tombs in these areas, Egyptologists have only
explored and numbered a total of about 800 of them.
Further west is the highest of the peaks in the Theban range of hills. This is Qurn,
which can be translated in Arabic to mean "horn", or "forehead". At this mountains
northern base, fairly well separate from the other burials in the West Bank, is the
Valley of the Kings. Along with a number of unfinished tombs, 62 numbered tombs
are known to Egyptologists. This was the final resting place of many of the New
Kingdom rulers.
South of the Valley of the Kings, and closer to the Nile lies the Valley of the Queens.
This area is inappropriately named, because it houses family members of the kings,
including both males and females, and even some high officials. There are about 80
numbered tombs in this area, probably the most famous of which is that of Queen
Nefertari.
Just southeast of the Valley of the Queens is Deir el-Medina, the ruins of a village that
housed the craftsmen and workers who dug and decorated the tombs and other Theban
monuments. It is a very important area to Egyptology, because it has revealed many
of the facets of ordinary life in Egypt, and there are some wonderful tombs in its
necropolis.
All along the border between the fertile section of the Valley and the hills we find
Temples and one palace. The southern most temple is that of Ramesses III located at
Medinet Habu. The palace, one of the southernmost monuments in the Valley, is at
Malkata, just south of Deir el-Medina, and belonged to Amenhotep III, but was
probably also inhabited by a few of his successors. At one time, it was a huge
complex. The northernmost temple is that of Seti I, which at one time also probably

served as an administrative center on the West Bank.

Religious significance and the Temples of Millions of Years.
The temples within the Valley, each
built by individual kings or queens,
were collectively known by the
Egyptians as the "Temples of
Millions of Years". Early
Egyptologists referred to them as
funerary or mortuary temples, but
in fact they were temples built for
the worship of the deceased kings,
and were even used for his worship
while he lived. There were
originally many more temples then
one finds today, and those that
remain are in much ruin.
Amun was the principle deity
worshiped at Thebes, and the Pharaoh was considered his son. Celebrating this union,
each year a celebration was held called the Beautiful Feast of the Valley, where the
royal power was renewed and strengthened. Also, on the 30th year of the pharaoh's
reign, the sed-festival took place in order to renew the king's strength, as well as the
vitality of all Egypt. These celebrations took place in the Temples of Millions of
Years, and so activity on the Theban West Bank was centered around the Temples,
while the tombs themselves were for the most part off limits.
The temples were meant to honor the dead king, perhaps through eternity. In fact,
they might more resemble a modern foundation or trust. They were intended to keep
the king's cult alive, guaranteeing him eternal deification, and not simply through
festivals.
For example, the storerooms of the Ramesseum were capable of storing enough grain
for 15 to 20 thousand people. In effect, the temples were endowed with property and
assets by the king before his death, so that after his death, the temple could continue to
fund exploits and building projects in his name.
The Big Picture
Typically, tourists to the West Bank will spend a day there, or even a half day. They
are shown a few tombs, including several in the Valley of the Kings, and perhaps one
in the Valley of the Queens, and they visit several of the temples, most notably those
of Deir el-Bahri. To an extent, this provides something of an overall picture of the
West Bank, but its complexity and size are often not realized.

See also:
General Topics

Burying the Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings

Funerary Cones
Geography and Geology of the Valley of the Kings
Luxor
el-Medina, Necropolis of Deir- Luxor
Recent Excavations in the Valley of the Kings by the Amarna Royal Tombs
Project
Thebes
Tomb Building in the Valley of the Kings
Visiting the Valley of the Kings

General Areas

Asasif Necropolis
Nobles, Tombs of the
Valley of the Kings, Area of
Valley of the Kings (by Marie Parsons)
The Valley of the Queens

Tombs

Akhenaten, Tiy (Tiye) or Smenkhkare?, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV55)

Amenherkhepshef, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV55)
Amenhotep II, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV35)
Amenhotep III, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (WV22)
Amenmesses, Tomb of and King - Valley of the Kings (KV10)
Ay, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (WV23)
Benia (Pahekmen), Private Tomb of
Hatshepsut-Meryetre, Tomb of (though not used) - Valley of the Kings - KV42
Horemheb, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV57)
Inherkhau, Tomb of Foreman - Deir el Medina Necropolis (TT359)
Irunefer, Tomb of - Deir el-Medina Necropolis (TT290)
Khaemhat, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT57)
Khaemwaset, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV44)
Kheruef, Private Tomb of - Asasif (TT192)
Khonsu, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT31)
Amenhotep I? Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV39)
Menna, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT69)
Merneptah, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV8)
Nakht, Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT52)
Neferrenpet, Tomb of - al-Khokha (TT178)
Nefersekheru, Private Tomb of - al-Khokha (TT296)
Nefertari, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens

Pashedu, Tomb of - Deir el Medina Necropolis (TT3)

Ramesses I, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV16)
Ramesses II (Ramesses the Great), Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV7)
Ramesses II's Sons, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV5)
Ramesses III, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV11)
Ramesses IV, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV2)
Ramesses VI, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV9)
Ramesses VII, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV1)
Ramesses IX, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV6)
Ramesses X, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV18)
Ramesses XI, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV4)
Ramesses-Mentuherkhepshef, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV19)
Ramose, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT55)
Rekhmire, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT100)
Roy, Private Tomb of - Dra' Abu al-Naja (TT 255)
Sennedjem, Private Tomb of - Deir el Medina Necropolis (TT1)
Sennefer, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT96)
Seti I, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV17)
Seti II, The King and His Tomb in the Valley of the Kings (KV15)
Shuroy, Tomb of - Dra Abu el-Naga (TT13)
Siptah, the King and his Tomb in the Valley of the Kings (KV47)
Sitre In?, Tomb of in the Valley of the Kings (KV60)
Tausert and Setnakht, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV14)
Tutankhamen (King Tut), Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV54)
Tuthmosis I and Hatshepsut, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV20)
Tuthmosis I, Second Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV38)
Tuthmosis III, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV34)
Tuthmosis IV, Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV43)
Tyti, Tomb of - Valley of the Queens (QV 52)
Userhat, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT51)
Userhat, Private Tomb of - Sheikh Abd el-Qurna (TT56)
Yuya and Tjuyu, Private Tomb of - Valley of the Kings (KV46)

Temples

Amenhotep III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor

Deir el Bahari, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Horus, Temples of (at Thoth Hill) - West Bank, Luxor
Mentuhotep II, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Merenptah, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part I
Temples belonging to Amenhotep I, Amenhotep II, Siptah, the Colonnaded
Temple of Ramesses IV, the Ramessid Temple, the Chapel of the White Queen
and the private temple of Nebwenenef
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part II - Temples of Ramesses IV
(mortuary), Amenophis son of Hapu, Tuthmosis II, and the North and South
temples at Nag Kom Lolah
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part III: The Temples at Deir el-

Medina - Temple of Amenhotep I, the Hathor Chapel of Seti I, the Ptolemaic

Temple of Hathor, and a small Temple of Amun.
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part IV - Mortuary Temple of
Tuthmosis III, and the temples of Tuya and Nefertari, Tuthmosis IV, Wadjmose
and Siptah and Tausert
Ramesseum - West Bank, Luxor
Ramses III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Seti I Temple of Millions of Years - West Bank, Luxor
Tuthmosis III, Temple of Amun at Deir el-Bahari - West Bank, Luxor

Other Miscellaneous

Christian Churches and Monasteries of Luxor and the West Bank

The Temple of Deir el Bahari (XVIII

Dyn)
See also Feature Article on Deir el Bahri by Marie Parsons

The mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut is one of the most dramatically situated in
the world. The queen's architect, Senenmut, designed it and set it at the head of a
valley overshadowed by the Peak of the Thebes, the "Lover of Silence," where lived
the goddess who presided over the necropolis. A tree lined avenue of sphinxes led up
to the temple, and ramps led from terrace to terrace. The porticoes on the lowest
terrace are out of proportion and coloring with the rest of the building. They were
restored in 1906 to protect the celebrated reliefs depicting the transport of obelisks by
barge to Karnak and the miraculous birth of Queen Hatshepsut. Reliefs on the south
side of the middle terrace show the queen's expedition by way of the Red Sea to Punt,
the land of incense. Along the front of the upper terrace, a line of large, gently smiling
Osirid statues of the queen looked out over the valley. In the shade of the colonnade
behind, brightly painted reliefs decorated the walls. Throughout the temple, statues

and sphinxes of the queen proliferated. Many of them have been reconstructed, with
patience and ingenuity, from the thousands of smashed fragments found by the
excavators; some are now in the Cairo Museum, and others the Metropolitan Museum
of Art, New York.

Deir el-Bahri
By Marie Parsons

Hatshepsut is one of the more mysterious figures of

ancient Egyptian history. Much is known of her
reign as King, yet so many questions remain
unanswered. Questions such as why late in the
reign of her successor Tutmosis III, 40 years after
her death, did he suddenly seem to embark on a
campaign to erase her name and memory from the
lists of Kings.
In any case, Hatshepsut has left a legacy of
architectural and statuary elegance. Her temple
built in the area of Thebes, at modern Deir elBahri, stands as a beautiful monument to her reign.
Lying directly across the Nile from the Great
Temple of Amun at Karnak, the rock amphitheater
of Deir el-Bahri provides a natural focal point of
the west bank terrain and an inviting site for the temples of many rulers. The natural
rock amphitheater, a deep bay in the cliffs, was an important religious and funerary
site in the Theban area. The remains of the temples of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep II,
Hatshepsut, and Tutmosis III, as well as private tombs dating to those reigns and
through to the Ptolemaic period can be found here. The most important private tombs
at Deir el-Bahri are those of
Meketra, which contain many
painted wooden funerary models
from the Middle Kingdom, and even
the first recorded human-headed
canopic jar, and the tomb of
Senenmut, Hatshepsuts adviser and
tutor to her daughter..
An 11th Dynasty shaft tomb at the
southern end contained a cache of
forty royal mummies from the Valley
of the Kings. The bodies had been

re-interred there by 21st Dynasty priests, probably to safeguard against further

attempts at robbery. The cache included the mummies of King Seqenenre Taa II,
Ahmose I, Amenhotep I, Tutmosis I, II and III, Seti I and Ramesses II, III, and IX,
Pinudgjem I and II and Siamun. Later on, a cache of 153 reburied mummies of the
priests themselves were also found in a tomb here.
The first monarch to build here was the Middle Kingdom ruler Nebhepetre
Mentuhotep, whose temple became a template for similar later structures such as the
much larger mortuary temple of Hatshepsut.
Temple of Nebhepetre Mentuhotep
Nebhepetre Mentuhotep was the first ruler of the 11th Dynasty in the Middle Kingdom,
and is often listed as I or II on modern dynastic king-lists. The Theban kings of the
family Inyotef came to power as Egypt was once again unified
after the First Intermediate Period. The Inyotef Kings have left
almost no remains of temples associated with their cults.
Nebhepetre continued his predecessors practice of combining
cult structures with tomb.
The temple is called Akh Sut Nebhepetra, "Splendid are the
places of Nehepetre". It was the first to be built in the great bay
of Deir el-Bahri, just south of the tombs of his ancestors. The
temple was discovered in the 1860s and was excavated after the
turn of the century. It continued to be studied later on.
The temple is smaller and not so well-preserved as is the later temple built by
Hatshepsut. Unlike the later mortuary temples it also functioned as a tomb, and
differed from them in its multi-level construction and plan. A processional causeway
led up from a small valley temple to a great tree-lined court beneath which a deep
shaft was cut. This shaft led to unfinished rooms believed to have originally been
intended as the kings tomb. Howard Carter found a wrapped statue of the king there.

The front part of the temple was made of limestone and was dedicated to Montu-Ra,
local deity of Thebes before Amun. The rear of the temple was made of sandstone and
was the cult center for the king.

The sides of the ramp leading to the upper terrace were colonnaded, and the upper
terrace itself was given a colonnade on three sides. Octagonal columns surround a
large squire structure, a funerary chapel. The enclosure also contained six chapels and
shaft tombs for his wives and family members.
The inner part of the temple consists of a columned courtyard, beneath which was the
entrance to the kings tomb cut into the rock. At the level of the terrace, the hypostyle
hall contained the sanctuary of the royal cult. A statue of the king stood in the niche
carved into the rock face.
Temple of Tutmosis III
Tutmosis III, the successor to Hatshepsut, built a temple complex here. It was only
discovered in 1961, when restoration and cleaning work between the monuments of
Mentuhotep and Hatshepsut was underway. The complex, perched on the rising rock
of the cliffs, was built to Amun, as was a chapel to Hathor. The structure was probably
intended to receive the barque of Amun during the Feast of the Valley, and thus would
have replaced the temple of Hatshepsut.
After a landslide seriously damaged the temple at the end of the 20th Dynasty, it was
apparently abandoned. It then became a quarry, and later, a cemetery for the nearby
Coptic monastery.
Temple of Hatshepsut
The temple of Hatshepsut is
the best-preserved of the
three complexes. Called by
the people Djeser-djeseru,
"sacred of sacreds",
Hatshepsuts terraced and
rock-cut temple is one of
the most impressive
monuments of the west
bank.
Situated directly against the rock face of Deir el-Bahris great rock bay, the temple not
only echoed the lines of the surrounding cliffs in its design, but it seems a natural
extension of the rock faces.
The temple was little more than a ruin when first excavated in 1891, but it has led to a
great deal of successful reconstruction. The temple took 15 years to build and was
modified throughout that time. The approach to the temple was along a 121-foot wide,
causeway, sphinx-lined, that led from the valley to the pylons. These pylons have now
disappeared

It consisted of three broad courts separated by colonnades, probably imitating the

earlier funerary complex of Mentuhotep to its south. These terraces were linked by
ascending ramps, and bounded by dressed limestone walls. Hatshepsut recorded that
she built the temple as "a garden for my father Amun," and the first court once held
exotic trees and shrubs brought from Punt.
Its portico was
decorated on its
northern side
with scenes of
the marshes of
Lower Egypt,
and on the south
side, with scenes depicting the quarrying and transportation of the great obelisks in
Upper Egypt. The portico on the second court was carved on its southern side with
relief scenes of the exploits of her soldiers on the famous trading mission to Punt, and
on the north side of this portico are depicted the birth scenes showing Hatshepsuts
divine conception as daughter of Amun himself.
The site of Deir el-Bahri was traditionally connected with the goddess Hathor, chief
deity of the Theban necropolis, and long sacred to the goddess. At the southern end of
the second colonnade is a complete Hathor chapel, originally with its own entrance.
The chapel contains a vestibule with the characteristic Hathor-headed pillars, a 12columned hypostyle hall and inner rooms also decorated with various scenes of
Hatshepsut and Hathor. At the northern end of the same colonnade is a somewhat
smaller chapel of Anubis, again with a 12-columned hall and inner rooms.
The upper terrace had an entrance portico decorated with Osiride statues of the female
king, that is, statues of Hatshepsut sculpted to appear as the god Osiris, before each
pillar, though most of these statues have been destroyed. The portico opened to a
columned court flanked on the left with a chapel dedicated to the royal cult, and on the
right by a chapel of the solar cult, with open court and altar.

Eighteen cult niches, nine on each side, flank the rock sanctuary of Amun, which was
the focus of the entire complex. During the Amarna period, many of the images of
Amun were destroyed
During the Ptolemaic time the sanctuary was expanded to include the cults of
architects Amenhotep son of Hapu, who oversaw works for Amenhotep III, and
Imhotep, who designed the Step Pyramid of Djoser at Saqqara. In the 7th century ACE,
the temple area became the site of a Coptic monastery, from which the Arabic name
Deir el-Bahri is derived.

Ships and Boats of Egypt

By Marie Parsons

When men live by water, whether marsh, river, or sea, they eventually discover ways
to build vehicles to move across that water. Egypts life has always turned around its
River, the Nile, and its marshes in the Delta.
The cheapest form of primitive boat was the pot boat, simply a clay container large
enough to accommodate a passenger. It was meant for places free of rocks and was
ideal for getting around the marshy areas of the Nile delta. Egypt was fairly treeless
and it would be difficult to find other means of
building boats. The Egyptians did find enough
wood to make planked boats. There is evidence
that the Old Kingdom of Egypt had the first
planked boats ever made. These were used even
in burial rituals. Fourteen have recently been
found buried in the region of Abydos.
The boat made out of planks was an
improvement on the dugout which was
hollowed out of a single log. In southern Egypt, archaeologists have found a multitude
of pictures of boats that, shortly before 3100 BCE, were drawn on rock outcrops or
were included as part of the decoration on pottery. Among them, are some that show a
mast with a broad square sail hung from it. The tombs of Egypt have yielded pictures
and even models of a variety of river craft, from tiny rowboats through swift yachts
and dispatch boats to enormous barges large enough to carry huge obelisks weighing
hundreds of tons from the quarries.

The earliest surviving example of a sewn boat, one which had the side planking sewn
together with fibers, cords, or thongs, was found beside the great pyramid of Giza. It
is most probably a descendant of boats going back into Egypts predynastic times.
The Nile River was the catalyst for these
and more early boats. It is a perfect
waterway, running some 500 miles from
the beginning of the delta near Cairo to the
First Cataract at Aswan (Elephantine).
Since the prevailing wind blows against the
flow of the water, boatmen could drift
downstream (or with the current), and
when returning they could raise sail and be
gently driven back home. The Egyptians were also the first recorded people to use
sails on their craft.
If wood was scarce in Egypt, reeds were not. For their first water transport, the
Egyptians turned to these bulrushes. By the middle of the fourth millennium BCE they
were building rafts of bundles of reeds tied together, eventually learning to shape
them, making them long and narrow and gracefully bowed. They fashioned paddles to
propel the rafts and mounted paddles to serve as rudders. They built craft large enough
to accommodate two deck cabins and require a long line of rowers to move them.
The first sail was probably a large leafy frond set up in the bow. This method was
actually still being used in some places in Africa by the 19th century ACE. By about
3500 BCE the Egyptians had replaced this leaf frond with a true sail, made of woven
reeds or leaves set on a vertical mast, shaped square.
By the Old Kingdom, reed ships were now taking on a more boat-like shape, with a
spoonlike form and a prow and stern that came together into a point, often finished off
with an ornament shaped like a lotus bud. But with the new pyramid-building
program, stone was requiredstone which could only be obtained from quarries on
the other side of the river or upstream at Aswan. Riverboats were needed that could
transport huge limestone blocks. Boats now had to be made of wood.
These first wooden boats were more or less
replicas of the earlier reed boats. They were
built square at each end, more barge than boat.
Since Egypt lacked good timber, the
shipwrights devised a special technique. They
used the acacia tree, with brittle wood which
only comes in short lengths. But they cut planks
three feet long, put together like brick, building
up the hull from a central plank laid for the
bottom. They would join the three foot planks
together edge to edge by means of long closeset dowels, and when the hull was built up they
stretched crossbeams over it. They made no ribs or frames, and caulked on the inside,

using papyrus fibers.

The Pharaoh Snefru, who ruled Egypt about 2600 BCE, was reported to have
imported forty ships filled with cedar logs to build more ships. Cedar came from
Phoenicia in what is now Lebanon. In the tombs of pharaohs and nobles in earlier
dynasties, archaeologists have found jars and pitchers made in Palestine and Syria,
and in those lands, they have dug up artifacts that were unquestionably Egyptian.
Were these transfers of objects done by land or by sea?
Egypt also needed myrrh for unguents and embalming, and frankincense to burn with
myrrh in its temples. These products came from southern Arabia and parts of what is
now Ethiopia and Somalia. The only alternative to the overland route with all its
middlemen and increase in prices and costs was by water down the Red Sea. But the
Nile was separated from the Red Sea, the closest place between being an eight-day
march across desert, near the Wadi Hammamat. A minister of Mentuhotep III, named
Henu, inscribed how he was assigned the job of dispatching a ship to the land of Punt
to gather myrrh. But first he had to take 3000 men to the Red Sea and build the ship.
In the Western or European world, boats have been built starting with a skeleton of
keel and ribs, with a skin of planking attached. The Egyptians constructed their
vessels, whether small or large, without keel, and with few, very light ribs. They had
no violent storms, winds ripping currents or waves; they mostly sailed a river. The
only stiffening provided beyond a handful of ribs consisted of beams run from side to
side on which the deck was laid.
When Sahure in 2450 BCE wanted to transport men to the Lebanon coast, boats were
needed that adapted this river-design to sea sailing. Around one end of the vessel was
looped an enormous hawser, which was carried along the centerline above the deck
and looped about the other end. A stout pole was then placed through the strands of
the hawser, where it passed over the deck, and by twisting, one could tighten the entire
harness just like a tourniquet. This served for internal stiffening, as the hawser kept
the ends from sagging when the boat rode heavy waves. An elaborate netting was also
added, which ran horizontally about the upper part of the hull. This may have been
another aid for holding the ship together, or merely gear to protect the sides from
rubbing.
A two-legged mast rather than the single mast was also designed, and it served to
distribute the pressure, steadied by lines fore and aft. A tall, slender square-sail was
mounted with two spars spreading it, a yard along the head, and a boom along the
foot. When there was no wind, sail was taken in, the mast lowered, and rowers could
power the ship along.
A thousand years later, shipbuilders were designing the ships that were shown on
Hatshepsuts reliefs. These had graceful lines and were faster than Sahures ships. The
sail was broader, not as tall as before, extremely wide. There were fifteen rowers
along each side, the overall length of these ships must have been about 90 feet. This
gave not only more strength but was easier to construct., and permitted the use of a

much shorter mast. Trade with Punt was steady and enriching.
Also, obelisks for her temple needed to be transported from Aswan quarries. These
obelisks were each almost 100 feet high, and the barge built to ferry them was some
200 feet long with a beam of 70 feet. The barge had three rows of crossbeams instead
of just one. It required almost 30 oar-driven tugs, each with 30 rowers, to tow that
barge.
During the reign of Tuthmosis III, Hatshepsuts successor, Egypts trade increased still
more. Punt provided incense, ivory, and rare woods. Copper was brought from Cyprus
and silver from Asia Minor. One king of Cyprus in turn requested horses, chariots, a
wooden gold plated bed, jars of oil. In another letter he requests a sorcerer who is
expert with eagles. These things all could only be shipped by sea. A record of such
trade activity stands as a painting on the wall of the tomb chamber of Kenamun,
official under Amenhotep III.
The decades just before and after 1200 BCE were politically troubled for Egypt. A
wave of invading peoples came out of the eastern Mediterranean right to their very
shores. Ramesses III repelled this invasion, celebrating his victory by carving on the
temple wall an account accompanied by reliefs describing the sea battle. The
description of the Egyptian ships shows that their warships at least have become
shorter and heavier in the hull, the anti-sagging truss has disappeared, indicating that
some other method of inner strength had been utilized. The elegant curved stern, too
delicate for war, was replaced by an undecorated sloping stern and the sternpost
replaced by a simple projection ending in a lions head. Egypt had joined the rest of
the Mediterranean in building its watercraft for war.

El Amarna
by Jimmy Dunn

What we call Amarna,

or el-Amarna today was
the city of Akhetaten
(The Horizon of the
Aten). It was created by
Egypt's heretic king,
Akhenaten for his
revolutionary religion
that worshiped Aten
during the Amarna
Period.
The ancient capital of
Akhetaten lies some
365 miles south of
Cairo in a natural
amphitheater between inhospitable cliffs. This narrow opening exists for some twelve
kilometers along the Nile River and has a half rounded depth of about five kilometers.
This is the place where, in about the fifth year of the king's reign, we are told that by
divine inspiration, Akhenaten build his capital.
The History of Discovery
The site was unknown to the European travelers other than its name, which was a
village called Et Til el-Amarna. Early visitors misunderstood its name, so it became to
be known as Tell el-Amarna, though there are not a single tell, or great mound
marking the ancient site.
Even though John Gardner Wilkinson initially investigated the site in 1824, and soon
returned with James Burton to further examine the tombs located at el-Amarna, they
had at that time no idea of the its significance. It was only during this general time
frame that Champollion made his initial discoveries on Egyptian writing, and so the
two early explorers were unable to read the names and inscriptions they encountered
on this expedition. In fact, they identified the site as Roman Alabastronopolis from a
nearby alabaster quarry.

Later, Robert Hay investigated the

site not only examining all the open
tombs, but clearing others from
beneath extensive drifts of sand.
However, as was the work of
Wilkinson and Burton before him,
was never published. Others would
also come to el-Amarna, and would
also fell to publish their work,
though most of their efforts are
available in various museums
today.
Nevertheless, due to the unique
decorations in the tombs at elAmarna, many showing the
activities of the royal family not in
the formal attitudes of worship
repeated so often in other tombs,
but in intimate and vivid detail as
human beings engaged in everyday
domestic affairs, scholars continued
to visit the site. There was also a
prevailing mystery. In fact, because
of the depictions that we know understand represent Akhenaten and Nefertiti, these
early explorers wondered whether this was not the home of two queens, because of the
almost feminine physique of the king.
Even as the ability to read hieroglyphics spread amongst the early Egyptologists,
discovering the nature of this site remained elusive. So thoroughly had the ancient
Egyptians, aided afterwards by the early Christians, destroyed this place that it was not
easy to find an intact cartouche bearing the name of the king or queen for whom it was
built. Even when they did find cartouches, they were larger then those of other
pharaohs, and surrounded by a double border. Furthermore, the signs within these
were complex and difficult to interpret, but were evidently the same as those which
accompanied a representation of the Sun god, Re-Horakhty found on a few
monuments elsewhere.
It was finally Richard Lepsius, a disciple of Champollion and doubtless the foremost
Egyptologists of his day, who came to el-Amarna to record inscriptions and take paper
squeezes of the reliefs and afterwards, publish his work. This work allowed scholars to
finally make advances in their understanding of the city and its king, who they initially
read as Khuenaten. Now, more than a century of study has given us this king's correct
name, Akhenaten, as well as revealing many of the mysteries that once surrounded the
site.
The General Area

Mertseger
Other Names: Mert-sekert
Patron of: the Valley of the Kings.
Appearance: a woman with the head of cobra, or a scorpion with a woman's head.
Description: Mertseger was the protector and guardian of the Valley of the Kings,
where she lived on a nearby mountain. Her wrath would descend on anyone who
disturbed the tombs there, usually by sending poisonous animals against the
transgressor.
She also protected the valley against unscrupulous workers who might try to steal
treasure, or carve out a secret entrance. Yet for all her ferocity, she was merciful.
Should a person repent of his crimes against the valley or the tombs, she would heal
the wounds he had suffered.
Worshipped: Worshipped by the the workers of Deir el-Medina, the people who built
many of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings.

Meretseger, Goddess of Punishment and Mercy, Protectress of the

Necropolis Under the Peak of the West
by Caroline Seawright

Meretseger (Mertseger, Merseger, Mereseger) was the ancient

Egyptian goddess of the necropolis at Waset (Thebes). She
watched over the deceased in their tombs, protecting them and
their belonging from tomb robbers. She also protected the area
from criminals and oath breakers, striking all those with evil
intent down with snakebites or with blindness. The workmen
of Deir el Medina feared her wrath, begging for her
forgiveness and a cure for blindness or venomous bites,
believing that she had struck them down. They believed she
was a merciful goddess who would cure them if they were

repentant. Her reach did not extend beyond the necropolis, so she was not worshiped
throughout Egypt. She was revered mostly by the people who worked in the
necropolis, building and decorating the tombs of the New Kingdom pharaohs.
Meretseger was generally shown as a coiled cobra, or as a cobra with a woman's head.
Sometimes she was shown in cobra form with head and arm projecting from the hood
of the cobra. At other times she was shown as a snake, with three heads - that of a
woman, that of a cobra and that of a
vulture. On occasion she was also shown as
a cobra headed woman or as a full woman,
though this is very infrequent. Her name,
'She Who Loves Silence', comes from mr
'love' (with the feminine t
ending) and sgr

'quiet'.

She was believed to live on a certain peak,

shaped like a pyramid (which has the sound
mr, so this could be a pun on Meretseger's
name), on the mountain chain above the
Valley of Kings. At times she was known as her dwelling place - 'The Peak of the
West' - as a term of respect. This also connected her with the peak in the Egyptian
mind, making them one. It also meant that her worship was focused around Waset, and
she only had power over the royal necropolis there. After all, the other deities were
generally not fixed to a specific geographical location. While they were worshiped
mainly at one city or another, they were
not the
personification of that city. Meretseger, on
the other hand,
became the personification of the peak.
She did not move the people who revered had to be near the
peak.)
A deity of protection, she was thought to
the Valley of the Kings from the heights of
overlooked the royal necropolis. The
workmen at the village at the necropolis
left stelae dedicated to her, worshiping her
as a dangerous, merciful goddess. Yet they
were fearful of her. They believed that she
would strike down those who desecrated
the sacred tombs, poisoning them with her snakebites or
scorpion stings, or striking them down with blindness. These
same fates were reserved for those who committed any crime,
or those who swore false oaths. Yet she was merciful to the
repentant, curing them of the results of her anger - many
stelae frequently seek to make atonement for their
wrongdoings. The people stepped lightly around this goddess.
"We have the confession of Neferabu, a modest
employee at the necropolis, who admits to having

guard the tombs in

the mountain that

been justly stricken with illness for his sins. Afterwards he proclaims that he
has been cured by the 'Peak of the West', having first repented and ardently
besought her forgiveness."
-- Egyptian Mythology, Paul Hamlyn
Her worship was centered around the city of Waset, and the village of workmen of
Deir el Medina, during the New Kingdom. When the royal tombs there were
abandoned during the 21st Dynasty, the worship of Meretseger died out. The goddess
was one with the mountain, so when nobody visited the area, the people of Waset
forgot about her. She was often associated with Ptah, due to the workmen at Deir el
Medina. Ptah was the patron of craftsmen, and the workmen were craftsmen, cutting
and decorating the royal tombs. The two main deities of these workmen were,
naturally, shown together - the protectress of the men, and the deity who guided their
hands while the men worked on the tombs. A small temple to these two deities was
built near the Valley of the Queens.

Chapel to Ptah and Mereseger on the West Bank at Luxor

Meretseger was a goddess who struck fear into the hearts

of the people of Waset, yet she was also a forgiving deity.
Sin was not part of the Egyptian mindset - they followed
ma'at, and any deviation from this was chaos, rather than
sin. Yet Meretseger had the Egyptians naming their
wrongdoings, and asking the goddess for forgiveness. This
was a very unusual situation in ancient Egypt, the idea of
repentance from sin. None of the other protective/vengeful
deities had such an unusual impact on the thought pattern
of the everyday Egyptian as did this one goddess. She was
a goddess who protected and healed those who admitted
their sins, and asked for her mercy. Fixed to the peak of
one mountain, she watched over the people who worked in
the necropolis of Waset. And when nobody worked in the necropolis, there was no
longer a need for her protection, and so her worship faded as the people left to bury
the dead in other areas of Egypt.

Renenutet
Other Names: Termuthis, Ernutet, Renenet
Patron of: fertility and children
Appearance: a cobra.
Description: Renenutet was a goddess of great power. Her gaze, it was said, could
wither her enemies, but it could also grant great abundance to crops and livestock.
During the harvest festivals were held in her honor and offerings of the best yields
were dedicated to her. She was also the protector of children, turning her dread eyes to
creatures that might put a curse on them.
In the New Kingdom her role expanded to include the granting of magical powers to
mummification wrappings. During the Ptolemaic Era she was known as "The Lady of
the Robes."
Worship: Cult center at Terenuthis, in the Nile Delta. Worshipped in the surrounding
area.

Renenutet, Goddess of
Suckling, the Name and Protection
by Caroline Seawright

Renenutet (Renenet, Ernutet, Termuthis), "She Who Rears",

was a cobra goddess of nursing or rearing children, fertility and
protector of the pharaoh. Known as the "Nourishing Snake",
she not only was a goddess who was sometimes shown nursing
a child, but she offered her protection to the pharaoh in the
land of the dead. In later times she was thought to be the
goddess who presided over the eighth month of the Egyptian
calendar, known by Greek times as Parmutit.
In the afterlife, Renenutet was seen as a fire-breathing cobra
who was liked to Uatchet (Uatch-Ura, Wadjet). The was also seen by the Egyptians as
the protector of the clothing worn by the pharaoh in the underworld, and thus thought

to instill fear in his enemies. Because of this, she was also linked to mummy bandages,
offering them to the dead. In Ptolemaic times, she was called "Lady of the Robes" due
to her association with clothing.
O Osiris-Pepi, I bring you the Eye of Horus which is in Tait, this Renenutetgarment of which the gods respect, so that the gods may respect you like they
respect Horus.
-- Utterance 635, Pyramid of Pepi II
In her role of fertility goddess, Renenutet was known as the
"Lady of Fertile Fields" and "Lady of Granaries". She was
thought to be responsible for looking after the harvest (this was
probably because the Egyptians saw snakes hiding in the fields
at harvest time), especially in the city of Dja (Modern Medinet
Madi, Greek Narmouthis) where an annual festival was
dedicated to her where she was offered the best yields of the
crops. There was also often a shrine dedicated to her near a
wine press or vat, so she could receive the offerings of the wine
makers. She was both linked to Sobek and Osiris, and thought
to be linked with Isis in her role as mother of Horus. She was believed to be the
mother of Nepri, god of grain. She was also linked to the coming of the inundation and
to Hapi, the god of the Nile:
I will make the Nile swell for you, without there being a year of lack and
exhaustion in the whole land, so the plants will flourish, bending under their
fruit. Renenutet is in all things - everything will be brought forth by the million
and everybody ...... in whose granary there had been dearth. The land of Egypt
is beginning to stir again, the shores are shining wonderfully, and wealth and
well-being dwell with them, as it had been before.
-- Famine Stele on the Island of Sehel
As her name might suggest, she was also though to be the goddess who gave a child
his or her 'true name'. The Egyptian for name - rn - are the same hieroglyphs used at
the start of Renenutet, and so she could also be called "She who is in the Name". To
the Egyptians, as shown by the story of Ra's secret name (which Isis manages to find
out, through trickery), if someone knew the true name of a person, then that person has
power over the other - a name was very important to the ancient Egyptians.
It was believed that if both the image of the dead and the name of the dead was
obliterated, then the deceased's souls would also be destroyed. It was because of this
that she also became a goddess of fortune. Her name, and the name of the god of
destiny, Shai, were often found together in the Book of the Dead. Ramsses II even
called himself "Lord of Shai and Creator of Renenutet". She was also seen in the Book
of the Dead at the judgement of the deceased together with Meskhenet, a goddess of
childbirth. Where Meskhenet presided over the actual birth itself, Renenutet looked
after the newborn child; She offered her protection, nurtured the child and gave the

child his or her secret name.

Shai was originally the deity who "decreed"
what should happen to a man, and
Renenutet, as may be seen from the
pyramid texts, was the goddess of plenty,
good fortune, and the like; subsequently no
distinction was made between these deities
and the abstract ideas which they
represented.
She was depicted either as a woman, a cobra or a
woman with the head of a cobra (and sometimes
the head of a lioness), wearing a double plumed
headdress or the solar disk. Her cult centre was located at Kom Abu Billo (Terenuthis,
Tarrana) in Greco-Roman times. Amenemhet III and Amenemhet IV founded the
temple of Renenutet at Medinet Maadi - this temple is one of the only temples left at
Medinet Maadi, and was dedicated to the triad of Renenutet, Sobek and Horus. Later,
the Ptolemaic rulers added to and expanded the temple. Inside was a large statue of the
goddess with both Amenemhet III and IV standing on either side of her. She was the
protector of the Egyptian people, the nurse of pharaohs and goddess of the secret name
of each Egyptian.

Sobek
Other Names: Sebek
Patron of: the strength of the pharaoh
Appearance: a crocodile-headed man with a feathered crown, rarely as a full
crocodile (which was also used as the representation of Apep).
Description: The son of Neith, Sobek was a sort of bodyguard to various gods,
especially Ra and Set (in his original form), and was seen as having a similar function
for the pharaoh. In times of need, he gives the pharaoh strength and fortitude so that
he may overcome all obstacles. He also protects the pharaoh from all harm, especially
evil magic.
Worship: Worshipped throughout Egypt, his cult center was in the Faiyoum.

The Crocodile God, Sobek

By Catherine C. Harris

The ancient goddess of war, Neith, was revered as the

goddess of wisdom. At different periods she was
identified with Athena, noted as the sister of Isis, and
named the protector of Duamutef. Neith was the mother
of Sobek, known as the crocodile god.
Sobek was most popular in the city of Arsinoe. In fact,
the Greeks renamed the city Crocodilopolis. Ancient
Egyptians would keep crocodiles in pools and temples.
They ornamented the crocodiles with jewels in honor of
their beloved god, Sobek. The people of ancient Egypt
worshiped Sobek in order to appease him, the
crocodiles, and to insure the fertility of their people and
crops.
Sobek was called the Lord of Faiyum, and was
considered the god who controlled the waters. The Nile
was very important to the people of Egypt. Water was
necessary for the survival of crops, the success of trade, and the livelihood of fishing.
These waters were filled with crocodile, so it was a matter of common sense to
appease them through the worship of their leader, Sobek.
According to legend, Sobek was a fourfold deity. He represented the four elemental
gods, Ra of fire, Shu of air, Geb of earth, and Osiris of water. A crocodile, a man with
the head of a crocodile, or a mummified crocodile are used as representations for
Sobek. He is sometimes shown wearing a solar disk and horns like those of Amon-Ra.
Throughout history, he has been known as Sebek, Sebek-Ra, Sobk, Suchos, Sobki, and
Soknopais.
Sobek was revered for his ferocity and quick movement. It is
said that he was the god who caught the four sons of Horus in a
net, as they emerged from the waters in a lotus bloom.
Set was a god of hostility and chaos. Some people held the
belief that he was the epitome of evil. He was an adversary to
Osiris and Horus. Sobek is considered to be a cohort of Horus.
It is said that Horus took the form of a crocodile to retrieve the
parts of Osiris body that Set had discarded in the waters of
Egypt. Set was later killed after an eighty-year war with Horus,
in which Set tore out the left eye of Horus, and Horus tore out
the testicles of Set.
The Book of the Dead suggests that Sobeks closeness to Horus
can be traced back to his participation in the birth of this god.
Sobek was responsible for calling Isis and Nephthys to aid in the protection of the
dead. He was the god from the Dark Water. It was believed, in some sects, that
Sobek was the creator of the world. These people believed that he arose from the

Dark Water and put the world in order.

Later, Sobek was incorporated into the cult of Amun. Amun was a chief god in the
New Kingdom of Egypt. With his wife, Mut and his son, Khonsu, the scared family
was formed with Amun as the head. They were known as the Theban Triad. Amun was
also associated with the sun god, Re. He was venerated with as the god Amun-Re.
During this time, Sobek was worshiped as the manifestation of Amun-Re.
Animals associated
with the gods were
revered in ancient
Egypt. They were
considered sacred
and protected. They
were given
elaborate and costly
burials when they
died. Temples were
built in their honor.
Many mummified
crocodiles have
been found in the
tombs of Egypt. The
dead crocodiles
were mummified
with the use of
natron or salt, then
they were wrapped
in strips of cloth, just as the humans of the time. Archeologist found all ages of
crocodiles in the tombs. In fact, many tombs contained not only young and adult
crocodiles, but the eggs of crocodiles were found, as well. In some cases over 50 eggs
were found together, with recognizable fetuses. This demonstrates the importance
Egyptians placed on the crocodile god, Sobek and his sacred animals.
In Egypt, Kom Ombo is 30 miles North of Aswan. This was once the sanctuary for a
large number of crocodiles, and the center of worship for Sobek. Still standing, and
open to the public for viewing, is the temple that Sobek shared with the war god,
Horace. This temple is most unique in that it consists of twin parts that are attached
but completely separate. Each temple has its own entrance, halls, and chapels.
Walls in one section of the temples are decorated with the images of surgical
instruments. The images of scalpels, pincers, forceps, and other medical tools, shows
that the ancient Egyptians were skilled medical professionals. The temples were built
during the Ptolemaic period, between 300-380 BC.
On your visit to Egypt, you will want to visit the temples at Kom Ombo. One chapel is
open to visitors. Youll see crocodile sarcophagi and mummies excavated form the

nearby City of the Dead. Step back in time as you walk the path of those ancient
Egyptians who worshiped and feared the crocodile in honor of the crocodile god,
Sobek.

Sobek, God of Crocodiles, Power, Protection and Fertility

by Caroline Seawright

Sobek (Sobeq, Sebek, Sochet, Suchos) was an ancient god of

crocodiles, first mentioned in the Pyramid Texts. His worship
lasted till Roman times, the people of Egypt worshiping him to
gain his protection and strength, or reviling him and killing the
crocodiles of the area because of the evil that they could do. To
his worshipers, he was a god who created the Nile, a god of
fertility and rebirth, and the symbolic strength of the ruler of
Egypt.
Depicted either as a crocodile-headed man or as a full
crocodile, Sobek was shown wearing a plumed headdress with a
horned sun disk or the atef crown. In his hands he was shown to
carry a was sceptre and the ankh sign of life. His sacred animal,
the crocodile, was both revered and reviled by the people of
Egypt - in some areas, a tame crocodile was worshiped as the
god Sobek himself, while in other places the reptiles were killed. The Egyptians
seemed to both respect and fear the power of the crocodile, and as the result of this,
Sobek was seen as an ambivalent creature.

During the 12th and 13th Dynasties, the cult of

Sobek was given particular prominence, as the
names of such rulers as Sobekhotep and
Sobekneferu indicate. Sobekneferu (1799-1795
BC) was the sister (and maybe the wife) of
Amenemnhat IV (1808-1799 BC), was the last
ruler of the 12th Dynasty - the first definite female
pharaoh of Egypt. There were eight rulers of the
13th Dynasty with the birth name of Sobekhotep,
including Sobekhotep II Amenemhat (c. 1750
BC), Sobekhotep III Sekhemrasewadjtawy (c.
1745 BC) and Sobekhotep IV Khaneferra (c.
1730-1720 BC).
-- British Museum Dictionary of Ancient Egypt,
Ian Shaw and Paul Nicholson

Image Mark T. Rigby

The crocodile's power to snatch and destroy it's prey was thought to be symbolic of the
might of the pharaoh - the strength and energy of the reptile was a manifestation of the
pharaoh's own power. The word 'sovereign' was written as
yt. This way,
the crocodile - and thus Sobek - was linked to the pharaoh, the sovereign of Egypt.
In times of need, he gives
the pharaoh strength and
fortitude so that he may
overcome all obstacles. He
also protects the pharaoh
from all harm, especially
evil magic.
-- Sobek, TourEgypt
Originally, Sobek was
probably a dark god who
had to be appeased to give
the people his protection
against crocodiles. Sobek
had a dark streak that stayed
with him for the time he
was worshiped. In The
Book of the Dead, he was
showed as four crocodiles
who were believed to attack
the deceased in the underworld. This dark side sometimes put him in the camp of Set.
In one version of the tale of Osiris, Isis had to place Horus into a little boat of papyrus
reeds to protect him from a menacing Sobek. His form of a crocodile - one of Set's
creatures - linked him closely to the enemy of Horus. It was believed that Set turned

himself into a crocodile to escape from Horus, and Sobek was punished for allowing
this.
Several bynames of Set have the determinative of the crocodile*. Although
crocodiles may be the

bas of Sobek, they may also be regarded as the

messengers of Set. Set may be called

msha [crocodile]. On the
other hand, msha, the crocodile, is sometimes called the son of Set. It would be
a mistake to deduce from this that Set is the father of a particular mythical son,
in the way Osiris is the father of Horus. The intention is merely to express that
a dangerous crocodile is a Setian product.
*

ahy {Snarer};

yty {Seizer}; ...

away {Robber}.
-- Set, God of Confusion: A Study of his Role in Egyptian Mythology and
Religion, H. te Velde
Sobek, as with many of the other protective gods, also
had a benign side. In a different version of the tale of
Osiris, it was Sobek who carried the dead body of
Osiris to the bank of the Nile on his back. The four
mummiform sons of Horus - Imsety, human headed
protector of the liver, Hapy, baboon headed protector of
the lungs, Duamutef, jackal headed protector of the
stomach and Qebehsenuef, falcon headed protector of
the intestines - were believed to have come out of a
water lily that rose from the waters of Nun. Under the
orders of Ra, the four gods were rescued by Sobek in a
net, and brought them to land.
The Book of the Dead suggests that Sobek's
closeness to Horus can be traced back to his
participation in the birth of this god. Sobek was
responsible for calling Isis and Nephthys to aid
in the protection of the dead.
-- The Crocodile God, Sobek, Catherine C. Harris
Despite the different attitudes of people to the god, he was venerated as one who
restored sight to the dead, who revived their senses and who protected them from Set
who attacked those souls who traveled through the land of the dead.

Sobek was a god of the Nile

(which was believed to
have come from his sweat)
who gave life to vegetation
and fertility to the land. The
'Lord of the Waters' was
believed to have risen from
the primeval waters of Nun
to create the world. One tale
says that Sobek laid his
eggs on the bank of the waters, starting the creation process. He was thus a fertility
god, 'He Who Made the Herbage Green'. This explains his link to the rebirth of the
deceased into the after life.
On the western border of the Fayum... on the lake of Moeris was the temple of
Sobek of the Island, Soknopaios as it is called by the Greeks. It had a highpriest who received a small stipend of 344 drachm, and all the other priests
together received daily about one bushel of wheat as remuneration for their
trouble. They were not even immune from the statutory labor on the
embankments, and if this was lessened for them, it was owing to the good
offices of their fellow citizens.
-- Egypt, Myths and Legends, Lewis Spence
Sobek's temples were found
scattered throughout the land of
Egypt, but the Faiyum area in
Lower Egypt was his sacred area.
The Greek-named the town of
'Crocodilopolis' (Shedyet) had a
temple where a tame, sacred
crocodile was kept by himself in a
lake. The crocodile was hand fed by
the priests, seemingly for the
amusement of ancient tourists,
according to Strabo. At some of the
temples, crocodiles of all ages were
mummified and placed in
sarcophagi in tombs, along with some unborn fetuses, still in the eggs. A temple at
Medinet Madi was dedicated to Sobek, the goddess Renenutet and Horus. In Upper
Egypt he was worshiped in the Kom Ombo - there was a temple at Kom Ombo
dedicated to Sobek, Hathor and Khonsu. Another temple at Kom Ombo venerates both
Sobek and Horus the Elder. Legend had is that the 'Lord of Bakhu' had a temple made
of carnelian at Bakhu - mountain of the horizon.
I am Sobek, who dwelleth amid his terrors. I am Sobek, and I seize [my prey]
like a ravening beast. I am the great Fish which is in Kamui. I am the Lord to

whom bowings and prostrations are made in Sekhem. And the Osiris Ani is the
lord to whom bowings and prostrations are made in Sekhem.
-- The Book of the Dead, The Chapter of Making the Transformation into the
Crocodile God (Sobek)
Sobek first appeared in the Old Kingdom as the son of Nit, where he was known as
ad 'The Rager'. The two were mentioned as mother and son in the pyramid
of Unas. Some tales suggested that Set was his father. He was given different wives in
different areas - Hathor, Renenutet, Heqet to name a few. He was also thought to be
husband of the goddess Taweret, who was sometimes depicted with a crocodile on her
back. He was, likewise, given different children - Khonsu, Horus and Khnum were
sometimes called his sons, again in different areas.
Those who do away utterly sins and offences, and who are in the following of
the goddess Hetepsekhus, are the god Sobek and his associates who dwell in
the water. The goddess Hetepsekhus is the Eye of Ra.
-- The Book of the Dead, Texts Relating to the Weighing of the Heart of Ani
During the Middle Kingdom, Sobek was linked to the god
Amen, who seemed to have assimilated him to some
degree. He was also connected to the sun god Ra, giving
the form Sobek-Ra, who was worshipped as another
omnipotent manifestation of the sun deity. Thus Sobek
could be shown wearing either the headdress of Amen or
the sun disk of Ra.
Having the form of a crocodile, the Egyptians believed that
he also had the nature of a crocodile. He could be the
strong, powerful symbol of the pharaoh, showing the
ruler's might. He could use this force to protect the justified
dead in their after life, and be the protector and rescuer of the other gods... yet he
could also use that power to savage his enemies and the sinful deceased. He could
bestow sight and senses to the dead, he could bring water and fertility to the land. Yet
he was also closely linked to the enemy of Osiris. He was a god that was both feared
and respected by the ancient Egyptians.

Taweret, Goddess Demoness of Birth,

Rebirth and the Northern Sky
by Caroline Seawright

Taweret (Taueret, Taurt, Toeris, Ipy, Ipet, Apet, Opet, Reret) - The Great Female - was
the ancient Egyptian goddess of maternity and childbirth, protector of women and
children. Like Bes, she was both a fierce demonic fighter as well as a
popular deity who guarded the mother and her newborn child.
She was depicted as a combination of a crocodile, a pregnant hippopotamus
standing on her hind legs with large breasts and a lion. Unlike the composite
demoness Ammut, her head and body were that of the hippo, her paws were
that of the lion, and her back was the back of a crocodile. All of these
animals were man killers, and as such she was a demoness.
All three animals were regarded as fierce creatures who would kill to protect their
young.
...Taweret, British Museum Glossary
It was in her role of a protector that she was seen as a
goddess. As the mother hippo is protective of her young,
Taweret was believed to be protective of Egyptian children.
She was often shown holding the sa hieroglyph of
protection or the ankh hieroglyph of life. She was thought
to assist women in labour and scare off demons that might
harm the mother or child.
... because hippos are denizens of the fertile Nile mud,
Egyptians also saw them as symbols of rebirth and
rejuvenation. The birth-related aspect of the hippo's powers also appears in the
complicated shape of the goddess Taweret, who protects women in childbirth.
She was also a goddess relating to fertility. She was goddess of harvests as well as a
goddess who helped with female sexuality and pregnancy. In this capacity, she was
linked with the goddess Hathor. As a fertility goddess, she was closely associated with
the inundation of the Nile especially at Jabal al-Silsila.
Amulets of Taweret were popular, used by the expectant mother because of Taweret's
protective powers. These were even found at Akhetaten - Akenaten had no power to
stop his people from needing the protection of this goddess (or of Bes), despite his
attempts to replace the gods and goddesses of Egypt with the Aten. Her picture was
also found on women's cosmetic tools, headrests, jewelry. There were even vessels in
the shape of the goddess, with a hole in one of her nipples for pouring. It was thought
that she would assign magical protection, when accompanied with a spell, to the milk
poured through these vessels.
Another way that Taweret was thought to scare away evil that could hurt a mother and
child was through the use of magic. She was associated with the magic 'wand' or

'knife' that the Egyptians used because she was a

hippopotamus goddess:
Childbirth and early infancy were felt to be
particularly threatening to both mother and baby.
Magic played the primary role in countering these
threats; various evil spirits needed to be warned off, and deities invoked to protect the
vulnerable. These magic knives, also known as apotropaic (that is, acting to ward off
evil) wands, were one of the devices used. They are usually made of hippopotamus
ivory, thus enlisting the support of that fearsome beast against evil.
The depictions on this knife encompass a range of protective images. They include a
grotesque dwarf, probably known as Aha at this date, but later the more famous Bes,
and Taweret ... both of whom are associated with childbirth.
...Apotropaic Wand, British Museum
Taweret was a household deity, rather than a specific deity of the pharaoh, and she
enjoyed huge popularity with the every day Egyptian. She wore a low, cylindrical
headdress surmounted by two plumes or sometimes she
wore the horns and solar disk of Hathor. Although her
popularity was strongest in later periods, she first appeared
in the Old Kingdom as the mother of the pharaoh, offering
to suckle him with her divine milk. In later times, the
pharaoh Hatshepsut depicted the goddess attending to her
birth along side other deities of childbirth. During Egyptian
history, she was called by three names - Ipet ('harem'),
Taweret ('great one') and Reret ('the sow'). Of the three, the
cult of Taweret assimilated the other two versions of this
goddess, despite the Temple of Ipet (often translated to be
'Harem' rather than the name of the goddess) at Karnak.
In Egyptian astronomy, Taweret was linked to the northern
sky. In this role she was known as Nebetakhet, the Mistress of the Horizon - the
ceiling painting of the constellations in the tomb of Seti I showed her in this capacity.
She was thought to keep the northern sky - a place of darkness, cold, mist, and rain to
the Egyptians - free of evil. She was shown to represent the never-setting circumpolar
stars of Ursa Minor and Draco. The seven stars lined down her back are the stars of
the Little Dipper. She was believed to be a guardian of the north, stopping all who
were unworthy before they could pass her by.
In all of the ancient Egyptian astronomical diagrams there is one figure which is
always larger than all the rest, and most frequently found at the center of what appears
to be a horizontal parade of figures. This figure is Taweret "The Great One", a goddess
depicted as a pregnant hippopotamus standing upright. It is no mystery that this figure
represents a northern constellation associated, at least in part, with our modern

constellation of Draco the dragon.

...Precession and the Pyramid Astronomical Knowledge in Ancient Egypt, Jim
Fournier
In the Book of the Dead Taweret, the 'Lady of Magical
Protection', was seen as a goddess who guided the dead
into the afterlife. As with her double nature of protector
and guardian, she was also a guard to the mountains of the
west where the deceased entered the land of the dead.
Many of the deities relating to birth also appear in the
underworld to help with the rebirth of the souls into their
life after death.
She was thought to be the wife of a few gods, mostly
because of her physical characteristics. She was linked to
the god Sobek, because of his crocodile form. Occasionally
Taweret was depicted with a crocodile on her back, and
this was seen as Taweret with her consort Sobek. Bes,
because the Egyptians thought they worked together when birthing of a child, was
thought to be her husband in earlier times.
At Thebes, she was also thought to be the mother of Osiris, and so linked to the sky
goddess Nut. Another part of this theology was that it was Amen, who became the
supreme god rather than Ra, who was the father of Osiris. It was believed that Amen
came to Taweret (called Ipet at this particular time) and joined with her to ensure the
renewal of the cycle of life. Ipet herself had become linked with the original wife of
Amen, Amaunet (invisibility). It was at Karnak that she was believed to have given
birth to Osiris. In later times, Ipet was assimilated by Mut who took her place as the
wife of Amen and mother goddess.
Plutarch described Taweret as a concubine of Set who had changed her ways to
become a follower of Horus. In this form, she was linked to the goddess Isis. It was
thought that the goddess kept Set's powers of evil fettered by a chain. This is probably
because she was a hippo goddess while Set was sometimes seen as a male hippo. The
male hippopotamus was seen by the Egyptians as a very destructive creature, yet the
female hippopotamus came to symbolise protection. This is probably why Set was, in
later times, regarded as evil while Taweret was thought to be a helpful goddess, deity
of motherhood and protector of women and children.

Montu, Solar and Warrior God

by Taylor Ray Ellison

Throughout the world in ancient times, man worshipped the sun. We find monuments
to the sun gods all over the world, but in Egypt we really begin to get a feel for just
how the sun dominated early theology. In Egypt, at various locations and apparently
somewhat independently, the worship of the sun developed with gods of various
names. So many of Egypt's deities were associated with the sun in some way that it is
difficult to identify them, and their various forms became very complex. Montu, who
we generally identify as an ancient war god in Egypt, actually originated in the form
of a local solar god in Upper (southern) Egypt, apparently at Hermonthis (City of the
Sun). His worship seems to have been exported to Thebes during the 11th Dynasty.
Because of this god's association with the
successful King Nebhepetre Montuhotep I (or
II, same king), who ruled during Egypt's 11th
Dynasty, Montu (Mentu) achieved the rank of
state god. Montuhotep I reunited Upper and
Lower Egypt after the chaos of the First
Intermediate Period. His association with
Montu is obvious from his name, which means,
"Montu is satisfied".
However, by the 12th Dynasty, Montu became
subordinated to Amun, another deity who
probably originated in Upper Egypt, and would
later be known as the "King of Gods". It was
during this period that Montu's role in Egyptian
religion took on the true attributes of a war
god.
Actually, Montu's veneration as a war god can
be traced originally to the Story of Sinuhe,
where Montu was praised by the tale's hero
after he defeated the "strong man" of Retjenu. By the New Kingdom, 18th Dynasty
pharaohs, some of whom followed a very military tradition, sought specifically to
emulate Montu. For example, the Gebel Barkal Stele of Tuthmosis III, often referred
to as the Napoleon of Egypt, describes the king as "a valiant Montu on the battlefield".
Later in the New Kingdom, he became so personally identified with the Ramesses II
that a cult statue bearing the king's throne name, Usermaare Setepenre, with the
epithet, "Montu in the Two Lands", was venerated in Ramesses II's honor during his
lifetime. When kings such as Ramesses II are referenced as "mighty bulls", they are

claiming the association with Montu as his son.

It should also be noted that Montu had a connection with Egyptian households and
was probably considered a protector of the happy home. He was often cited in
marriage documents. One
document from Deir el-Medina
invokes the rage of a husband to his
unfaithful wife with, "It is the
abomination of Montu!"
Left: The Temple of Karnak, Sanctuary
of Montu

Montu was honored with cult

centers in a number of locations.
Specifically, he was worshipped at
four sites within the Theban region. The cult centers included Armant (ancient Greek
Hermonthis), southwest of modern Luxor (ancient Thebes) on the west bank of the
Nile, Medamud (ancient Madu) northeast of Luxor, Tod (ancient Greek Tuphium),
southwest of Luxor on the eastern bank, and at Karnak which is just northeast of
modern Luxor. Most of these cult centers appear to have been established during the
Middle Kingdom, with the exception of Karnak. There, the earliest monument dates
from the New Kingdom, and specifically to the reign of Amenhotep III.
A hymn from an Armant Stele says of him, "the raging one who prevails over the
serpent-demon Nik," and the one "who causes Re to sail in his park and who
overthrows his serpent enemy". Therefore, it is perhaps not surprising that the ancient
Egyptian warships were equipped
with figures of a striding Montu
holding maces or spears. Each of
these statues were styled as a god of
one of his four primary cult
centers.
Right: The Remains of the Temple of
Montu at Medamud

Montu is commonly depicted as a

man with the head of a falcon
surmounted by a solar disk. He
wears the double uraeus behind
which two tall plumes extend vertically. Later, he became associated with the Bull
Cults such as Buchis at Armant, and so he is depicted with the head of a bull and a
plumed, solar headdress. Another bull sacred to Montu was also worshipped at
Medamud.
Like a number of other deities, Montu also became associated with Re in the form of
Montu-Re. He was also paired with the solar Atum of Lower Egypt, and in this guise,

was often depicted escorting the king into the presence of Amun. Other documentary
evidence suggests that he
was also sometimes paired
with Set (Seth), perhaps
acting as a controlled divine
aggressor to balance Set's
chaotic attributes.
Left: Columns of different
types at the Ptolemy VII temple
of Montu at Medamud

Montu is also sometimes

accompanied by one of his
consorts in ancient scenes.
Three are known, consisting
of Tjenenet, Iunyt and
Rettawy ( or Raettawy).
Rettawy is the female counterpart of Re, and is depicted like Hathor as a cow with a
sun disk surmounting her head. Through Rettawy, Montu is connected with Horus and
thus the king, for their son was Harpocrates (Horus the child).
Montu's worship survived for many years, and he was eventually considered by the
Greeks to be a form of their war god, Ares.

Sekhmet
Patron of: divine retribution, vengeance, and conquest.
Appearance: a woman with the head of a lioness.
Description: Sekhmet means "The Mighty One," and she was one of the most
powerful of the gods and goddesses. She was the goddess who meted out divine
punishment to the enemies of the gods and of the pharaoh. In this capacity she was
called the "Eye of Ra." She also accompanied the pharaoh into battle, launching fiery
arrows into battle ahead of him. Sekhmet could also send plagues and disease against
her enemies, but was sometimes invoked to avoid plague and cure disease.
Sekhmet's capacity for destruction is well-documented. In one story, Ra sends her to
punish those mortals who have forgotten him and she ends up nearly destroying the
entire human race. Only the cleverness of Ra stops her rampage before it consumes
every living thing.
Worship: Worshipped as part of a triad made up of herself, her husband Ptah and
their eldest child Nefertem, her cult center was at Memphis.

Sekhmet, Powerful One, Sun Goddess, Destructor...

by Caroline Seawright
Sekhmet, Powerful One, Sun Goddess, Destructor...
"The good god, the lord of action, Neb-Ma'at-Ra [Amenhotep III], Beloved of
Sekhmet, the Mistress of Dread, who gives life eternally. The son of the God
Ra of His own body, Amenhotep, ruler of Thebes, Beloved of Sekhmet, the
Mistress of Dread, Who gives life eternally."
-- Inscription on a statue of Sekhmet
The lion-headed goddess Sekhmet (Sakhmet, Sekhet) was a
member of the Memphite Triad, thought to be the wife of Ptah and
mother of Nefertem (though the motherhood of Nefertem was in
dispute - Bast and Wadjet were touted as his mother in their
respective cities). Associated with war and retribution, she was said
to use arrows to pierce her enemies with fire, her breath being the
hot desert wind as her body took on the glare of the midday sun.
She represented the destructive force of the sun.
According to the legends, she came into being when Hathor was
sent to earth by Ra to take vengeance on man. She was the one who
slaughtered mankind and drank their blood, only being stopped by
trickery (this story can be found under Hathor's story). She was,
thus, the destructive side of the sun, and a solar goddess and given
the title Eye of Ra.
Being mother of Nefertem, who himself was a healing god, gives
her a more protective side that manifested itself in her aspect of goddess of healing
and surgery. Part of her destruction side was also disease and plague, as the 'Lady of
Pestilence'... but she could also cure said ailments. The priests of Sekhmet were
specialists in the field of medicine, arts linked to ritual and magic. They were also
trained surgeons of remarkable caliber. Pharaoh Amenhotep III had many statues of
Sekhmet, and it has been theorized that this was because he dental and health
problems that he hoped the goddess may cure.
Hundreds of Amenhotep's Sekhmet statues were found in the Theban temple
precinct of the goddess Mut at South Karnak. The statues may have been made
for the king's funerary temple on the West Bank of the Nile and may have been
dispersed to other sites at Thebes and elsewhere beginning with the reign of
Ramesses II.
Sekhmet was depicted as a lion-headed woman with the sun disk and uraeus serpent
headdress. Although she is connected with Bast, she has no relationship with the cat
goddess. They are two distinct goddesses in their own rights - the Egyptians did not
claim they were siblings of any kind. Bast and Sekhmet were an example of Egyptian
duality - Sekhmet was a goddess of Upper Egypt, Bastof Lower Egypt (just like the

pharaoh was of Upper and/or Lower Egypt!)... and they were linked together by
geography, not by myth or legend.
Sekhmet was mentioned a number of times in the spells of the Book of the Dead:
The Chapter of Driving Back the Slaughters Which are Performed in
Hensu
My belly and back are the belly and back of Sekhmet. My buttocks are the
buttocks of the Eye of Horus.
The Chapter of Giving a Heart to the Osiris
May the goddess Sekhmet raise me, and lift me up. Let me ascend into
heaven, let that which I command be performed in Het-ka-Ptah. I know how to
use my heart. I am master of my heart-case. I am master of my hands and
arms. I am master of my legs. I have the power to do that which my KA
desireth to do. My Heart-soul shall not be kept a prisoner in my body at the
gates of Amentet when I would go in in peace and come forth in peace.
The Osiris Whose Word is Truth
I have made supplication to the Khati gods and to Sekhmet in the temple of
Net (Neith), or the Aged Ones ... I have approached with worship the two
Khati gods and Sekhmet, who are in the temple of the Aged One [in Anu].
The Chapter of Opening the Mouth
I am the goddess Sekhmet, and I take my seat upon the place by the side of
Amt-ur the great wind of heaven.
Her cult center was in Memphis, but during the New Kingdom when the seat of power
shifted to Thebes, Sekhmet's powers were absorbed by Mut. Sekhmet was soon
represented as Mut's aggressive side, rather than a goddess in her own right.

Seshat, Female Scribe, Goddess of Writing Measurement

By Caroline Seawright

Seshat (Sashet, Sesheta), meaning 'female scribe', was seen

as the goddess of writing, historical records, accounting and

mathematics, measurement and architecture to the ancient Egyptians. She was

depicted as a woman wearing a panther-skin dress (the garb of the funerary stm
priests) and a headdress that was also her hieroglyph - which may represent
either a stylized flower or seven pointed star on a standard that is beneath a set of
down-turned horns. (The horns may have originally been a crescent, linking Seshat to
the moon and hence to her spouse, the moon god of writing and knowledge, Thoth.)
She was believed to appear to assist the pharaoh at various times, and who kept a
record of his life:
It was she who recorded the time allotted to him by the gods for his stay on
earth.
She was associated with the pharaoh at the 'stretching the cord' foundation ritual,
where she assisted the pharaoh with the measuring process. During New Kingdom
times, she was shown to have been involved in the sed (jubilee) festival of the
pharaohs, holding a palm rib to show the passage of time. She kept track of each
pharaoh and the period for which he ruled and the speeches made during the crowning
rituals. She was also shown writing down the inventory of foreign captives and
captured goods from campaigns.
One of the most important ceremonies in the foundation of Egyptian temples
was known as Pedjeshes (Pedj--"to stretch," Shes--"a cord") and it forms the
subject of one of the chief monumental ornaments in the temples of Abydos,
Heliopolis, Denderah, and Edfu. The reigning pharaoh and a priestess
personifying Seshat, the goddess of writing, proceeded to the site, each armed
with a golden mallet and a PEG connected by a cord to another PEG. Seshat
having driven her peg home at the previously prepared spot, the king directed
his gaze to the constellation of the Bull's Foreleg (this constellation is identical
with Ursa Major, "Great Bear," and the "hoof" star is Benetnasch, Eta Ursae
majoris). Having aligned the cord to the "hoof" and Spica as seen through the
visor formed by Seshat's curious headdress, he raised his mallet and drove the
peg home, thus marking the position of the axis of the future temple.
- Cyril Fagan, Zodiacs Old and New (1951)
Seshat has no temples that have been found, though she did have a
priesthood in early times. Along with her priestess', there were a few
priests in the order - the Slab Stela of Prince Wep-em-nefret, from the
Fourth Dynasty, gives him the title of Overseer of the Royal Scribes,
Priest of Seshat. It was at a later time that the priests of Thoth took over
the priesthood of Seshat.
Seti I, at Abydos, dedicated part of his temple to the goddess:
The staircase of the temple ... bears an address in 43 columns of
the goddess Seshat to the king (KRI I, 186-188). The text displays a rigid
scheme which deals with the temple itself and its two groups of occupants (the
king and the gods) and in which pseudo-verbal/ temporal aspects and non-

verbal sentences/ a-temporal aspects alternate. The author demonstrates that

the three main elements, temple, gods and king, have each their proper place in
the sophisticated and complicated structure of the text. The address consists of
three parts. The first concerns the temple, its conception and its realisation.
The second presents the gods who live there and guarantee its sacral nature.
The third part is devoted to the king, the celebrant par excellence, who certifies
its functioning. This last part has a very intricate structure, with reference to
the Horus and solar aspect of the king, the Osirian aspect, and the relationship
between the two. At the conclusion of the address Seshat speaks, in order to
fulfil her usual task of registering the divine kingship of the pharaoh as living
Horus, according to the orders of Ra and the decree of Atum.
- Dominique Bastin, De la fondation d'un temple: "Paroles dites par Seshat au
Roi Sethi Ier,"
Thoth was thought to be her male counterpart and father, and she was
often depicted as his wife by the Egyptians. Some believe her to be an
example of Egyptian duality, as she bears many of the traits of Thoth.
She was thought to be linked with the goddess Nephthys who was given
the title 'Seshat, Foremost of Builders' in the Pyramid texts. She was also
identified with Isis. Safekh-Aubi (Sefekh-Aubi) is a title that came from
Seshat's headdress, that may have become an aspect of Seshat or an
actual goddess. Safekh-Aubi means 'She Who Wears the Two Horns' and
relates to the horns that appear above Seshat's standard.
The Egyptians believed that Seshat invented writing, while Thoth taught
writing to mankind. She was known as 'Mistress of the House of Books',
indicating that she also took care of Thoth's library of spells and scrolls.
It was as 'Mistress of the House of Architects' that she helped the
pharaoh set the foundations of temples with indication that she set the axis by the aid
of the stars.
Pharaoh Hatshepsut depicted both Seshat and Thoth as those who made the inventory
of treasures brought back from Punt:
Thoth made a note of the quantity and Seshat verified the figures.
Seshat was the only female that has been found (so far) actually writing. Other women
have been found holding a scribe's writing brush and palette - showing that they could
read and write - but these women were never shown in the act of writing itself.
She was a rather important goddess, even from earlier times in the Pyramid texts. She
was the first and foremost female scribe - accountant, historian and architect to both
the pharaoh and the gods. She was the female goddess of positions belonging mostly
to men. Yet she did not have a personal name, only a title - Seshat, the Female Scribe.

Bes
Patron of: the home, childbirth, infants, humor, song and dance.
Appearance: A fat bearded dwarf, ugly to the point of being comical. He is often
shown sticking out his tongue and holding a rattle. When carved or painted on a wall,
he is never shown in profile, but always full-face, almost unique in Egyptian art.
There are also depictions of Bes with feline or leonine features.
Description: Bes is a very unusual god. He does not appear to be Egyptian at all, but
where he does come from his largely unknown. He resembles gods found in central
and southern Africa, and his function is very much like that of the Fool Shaman. Bes
was primarily the protector of childbirth. During the birth, Bes would dance about the
room, shaking his rattle and yelling to frighten away demons that would otherwise put
a curse on the child. After the child was born, Bes would stay by the cradle
entertaining the child. When a baby laughed or smiled for no apparent reason, it was
believed that Bes was somewhere in the room making funny faces.
Bes' role as demon-queller also extended to driving off mischievous beings that were
believed to cause minor misfortune, like tripping people and souring food. Bes was so
ugly that even a statue of him would frighten away wicked creatures. Thus, many
houses would keep a statue of Bes near the door to guard it.
Worship: Though there are no temples to Bes, and no formal ritual, shrines to him
were found in many homes, especially those with children or pregnant women.

Bes
26th Dynasty
The governor of the Mendean nome in the Delta in northern Egypt in the reign of
Psametik I. His block statue is notable for the tragic expression on the subject's face.

The Amarna Period

by Jimmy Dunn

The Amarna Period in

Egyptian history is a
spectacular time filled with
mystery, regardless of the
massive research and analysis
of Egyptologists and layman
enthusiasts. Because religion
played such a significant role
in all of Egypt's history, the
period becomes a grand
anomaly worthy of such focus.
Most of the research and
excavations surrounding this
period focus on five areas.
These areas include the main
players during the period, who
are certainly not limited to
Akhenaten and Nefertiti, the
city founded by Akhenaten
from which the period derives
its name, the religion of the
period, the art of the period
and the period's literature (specifically correspondence known as the Amarna Letters).
In a very strict sense, the Amarna Period might be considered to encompass only the
reign of Akhenaten. He founded the city we most frequently refer to as Amarna
(ancient Akhetaten), which hardly lasted beyond his reign. However, Egyptologists
and others usually expand this period to include at least the latter part of his father,
Amenhotep III's reign through or at least into the reign of Tutankhamun. The ancient
Egyptians themselves actually appear to consider this period to run through the end of
the 18th Dynasty and the reign of Horemheb, though clearly the latter kings of this
dynasty sought to return Egypt to its traditional religion.

The primary reason that most sources begin the Amarna period with the latter part of
Amenhotep III's reign is probably due to the fact that this was the period when
Akhenaten, originally Amenhotep (IV), rose to crown prince and was subjected to the
influences that would eventually cause him to attempt to altar Egyptian religion. He
may have even served as a co-regent to his father. However, it should be noted that the
Akhenaten's father and
grandfather both venerated
the god Aten, though
certainly not in the radical
method of their offspring.
The end of this period is
marked by the efforts of the
real powers behind the
reign of Tutankhamun,
consisting of Ay and
Horemheb, working to
restore the traditional
Egyptian religion, though
such efforts may have been
made even as early as the
latter years of Akhenaten's
reign. However, there is
reason to believe, due to the
omission of Ay's and
Horemheb's names form certain kings lists, that the ruler of the 19th Dynasty included
them in the Akhenaten heresy.
What of course sets this period apart from
the remainder of Egyptian history is first
and foremost, its religious theology,
together with a distinct form of art.
The sun god and the king lay at the heart
of Egypt's theology as it developed over
the previous centuries. It was the daily
course of the sun god, who was also the
primeval creator god, that guaranteed the
continued existence of his creation. The
sun god's daily journey through the
heavens was symbolically enacted in
temples with the principle aim of
maintaining the created order of the
universe. The king partook a crucial role
in this daily event, at least symbolically
through the god's priests.
Re, the sun god, went through a daily

cycle of death and rebirth, dying at the end of each day and being reborn in the
morning as Re-Horakhty, and it was through this cycle that the blessed dead traveled
so as to enjoy rebirth along with the sun. Osiris, the god of the dead and the
underworld, with whom the deceased were traditionally identified, was increasingly
seen as an aspect of Re, and the same held true for all other gods.
Hence, towards the end of the reign of Amenhotep III, the cult of many gods were
increasingly solarized, though the king attempted to counterbalance this development
by commissioning an enormous number of statues of a multitude of deities and by
developing the cult of their earthly manifestations. However, even by the end of his
reign, the hymns devoted to the sun god clearly set him apart from other deities. His
successor, though, would revolutionize the worship of the sun.
Traditionally, the sky-god Horus had been incarnate in the king and carried the Aten,
the disk of the daytime sun named Re, across the heavens upon giant falcon wings. In
the final stage of Akhenaten's revisions, the falcon of Re-Horakhty was transformed
from the bearer of the solar disk upon its vertex into the disk itself. Hence, though the
sun disk had been there all along, its nature was completely changed during the reign
of Akhenaten.
It has always been difficult to comprehend the essential features of this revolution in
religion because, as is becoming ever more clear, it expressed itself for the most part
in conventional forms. The language in the hymns of Akhenaten to Aten parallel, more
or less word for word earlier religious texts, as did some of the customs surrounding
Aten's worship. Even motifs of Amarna art, such as the disk with rays or the prostrate
figures of the subjects, had existed for a long time, at least as literary images. In fact,
Erik Hornung tells us in his Conceptions of God in ancient Egypt that the real
revolution involved:
"...the implied transformation of thought patterns, in which all the traditional forms
were bathed in the glare of a new light which the Egyptians came to find intolerable.
Beginning with the change in the king's birth name, from which the name of the (state
god) Amun was removed,
there was a step-by-step
process of elimination.
Amun was replaced by
Aten, mythical statement by
rational statement, manyvalued logic by two-valued
logic, the gods by God. All
this was accomplished
according to a wellconceived plan."
Of course, a part of the
resistance to Akhenaten's
religion must have been the

displacement and significant reduction in status of the powerful priests of Amun and
other gods.
Erik Hornung explains that Akhenaten was not a visionary but rather a methodical
rationalist. He was a worldly philosopher who took the throne of perhaps the most
power empire on earth at that time, and implemented reforms one by one as soon as
the necessary political conditions had been created. He manipulated the power of the
priestly institutions at his command very brilliantly.
For example, in the fourth year of his reign, during an important initial phase of this
religious revolution, the high priest of Amun was sent on a quarrying expedition very
literally into the wilderness. He was therefore removed from events in the capital of
Thebes, where Amun was replaced by Aten as the head of the pantheon, and a series
of temples were dedicated to the new state god at Karnak.
According to Norman de G. Davies and Hanns Stock, these initial steps do not appear
to damage the traditional structure of henotheism, a religious concept regarding the
worship of several divinities independently. Hence, at the time these temples were
being built in Thebes which was a year prior to Akhenaten changing his name from
Amenhotep IV, he assigned a favored position beside Aten to the ancient solar deities
Re, Horakhty and Shu. On a private stela of this period Horakhty is even said to be
"the god like whom there is no other". This did not belittle Aten, but singles out the
god who is being addressed, very much in the spirit of earlier henotheistic worship.
Even Syncretism remained alive. Horakhty and Aten were combined in the hawkheaded figure of Re-Horakhty-Aten, and Re-Horakhty was placed at the head of the
earlier royal titulary that was established for the god Aten as ruler of the world. Erik
Hornung tells us that:
"...in the early years of the reign the complementary status of god and gods was not
attacked, but the hitherto vast range of the pantheon was restricted in unprecedented
fashion to its solar aspect. The dark world of the gods of the dead, Osiris and Sokar,
was drawn into the light of the sun god, and finally banished completely from the
image of the cosmos."
However, this transformation seems not to have been caused by an evolution in the
king's ideas, but rather a carefully thought out process made by a man who's religious
theology was already developed. Neither was his ideas implemented without an
understanding of the real world.

At some point we know

between Akhenaten's sixth
and ninth year as king, his
program of religious reform
reached its goal. In order to
fully escape the domain of
Amun, he had built his new
capital city and now, the
Aten received a new titulary
in which even Horakhty
(Horus of the horizon) no
longer appeared. His name
was replaced with the new
phrase, "horizon-ruler". The
deity was no longer
represented in the hawk
form, which was one of the
oldest manifestations of the
sun god, though the hawk,
as well as the uraeus snake
continued as two of the few divine animals that were tolerated at Amarna.
For the first time in history, the divine had become one, though with a complementary
multiplicity so that the mass of divine forms was reduced to the single manifestation
of the Aten. Now, all that is left is a double name, that of Re, who reveals himself (has
come) as Aten. With this change, the king also became the "sole king like Aten; there
is no other great one except him". To at least Akhenaten, now, there was but one god.
Essentially, anything that does not fit into the nature of the Aten was no longer divine.
The main difference between the hymns of Akhenaten, though using similar working
to earlier works, is what they omit. For example, now, the difference between night
and day is simply that during the night, the Aten is not present. No longer do other
gods rule the dark. Furthermore, several thousand years of myths can no longer exist.
The Aten's nature is not revealed but is only accessible through intellectual effort and
insight only to Akenaten and those whom he teaches. Akenaten tells us that "there is
no one else who knows you (the Aten)", and he is constantly given the epithet Waenre
"the unique one of Re".
Hence, the Aten is so far removed that an intermediary is required in order to be
accessible to mankind, and that intermediary is the king. During the New Kingdom,
the use of intermediaries had been increasingly important to access the gods. However,
worshipers had been able to turn to a variety of these, including sacred animals,
statues, dead men who had been deified who functioned in this capacity. Now, there
only recourse was the king, who becomes the sole prophet of their god. Hence, the
faithful of the Amarna period pray at home in front of an altar that contains a picture
of the king and his family. The new religion could be summed up as "there is no god

but Aten, and Akhenaten is his prophet".

Before Akhenaten, the placing of one god in a privileged position never threatened the
existence of the remaining gods. The one and the many had been treated as
complementary throughout Egyptian history and gods were not mutually exclusive.
Now they were and we witness the formulation of a new logic. Although his qualities
are not absolute, the Aten becomes a monotheistic God by virtue of this. He becomes
a jealous god, who will tolerate no other gods before him.
Hence, the transformation becomes visibly apparent because of the unparalleled
persecution of traditional gods, above all, Amun. Akhenaten's stonemasons swarm the
country and even abroad to remove the name of Amun from all accessible monuments,
including even the tips of obelisks, under the gilding on columns and in the letters of
the achieves. In fact, Egyptologists use these erasures and later restorations of the
name of Amun in order to date monuments to the period before Amarna. Though
Amun felt the worst of Akhenaten's revolution, other gods were also eliminated.
Akhenaten's religion did not outlive him, though for a few years the Aten remained the
leading god and its name was never persecuted. Significantly, after his death the old
gods were first restored, decades before Akhenaten's personal memory was attacked.
The traditional religion was needed to once again balance Ma'at.
One must remember that it was Akhenaten's religion. Though the king's religion may
have been the official theology of the ancient country, obviously that of Akhenaten
never completely took hold in Egypt, and hence, the old religion certainly never
completely disappeared during his reign. He may have eradicated the names of other
gods, but he could not extinguish several thousand years of mythological traditions,
particularly at a time when Egyptian religion was increasingly democratized. Egyptian
religion had always been, at least to some extent, been a divided process between the
state religious institutions and the common people and obviously there was resistance
to Akhenaten's theology on both levels. The state institutions were directly effected,
but trouble from that sector seems to have been brewing all along during his reign.
One wonders whether the true belief of the common people, particularly outside of his
new capital, ever changed extensively outside of their participation in official festivals.
In fact, even at Amarna itself there are a fair number of surviving votive objects, stelae
and wall paintings that depict or mention gods such as Bes and Taweret (both
connected with childbirth; the harvest-goddess Renenutet; the protective deities Isis
and Shed; Thoth (the god of scribes; Khnum, Satet and Anuket (the triad of
Elephantine); Ptah of Memphis and even Amun of Thebes.
What is evident is that most of the attributes we can assign to this period revolved
around Akhenaten's religion. This includes the moving of the capital to the area we
call Amarna, which may have not only been an effort to escape Amun dominated
Thebes, but also to allow an island of religious revolution within what was a very
traditional country. Akhenaten may very well have needed this support center where,
at least in one geographic location, his religion could flourish without the pressure of
the established temple communities. In establishing the capital, speed became a

determining factor of new building technique. Though the earliest structures of

Amenhotep IV employed the traditional large sandstone blocks commonly used for
temple walls, at Amarna and Thebes buildings began to be built with smaller blocks
known as talatat. One person could handle these blocks and this made it easier to erect
large buildings in a relatively short period of time. However, like Akhenaten's religion,
after the Amarna period this method was abandoned, perhaps because if was found
that the smaller blocks needed a great deal for plaster finishing to close the gaps
between individual stones, and therefore the reliefs inscribed on these walls could not
withstand the test of time.
Akhenaten's religion also effected the Art of Egypt during the Amarna period. The art
of this period may, in fact, have been the most important and lasting change. In certain
respects, there was a modification of Egyptian art that was no less revolutionary than
Akhenaten's religion. In the earliest representations of Amenhotep IV (later changed to
Akhenaten), he is shown in a traditional style closely resembling the one used to
portray both Tuthmosis IV and Amenhotep III. However, not long after his accession,
Amenhotep IV had himself depicted with a thin, drawn out face with pointed chin and
thick lips, an elongated neck, almost feminine breasts, a round, protruding belly, wide
hips, fat thighs and thin, spindly legs. This style was somewhat restrained at first, but
on most of the Theban monuments and during the early years at Amarna the king's
features became so exaggerated that his representations more resembled a caricature.
This style was not only used to depict the king, but also his family and all other
humans as well, though usually in a less exaggerated form.
Like the revolution in religion, the art styles established during the Amarna period are
no less controversial. Many Egyptologists believe that the extraordinary manner in
which Akhenaten portrayed himself, his family and, to a lesser extent, all other human
beings, somehow reflects the king's actual physical appearance, though perhaps in an
exaggerated from that has been called 'expressionist' and even 'surrealist', and we are
told by the king himself that it was he who instructed his artists in this new style.
Some of those who believe that the art portrays the king in a more or less a true form
believe that he may have suffered from some disease or deformity and there has been
much speculation on this as well. A number of pathologies have been suggested,
including such conditions a Frohlich's Syndrom, which creates an appearance similar
to that of Akhenaten in art.
However, others believe that the Amarna period art is more stylistic and symbolic,
perhaps reflecting a feminine aspect of the Egyptian court. That the grotesque aspect
of Akhenaten's portrayals owes more to artistic expression than to pathological
considerations is suggested by the art style during his later years. Models and sketches
found in he sculptors' studios at Amarna lack the exaggeration of the earlier style. In
fact, some tomb scenes were even modified to mitigate the extreme style of the earlier
carvings. One should also remember that in many of the depictions that were so
exaggerated, Nefertiti did not at all resemble her beautiful bust now in the Berlin
Museum, but was represented not unlike her husband.

Left: Akhenaten in an exaggerated form; Right: Nefertiti in a form less attractive then her Berlin
Bust

Nevertheless, not only the human figure was affected by this new style, but also the
way they interact. Scenes of the royal family display an intimacy that had never before
been shown in Egyptian art even among private individuals. Another characteristic
feature of the Amarna style is its extraordinary sense of movement and speed. There is
a general 'looseness' and freedom of expression that was to have a lasting influence on
Egyptian art for centuries after the Amarna Period had come to an end, so in reality,
Akhenaten's art, if nothing else, became a lasting influence.
Many scholars see a certain detachment of the royal house from the affairs of state,
though how much so is difficult to say. Apparently the standard bureaucracy of the
Egyptian government continued its endeavors to run the country while the king
courted his god. Cracks can be seen in the Egyptian empire as early as the latter years
of Amenhotep III, and they became ever more evident during the reign of Akhenaten.
Though little appears to have been done to enforce Egypt's foreign holdings, the civil
and military authority was probably left to the authority of two strong characters,
consisting of Ay, who held the title 'Father of God' and who may have been
Akhenaten's father-in-law, and the general Horemheb. Both men would eventually
become kings before the end of the 18th Dynasty, and Horemheb particularly would
be instrumental in reversing the damage done to the Egyptian state religion.
At home the period seems to have been totally consumed by the religious revolution.
Most of what we know about this period domestically revolves around this new
theology. Likewise, though we have considerable correspondence on the matter of

Egypt's foreign relations, little action seems to have been taken. There is the
possibility of some police actions, but apparently no large scale military expeditions
took place which seemingly resulted in a contraction of the empire abroad at the hands
of foreign powers.
There is considerable confusion at the end of Akhenaten's reign. Nefertiti, Akhenaten's
famous wife was apparently had a considerable influence of the events at Amarna,
showing up in almost all reliefs depicting the king during his early reign. Though
many Egyptologists believe that she may have died early, other believe that she may
have, after a name change, actually served as a co-regent to her husband, and possibly
have even succeeded him on the throne of Egypt. There is also speculation, though she
seems to have been an intrigal part of his religious revolution, that if she indeed
outlived her husband, she may have even taken a step back from her spouse's religion
during her later years. Irregardless, by the time that Akhenaten's son, Tutankauman,
ascended the throne forces in the form of Ay and Horemheb appear to have been
almost at once set on returning the status quo to traditional Egyptian religion. A stele
erected during that young king's reign, most likely actually commissioned by Ay,
records such a restoration.
In conclusion, Egypt's ancient history spans a great period of time in which any
number of religious ideas developed and flourished. Capitals were moved, artistic
changes took place, but in all this development, there were few if any periods that
would rival the revolution in so short a time frame of the Amarna period. Akhenaten
turned Egyptian tradition upside down, but clearly, his changes were not welcomed by
the ancient Egyptians and their rejection of his heresy, upon his death, was swift and
complete.

Abu Simbel
By Marie Parsons

Perhaps after the Giza pyramids, or coincident with them, the great temple of Abu
Simbel presents the most familiar image of ancient Egypt to the modern traveler and
reader. When the conservation efforts to preserve the temple from the soon-to be built
High Aswan Dam and its rising waters were begun in the 1960s, images of the
colossal statues filled newspapers and books. The temples were dismantled and
relocated in 1968 on the desert plateau, 200 feet above and 600 feet west of their
original location.
Abu Simbel lies south of Aswan on the western bank of the Nile, 180 miles south of
the First Cataract in what was Nubia. The site was known as Meha in ancient times
and was first documented in the 18th Dynasty, when Ay and Horemheb had rock-cut
chapels hewn in the hills to the south.
Ramesses II, called "the Great," built seven rock-cut temples in Nubia. The rock-cut
temple of Ramesses II on the west bank of the Nile at Abu Simbel is the greatest of
these. This temple was not seen by Europeans until J.J. Burckhardt discovered them in
1813.
The temple, called Hwt Ramesses Meryamun, the "Temple of Ramesses, beloved of
Amun," was begun fairly early in Ramesses long reign, commissioned some time
after his fifth regnal year, but not completed until his 35th regnal year. The massive
facade of the main temple is dominated by the four seated colossal statues of
Ramesses. These familiar representations are of Ramesses II himself. Each statue, 67
feet high, is seated on a throne and wears the double crown of Upper and Lower
Egypt. Each is taller than the famed Memnon Colossus at Thebes, and all are sculpted
directly from the rock face. The thrones are decorated on their sides with Nile gods
symbolically uniting Egypt.
Burckhardt said of the first face on the left that it "was the most expressive, youthful
countenance, approaching nearer to the Grecian model of beauty than that of any

ancient Egyptian figure I have seen."

An ancient earthquake damaged the statues. One is demolished from the waist up.
Between the legs and on each of their sides stand smaller statues of members of the
royal family. The smaller statues of relatives were probably, for the first southern
colossus: Queen Nefretari by the left leg, the kings mother, the great wife of Seti I,
Muttuya by his right leg, and Prince Amenhirkhopshef in front. For the second
southern colossus, Princess Bentanta stood by the left leg, Princess Nebettawyby the
left, and one unnamed female figure, probably that of a lesser royal wife named
Esenofre.
The family statues at the first northern colossus were, Queen Nefretari, Princess
Beketmut and Prince Riameses in front. For the second northern colossus, there were
Princess Merytamun, Queen Muttuya and Princess Nofretari.
Beneath these giant sculptures are carved figures of bound captives.
The forecourt or terrace which fronted the temple contained two tanks for the
ablutions of the priests. On the northern side of this terrace stood a small sun-chapel,
and on the south, stood a chapel of the god Thoth. Above the entrance, a figure of the
falcon-headed sun-god Ra is shown worshipped by flanking images of Ramesses. The
rebus figure of Ra contains the prenomen of Ramesses II, or Usermaatre: the falcon
headed god Ra has next to his right leg the glyph showing the head and neck of an
animal, read User, and the goddess at his left leg is maat. At the top of the temple
faade is a row of baboon statues in adoring attitudes, said to welcome the rising sun.
A stela at the southern end of the external terrace is called "the Marriage Stela," and is
a copy of the record of one of Ramesses IIs
diplomatic triumphs, his marriage to a daughter
of the Hittite king Hattusilis III.
Within the temple a series of chambers
becomes increasingly smaller as the floors of
the rooms rise noticeably. This is a basic
convention of temple design, as one moves into
the temple deeper to the sanctuary which would
contain the primeval mound of creation, rising
out of the waters of Nun.
The first hall within the temple contains eight
large statues of the king as Osiris, four on each
side, which also serve as pillars to support the
roof. The walls are decorated in relief with
scenes showing the king in battle, including the
great battle of Kadesh on the north, and Syrian,
Libyan and Nubian wars on the south wall, and

also presenting prisoners to the gods.

On the north entrance wall in this Hypostyle hall a scene shows Ramesses in the
presence of Amun, to whom the king appealed during his battle at Kadesh against the
Hittites.
Behind the first hall is a second smaller hall with ritual offering scenes. Here in one
scene both Ramesses and Nefertari are depicted before the sacred barque of Amun,
and in another, before the sacred barque of Ra-Horakhaty. Three doors lead from here
into a vestibule, and then one reaches the sanctuary.
The sanctuary contains a small altar and in its rear niche are four statues. These cult
images represent Ramesses II himself, and the three state gods of the New Kingdom,
Ra-Horakhty of Heliopolis, Ptah of Memphis and Amun-Ra of Thebes. Before the
statues rests a block upon which would have rested the sacred barque itself.

The axis of the temple is arranged so that on two days of the year, in February and
October, the rising sun shoots its rays through the entrance and halls until it finally
illuminates the sanctuary statues.
To the north of the main temple a smaller temple was built in honor of Ramesses great
wife, Nefertari, and the goddess Hathor. This temple should not be confused with the
beautiful Tomb to Nefertari in the Valley of Queens near Thebes.

As with Ramesses own temple, the cliff face was cut back to resemble sloping walls
of a pylon. Six colossal standing figures 33 feet high four of Ramesses and two of
Nefertari, were cut from the rock face, along with smaller figures of the royal family.
An inscription over the entrance reads "Ramesses II, he has made a temple, excavated
in the mountain, of eternal workmanship, for the chief queen Nefertari, beloved of Mu,
in Nubia, forever and ever, Nefertari for whose sake the very sun does shine."
Inside, Nefertaris temple has a single pillared hall, with carved Hathor heads atop the
pillars. On the sides facing the center of the hypostyle; Ramesses is shown smiting his
enemies and offering before various gods, while Nefertari is shown, graceful and
slender, with hands raised. Three doors lead to a vestibule with ancillary rooms at
either end.
The sanctuary is complete, though two spaces were left on its side walls for doors to
rooms, which were never cut. The inner chamber contains a number of images
interrelating the royal couple and the gods. On the rear wall, Hathor is depicted in high
relief as a cow emerging from the western mountain, with the king standing beneath
her chin. Nefertari is shown repeatedly participating in the divine rituals on an equal
footing with the king. On the left wall, Nefertari is seen worshipping before Mut and
Hathor, and on the right, Ramesses worships before images of his deified self and his
wife.
When Greek mercenaries passed by in the 6th century BCE, sand already reached the
knees of the statues. These ancient sight-see-ers left an inscription which reads "When
King Psammetichus <sic> came to Elephantine, this was written by those who sailed
with Psammetichus the son of Theolces, and they came beyond Kerkis as far as the
river permits."

The Temple of Horus at Edfu (Idfu)

Dedicated to Horus, the falcon headed god, it was built during the reigns of six
Ptolemies. We have a great deal of information about its construction from reliefs on
outer areas. It was begun in 237 BC by Ptolemy III Euergetes I and was finished in 57
BC. Most of the work continued throughout this period with a brief interlude of 20
years while there was unrest during the period of Ptolemy IV and Ptolemy V
Epiphanes.
This is not only the best preserved ancient temple in Egypt, but the second largest
after Karnak. It was believed that the temple was built on the site of the great battle
between Horus and Seth. Hence, the current temple was but the last in a long series of
temples build on this location. It is said that the original structure housing a statue of
Horus was a grass hut built in prehistoric times. At any rate, there is an earlier and
smaller pylon of Ramesses II which sits in a 90 degree angle to the current building.
The main building, which includes a great Hypostyle
Hall, was uncovered by Mariette in the 1860s. There
are numerous reliefs, including a depiction of the Feast
of the Beautiful Meeting, the annual reunion between
Horus and his wife Hathor. The reliefs are mostly
situated on the inside of the first pylon, and spiritually
connect this temple with Hathors Temple at the
Dendera complex. During the third month of summer,
the priests at the Dendera complex would place the
statue of Hathor on her barque (a ceremonial barge)
and would thus bring the statue to the Edfu Temple,
where it was believed that Horus and Hathor shared a

conjugal visit. Each night, the god and goddess would retire to the mamissi, or
berthing house.
There is still an entrance colonnade to the mamissi, and reliefs with considerable
remaining color just outside the main temple. These images portray the ritual of the
birth of Harsomtus, son of Horus and Hathor.

The pylons of the main Temple are about 118 feet high with typical scenes of the
pharaoh in battle with his enemies. Within the pylons is the colonnaded courtyard
with distinctive, pared columns, which leads into the great hypostyle hall. But on
either side of the courtyard there are gates which lead to an area behind the temple
and inside the bounding walls. Here, there are inscriptions recording donations of land
which were probably transferred from demotic documents. There are also dramatic
images depicting the defeat of Seth by Horus. There was an annual ritual called the
known as the Triumph of Horus (10 harpoons) which ended in the slaying of a
hippopotamus, the symbol of Seth.
The facade of the first hypostyle hall has images honoring
Horus and Hathor, and there is an immaculate ten foot tall
colossi of Horus as the falcon god here (a matching colossi is
was destroyed). As you enter the great hall, you will begin to
notice the use of light Even though the temple was build
over hundreds of years, it is very harmonious, and ebbs and
flow of lighting was certainly purposeful, portraying a
feeling of mystery. Just inside the hall are two small rooms, a
robing room on the west and a library to the east where the
priest would obtain the religious orders of the day. Within
this hall are scenes of offering including the temple
foundation ceremonies.
Beyond the great hypostyle hall is a second, smaller
hypostyle hall which leads to a well called the Chamber of
the Nile where the Priests obtained pure holy water. This is a similar arrangement as
found at Dendera. On the west side of the room are doors that lead to a small
laboratory with recipes engraved on the walls for ointments and perfumes which

where used daily to anoint the statue of Horus, and to a treasure room where offerings
were stored.
Beyond the second hypostyle hall is the offering hall, followed by the vestibule and
finally the sanctuary. There is a granite naos here dedicated by Nectanebo II, making
it the oldest relic in the temple. It is probable that a golden gilded wooden statue of
Horus about 60 cm tall would have resided on the naos. This statue would have been
cared for by the priests in a human manner, being washed, dressed, anointed, fed and
entertained.
The sanctuary itself is surrounded by chapels and rooms which, when facing north
and in clockwise order, are the chapel of Min, the chamber of linen where the robs of
the Horus would have been stored, the chamber of the throne of gods, the chamber of
Osiris, the chamber of the West, the tomb of Osiris, the chamber of the victor (Horus),
where there is a reconstructed ceremonial barge (barque), chapels of Khonsu and
Hathor, the chapel of the throne of Re and a chapel of the spread wings, dedicated
principally to Mehit, the lioness who guarded the path the soul passed on its journey
towards resurrection. The front chapel on the east is the Chapel of the New Year, a sun
court like that at Dendera. Here, a depiction on the ceiling show the voyage of the
solar barque through the Twelve Hours of the day, with an inspiring image of the
goddess, Nut. The statue of Horus would be taken from here up a flight of stairs to the
roof terrace where it would be recharged by the sun during the Festival of the New
Year. The walls of the stairs located in the outer anti-chamber depict this ritual.

Temples of Egypt
by Monroe Edgar

Writing an introduction to ancient Egypt temples is considerably more difficult then

examining any specific structure, for a number of different reasons. First of all, the
term "temple" is misleading, and secondly, the term covers a huge variety of different
structures that evolved over such a vast period of time that many people have a
difficulty comprehending just how long a time this period spans.

The Ramessuem on the West Bank at Luxor (Ancient Thebes)

For example, think of the Roman Coliseum (in Rome). It is almost 2,000 years old,
and most of us would think of it as very ancient. Yet, when the Romans first came to
Egypt, they were awe struck by Egyptian temples, some of which at that time were
already more ancient to the Romans, then the Roman Coliseum is to us. So we must
consider the effect that these temples had on the ancient Egyptians. Imagine the
feelings of old tradition and holiness felt by a young priest when he first enters St.

Peter's Cathedral in Rome. How must a young Egyptian priest felt as he strolled the
courts of the much more temple of Heliopolis, which was much more ancient to him
then St. Peter's would be to a young priest of today.
Webster's New World Dictionary defines temple as "1. a building for the worship of
god or gods, and 2. A large building for some special purpose". For the second
definition, they provide the example, "a temple of art". Neither of these definitions fit
the ancient Egyptian temple very well, and yet, almost every religious structure in
Egypt outside of the various types of tombs are almost always referred to as temples.
Certainly some of these "temple" structures do embrace both of Webster's definitions.
In fact, it is difficult to imagine most any large, ancient building not falling under the
second definition, including palaces and governmental buildings. However, our
modern readers are more likely to think in terms of the first definition, that of a temple
being a place of worship. However, this definition is simply too limited to fit even the
structures that many modern Egyptologists better define as a "god's mansion". Even
these temples sometimes had many other functions, acting sometimes as fortresses,
administrative centers and even concrete expression of propaganda or royal retreats.
However, it is difficult to define some other religious structures that are called temples
as houses of worship or "god's mansions". They may have other political or all
together different purposes.
It was the ancient Egyptian temple that received endowments. It was the mortuary
temple and the cult of the dead king that funded the entire pyramid complex of the
early kings, for example. Temples owned land, livestock and received donations,
sometimes including the spoils of war, in order to support often large populations of
priests, workers, and sometimes even an entire support town.

The Temple of Karnak at Luxor

The Temple of Karnak today remains the worlds largest religious structure, but what is
perhaps even more interesting is that it might not have been, or indeed was probably
not Egypt's largest temple. Certainly the Temple of Ptah in Memphis, though for the
most part completely gone today, may have been larger. It was older, and located in
what was often the capital of Egypt, and more often the administrative center of the
ancient country. Other temples in the Nile Delta might have been just as large as
Karnak, if not larger.
Sites such as Karnak, Dendera and
Kom Ombo would most likely fall
under the category of "god's
mansion". They were more then
religious "temples" however. While
the god may certainly have been
worshiped in these temples, it was
also his symbolic home, if not
considered his physical residence,
and the functions of the temple
were as much to serve his or her
symbolic physical needs as they
were for the god's worship. There
was probably little or no "preaching" as such, or carrying the message of the god to the
people by priests associated with these "temples". Rather the efforts were directed
inward, towards the care of the gods.
Also, though we often make a very specific distention between mortuary temples of
kings, for example, and temples such as Karnak, they were actually very similar.
Kings were considered gods, and after their death, they required a "mansion" and the
same attention as other
gods. Both regular and
mortuary temples
served to keep the name
of the king or god
alive.
Right: Temple of Dendera

The real distinction,

religiously, seems to be
in regards to structures
that might not so easily
be defined as "god's
mansions". Nefertari's
temple at Abu Simbel
was certainly dedicated to the goddess Hathor, it would seem. But this also seems to
be a situation where a "god's mansion" was built as much for political as for religious
purposes. These great monuments at Abu Simbel, consisting of her temple, and the
larger temple of her husband, Ramesses II, were not just temples. They were also

reminders of Egypt's greatness to her southern neighbors. Other structures hardly fit
within the "god's mansion" category at all. For example, Sed-festival Temples that
celebrated the king's jubilees seem to have had a completely different purpose than
"god's mansions", and ka Temples provided a residence not to the dead king, but for
his soul.
Nevertheless, for convenience, we will refer to most religious structures other then
tombs as temples in the remainder of this reference.
Dynastic era temples may be found throughout Egypt, though the ones that have
survived time are mostly in the south. They were built for many different forms of
worship, as well as other purposes. Some were major temples dedicated to major
deities, while others were dedicated to a number of different deities. Some were
mortuary temples, where the temple was dedicated to the deified dead king, and where
he was worshiped and cared for by his cult. There were also valley temples, which
were often no more then monumental gateways connected to the king's mortuary
chapel by a causeway. There were all manner of specialized temples, such as Sedfestival temples, ka temples, sun temples, coronation temples and others.
Many of Egypt's temples became complex systems of buildings, added to by
generations of pharaohs over sometimes thousands of years. Such temples include
those of Luxor and Karnak, but others long destroyed, such as the Temple of Ptah. In
fact, there are any
number of northern
temples, though long
gone, that would have
rivaled the southern
temples that we most
often visit today.
Left: Kom Ombo

Most Temples had some

sort of organized
structure that evolved
into a traditional, if
somewhat varied floor
plan. For example, the
mortuary temple of 5th
Dynasty kings invariably had an outer section and an inner sanctuary. The outer
section would consist of an entrance corridor, followed by an open columned
courtyard. Often, the pillars were inscribed with the king's name and title, and the
northern columns would have scenes oriented to northern Egypt's symbolic gods, with
a similar arrangement on the southern columns. Various additional minor chambers
might also exist within the outer section, including, for example, an entrance vestibule
or a guard station. Between the outer temple and the inner section there was usually a
transverse corridor, and in the center of the long, west wall a doorway lead to the inner
sanctuary of which the front section consists of a chapel with five niches for statues.

Behind the chapel would be an offering hall, notable for a false door on the west wall
that faces the pyramid, and before the door, an offering altar. Within the inner
sanctuary there might also be additional rooms, such as vestibules and antechambers.
Associated with both the outer and inner sections of the temple would be storage and
other annexes to one side or both of the main temple components.
Non-mortuary temples often also had
courtyards, chapels, offering halls,
vestibules, antechambers, just like the
mortuary temples. They tend to vary
considerably in their style and elements,
though temples built for specific gods
tended to be more uniform (though not
always). One of the major differences
between mortuary temples and others
was that the non-mortuary temples were
very often added to, built upon and even usurped by various kings. Though in rare
cases a mortuary temples, such as that of Djoser at Saqqara, became places of high
holiness, and were built upon by later kings, most mortuary temples were never added
to or usurped. They therefore most often were much more simple than major nonmortuary temples.
Latter temples took the form of fortresses, with massive entrance pylons and enclosure
walls, huge courtyards, columned or pillared halls and inner sanctuaries.

Topics Applicable to Temples and Chapels

The Columns of Ancient Egypt

Construction in Ancient Egypt
An Overview of Ancient Egyptian Cults
Foundation Ceremonies
Grand Festivals in Ancient Egypt
The Location and Orientation of Ancient Egyptian Temples
Mythology
Offering Formulas and Rituals
Pharaonic Egypt in Sketches
Priests in Ancient Egypt
Royal Cults of the Kings of Ancient Egypt
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part I: Approach and Entrance
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part II: The Outer Courtyards
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part III: On the Path to the Sanctuary
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part IV: The Sanctuary and its Environs
Ancient Egyptian Temple Elements Part V: Associated Element

Specific Temples and Chapels

For Pyramid Mortuary Temples, see Ancient Egyptian Pyramids

Abu Simbel - Nubia

Aghurmi Temple and the Oracle of Amun - Siwa
Ain el-Muftella, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Alexander the Great, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Amada, Temple of - Nubia
Amenhotep III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
el-Amarna, Tell - Deir Mawas
Artemidos, Speos of - Mallawi
Aten, Great Temple of - Amarna
Aten, Small (Royal) Temple of - Amarna
Beit el-Wali Temple, Nubia
Bes, Temple of - Bawiti, Bahariya Oasis
Dakka, Temple of in Nubia
Deir el Bahari, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Dendera, Temple of - Dendera
Dendur, Temple of - New York
Derr, Temple of - Nubia
Dush, Temple of - Kharga
Gerf Hussein, Temple of - Nubia
Al-Ghuwaytah, Temple of - Kharga Oasis
Al-Hager, Temple of Deir - Dakhla Oasis
Hathor, Ptolemaic Temple of at Deir el-Medina - West Bank, Luxor
Hercules, Temple of - Bahariya Oasis
Hibis, Temple of - Kharga
Horemheb, Speos of - Kom Ombb
Horus, Temple of - Edfu
Horus, Temples of (at Thoth Hill) - West Bank, Luxor
Kalabsha Temple - Nubia
Karnak, Temple of - Luxor
Khnum, Temple of - Esna
Kom-Ombo, Temple of - Kom-Ombo
Luxor, Temple of - Luxor
Maru-Aten - Amarna
Medinet Madi (ancient Narmouthis) - Fayoum
Mentuhotep II, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Merenptah, Mortuary Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Montu, Rattawy & Harpcrates, Temple of - Medamud
Montu, Temple of - Tod
Nekhbet and Thoth, Temples of at el-Kab
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part I
Abusir, Tell Atrib (Arhribis), Ausim (Letopolis), Behbeit el-Hagar, & Tell elDab'a
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part II
Ezbet Rushdi, Tell Far'un, Kom el-Hisn, Kom Abu Billo & Tell el-Maskhuta

Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part III
Tell el-Muqdam (Leontopolis), Tell el-Qirqafa and Tell el-Rub'a (Tell El
Robee, Greek Mendes)
Nile Delta, Minor Temples and Other Ruins of, Part IV
Tell el-Retaba, Saft el-Hinna, Samannud (Sebennytos) and Tell el-Yahudiya
Nubia, Lost Temples of
Nubian, Other Temples
Osiris, Temple of (and former temple of Khentyamentiu) - Abydos
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part I
Temples belonging to Amenhotep I, Amenhotep II, Siptah, the Colonnaded
Temple of Ramesses IV, the Ramessid Temple, the Chapel of the White Queen
and the private temple of Nebwenenef
Other Temples on the West Bank at Thebes, Part II - Temples of Ramesses IV
(mortuary), Amenophis son of Hapu, Tuthmosis II, and the North and South
temples at Nag Kom Lolah
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part III: The Temples at Deir elMedina - Temple of Amenhotep I, the Hathor Chapel of Seti I, the Ptolemaic
Temple of Hathor, and a small Temple of Amun.
Other Temples of the West Bank at Thebes, Part IV - Mortuary Temple of
Tuthmosis III, and the temples of Tuya and Nefertari, Tuthmosis IV, Wadjmose
and Siptah and Tausert
Philae (Now on Agilika Island), Temple of - Nubia
Qasr Ibrim - Nubia
Qertassi, Kiosk of - Nubia
Ramesseum - West Bank, Luxor
Ramesses II, Portal Tempel of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Abydos
Ramesses II, Temple of - Minya
Ramesses III, Temple of - West Bank, Luxor
Red Chapel of Hatshepsut at Karnak - East Bank, Luxor
Wadi al-Sabua (Sebua), Temple of - Nubia
Sarabit al-Khadim, Temple and Mines of - Sinai
Sarapeion, including Pompay's Pillar - Alexandria
Satis, Temple of - Elephantine (Aswan)
Senusret III, Mortuary Temple of - Abydos
Seti I Temple of Millions of Years - West Bank, Luxor
Seti I, Temple of and the Osireion at Abydos
Shepseskaf, Mortuary Temple of (Unique, at South Saqqara)
Shenhur, Roman Temple of
Sobek-Re, Temple of - Qasr Qarun
Sun Temples of the 5th Dynasty (Userkaf and Niuserre) - Abusir & Abu
Ghurob
Taposiris Magna, Temple of - Alexandria
Temple of the Oracle - Siwa
Tuthmosis III, Temple of at Abydos
Tuthmosis III, Temple of Amun at Deir el-Bahari - West Bank, Luxor
Umm Ubayda, Temple of - Siwa Oasis

White Chapel of Senusret I, The - East Bank in the Open Air Museum, Luxor

Al-Zayyan Temple - Kharga

Burying the Pharaoh in the Valley of the Kings

by Jimmy Dunn

The death of the pharaoh

was accompanied by a
formal announcement, "The
falcon is flown to heaven
and (his successor) is arisen
in his place". It is
interesting to note the
similarity with the more
modern phrase, "The King
is dead, long live the king".
It normally took about three
months to bury the newly
deceased pharaoh in his
tomb in the Valley of the
Kings on the West Bank
across from modern Luxor. This was because the embalming process was complex,
and included a period of 70 days when the dead pharaoh's body was immersed in
natron, a type of salt and a primary ingredient to the mummification process. After the
immersion in natron, the body was wrapped in first one layer of bandages, on which
protective amulets were laid in specific places, and then a second layer of broader

bandages. The second layer of bandages were first soaked in resin and aromatic
essential oils.
In many cases, this time was also used by the craftsman from the Deir el-Medina
village to quickly add the finishing touches to the king's tomb. For these workers, the
King's death was, at least in the background, a rather joyous occasion because with the
coronation of a new king came a new tomb and hence new jobs.

Documentation of the royal funerary ritual is uncommon, though there is more

evidence from the private tombs. Some of our information also comes from the tomb
of Tutankhamun. After the mummification process of the pharaoh's body was
completed, the funeral procession began at the royal palace and moved on to the West
Bank.. The king's body was carried on a sledge pulled by oxen, followed by a second
sledge that held the canopic chest. On the west bank, the procession would reach the
"Road where Re Sets" and would head for the "Great and Majestic Necropolis of the
Pharaoh's Millions of Years Life Strength Health in the West of Thebes".
In a funeral tradition that remains today, crying and screaming women would follow
the royal mummy in its wooden sarcophagus. The bald headed priests solemnly
walked along with the procession burning incense and shaking their sistrums. Often
the procession was led by
the new pharaoh, and and
included the viziers of
Upper and Lower Egypt, as
well as other dignitaries and
family.
Once the funeral procession
reached the tomb, the coffin
was stood upright. Now the
high priest, and at times
even the new pharaoh,
would perform the Opening
of the Mouth ceremony.

This procedure was believed to restore the dead pharaoh's senses, as well as his use of
speech and ability to eat and drink.
After the Opening of the Mouth ceremony, the dead king was finally carried to the
monumental stone sarcophagus deep in the tomb's burial chamber. After he was placed
in this sarcophagus and the heavy cover carved in high relief was affixed, family,
friends and other dignitaries would attend a funeral banquet, while workmen sealed
the the tomb.
During the 18th dynasty, the entrance was sometimes hidden, but beginning with the
19th dynasty, the tomb entrance was always in plan view. The door was sealed using
one of two methods. Either the wax seals were placed on the plaster of the doors
themselves, or affixed on a small clay block around the fine cord used to tie the doors
of the burial chamber. The seals usually included the figure of Anubis as a crouched
jackal.
No one was permitted to enter the royal tomb once it was sealed. At least,
theoretically. Later, we of course know that tombs were entered for a variety of
reasons. They were entered both by tomb robbers and by priests who sought to
protect the tombs and mummies from the tomb robbers. There were even occasional
second burials in the tombs.
But during normal times,
the entire necropolis was
guarded and only the
priests, guards and
craftsmen working on new
tombs were allowed into the
necropolis. Guards also
made rounds to the tombs,
checking the royal seals.
In describing any process in
ancient Egypt, one must
remember the thousands of
years of Egyptian history,
processes did not remain
constant over that time, and
new aspects of beliefs and
rituals were constantly assimilated with older beliefs and rituals. This must be kelp in
mind at all times, but we believe that the funeral of the 18th and 19th dynasty kings
buried in the Valley of the Kings remained somewhat constant during that span of
time.

The Valley of the Kings

By Marie Parsons

Geography of the Valley

The first king of the New
Kingdom, Ahmose of the 18th
Dynasty, built a pyramid-like
structure at Abydos, which
may or may not have been his
original tomb. But all the
remaining rulers of the
period, except for the socalled Amarna interregnum,
had their tombs cut into the
rocks of the West Bank at Thebes, specifically at the Valley of the Kings. From
Thutmose I in the 18th Dynasty of the New Kingdom period, all the kings, and
occasionally high officials of that period, were buried in the secluded wadi, or dry gully,
which today is called Valley of the Kings.
The peak known in Arabic as el-Qurn was known in ancient times as dehent, the Horn,
and was sacred to the goddesses Hathor and Meretseger, "She who loves Silence."
The Valley, known as Biban el-Muluk, "doorway or gateway of the kings," or, the
Wadyein, meaning "the two valleys," is actually composed of two separate branches. The
main eastern branch, called ta set aat, or "The Great Place," is where most of the royal
tombs are located, and in the larger, westerly branch where only a few tombs were cut.
The Valley is
hidden from sight,
behind the cliffs,
which form the
backdrop to the
temple complex of
Deir el-Bahri.
Though the most
direct route to the
valley is a rather
steep climb over
these cliffs, a
much longer,
shallower, route

existed along the bottom of the valley. This was quite possibly used by funeral
processions, pulling funeral equipment by sledges to the rock-cut tombs in the Valley.
With its workers
village later called
Deir el-Medina,
the valley was
called the Place of
Truth or Set
Maat, in ancient
times. The
workers of Deir
el-Medina, who
for generations
since their
community was
established, could
reach the Valley in
about 30 minutes
by walking along
the steep mountain paths. Today, energetic folks may spend 45 minutes to an hour
climbing the paths leading from the north side of the amphitheater of Deir el-Bahri and
over the mountain ridge into the Valley of the Kings. Their efforts would be rewarded by
splendid views of the Theban region.
Tombs in the Valley
The Valley contains 62 tombs to-date, excavated by the Egyptologists and archaeologists
from many countries. Not all of the tombs belonged to the king and royal family. Some
tombs belonged to privileged nobles and were usually undecorated. Not all the tombs
were discovered intact, and some were never completed.
The powerful kings of the 18th and 19th Dynasties kept the tombs under close
supervision, but under the weaker rulers of the 20th Dynasty, the tombs were looted,
often by the very workers or officials supposedly responsible for their creation and
protection. In order to prevent further thefts, the mummies and some of their funerary
objects were reburied in two secret caches, not to be re-discovered until the 19th century
of the modern era.
Visitors to Egypt have often journeyed into the Valley to view the accessible tombs,
including Tuts, but with the increasing tourism, urban and industrial growth, pollution,
and rising groundwater, the tombs have suffered over the decades. Today their access is
rotated, so that a smaller number of tombs are open at one time, and even then, many of
the decorations and walls can only be seen behind glass.
According to Diodorus and Strabo, and Greek and Latin graffiti, two writers of ancient
times, a few of the tombs in the Valley of the Kings were known and visited by ancient

tourists during Ptolemaic times.

Today, only a few of the 62 known
tombs are accessible and open to the
public. Eleven of the tombs, including
Tutankhamuns, Ramesses VI,
Amenhotep II, and Seti I, have been
set with electrical lighting.
Right: Entrance to Tutankhamun's Tomb

The earliest king buried in the Valley

was Thutmose I, the latest, Ramesses
XI. In 1922, Howard Carter found the last and possibly most well-known of these
tombs, that belonging to the young King Tutankhamun. It lies directly opposite the tomb
of Ramesses IX. For all the amount of treasure that had been found in this tomb, the
space itself is small, and all but one room was undecorated.
Directly across from Tutankhamuns tomb lies KV5, where work continues to uncover
what may be the last resting place of the 150 sons of Ramesses II.
Ramesses VI had one
of the largest tombs in
the valley. His tomb is
decorated with scenes
from the books of the
underworld, and the
burial chamber is
dominated by the
shattered remains of
the kings massive
granite sarcophagus.
Left: Tomb of Ramesses
VI

The tomb of
Ramesses I, who had
a brief reign, is a
single small chamber
at the end of a steep
corridor. It bears some
similarity in its
decoration with the tomb of Horemheb, while being more elaborate. The tomb of
Merneptah, 13th son and successor of Ramesses II, is badly damaged but worth visiting.
Psusennes I appropriated one of the sarcophagi for his own burial at Tanis.

The tomb of Thutmose III is the earliest-era

tomb that can be visited. Its walls are covered
with 741 different deities and its ceiling is
spangled with stars. The first of the tombs
usually accessible is that of Ramesses IX,
listed as tomb 6, right next to Tomb 55, now
inaccessible.
Right: Tuthmosis III Sarcophagus

The tomb of Seti I is the largest and most

elaborate of the royal tombs. It is often closed
to visitors because of rock falls and a lack of ventilation. Giovanni Belzoni, the
Patagonian Samson, first entered this tomb in 1817 and brought back the alabaster
sarcophagus and canopic chest to England, where they rest in the John Soane Museum.
Some large wooden statues of Seti I similar to the black and gilt statues of Tutankhamun
now stand in the British Museum.
The tomb of Ramesses II was begun
for his father, Seti I, but abandoned,
because the corridor cut into the
adjacent tomb of Amenmesse.
Belzoni removed the cartoucheshaped sarcophagus lid and it now
rests in the Fitzwilliam Museum in
Cambridge. The box sits in the
Louvre.
Left: Column in tomb of Amenhotep II

Situated at the southern end of

another wadi is the tomb of
Amenhotep II. In 1898, in its
southwest chamber was found one of
the caches of royal mummies. This
tombs seclusion made it a good
reburial place for the nine royal
mummies placed here in order to
protect them from further
depredations. Thutmose IV,
Amenhotep III, Siptah, and Seti II
were among the re-buried. Amenhotep II was found still lying in his own sarcophagus.
Along with royal tombs, tombs belonging to officials were found more or less intact.
One was Maiherpra, a Nubian prince educated at court with the royal princes, one of
which became Amenhotep II. Subsequently Maiherpra held office under that king.

History of Egyptology in the Valley

The Classical Greek writers Strabo and Diodorus Siculus were able to report that the
total number of Theban royal tombs was 47, of which at the time only 17 were believed
to be undestroyed. Pausanias and others wrote of the pipe-like corridors of the Valley,
tombs into which travelers could descend and admire the wall decorations.
Some of these travelers left their names and other marks. The earliest datable graffito in
the Valley was found in the tomb of Ramesses VII, and can be dated to 278 BCE, and
the latest, left by a governor of Upper Egypt was dated to 537 ACE. The French scholar
Jules Baillet counted over 2000 Greek and Latin graffiti left over the Classical centuries,
along with a lesser number in Phoenician, Cypriot, Lycian, Coptic, and other languages.
Almost half of these were found in the tomb of Ramesses VI, who was considered to be
the fabled Memnon himself.
After the Arabs came into Egypt in 641 ACE, interest in the Valley waned considerably.
It was not until the end of the 16th century that once again travelers began once again to
take notice. Although the location of Thebes was clearly marked on a map of 1595, in
1668 a Father Charles Francois visited "the place of the mummies" and apparently did
not realize its significance. It was left to another Frenchman, Father Claude Sicard, head
of the Jesuit Mission in Cairo,
traveling in Egypt between 1714 and
1726, who visited in the Valley in
1708 and located 10 open tombs
including that of Ramesses IV. He
wrote of the extensive wall paintings
and their colors.
Left: Father Claude Sicard

Sicards notes for the most part were

unfortunately lost, and thus the first
significant published account of the
Valley was left to an Englishman named Richard Pococke in 1743. He apparently noted
signs of about 18 tombs, though believing that only nine of these could be entered. In
1768 a Scotsman named James Bruce visited Luxor and explored the Valley. He visited
the tombs of Ramesses IV and of Ramesses III, henceforth known as "Bruces Tomb."
The principal feature of the latter tomb, for Bruce, were the fresco scenes of three harps
William George Brown visited the Valley in 1792, and he left his name in the tomb of
Ramesses III. He also recounted one of the few extant accounts of contemporary Arab
interest and excavation at the site. Browne wrote that the site had been explored "in the
last 30 years" by a certain son of a Sheikh Hamam, but it is unknown whether or not this
person was successful. Browne also described several tombs to which he had access,
three of which did not seem to tally with descriptions given by Richard Pococke.
After Napoleons Expedition in 1798, two Frenchmen named Prosper Jollois and
Edouard de Villiers du Terrage recorded the position of 16 tombs. For the first time the

existence of a western branch of the valley

was recorded, including the tomb of
Amenhotep III. Jollois and de Villiers were to
publish their works in the 19 volume
Description de lEgypte.
Right: Jean Francois Champollion

One of the great names of early Egyptology

has to be that of Champollion, for his work in
translating the ancient hieroglyphic symbols
on the Rosetta Stone and thus opening the
door to a greater understanding of the lives of
these people. But though this work and his
beautiful drawings published in his
Monuments de lEgypte et de la Nubie left a
brilliant legacy for scholars who followed
him, he also left a legacy of shoddy and
misguided destruction. Champollion and his companion Rossellini removed two scenes
from the tomb of Seti I, which they brought to the Louvre and to a museum in Florence.
Giovanni Belzoni, called the Patagonian Samson, was the first modern-era European to
visit the Valley of the Kings. He was sponsored by the Englishman Henry Salt, ConsulGeneral in Egypt in 1816. Among other treasures, Belzoni removed from Egypt the
sarcophagus of Ramesses III from "Bruces Tomb," and it
now lies in the Louvre and the Fitzwilliam Museums. To
give him some credit, Belzoni also not only confirmed
the presence of the 47 tombs known to Classical writers,
but added a further 8 tombs to that list, including those of
King Ay, Prince Mentuherkhepshef, and Ramesses I.
Belzonis most well-known find in the Valley was the
tomb of Seti I, the finest so far found.
Left: Giovanni Belzoni

After Belzonis escapades, scholars began to emphasize

recording and studying what had been found in the
Valley, rather than simply searching for more tombs.
John Gardner Wilkinson, born in Chelsea, England in
1797 excavated in the Valley in 1824 and in 1827-28.at
his own expense. Except for the West Valley, which he numbered separately, Wilkinson
physically assigned a number to each tomb entrance, still visible today. Tombs KV1-21
are marked on the map of the main valley in his Topographical Survey of Thebes of
1830.recorded in 1827 that 21 tombs were open to view, listing them in chronological
order. He copied scenes and inscriptions and then published the first accurate account of
the tombs, titled Topography of Thebes, in 1830.

James Burton was a contemporary of Wilkinson in Thebes.

He began a clearance of the tomb listed as KV20, which he
had to abandon due to "bad air" and only later would be
proven by Howard Carter to be the tomb of Thutmose I and
Hatshepsut. Burton also began a superficial examination of
the tomb later called KV5. This tomb would wait until the
20th century to prove itself as the largest tomb to-date, most
probably cut to serve the family of Ramesses II. At least 50
of his children have been found so far to have been buried
therein. Burton published no records of his work, though
some 63 volumes of his notes and drawings were given to the
British Museum upon his death in 1862.
Karl Richard Lepsius followed both
examples, that of scholarly recording and that
of removing artifacts from their original place
of rest. In 1844, Lepsius led a Prussianbacked expedition to Egypt. After years of
exploring, mapping, and drawing pyramids,
tombs, and monuments, including the Valley
of the King tombs, Lepsius returned and
produced the twelve-volume work
Denkmaler aus Agypten und Athiopien. But
he also sent out of Egypt 15,000 pieces, and
at one time, overthrowing a decorated column
in Setis tomb merely in order to remove a
portion of it, leaving the rest in wreckage on
the floor.
Left: Karl Richard Lepsius

In the latter half of the 19th century, this plundering would come to a close. Auguste
Mariette laid the foundations of a national Egyptian museum and for a governmental
antiquities service. It was Mariette who discovered the Serapeum, the burial place at
Memphis of the sacred Apis bulls, and the intact burial of Queen Ahhotep, mother of
Ahmose, the founder of the New Kingdom. But Mariettes greatest contribution to
Egyptology was the formation of the Antiquities Service. As Director-General, he was
responsible for awarding concessions to all excavators, monitoring all digs, and policing
the export of antiquities.
When the first cache of royal mummies was discovered in 1881 at Hatshepsuts temple
of Deir el Bahri, world attention was once and for all focused on the quiet valley, and the
first of many new excavations began in the area. Victor Loret arrived in Luxor in 1898.
Loret had been appointed as the Director-General of the Antiquities Service, established
by Mariette in 1856. Only five days after he began to dig below the cliffs under the
Qurn, or "Horn" mountain, his team discovered the tomb of Thutmose III. He added 16
tombs to the map of the principal Valley. He also discovered the second cache of royal

mummies within the tomb of Amenhotep II.

But Loret was not well-liked, and upon his resignation Maspero was reinstated. In 1899,
Maspero appointed Howard Carter to be Antiquities Inspector for Upper Egypt. His
responsibilities were to maintain all the sites of Upper Egypt and to grant concessions
for others to dig, rather than having the authority to dig on his own. One of Carters
claims to fame in this job was that he installed the first electric lighting, handrails,
staircases and running boards in the royal tombs.
Financing these improvements required the backing of investors, and one such was the
American Theodore Davis. Under his patronage, Carter discovered the royal tomb of
Thutmose IV, including a wonderful royal chariot, and
the tomb of Hatshepsut herself, containing her
sarcophagus and that of her father Thutmose I.
Right: Howard Carter

When Davis persuaded Maspero in 1903 that he could

no longer work with Carter, Maspero promoted Carter
to Inspector of Saqqara, but Carter resigned six weeks
later and never worked for the Antiquities Service
again. Maspero replaced him with James Quibell, but
he too was eventually replaced, by Arthur Weigall.
Weigall was the one who broke through a tomb
entrance that Quibell had earlier discovered, to find the
rich burial goods and mummies of Yuya, Master of the
Kings Horse, and his wife Thuya, the parents of Tiye,
wife of Amenhotep III and mother of Amenhotep IV,
later to rename himself Akhenaten.
More archaeologists and Egyptologists would follow, and great finds would continue to
be made. Many excavators would return to Egypt and add astounding discoveries in the
Valley to their earlier finds. Howard Carter was one who kept on working. For all the
incredible efforts and discoveries made in the Valley of the Kings, in past decades or
within just the past weeks, and all the contributions to the expansion of our knowledge
of the funerary practices and literature and of the kingly history of ancient Egypt, all
these seem veritably overshadowed by the finds made that relate to just one burial, the
tomb and riches of the young King Tutankhamun.

Visiting the Valley of the Kings

by Jimmy Dunn

As I write this article

(January 8th, 2002),
Egypt is experiencing a
cold spell. In fact, long
time residents of Luxor,
across the river from the
Valley of the Kings, insist
that they cannot
remember a time when it
was colder. For many
Luxor vacationers, this is
bad news, because they
come here not to sightsee,
but to enjoy the temperate climate. These tourists come from various European
countries to escape their harsh winter climates.
It is grand tombing weather. Tombs can be swelteringly hot, particularly deep in the
summer months. Therefore, it is best to visit the Valley of the Kings during the late
autumn, winter and early spring months. For example, temperatures in Luxor during
November usually range from a high of 31c (88f) to a low of 13c (55f). Still, it is best to
get an early start, and this is particularly true during warmer months.
However, the problem with visiting the tombs during the most favorable periods of the
year are somewhat offset by the number of tourists. Many tours of the Valley are
arranged during the cooler months, and the number of tourists will be considerably
greater. This is another reason to get an early start, visiting the most popular tombs first
in order to avoid the crowds.
Regardless of when you visit
the Valley of the Kings, it is
important to take plenty of
water. If you forget to bring it
with you, water can be
purchased at the visitor center
as you enter the tomb area.
During the summer months
particularly, water may make
the difference between an
enjoyable visit, or cutting your
visit short in order to escape
the heat. In addition, a good
had, sunglasses and sun
blocking lotion should be seen as necessities. Anyone who has visited the Valley will
report seeing many tourists with dreadful sunburns. Also good sturdy shoes will be
required for climbing about, and descending into the tombs. Often, tomb entrances are
not terribly well built, and footing can be a problem. These are the basic items that
anyone should bring with them for a successful visit.

However, for the serious tomb explorer, other items will be needed. A flashlight is
useful in order to see some less well lit sections of some tombs, and of course, a pen and
notebook may be advisable for taking notes, but also for writing down questions for a
tour guide. In some instances, the tour guide will not be able to accompany you into
certain tombs, so you may jot down any questions that you have for later.
With the additional cost of a permit, photography is allowed in most tombs, but not flash
photography. In many of the tombs, there is enough light for high speed film to be
used. The most experienced photographers will actually require two cameras, one
loaded with high speed film for within the tombs, with another loaded with normal film
for outside shots. There is very little need for telephoto lenses within the Valley, but
wide angle lenses and even close-up lenses can be very useful. In addition, a polarizing
filter will not only be useful in the bright sunlight outside of tombs, but will also help cut
the reflections from the protective
glass that now covers much of the
artwork in many tombs. If required,
take plenty of batteries with you.
While they will be on sale within the
Valley of the Kings, the price will be
outrageous.
Unlike many places in Egypt
(particularly when visiting more
modern religious monuments), there
is no problem with dressing strictly as a tourist. Only comfort should be considered,
because one will be surrounded by other tourists. However, again, because of the sun,
be cautious about exposing too much skin. For additional information on what to bring,
see our "Egyptian Traveler's Survival Kit".
Unless one is a serious researcher, either professionally or an amateur, it is easy to get
"tombed out". The more casual visitors to the Valley should not expect to see too many
tombs. Three or four tombs will probably be their limit, particularly considering that
there is more to see on the west bank at Luxor then the tombs. There are also temples
and other monuments.
At the same time, all the tombs in the valley are not always open to the public. The
antiquity authorities in Egypt often rotate the tombs that are open, in order to minimize
damage or because restoration work is needed.
Therefore if one is not on a strictly guided tour, where the tombs have been preselected
by the tour operator, it is a good idea to do some preplanning, selecting as many as ten
tombs for possible visits, and narrowing this down to three or four of those that are
currently open.
In this planning process, most people will enjoy visiting tombs from different phases of
the Valley's development. This will provide the tourist with the best overview of the
entire history of the necropolis. Basically, there are three phases in the Valley's

development. For each phase, I would recommend the following tombs:

Phase One Tombs:

Tuthmosis III (KV 34)

Amenophis II (KV 35)
Tuthmosis IV (KV 43)

Phase Two Tombs:

Horemheb (KV 57)

Sethos I (KV 17)
Merenptah (KV 8)
Tausert/Setnakht (KV 14)
Ramesses III (KV 11)

Phase Three Tombs:

Ramesses IV (KV 2)
Ramesses VI (KV 9)
Ramesses IX (KV 6)

Note that the tomb of Tutankhamun has not been included in this list. While many
tourists may insist on seeing this tomb, it is fairly insignificant in relationship to other
royal tombs, resembling more a private tomb. The treasures of this tomb are not to be
found here, but rather in the Egyptian museum in Cairo.
For those who will want to see more then three or four tombs, really, a longer visit to
Luxor is in order. Even the most serious visitors will usually tire after little more then a
half day on the West Bank, and there are also the temples at Luxor and Karnak, as well
as the Luxor museum to visit. Therefore, those who wish to explore a number of the
tombs will definitely wish to schedule three or four days in the area, at the very least.
Tickets to the various tombs, as well as other monuments can be purchased at various
locations. Sometimes the tickets may be purchased at the moment itself. For the tombs,
tickets are available at the Valley's entrance. Usually, these are sold in blocks, for
example, to visit three tombs. See our Entry Fees section for general pricing.

Visiting the Valley of the Kings

by Jimmy Dunn

As I write this article

(January 8th, 2002),
Egypt is experiencing a
cold spell. In fact, long
time residents of Luxor,
across the river from the
Valley of the Kings, insist
that they cannot
remember a time when it
was colder. For many
Luxor vacationers, this is
bad news, because they
come here not to sightsee,
but to enjoy the temperate climate. These tourists come from various European
countries to escape their harsh winter climates.
It is grand tombing weather. Tombs can be swelteringly hot, particularly deep in the
summer months. Therefore, it is best to visit the Valley of the Kings during the late
autumn, winter and early spring months. For example, temperatures in Luxor during
November usually range from a high of 31c (88f) to a low of 13c (55f). Still, it is best to
get an early start, and this is particularly true during warmer months.
However, the problem with visiting the tombs during the most favorable periods of the
year are somewhat offset by the number of tourists. Many tours of the Valley are
arranged during the cooler months, and the number of tourists will be considerably
greater. This is another reason to get an early start, visiting the most popular tombs first
in order to avoid the crowds.
Regardless of when you visit
the Valley of the Kings, it is
important to take plenty of
water. If you forget to bring it
with you, water can be
purchased at the visitor center
as you enter the tomb area.
During the summer months
particularly, water may make
the difference between an
enjoyable visit, or cutting your
visit short in order to escape
the heat. In addition, a good
had, sunglasses and sun
blocking lotion should be seen as necessities. Anyone who has visited the Valley will
report seeing many tourists with dreadful sunburns. Also good sturdy shoes will be
required for climbing about, and descending into the tombs. Often, tomb entrances are
not terribly well built, and footing can be a problem. These are the basic items that
anyone should bring with them for a successful visit.

However, for the serious tomb explorer, other items will be needed. A flashlight is
useful in order to see some less well lit sections of some tombs, and of course, a pen and
notebook may be advisable for taking notes, but also for writing down questions for a
tour guide. In some instances, the tour guide will not be able to accompany you into
certain tombs, so you may jot down any questions that you have for later.
With the additional cost of a permit, photography is allowed in most tombs, but not flash
photography. In many of the tombs, there is enough light for high speed film to be
used. The most experienced photographers will actually require two cameras, one
loaded with high speed film for within the tombs, with another loaded with normal film
for outside shots. There is very little need for telephoto lenses within the Valley, but
wide angle lenses and even close-up lenses can be very useful. In addition, a polarizing
filter will not only be useful in the bright sunlight outside of tombs, but will also help cut
the reflections from the protective
glass that now covers much of the
artwork in many tombs. If required,
take plenty of batteries with you.
While they will be on sale within the
Valley of the Kings, the price will be
outrageous.
Unlike many places in Egypt
(particularly when visiting more
modern religious monuments), there
is no problem with dressing strictly as a tourist. Only comfort should be considered,
because one will be surrounded by other tourists. However, again, because of the sun,
be cautious about exposing too much skin. For additional information on what to bring,
see our "Egyptian Traveler's Survival Kit".
Unless one is a serious researcher, either professionally or an amateur, it is easy to get
"tombed out". The more casual visitors to the Valley should not expect to see too many
tombs. Three or four tombs will probably be their limit, particularly considering that
there is more to see on the west bank at Luxor then the tombs. There are also temples
and other monuments.
At the same time, all the tombs in the valley are not always open to the public. The
antiquity authorities in Egypt often rotate the tombs that are open, in order to minimize
damage or because restoration work is needed.
Therefore if one is not on a strictly guided tour, where the tombs have been preselected
by the tour operator, it is a good idea to do some preplanning, selecting as many as ten
tombs for possible visits, and narrowing this down to three or four of those that are
currently open.
In this planning process, most people will enjoy visiting tombs from different phases of
the Valley's development. This will provide the tourist with the best overview of the
entire history of the necropolis. Basically, there are three phases in the Valley's

development. For each phase, I would recommend the following tombs:

Phase One Tombs:

Tuthmosis III (KV 34)

Amenophis II (KV 35)
Tuthmosis IV (KV 43)

Phase Two Tombs:

Horemheb (KV 57)

Sethos I (KV 17)
Merenptah (KV 8)
Tausert/Setnakht (KV 14)
Ramesses III (KV 11)

Phase Three Tombs:

Ramesses IV (KV 2)
Ramesses VI (KV 9)
Ramesses IX (KV 6)

Note that the tomb of Tutankhamun has not been included in this list. While many
tourists may insist on seeing this tomb, it is fairly insignificant in relationship to other
royal tombs, resembling more a private tomb. The treasures of this tomb are not to be
found here, but rather in the Egyptian museum in Cairo.
For those who will want to see more then three or four tombs, really, a longer visit to
Luxor is in order. Even the most serious visitors will usually tire after little more then a
half day on the West Bank, and there are also the temples at Luxor and Karnak, as well
as the Luxor museum to visit. Therefore, those who wish to explore a number of the
tombs will definitely wish to schedule three or four days in the area, at the very least.
Tickets to the various tombs, as well as other monuments can be purchased at various
locations. Sometimes the tickets may be purchased at the moment itself. For the tombs,
tickets are available at the Valley's entrance. Usually, these are sold in blocks, for
example, to visit three tombs. See our Entry Fees section for general pricing.

Amun and Amun-Re

by Taylor Ray Ellison

Some assume that Amun (Amen, Amon) was a

relatively modern god within the context of ancient
Egyptian religion. His worship at Thebes, where the
earliest known Temple dedicated to him was located,
is only documented from the 11th Dynasty onward.
It is true that he gained most of his prestige after
replacing the war god Montu as the principle god of
Thebes during Egypt's New Kingdom, when he was
recognized as the "King of Gods". At that time,
because of Egypt's influence in the world, he actually
became a universal god. In fact, by the 25th Dynasty,
Amun-Re was even the chief god of the Nubian
Kingdom of Napata and by the Ptolemic, or Greek
period, he was regarded as the Egyptian equivalent of
Zeus. However, he is actually mentioned in the
pyramid text from the Old Kingdom (5th Dynasty,
Unas - line 558), which show him to be a primeval
deity and a symbol of creative force. This text seems
to assign great antiquity to his existence.
Amun-Re grew so important spiritually and politically by the time of the New
Kingdom that Egypt became something of a Theocracy. At the apex of his worship,
Egyptian religion approached monotheism. The other gods became mere symbols of
his power, or manifestations of Amun-Re. In essence, he became the one and only
supreme deity.
He was one of the eight Heh gods of the Ogdoad of Hermopolis, where his original
consort was Amaunet (Ament). His worship may have originated at Hermopolis, but
another possibility was that he functioned early on as a less prominent god at Thebes,
where he eventually flourished. The Nubians, however, believed that he originated at
Gebel Barkal, located in the modern north of the Sudan.
In the middle of the 16th Dynasty, with the expulsion of the Hyksos rulers of Egypt,
Amun's growth was accelerated due to the vindication of both Egyptian power and
Amun-Re as a protector of both the Egyptian state and the Monarchy. At that time,
temples were built and dedicated to Amun throughout Egypt, including the Luxor
Temple and the Great Temple at Karnak. His importance during this and later periods
is evidenced by the grander and extravagance of these temples. They were enlarged

and enriched over the centuries by rulers of Egypt who were eager to express their
devotion to Amun-Re.
In fact, his growth to that of a national god mirrored the growth of Thebes in
importance. This growth was accelerated when Amenemhet I took control of the
thrown at Thebes, and founded the 12th Dynasty. However, the apex of his worship
probably occurred during the New Kingdom onward at Thebes, where the important
Opet festival was dedicated to Amun. During the Opet festival, the statue of Amun
was conveyed by boat from the temple of Karnak to Luxor in order to celebrate
Amun's marriage to Mut in his aspect of Ka-mut-ef (literally, "bull of his mother"). In
this capacity, Amun was recognized for his procreative function. Together, Amun and
Mut conceived their son, Khonsu, a moon god, to make of the Thebes Triad.
The sacred animal of Amun was originally the Goose, and like Geb, he was sometimes
known as the "Great Cackler". Later, Amun was more closely associated with the
Ram, a symbol of fertility. At various times he also sometimes appears as a man with
the head of a frog, the head of a uraeus, the head of a crocodile, or as an ape. However,
when depicted as a king, he wears the crown of two plumes, a symbol borrowed from
Min, and often sits on a throne. In this form, he is one of nine deities who compose the
company of gods of Amen-Ra. In the Greek period (and somewhat earlier, in order to
ascribe many attributes to Amun-Re, he was sometimes depicted in bronze with the
bearded head of a man, the body of a beetle with the wings of a hawk, the legs of a
man and the toes and claws of a lion. He was further provided with four hands and
arms and four wings.

The worship surrounding Amun, and later, Amun-Re represented one of ancient
Egypt's most complex theologies. In his most mature form, Amun-Re became a
hidden, secret god. In fact, his name (Imn), or at lest the name by which the ancient
Egyptians called him, means "the hidden one" or "the secret one" (though there has
been speculation that his name is derived from the Libyan word for water, aman.
However, modern context seems to negate this possibility). In reality, however, and

according to mythology, both his name and physical appearance were unknown, thus
indicating his unknowable essence.
Stated differently, Amun was unknown because he represented absolute holiness, and
in this regard, he was different then any other Egyptian deity. So holy was he that he
remained independent of the created universe. He was
associated with the air as an invisible force, which
facilitated his growth as a supreme deity. He was the
Egyptian creator deity par excellence, and according to
Egyptian myth, was self-created. It was believed that he
could regenerate himself by becoming a snake and
shedding his skin. At the same time, he remained apart
from creation, totally different from it, and fully
independent from it.
However, while hidden, the addition to his name of "Re"
revealed the god to humanity. Re was the common
Egyptian term for the sun, thus making him visible.
Hence, Amun-Re combined within himself the two
opposites of divinity, the hidden and the revealed. As
Amun, he was secret, hidden and mysterious, but as Re,
he was visible and revealed. In some respects, this even
relates to his association with Ma'at, the Egyptian concept
of order and balance, and reflects back upon the ancient
Egyptian's concepts of duality.
The secret, or hidden attribute of Amun enabled him to be
easily synchronized and
associated with other
deities. At Thebes, Amun was first identified with
Montu, but soon replaced him as the city's protector.
His association with Re grew in importance when
Amenemhet I moved the capital of Egypt to Itjtawy at
the apex of the Nile Delta, where the relationship was
probably expedient both theologically and politically.
However, this association with Re actually grew as
Thebes itself gained importance. Soon, Amun was
identified with other gods as well, taking on the names
(among others) Amun-Re-Atum, Amun-Re-Montu,
Amun-Re-Horakhty and Min-Amun. However, it
should be noted that with all of this synchronization,
Amun was not absorbed to create a a new god. Instead,
there was a unity of divine power with these other
gods.
Amun-Re was associated with the Egyptian monarchy,
and theoretically, rather than threatening the pharaoh's

power, the throne was supported by Amun-Re. The ancient theology made Amun-Re
the physical father of the king. Hence, the Pharaoh and Amun-Re enjoyed a symbiotic
relationship, with the king deriving power from Amun-Re. In return, the king
supported the temples and the worship of Amun. In theory, Amun-Re could even take
the form of the king in order to impregnate the chief royal wife with the successor to
the throne (first documented during the reign of Hatshepsut during the New
Kingdom). Furthermore, according to official state theology during the New Kingdom,
Egypt was actually ruled by Amun-Re through the pharaohs, with the god revealing
his will through oracles.
In reality, the god did in fact threaten the monarchy, for the cult of Amun-Re became
so powerful that its priesthood grew very large and influential, and at one point, priests
of the deity actually came to rule Egypt (during the 21st Dynasty). At other times,
Amun-Re created difficulties for the king, such as in the case of Akhenaten, who
sought to change the basic structure of Egyptian religion. In this instance, Amun-Re
eventually proved more powerful then the king, for though Akhenaten desperately
tried to change the nature of Egyptian religion, for such efforts he himself became the
scorn of later pharaohs. After Akhenaten's reign, Egyptian religion almost immediately
reverted back to its prior form and to the worship of Amun-Re.

El Kab and El Ahmar

In general, this area is called El Kab but it is really the two ancient cities of Nekheb El
Kab on the east bank of the Nile River and the older Nekhen, now known as Kom el
Ahmar (the Red Mound) on the opposite bank. Both cities were religious centers that
date from the pre-Dynastic period.
Nekheb was the Greek city of Eileithyiapolis. The City was very important prior the
building of Memphis, and was later the capital of the local nome. It was the
birthplace of the nobles of the Middle Empire who retook Egypt from the Hyksos
invasion. The city was protected by the goddess Nekhbet (the white goddess).
There are actually two sections to Nekheb, which lies on a plain situated at the mouth
of a wadi. The first is the ancient city, which is surrounded by a huge (1740 feet
square), thick (38 feet thick) wall, where visitors enter from a west gate. Within lies a
Roman temple and a sacred lake, which is a depression to the east of the town. In a
smaller enclosure is the Temple of Nekhbet (attached to a Temple dedicated to Thoth),
with its several pylons, hypostyle hall in front, a mamissi (birth house) dedicated to
Nekhbet (the embodiment of Hathor). The temple was begun around 2700 BC, and
enlarged in by later pharaohs of the 18th through 30th dynasties, including Tuthmosis
III, Amenophis II, and the Ramessids The second part of the ruins is the necropolis,
which is situated on a rocky outcrop. There, the most important tombs are those of

Ahmose, Renni, Paheri and Se, which date from the 18th Dynasty and the Ramesside
period.
About 1 1/2 miles away at the entrance to Wadi Hellal at a place which is locally
known as El-Hammam (the bath) is the Temple of Thoth. The chapel here was built
by Setau, viceroy of Nubia during the rule of Ramesses II, restored by the Ptolemies,
and dedicated to a number of deities. There is also a cave-temple up a nearby flight of
rock hewn steps dedicated to Nekhbet, who became the lioness Hathor-Tefnut. Here
there are two vestibules which finally lead into a vaulted chamber. In the early
Christian period, this was converted into a Coptic monastery. Beyond this speos
deeper into the wadi is a rock outcrop known as Vulture Rock which has drawings and
inscriptions dating as for back as pre-Dynastic times. Further on is the Temple of
Amenhotep III, which was built by him and Tuthmosis IV, dedicated to NekhbetHathor. The portico is gone, but inside are reliefs that were largely destroyed by
Amenhotep IV but restored by Seti I. North of here are several rock-cut tombs with
good reliefs.
Nekhen, also called Kom el-Ahmar, which was the Greek city of Hieraconpolis, lies
on the other side of the Nile (west bank). Nekhen predates Nekhbet as the capital of
the Nome. Here, there is a vast necropolis which dates from pre-Dynastic times and
stretches for miles as well as the ruins of the ancient city itself. In the nearby wadis
there are tombs from the Middle and New Kingdom. Nekheny, in the form of the
falcon with long plumes on his head and who was associated with Horus was
worshipped as the local god.