Induction Motor Basics

52ND ANNUAL RURAL
ENERGY
CONFERENCE &
WORKSHOP
FEBRUARY 12-14, 2014
Variable Frequency Drive and
Power Quality Workshop
Robin Priestley
Power Control Manager
Rockwell Automation
RULES OF
ENGAGEMENT
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ROBINS DISCLAIMER
Based on today
100% Accurate?
Compiled by Drives Guy
Balanced with Resources

List of Web Sites
Discussion is technical
Not brand specific
Not correct, sensitive or inclusive

COPY WRITE 2013 ROBIN PRIESTLEY ROCKWELL AUTOMATION ALL RIGHT S RESERVED
RESOURCES
http://www.ab.com/drives/energy_savings/index.html
http://www.angelfire.com/pa/baconbacon/page2.html
http://www.pupman.com/listarchives/2001/June/msg00679.html
http://www.energysafe.com.au/products.html
http://www.iserv.net/~alexx/lib/general.htm
http://www.myronzuckerinc.com/docs/Specification%20%20Trap%20Filter.pdf
http://www.transcoil.com/
http://www.et-sales.com/K_Factor.html
http://www.ab.com/drives/energy_savings/index.html
TOOLS
Engineering Assistant
Break/Regeneration Calculator
Harmonics Estimator
Energy Savings Calculator
Allen-Bradley Team
Seminars
Harmonics/Power Quality, Etc.

Application Expertise
DRIVES IN
RURAL
APPLICATIONS
How many can you think of?
HMMMMM?
Irrigation
Hammer, flow, energy, aquifer management, saves

piping
Dairy
Agitation, vacuum pumps
Three Phase Conversion
Animal Health
Air Quality, Temperature control
How Do AC Drives Work?

1
AC Input
Rectified to DC
Waveform Smoothed
Chopped into AC
1. Alternating Current is brought into the drive.

2. The AC voltage is rectified to DC using bridge rectifiers or an
SCR circuit.
3. The DC voltage has its ripple removed by a capacitor bank.
4. Transistors switch the DC voltage on and off.
Using Pulse Width Modulation, AC is seen by the motor.
WHAT IS PWM?
Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Width Modulation is a technique that involves turning an output ON for a period of time, and then OFF
for the balance of the time. This is done without varying the voltage.
When all Pulses have same Width, the output is a square wave.
WHAT IS PWM?
Short ON times with
Long OFF times result in
lower average voltage.
Long ON times with

Short OFF times result
in Higher average
Voltage.
WHAT IS PWM?
Changing the Pulse Width in a dynamic way will result in a simulated

AC sine wave.
PARAMETERS AND
PROGRAMMING
Speed Control
Local Control
(HIM)
Remote Potentiometer
(0-10V)
Analog
(0-10V, 4-20ma)
Preset Speeds
MOPs
Network Control
EtherNet and 30 others
PROGRAMMABLE
INPUTS
Control Wiring
CONTROL WIRING
Control Wiring
CONTROL WIRING
Stop Modes
Ramp to Stop
Coast To Stop
Ramp to Hold
DC Brake
MOTOR CONTROL- WHAT IS

IMPORTANT?
What dynamics does the application require?
Ultimately, A motor shaft should:
1) Start to spin when commanded, i.e..; suitable Breakaway Torque

2) Accelerate as quickly as the application demands: Speed Response
3) Maintain operating speed without drift in motor speed
(not frequency): Speed Regulation
4) Produce torque quickly enough satisfy the speed regulator
needs Dynamic Response
5) Provide the Greatest Efficiency as a combined motor/VFD system,
i.e.: what is the wire to shaft efficiency ! !
VFD should not be susceptible to, or create problems with other electrical
equipment operated on the same power distribution circuit.
BASIC CONTROL TYPES

Volts/Hertz Control
Flux Vector Control
(V/Hz)
(FVC)
Sensorless Vector Control
Field Oriented Control
(SVC)
BASIC CONTROL CLASSES

Basic Volts/Hertz
Volts/Hertz
Control
Enhanced V/Hz
Vector Control
V/Hz with current

limiting
Encoderless
Field Oriented
Control
(V/Hz)
V/Hz with slip
comp.
Sensorless Vector
Control
Field Oriented
Control
w/ Encoder Fdbk
VOLTS / HERTZ CONTROL

Current Fdbk
V/Hz Control
Inverter
Ref
Current
Limit
V/Hz
V mag
Voltage
Control
Slip
Estimator
Slip Frequency
VOLTS/HERTZ CURVE
Base Voltage
Base Frequency
460
Voltage
Frequency
60
Ratio exists between voltage and frequency volts per hertz (V/HZ)
460/60 = 7.7 V/HZ (Voltage at 10hz =77v, voltage at 30hz=230v)
CUSTOM VOLTS-PER-HERTZ
Base Voltage
Base Frequency
AC Drive Functionality
Maximum Voltage
Maximum Frequency
Voltage
Break Voltage
Break Frequency
Start
Boost
0
Frequency
Allows complete motor/drive optimization to produce maximum performance with minimum

current.
Used on applications with tougher starting, acceleration or running torque requirements.
AUTO DC BOOST IN
AC Drive Functionality
VOLTS/HZ
Base Voltage
Base Frequency
Voltage
Automatic Selection
Frequency
Allows drive and motor to adapt to various starting conditions.
Provides optimum motor performance while controlling current.
Allen Bradley Speed Torque Curve

VOLTS / HERTZ
CONTROL
1336S PLUSMOTOR
Drive w/ Custom
Volt/Hertz Curve
500.0
450.0
400.0
350.0
e
g 300.0
a
tl
o
V 250.0
t
u
p
t
u 200.0
O
150.0
100.0
50.0
0.0
4
1
9
1
3
2
8
3
8
2
7
2
3
3
4
4
Output Frequency
2
5
6
5
1
6
6
6
0
7
5
7
Voltage
40.0
Volts/Hertz Ratio
30.0
20.0
Frequency
10.0
88.6
85.8
83.0
80.2
77.3
74.5
71.7
68.9
66.1
63.3
60.5
57.7
54.8
52.0
49.2
46.4
43.6
40.8
38.0
35.2
32.3
29.5
26.7
23.9
21.1
18.3
15.5
12.7
9.8
7.0
4.2
1.4
0.0
VOLTS/HERTZ CONTROLTORQUE VS SPEED

3.0
2.5
2.0
Per Unit
Torque
1.5
1.0
.5
16.7
33.3
50
Speed in Hertz
66.7
83.3
SENSORLESS VECTOR
CONTROL
Current Fdbk
Torque Cur
Estimator
V/Hz Control
Inverter
Ref
V mag
Current
Limit
Volt
Vector V ang
Voltage
Control
M
Torque Cur
Estimator
Autotune Parameters
Slip
Estimator
Slip Frequency
V Angle controls the amount of total motor
current that goes into motor flux
WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OUT OF THE BOX,

WIZARD STARTUP & A STARTUP WITH TUNING?
Constant Torque Speed Range

Optimum (Detailed StartUp) = 120:1
250%
MotorNameplate DataEntered = 40 :1
200%
Out of the box = 20 :1
Torque
150%
100%
50%
Output Hertz
10
0%
FLUX VECTOR CONTROL TORQUE VS SPEED
Torque
12 5
10
20
30
Speed (Hz)
40
50
60
STARTING TORQUE
Out of the Box = 150%
W/ Motor NP Values = 200%
Optimum Tuning = 250%
SPEED TORQUE CURVES

3.0
2.5
2.0
Per Unit
Torque
1.5
1.0
.5
10
20
30
40
50
60
Speed in Hertz
70
80
90
100
DC DRIVE CONTROL WITH

FEEDBACK
High Bandwidth Current regulator
Current Fdbk
Ref
Speed
Reg.
Field
Cur. Reg.
Field
Bridge
SCR
Control
Armature
Cur. Reg.
Arm
Bridge
M
PG
Current Fdbk
Voltage Fdbk
Speed Fdbk
FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

W/ FEEDBACK
High Bandwidth Current regulator
Current Fdbk
Ref
Speed
Reg.
V mag
Flux
Reg.
Inverter
Torque
Ref
Current
Reg.
V ang
Voltage
Control
M
PG
Adaptive
Controller
Autotune Para
Slip Frequency
Voltage Fdbk
Speed Fdbk
TORQUE VS SPEED
Flux Vector Drive, 1000:1 motor, Tuned
2.5
2.0
Per Unit
Torque
1.0
0.0
1 3 10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS

Heat
generated is same at all speeds
Cooling
system deteriorates at reduced speed
unless equipped with blower

Example:
Conveyer
Winch
Auger
CONSTANT TORQUE 4:1

100
Torque
90
80
Torque
70
60
50
40
Acceptable Region
for Continuous Operation)
30
20
10
0
0
12
18
24
30
36
42
HZ
48
54
60
66
72
78
84
90
CONSTANT TORQUE TO ZERO

SPEED
Torque
100%
Horsepower
Constant Torque Range
Torque &
Horsepower
Constant Horsepower Range
100%
Percent of Base Speed
200%
CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS

Typical
of conveyors and machine tools
Torque
demand remains constant
throughout speed range

Operation
at low speed may need
consideration
Motor
enclosure a possible issue
VARIABLE TORQUE LOADS

Typical
of Centrifugal Pumps and Fans
Torque
drops as square of speed reduction
Operation
at low speed not a problem due
to low torque requirement

Motor
enclosure not an issue
Variable Torque Loads
WHATS MY LINE VOLTAGE?

Some common ratings are:
120v, 1phase
200-230v, 1 phase
200-230v, 3 phase
380-480v, 3 phase
500-600v, 3 phase
Medium Voltage (2300, 4160, 6600, 13800)
WHAT IS THE MOTOR VOLTAGE?

Some common motor voltages are:
200-230v, 3 phase
380-480v, 3 phase
500-600v, 3 phase
(Even if the incoming line voltage is single phase, the
drive output will always be 3 phase. Single phase
motors and Variable Frequency Drives are not designed
to work together.)
WHAT HORSEPOWER?
Three phase hp to 80,000 hp
Single phase conversion to 40,000 HP
WHAT IS THE FULL LOAD AMP RATING

OF THE MOTOR?
Even though motor and drive sizes

are commonly referred to in Horse
Power, it is best to make certain that
the drive can supply the current that
the motor requires.
WHAT VOLTAGE DO THE DIGITAL

INPUTS NEED TO CONFORM TO?
Will there be external controls such

as Start, Stop, or Jog pushbuttons?
And if so how will they be wired. Some
drives have Contact Closure Only
inputs while other drives have options
of 120v,or 24v
ARE SPECIFIC ANALOG INPUTS

AND OUTPUTS NEEDED?
Will there be remote speed control and if so what type? Is there a
need for analog outputs and how many?
Some common options are:
Ohms, 10K potentiometer
Voltage, 0-10v or -10v/+10v
Current, 4-20ma or 0-20ma
Drives usually come standard with all of the analog inputs above. 0-10v
is usually a standard analog output. Sometimes additional analog
option boards are required when multiple analog inputs and outputs
are required, or when a current outputs are required.
ENCLOSURE RATING
Panel Mount
IP 20(NEMA Type 1)
Flange Mount
IP 20(NEMA Type 1)
NEMA 4
NEMA 12
ARE COMMUNICATIONS OPTIONS

NEEDED?
Some communication networks are:
DeviceNet
ControlNet
EtherNetIP
Modbus, Profibus, P1, Metasys

Additional options may be needed when drives are
communicating on a network.
WILL DYNAMIC BRAKING BE

REQUIRED?
If the motor needs to be

stopped abruptly and/or
moves a high inertia load,
dynamic braking options may
be required.
HUMAN INTERFACE MODULE
Full Text LCD with Multiple

language support
Multiple control options
(or no control)
HOW FAR APART WILL THE DRIVE

AND MOTOR BE MOUNTED?
Long motor leads can create conditions such as
Reflected Wave Phenomena and Capacitive
Coupling.
A good rule of thumb is to check the lead length
recommendations in the drive user manual any
time the lead lengths approach 50ft or more.
There are many different corrective measures and
devices to correct long lead conditions.
TROUBLESHOOTING
HELPFUL MANUALS:
User Manuals
Troubleshooting Guides
Installation Instructions
Spare Parts Lists

Manufacturers Website
TROUBLESHOOTING TIPS
Is the problem with the Motor or with the Drive??
Before assuming the drive is defective, try

disconnecting the motor leads from the drive.
Then run the drive as you normally would, you
should see the drive status on the HIM (Drive
Running, Stopped) If the drive still faults without
the motor connected there is most-likely a
problem with the drive.
Is the problem with the Motor or with the Drive??
In the case of reoccurring phase faults, sometimes

it is helpful to rotate all three of the motor leads.
(i.e. U to V, V to W, and W to U) If the re-occurring
fault was a UV short, a bad drive component would
have the same fault. If the UV short changes to a
VW short, it would appear that the motor has bad
windings.
Is there a problem with the Control Wiring or
with the Drive??
Before assuming that drive inputs are bad, try

using Jumper wires to manually connect the
appropriate connections on the drive terminal
block. This will ensure that the correct
connections are made in the correct sequence.
Is there a problem with Parameter Settings??
In some cases the drive parameter settings can

prevent a drive from running as expected. If incorrect
parameters are suspected, sometimes the easiest solution
is to reset the drive to Factory Defaults and go through the
Drive Startup routine. During the procedure you will run
start the drive from the HIM and ensure that the drive runs
appropriately.
Overvolt Faults
Overvolt faults occur when the Drives DC bus

exceeds safe limits. There are a number of reasons this
can happen including:
Voltage spikes on the incoming line.
Excess regenerative braking.
Reciprocating loads that cause regeneration.
The first step in determining the cause of an Overvoltage

fault is to determine when the fault is occurring.
Overvolt Faults caused by Voltage spikes on the
incoming line
If the Overvoltage fault occurs when the drive is not

running and the motor is not spinning.
If the Overvoltage faults occur at random times

Check incoming line voltage and verify it is not too high
5 to 6 in the morning?
Overvolt Faults caused by Excess Regenerative Braking
The fault only occurs when the drive is decelerating.

As the drive decelerates the motor becomes a generator and the
power is absorbed by the DC bus. If the load is decelerated too
quickly, it may create too much voltage for the DC bus.
Try increasing the Decel time and see if the fault still occurs. If
the Decel time must be increased to an unacceptable level, then
Dynamic Braking must be used to achieve the required
deceleration time.
Overvolt Faults caused by
Reciprocating Loads
If you are turning a load with uneven weight.
Sometimes the load regenerates on every downward swing of
the rotation.
If your load moves back and forth repetitiously.

Sometimes these loads reach a resonant frequency that causes
line regeneration.
These are both cases where Dynamic Braking may

be required.
Why are we using Drives?
Process Improvement
Increased Reliability
Energy Savings
Extending Service Life of Existing
Systems
Multiple Motors on Single Drives?

Independent Overload Protection
Oversize Drive + 20%
30 Second Answers for

Over
the Speeding
Most Motors?
Frequently
Minimum Speeds on Pumps?
Asked
Questions
Are Energy Savings Real?
Reactors?
Up Stream? Downstream?
Biggest Missed
Opportunities
Process Trim
Flying Start
Velocity Profiling
Radiate, Emitted & Conducted

Noise
Ideal Variable Torque Load Phenomenon
Potential
Energy
Savings
Frequency Control
Cycle Converter
Six Step SCR / Drive
PWM GTO Drive
PWM Bipolar Transistor
PWM IGBT Drive
PWM 4th Generation IGBT
1950s
1960s
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000
The Reflected Wave

Phenomenon
First identified in 1900 with power distribution
lines.
Also known as Standing Wave or
Transmission Line Effect.
Well documented in digital communications.
Coming to the forefront in IGBT based drives.
Can cause voltage peaks at the motor.
Presents the possibility for insulation
breakdown.
+2
+1
-1
Typical PWM VLL Output

Pulse at the Motor Terminal
IGBT vs. Bipolar

Transistor Current
7.5HP MOTOR
Bi-Polar
IGBT
1336 @ 60HZ NO LOAD

SWITCHING FREQUENCY
1.26KHZ
1336 PLUS @ 60HZ

NO LOAD SWITCHING
FREQUENCY 9KHZ
The Physics of it All
The cable between the drive and motor represents a substantial impedance to the
PWM voltage pulses of the drive
Cable impedance is proportional to length
Z0=
Inductance / unit length

Capacitance / unit length
If the cable surge impedance does not match

the motor surge impedance---
Voltage reflection WILL occur !!
Predicted Motor Overvoltage

for IGBTs, BJTs & GTOs
2.2
Semiconductor Risetime
Motor Overvoltage / Vdc
50 ns
100 ns
1.8
IGBT
200 ns
1.6
400 ns
600 ns
1.4
BJT
1 us
1.2
2 us
1
4 us
1
10
100
Cable Distance [ft]
1000
10000
GTO
480v Reflected Wave Stress - Long

Cable
2000
Peak Line-Line Motor Voltage (V PK)
480 Volt System V
1800
LL
/V DC = 3 Per Unit
1600 Volts
1600
Corona Susceptible Areas
1400
1200
1000 Volts
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
5.5
Time ( m s)
NEMA MG1 Part 31 1600V Motor is Inadequate

Reduction of 1000 Vpk Motor Insulation Life Accelerated
6.0
Corona Testing
Begin Corona
Not Harmful
Extreme Corona
Damaging > 5 - 10pc
Effect of Corona
White Residue
Phase to Phase W/O Separator
Turn to Turn
Drive Typically OL Trip
Protect the Motor

Output Reactor between drive & motor
Slopes off the waveform (lengthens rise time)
Reduces destructive force for same
amplitude
Allows longer lead lengths
Does create Voltage drop
May cause reduction in torque
Output Filters
1204-RWR2
LR filter
KLC filters
The Terminator
Highly Cost Effective

Smaller
No Voltage Drop
Works @ any cable distance
Maintains current waveform
2 - 3 choices fit all applications
Most effective solution
Solves multi-motor installations concerns
Works on all A-B IGBT & BJT drives
AC Drive
Solutions
Allen-Bradley
1329 Inverter Duty
Motor
AC
Motor
AC Drive
1204-RWR2
Reactor
KLC filter
@drive
or
Non Inverter Duty Motor

AC
Motor
Terminator
1204-TFA1
1204-TFB2
@Motor
Plot 2
Before and after the addition of a 1204-RWR2 & 3.0mhy output reactor
1305 3HP 460V 60HZ No-load
300ft shielded cable
After addition of
1321 output reactor
1140Vpk @ Motor
14ms/rise time
After addition of
1204-RWR2
720Vpk @ Motor
660Vpk @ Inverter
Before addition of
1204-RWR2
1180Vpk @ Motor
660Vpk @ Inverter
Custom Eliminator
CABLE OBSERVATIONS
PVC Cable failures on IGBT drives, the conditions were: 12 awg
- wet , steam, Water based lubricant used,
- PVC cold flow problem
Noise problems are reduced when shielded cable used.
QUESTIONS:
What insulation type is the best for IGBT drives ?
What insulation thickness withstands reflected wave

voltage spikes for 20 year cable life?
Scale Comparison of Single #12 AWG Conductors

XLPE,
RHW-2
Focus Cable
0.045
XLPE,
XHHW-2
Standard Wire
Thickness
0.030
PVC 15 mil Nylon 4 mil,
THHN
0.019
Measured CIV vs. Insulation Thickness

for 600 V Un - Aged PVC & XLPE Insulation
Peak Sinewave Voltage [Vpk]
80 00
XLPE
Extreme Corona
XLPE
EXTREME
CIV
y = 2526 x0.290
70 00
60 00
BEGIN
XLPE
50 00
BEGIN
CIV
XLPE Begin
Corona
y = 1255 x0.403
40 00
EXTREME CIV ~ 90 % failures
XLPE is 1.4x better than PVC
PVC
BEGIN CIV
PVC Begin Corona

y = 902 x0.408
30 00
20 00
10
CIV ~ 10 % failures
10 0
XLPE & PVC Ins ulation Thickness [mils ]
Degradation of PVC & XLPE 600V

Insulation under Hi pot and BIL Testing
5,000
Measured BEGIN Corona,new & un-aged
4,000
UL 1569 XLPE
BIL Testing @ 600V
3,000
Hipot Testing @ 600V

UL 1569 PVC
2,000
15 mil
PVC
1,000
20 mil
XLPE
0
Hypot Testing:
.0.1
1
10
100
[Insulation
2 * VRATED( eg.
600V) + Life
1,000 [Years]
VRMS ] ~ 3,110 VPK
Service
Basic Impulse Level Testing: [ 1.25 *VPK ] ~ 1.25 * (600V * 1.414)

UL 1569 Recommended test value
30 mil XLPE XHHW
15 mil PVC THHN
~ 3,889 VPK
3 kVRMS ( 4,240 VPK)

2 kVRMS ( 2,820 VPK)
Other Cable Issues Require

Attention.
Capacitive Coupling.
Cable charging current.
Problems Identified With

Common Mode Noise
Non operational
Control Interface(4-20ma, 0-10V)
PLC communication errors
Radiated noise
Conducted Noise
Ultra Sonic Sensors
Temperature Sensors
Bar Code
Vision System
Metal Detectors
Existing Condition: dv/dt

Noise Current
Triangular 3 Phase
Power Cable
Cable Without Shield
LINK
C MOD
PHASE A
C MOD
CHASSIS
ALL CURRENTS IG MUST
RETURN HERE OR HERE
ISG1
CSG
GND
ISG
GROUND
WIRE
I SG2
I G RETURN
Problem: Customer Ground Noise

*
Return Path in Ground Through Stray Capacitive Divider

(i.e.. Unknown Paths)
I GND Can Find Its Way Into CNC, PLC, And Computer Grounds
Conducted Ground Current
Customer EMI Noise Problem
MOTOR
Fundamental Problem
70 ns
Inverter
output
voltage
LL
Common
Mode
Current
6 MHz
I PEAK
dv
I C
dt
Capture and Return Noise

to Source
COMMON MODE CAPS
ATTENUATES NOISE WITH
COMMON MODE CHOKE
L LINK
+
LEM
+
L LINK
CHASSIS
SHIELD CAPTURES NOISE

RETURNING TO DRIVE
MOTOR
LEM
GND
What Do Common Mode Chokes Do?

70 ns
Inverter
output
voltage
V LL
Common
Mode
Current
6 MHz
1.5 to
50 us
I PEAK
Current
With
Common
Mode
Chokes
200 kHz to 63 kHz SPECTRUM
1/3
VL
di
dt
PEAK
Vground Lground
di
dt
Common Mode Chokes

Common Mode Chokes Reduce High
Frequency Current To Ground.
Reducing High Frequency Ground
Potential Difference.
Reducing PLC Errors & Other
Problems.
i.e.. 20 amps Peak Current with 100 nano
second Rise Time is reduced to typically less
than 5 amps with 5 micro second Rise Time.
Cable Impact on
Conducted & Radiated Emissions
Non - Recommended VFD Wiring Practice

AC Drive
Input Transformer
A
XO
Ilg
PE
(+)
Vdc
bus
Ilg
Motor Frame
Motor Tach
W
C lg-m
Logic
I
lg
EARTH
GROUND
lg
(-)
Ilg
Common Mode
Current Path
C lg-c
PE
Potential #1
Potential #2
Ilg
Potential #3
Interface Electronics
0-10V, communication,
4-20ma,sensor, interface, etc
Potential # 4
True Earth Ground (TE)
GOOD VFD Wiring Practice

AC Drive
Input Transformer
A
XO
Ilg
I lg
PE
Ilg
Common Mode
EARTH GROUND
Potential 4
Conduit
U
(+)
S
I lg
V
Vdc
bus
T
(-)
I lg
s
t
r
a
p
Motor
C lg-m
PE
Motor PE
GND wire
PE
Current Path
Motor Frame
Ilg
Potential #1
Accidental
Contact of
conduit
Potential #2
I lg
Potential #3
BETTER VFD Wiring Practice

Input Transformer
AC Drive
XO
Ilg
I lg
PE
Shielded Cable / Armor

Motor Frame
with PVC Jacket
Ilg
V
Vdc
bus
Motor
W
PVC
C lg-m
(-)
I lg
PE
I lg
PE
Common Mode Current Path
EARTH GROUND
Potential 4
(+)
Ilg
Potential #1
Additional
Motor PE
GND wire
Potential #2
Potential #3
BEST VFD Wiring Practice

Transformer
Cabinet Frame
Cable / Armor
& PVC Jacket AC Drive
Cable / Armor
& PVC Jacket
Motor Frame
R U
Ilg
XO
B
S V
I lg
C
PVC
PVC
PE
PE
EARTH GROUND
Potential 4
C lg-m
T W
PE
HRG or
SOLID GND
Motor
Ilg
Ilg Common Mode

Current Path
Potential #1
Additional
Motor PE
GND wire
Potential #2
Potential #3
Shielded Input & output keep noise out of ground grid.
Measured VFD Currents Showing Cable Effectiveness

in Substantially Reducing Ground Grid Noise.
6 Apk CM current of 3 output phases
3.6 Apk Current in Braided Shield & Foil
1.6 Apk Current in Insulated PE wire
0.8 Apk Net Ground Current outside of Cable

All traces: 2 Amps / Div
10 microseconds / Div
System Grounding
PE - Power Earth Ground
TE - True Earth Ground
System Grounding Scheme

1336 Plus
1305
1305
Logic
PE
Logic
PE
1336 Plus
Logic
1336 Impact
Logic
PE
PE
Logic
PE
PE Bus
1336 Force
PE Bus
Logic
TE
PE
TE
PE Bus
TE Bus
Ground Potential #1
Common Mode Voltage V
1-2
Common Mode Current I
ao
I ao
Ground Potential #2
Improper Cabinet Grounding w/Drives &

Susceptible Equipment.
Conduit or
Armor Bond
U VW
PE
Noise Current
Return Path
Cabinet Back Plane
Conduit or
Armor Bond
Output Conduit / Armor

M1, M2, M3, PE
PLC
R S T
Drive 1
PE
Drive 3
PE
PE Copper Bus
To System Ground
Output Conduit / Armor

L1, L2, L3
Drive 2
PE
Drive 4
PE
Proper Cabinet Grounding w/Drives &

Susceptible Equipment.
Common Mode
Current on Armor
PE
PE
Output Conduit or Armor

Bond to Cabinet
U VW
Common Mode
Current on Green Wire
Cabinet Back Plane
Drive 1
PLC
PE
Drive 3
PE
All Drives
Input Conduit / Armor
L1, L2, L3, GND
R S T
Drive 2
PE
Drive 4
PE
PE Copper Bus
Optional PE to Structure
Steel if Required
Effect of Cable Construction
Cable Construction Can Affect Current Balance In V/Hz Drives

Greater Than 125HP
B
TRAY
ARMOR
CONTINUOS WELDED
ALUMINUM ARMOR
TRAY
ARMOR
PVC
A
B C
A
B C
INTERLOCKED
ARMORED
STANDARD
PVC
PVC
A
B C
A
B C
TRAY CABLE
EUROPEAN
UTILITY
STRANDED
NEUTRAL
What is Capactive Coupling?

In any given motor cable there will be a
certain amount of distributed stray
capacitance.
Every time the drives DC bus voltage

switches at the carrier (or PWM)
frequency it causes current to conduct
through this capacitance.
Cable Charging Current

DRIVE FRAME
C
MOTOR
FRAME
MODULE
MOTOR
WINDINGS
LOGIC
C
MODULE
CONDUIT
DRIVE FRAME
C
MODULE
MOTOR
FRAME
PE
X INCIDENTAL
CONTACT OF
X CONDUIT TO
BUILDING STEEL
LOGIC
C
MODULE
MOTOR
WINDINGS
Cable Charging Current

This phenomenon exists for all drives
460 volt drives will exhibit this phenomenon to a
greater degree then will 230 volt drives.
One of the ways to mitigate this effect is by
reducing the carrier (or PWM) frequency to 2
KHz.
Another mitigation technique is adding a 3 phase

inductor on the output.
DRIVE TOPOLOGIES
6 Pulse
Liquid Cooled
12 Pulse
Air Cooled
18 Pulse
24 Pulse
Active Front End
WHATS HAPPENING
IN DRIVE DESIGN
Better
Faster
Cheaper
Size Reductions With Increased

Packaging
Past
Cm
core
Line
Reactor
AC/DC
EMI
FILTER
Motor
DC/AC
Gate drive
Dynamic
Brake
MARKET ISSUES
& DRIVERS
Line
Reactor
RWR
1-5
hp
SMPS
dc/dc
AB
1204
Insulation Type
1000 Vpk
1200 Vpk
Motor Insulation Failure

Issue
Motor Bearing Failure Issue
Common Mode Noise Makes
System User Unfriendly
Customer Sensor
Misoperation
Noise Issue reduced

Reflected Wave Issue
addressed With Various
solutions in the Drive.
PowerFlex 700
AC/DC
new pre
charge
Lower $
DC/AC
Dynamic
EMI
Brake
Gate drive
Filter
EMI
FILTER
Lower $
SMPS
dc/dc
RWR
1-5 hp
(Maxima)
Motor
Insulation Type
1000 Vpk
1200 Vpk
1600Vpk
1850 Vpk
Todays Hardware is Being Replaced by Software & Improved Packaging
Built in 7th IGBT
Added Noise Reduction
Internal Brake Resistor (option)
CE Filter Built In
SIZE REDUCTION - CONTROL

BOARD DENSITY
SIZE REDUCTION - POWER

MODULE INTEGRATION
Smaller Packages with More Functionality
1992
Transistors &
2nd Gen IGBTs
Duals
1995
3rd Gen IGBTs

6 Pack
7th IGBT
1998
3rd Gen IGBTs

6 diodes
6 Pack
7th IGBT
Integrated drivers
2000+
4th Gen IGBTs

6 diodes
6 Pack
7th IGBT
Integrated drivers
Inverter Control
Reducing Radiated Emissions

Rectifier Diodes,
IGBTs, brake IGBT
Anew
Aold
Radiated emission reduction [ in dBuV/Mhz ] is
Conclusion: Integrated module
LOG [ Anew / Aold ]
substantial reduction in radiated noise
Reducing Radiated Emissions

Aold
Anew
Radiated emission reduction [ in dBuV/Mhz ] is
a LOG [ Anew / Aold ]
Conclusion: smaller board substantial reduction in radiated emissions

lower SMPS frequency and slower FET risetime also helps, no heatsink
RETROFIT
CONSIDERATIONS
Now that theyre saving money,
Can I still sleep at night?
122
RETROFIT SEQUENCE
Analysis of Existing and Future Customer
Needs
Analysis of Existing System
Decision on Existing Hardware
Obtaining all Parts to Complete System;
Hardware, Software, Communication
Scheme, Service and Training
123
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT
AND FUTURE NEEDS
Speed and or Torque Regulation Levels
Speed Range
Environment
Communication (Now and Tomorrow)
Support (Parts, Expertise, Training)
124
ANALYSIS OF FUTURE
NEEDS
Desired Communications Capability
General Life Cycle Considerations

Parts
Training
Service
Obsolescence
125
ANALYSIS OF CURRENT
SYSTEM TYPE
Mechanical
Hydraulic
Eddy Current
Rotating DC / MG Sets
DC
AC
126
REASONS FOR CHANGING

FROM A MECHANICAL DRIVE
Increasing Efficiency(approximately 40%)
Enhanced Speed Control
Better Flexibility
Better Regulation
Reduced Space Requirements
127
CHARACTERISTICS OF
TYPICAL MECHANICAL DRIVE
Constant Torque from Low Speed to Midpoint
Speed
Constant HP from Midpoint Speed to Full
Speed
Internal Gearbox is the Norm
Typical AC / DC drive is 1-5 times the HP of a
typical Mechanical Drive
128
HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
Must Define Speed / Torque Needs
Hydraulic can and usually does

regulate Torque DC torque regulation
standard but AC requires use of Force
Technology
Need to Define Physical Constraints
Potential Energy Savings
129
EDDY CURRENT SYSTEM

Must Define Speed / Torque Needs
Eddy Current Torque is outstanding

Duty Cycle can be critical since Eddy
Current is basically a mechanical not
an electrical system
Energy Savings must be considered
130
REASONS FOR
CHANGING A MG SET
Inability to Get Spare Parts Economically
Reduced Operating Cost under Load
MG Efficiency (Less DC Motor) 72-81%
DC Drive Efficiency is 98.6%

Reduced costs at No Load
MG Losses 10-12%
DC Losses .6-.7 %
AC Losses 2.5%
131
MOTOR CONCERNS
Obtain Nameplate Data
Frame Size, HP, Armature

Voltage Armature Current, Field
Voltage / Amps, Base Speed /
Max. Speed, Tach Volts /
1000RPM & Blower HP / FLA
Determine if Regeneration is
Needed
132
DRIVE CONCERNS
Torque that is really required
Older Motors could accept greater overload
conditions for longer periods of time
System may be over powered for Application
Is Field Voltage Adequate

Is Speed above Base Speed Required
Will Motor Commutate Properly
Is a Generator Involved
133
OPERATOR CONCERNS
Sequencing
Reference
134
DC BENEFITS AND
LIMITATIONS
135
DC ASSESSMENT OF
CURRENT HARDWARE
P
E
R
C
E
N
T
STARTING TORQUE
300
BREAKDOWN TORQUE
FULL VOLTAGE
250
PULLUP TORQUE
200
FULL LOAD
TORQUE
150
T
O
R
Q
U
E
100
50
0
0
Speed - RPM
136
1800
1740
rpm
AC BENEFITS AND
LIMITATIONS
Stator & Rotor Epoxy
Coating
Cast Iron
Construction
PLS Bearing
Lubrication System
Anti-static
Polypropylene
Corrosion
Resistant Fan
V-Ring Slinger
Stainless Steel
T-Drains
Cast Iron
Conduit Box
Neoprene Lead
Separator
137
Capacitors
& Drives
A Practical Discussion for the Real
World
Power Factor Improvements

The Pros & Cons of:
Power Factor Correction Capacitors
Variable Speed Drives
You Pay for Power Factor

Power Factor
Charge or credits (depending on the power factor)
Charged if power factor is below 85%
Credited if power factor is above 95%
Power Factor
What is Power Factor?
Power factor is the ratio between active
power (KW) and total power (KVA)
Active power does work
Reactive power produces an electromagnetic field for inductive loads.
PF(%) = KW KVA x 100
Power Factor as a Cost

-.5
-.6
Your Total True Cost
-.7
-.8
-.95
(In phase with line voltage)
Real Work
Unity
Power Factor

-.5
-.6
-.7
-.8
-.95
Real Work
Unity
Power Factor

-.5
-.6
-.7
-.8
-.95
Real Work
Unity
Power Factor
Total PF = PF (Displacement) * PF (Distortion)

Displacement power factor
PF (displacement) = Ireal / I fundamental
involves only the fundamental quantities
includes the real and reactive currents
Distortion power factor
PF(distortion) = I fundamental / I total
includes the fundamental and harmonic
currents
Displacement Power Factor
Fundamental Current
Reactive Current
Real Current
Distortion Power Factor
Total Current
Harmonic Currents
Fundamental Currents
What are the benefits of Power Factor

Improvement?
Less KVA (apparent) same KW (real work)

More KW same KVA demand
Better Voltage Regulation
(K Factor)
Reduction in size of transformers, cables
and switchgear in new installations
Reduced Losses in Distribution System
K Factor
An IEEE method of Rating I2R losses and Survivability
>K=> I2R
Nonlinear loads increase Eddy Current (Apparent)
losses in Transformers
Magnetic Structure is Enhanced
De-Rating Transformers
Increases Available Fault Currents
Decrease Effective Load
High Cost
What can change our Power Factor?

Capacitance
Load Characteristics
LRC Tank Circuits
Inductive, Reactive (resistance), Capacitive Circuit
Tuned Filter Traps

Harmonic Filters
Active or Passive Filters
Remember Reactive Power

Electro-magnetic field for inductive loads
Capacitors, rated in (KVAR)
Reduces the amount of Reactive Power the
Utility must supply for Inductive Loads
Inductive/Capacitive Relationship
Changing Your Power Factor

Capacitance
Flexible Configuration
Proven & Simple
Automatic Switching Banks
Can create disturbances
Location
Capacitors effect the Upstream
Capacitor Location?
Metering
Utility
Service
Distribution
Entrance
Infrastructure
MCC

Load Characteristics
Lightly Loaded Inductive Loads
Transformers
Remember K Factor Concerns
Motors
Increase % Load
Decrease Inductive Value
Use a Variable Speed Drive

Hybrid Tank Circuits
Location Sensitive
Typically Service Entrance
Power Factor Correction is Side Effect
Generally Applied for Multiple Symptoms
New, Advanced Technology

Dynamic Marketplace
Variable Speed Drives

Located at Motor
The VFD is a Capacitor
VFD as the Big Payoff

Exponential Reduction in Consumed kW
Variable Torque
Fans & Pumps
Variable Torque Characteristics
Systems that Cycle
Throttled Loads
Restricted Flows
POWER QUALITY
CONSIDERATIONS
A Functional Understanding
Harmonics and Noise for

those on a low geek diet
REMOVING THE
MYSTERY
Harmonics
Defining the common terms

The biggest hazard
Financially prudent mitigation
Displaced Neutral Voltage*

AKA.
Easy ways to stop the damage
Common Mode Noise*
The real harmonic issue
Creation, Symptoms and Mitigation
Grounding
The copper connection rule..
HARMONICS: DEFINITIONS
IEEE 519
This guide applies to all types of static power converters used in industrial and commercial power systems. The
problems involved in the harmonic control and reactive compensation of such converters are addressed, and an
application guide is provided. Limits of disturbances to the ac power distribution system that affect other
equipment and communications are recommended. This guide is not intended to cover the effect of radio
frequency interference.
Date of Publication : April 9 1993 Status : Active Page(s): 1 - 112 E-ISBN : 978-0-7381-0915-2 Sponsored by :
IEEE Industry Applications Society INSPEC Accession Number: 4441390 Digital Object Identifier :
10.1109/IEEESTD.1993.114370 Persistent Link: http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/servlet/opac?punumber=2227
More
Year : 1993 Date of Current Version : 06 August 2002 Issue Date : April 9 1993 Related Information : An Errata is
available
Revision of ANSI/IEEE Std 519-1981
Harmonic Estimator Report - One Line
Project Name
End User
Customer
notes
version
WTF Consolidation Project

City of Iowa City
ESCO
Stanley Consulting SP1 w DG1
Prepared by
Date prepared
email of preparer
Robin Priestley
1/22/2014
rspriestley@ra.rockwell.com
Please note that the information shown here is typical and does not
constitute any guarantee of performance or measurement. Several outside
factors can influence the harmonics measured on a power system, including
other equipment within the plant and other equipment in neighboring plants.
This can include, but is not limited to, drives, varying loads and/or other
factory equipment.
The calculated current and voltage harmonics shown in this report are for
estimation purposes only.
Notes:
PCC is a Point of Common Coupling
A "buffered drive" is one that has a DC Link Choke
A "xfmr" is a transformer
All of the values are recalculated when cell data is entered
050519P
Source
60 Hz
100 feet 1
feet between
utility xfmr
and user xfmr
- OR -
Utility
Transformer
or Generator
750 kVA 1
3.00 %Z 1
12470 Vsec 1
0 Isc 1
- OR at PCC1
750 kVA 1
35 Irated 1
1158 Isc 1
16499.2 L, uH 1
1.3 K-factor
22.2 % Irms total to Irated
22.3 % thermal rating
0.6 Irms harmonics
7.7 Irms fundamental
7.7 Irms total
150.7
0.3
7.9
YES
YES
YES
Isc/Iload
% V(THD)
Limit
% I(TDD)
15.0
IEEE special (3% Vthd)
IEEE general (5%Vthd)
IEEE dedicated (10% Vthd)
PCC2
PCC at user xfmr
User
Transformer
300
5.75
480
0
at PCC2
300
361
6276
117.1
1.3
55.5
55.8
15.7
199.5
200.1
31.5
2.0
7.9
YES
YES
YES
PCC3
PCC at distribution panel
50 feet 2
feet between
user xfmr and
distribution panel
Distribution
Panel
kVA 2
%Z 2
Vsec 2
Isc 2
480 Vsec 3
kVA 2
Irated 2
Isc 2
L, uH 2
K-factor
% Irms total to Irated
% thermal rating
Irms harmonics
Irms fundamental
Irms total
100 feet to panel

6 pulse buffered drive with 3% line reactor
M
6002 Isc 3
5.3 L, uH 3
15.7 Irms harmonics

199.5 Irms fundamental
200.1 Irms total
Isc/Iload
% V(THD)
Limit
% I(TDD)
8.0
30.1
2.1
7.9
YES
YES
YES
Isc/Iload
% V(THD)
Limit
% I(TDD)
8.0
100 feet to panel

6 pulse buffered drive with 5% line reactor
M
100 feet to panel

6 pulse buffered drive with basic harmonic filter
filter
100 feet to panel

12 pulse buffered drive with auto xfmr
Auto
0 feet to panel
12 pulse buffered drive with iso xfmr
Iso
0 feet to panel
18 pulse buffered drive with auto xfmr
Auto
0 feet to panel
18 pulse buffered drive with iso xfmr
Design Checks: (blank if no issues)
Cell Key:
Iso
data entry
intermediate calc
harmonic results
Before using this for the first time, go to the worksheet tab labeled "Tutorial"
For help and additional information, go to the worksheet tab labeled "Notes & Tools"
0 feet to panel
Custom
0 set Ifund load

on user xfmr to
this % of Irated 2
0 total hp
100.0 % load
at PCC3
0 set Ifund load

on utility xfmr to
this % of Irated 1
total hp
100.0 % load
50 feet to panel
6 pulse buffered drive without line reactor
Non-Linear Drive Load
PCC1
PCC at utility xfmr
Linear Load 1 on utility xfmr (hp+kW+A)

0 total hp motor loads
M
+
0 total kW resistive loads
+
0 additional Amp loads
Linear Load 2 on user xfmr (hp+kW+A)
51.75 total hp motor loads
M
+
0 total kW resistive loads
+
90 additional Amp loads
6 pulse unbuffered drive without line reactor
49.5 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
0 total hp
100.0 % load
Ifund at FL
100.0 % load
IEEE 519 INTENTIONS
Fundamental Frequency
Native frequency, cycles per second (CPS), Hertz (Hz)
60 Hz in America, 50Hz in Europe
0
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
150.0
100.0
40.00m
Rf und.V =...
100.0
50.0
50.0
-50.0
-50.0
-100.0
-100.0
-150.0
0
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
-150.0
40.00m
Harmonics are multiples of the Fundamental Frequency
5th Harmonic is 5 x 60Hz = 300Hz
7th Harmonic is 7 x 60Hz = 420Hz
Full spectrum to 127 th harmonic
Discontinuous Loads
Solid State switching power supplies
Lighting ballasts, computers, variable speed drives
Greatest disturbance: One up/One down

6 Pulse drive
5th, 7th primary disturbance then 11 th, 13th followed by 17th, 19th
12 Pulse drive
11th, 13th; then 23rd, 25th
HARMONICS: POP QUIZ

An 18 Pulse drives greatest impact
can be measured at which
harmonics?
_____th and _____th
SO? WHAT ARE WE REALLY

TALKING ABOUT?
0
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
150.0
100.0
40.00m
Rf und.V =...
100.0
50.0
50.0
-50.0
-50.0
-100.0
-100.0
-150.0
0
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
-150.0
40.00m
START OFF CLEAN, ADD THE HARMONICS AND
PRESTO!
YOU NOW HAVE THE CAMELS HUMP
0
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
150.0
100.0
40.00m
Rf und.V =...
100.0
50.0
50.0
-50.0
-50.0
-100.0
-100.0
-150.0
-150.0
40.00m
10.00m
20.00m
30.00m
OK, BIG HARMONICS =

CAMELS HUMP
Heat is the big hazard
100 amp load (fundamental current 100 amps)

5% current (THD) total harmonic Distortion (5 amps)
Current you didnt pay for or use for work
Current you didnt measure
Added heat and losses to your distribution system
How much do you spend to eliminate the camels hump?

When should you be really concerned?
PROBLEMS ARE NOT

HARMONICS!
Displaced Neutral Voltage
AKA Shaft Bearing Currents , Common Mode Noise (CMN)

Fluted Bearings
drifty transducers
flakey sensors
everything is fine until the drive is turned on
Before you take any measurements,

troubleshoot anything or spend any
money, (Except for PowerFlex Drives):
Understand your ground system!
There are many like it but

this one is yours!
InstallationThe
Considerations
for
AC
Drives
99% of issues you
thought were harmonics

Line Transients/Sags
Common Mode
&
Capacitive Coupling
Reflected Wave
Grounding
&
Bonding
InstallationThe
Considerations
for
AC
Drives
99% of issues you
thought were harmonics

Line Transients/Sags
Common Mode
&
Capacitive Coupling
Reflected Wave
Grounding
&
Bonding
GROUNDING
CONSIDERATIONS
TODAYS RESEARCH
What would an internet search reveal?
There is only one choice
High Resistance Ground
Transients
Locating Faults
Fault Damage
Personnel Safety
Coordination
First Fault
ROBINS REBUTTAL
Why is the information so consistent?
If HRG increases safety exponentially, why
isnt it mandated?
Why do so many organizations still use:
Ungrounded
Solidly Grounded (Effectively Grounded)

Why is low voltage safer in your home now?
FAULT STATISTICS
98% of faults are phase to ground
Detection and response is far more
important than available current
Phase to phase 1.5%, 3 phase 0.5%

Arcing faults are discontinuous
Strike, extinguish and strike again

Provides time for protection to
work
THIS IS AN OPEN DISCUSSION
ZIGZAG (WYE-DELTA) AKA

INTERCONNECTED STAR OR STAR
DELTA
Unusual
Requires short term transformers

10 to 60 second ratings
Better suited to generator sets and

prehistoric MV systems
UNGROUNDED
Significant advantages do exist
Safety, production, Limits damage
Requires
Discipline
Consistency
Modification for VFD and some
other systems
UNGROUNDED
Principle Benefits
Low value of current flow and
reliability during a fault (<5 amps is
industry expectation)
Ensures production through first fault
Low probability of line-to-ground

arcing fault escalating to phase-tophase or 3 phase fault
UNGROUNDED
Claims I can not substantiate
Substantial Over Voltages
Sputtering Faults
Produced in Laboratory Tests
Drives see no difference between

Ungrounded and HRG. Modifications
are required.
HIGH RESISTANCE
GROUND
Lowers incident energy levels
Not enough in most cases
Coordination still required and more
effective
Personnel injury will still occur unless PPE
and other measures are in place and used.
Reduces ground fault current
Modification for VFD and some other systems
HIGH RESISTANCE
GROUND
Clamps ground fault current at lower
level and may change time base
May eliminate the ability for

Variable Frequency Drives to
detect ground faults.
This can allow greater damage
to infrastructure. (example)
HIGH RESISTANCE
GROUND
Eliminates or marginalizes protective
systems
Lightning arrestors
TVSS
Distribution
VFD
HIGH RESISTANCE
GROUND
Eliminates low impedance path for noise

Encoders
VFD signal common and VCC
Communication networks
Displaced neutral voltage
HRG & HIGH FREQUENCIES

High frequency
sources that can
cause Nuisance
tripping and
alarms:
VFD
Servo
Encoders
Ultrasonic
Measurement
SCR
DC Drives
Heating
Electron Beams
SOLIDLY (EFFECTIVELY)
GROUNDED
Still preferred by utilities
Eliminates transient voltages that
cause intermittent ground faults
Stabilizes the neutral voltage
Prevents elevation of phase to ground
voltage
Faults are easily located
Can supply line to neutral loads
GROUNDED
Arc and stray path current
Limited only by the impedances
which are small
Result is a short term fault
Current level is high enough to

permit ground fault protection to
function
GROUNDED
Arc flash
All shorts cause an arc
All arcs release energy as heat and

light
Mitigation is mandated
Coordination
PPE
WE HAVE ONLY SCRATCHED THE

SURFACE
Questions and discussion
UTILITY POWER, THE BEST KEPT

SECRET CAUSING
MANUFACTURING DOWNTIME
John McWeeney Regional BDM
DEFINITION OF A POWER GRID
Merriam-Webster
A network of electrical transmission lines connecting a

multiplicity of generating stations to loads over a wide area
GRID OVERVIEW
Source: Department of Energy
POWER QUALITY VS.

POWER RELIABILITY
Power Quality: Related to fluctuations in electricity, such as momentary
interruptions, voltage sags or swells, flickering lights, transients, harmonic
distortion and electrical noise
Fewer such incidents indicate greater power quality
Events go mostly untracked by Utilities
Power Reliability: Continuity of electric delivery measured by the number and
duration of power outages (Zero voltage)
Outages are tracked by Utilities
Power can be as high as 99.999% reliable

Remaining 0.001% can take out a process as many as 20-30 times per year
The Grid is designed for Reliability, not Quality

How Often is it Only a Sag?

EPRI (ELECTRICAL POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE)
Monitored 300 sites for 2+ years.

1993 Data Showed 92% of all events were voltage sags
under 2 seconds in duration
Second study in 1995 verified initial study, but showed

that almost 96% of all events were power sags less than 2
seconds
A typical site experienced 20-30 significant voltage sags
per year
Today PQ monitoring shows that now 98% of all events are
sags of less than 2 seconds
IMPORTANCE OF POWER
QUALITY
Power quality events are mostly random
Utility side: Weather, animal / trees hitting
power lines, car accidents, construction,
equipment failure
Facility-side: Starting of large loads motors,
poor electrical connections, Customer
equipment (arc welders)
Impact on production
Shut down equipment: voltage sags with as
little as 80% remaining can impact production
(lights may not blink)
Immediate or long-term damage to sensitive
electrical equipment
Consumer is responsible for power quality

Utility is responsible for power reliability
Consumer is responsible for protecting their sensitive equipment
VOLTAGE SAG (DIP)

CHARACTERIZATION
Sag - RMS voltage reduction between 1/2 cycle - 60 sec
Magnitude and Duration

Duration: 4 Cycles
0.5
0
0
-0.5
Magnitude: 60% Remaining

-1
What is the result of fault?

-25%
-70%
-35%
1. When a short occurs, voltage

sags until the re-closer trips
2. Voltage sag severity depends on
user distance from fault and
location of fault on grid
3. Control equipment does not like
voltage sags!
Sag = Variation below nominal RMS voltage

of 10-90% with a duration cycle to 1
minute
The depth of your sag is proportional

to the distance you are from the event
THE MOST COMMON

EVENT: VOLTAGE SAG
Sag - RMS voltage reduction between 1/2 cycle - 3 sec
Magnitude - % Remaining
*Source: EPRI
Power Quality Report Summary
Magnitude
Duration
Variable Frequency
Drives Review
Safety
Dont sue or call Human Resources
Lock out tag out
Never work on energized circuits
Verify condition with Test Instrumentation

Test the instrument prior to and after measurement
Observe all applicable Safety Regulations

Including yet not limited to State, Federal,
Local guidelines
Basic Drive Components

Draw A Basic AC Drive
Describe what the components are
responsible for
PWM Drive Theory
Drive Rectifies the

Incoming AC voltage.
Section known as:
CONVERTER
RECTIFIER
FRONT END
Drive STORES
The DC Voltage.
Section known as:
STORAGE
BUS CAPACITORS
DC BUS
Drive INVERTS The DC

Voltage into a wave
The motor interprets to be a
sine Wave. Section known as:
INVERTER
Output Section
Motor
causes
the up
current
VoltageINDUCTANCE
isAC
a DC
Square
Wave
made
Drives Output? of
wave shape
to of
bevarious
sinusoidal
pulses
widths
What does PWM Stand for?
DV/DT Spike
What causes it?
Who does it affect?
What are the concerns with cable
distance?
AC Drives Output?
That is the dv/dt
spike.
D (delta) or change
in the Voltage
divided by the
change in Time
Shorter the time

Bigger the spike
dv/dt Spike
All transistors (switching power
semiconductors) create noise
Not brand specific
When is the Wave Reflected

How can that be solved
Terminator
Impedance matched motor
Standing Wave.
AC Line Reactor vs DC Link

Inductor
Generally used to reduce Harmonic
Disturbances created by the drive
Provides Impedance upstream of the drive
Especially helpful with very large transformers
and small drives
Magnetic structure rounds over (increases

time base) of disturbance
Structure is developed by current
Reactor Attenuation
Time Base
Time Base
AC Line Reactor vs DC Link

Inductor
Basic difference in Magnetic Structure
AC Line Reactors use current
DC Link Inductors use Voltage
Advantages of DC Link
Magnetic Structure is fully developed anytime the
drive is energized.
DC Link is effective regardless of load
What does the DC Link not do

Cannot protect a Drive from Line Disturbances
DC Links effect on the Dv/Dt
Time Base
Time Base
Motor Theory
List major differences between a Good
Inverter rated motor and Premium Efficient
Designs
Multiple motor applications require what
additional components
Insulation testing should be conducted at
what levels
Regulators
Describe the basic differences between
V/Hz and Vector Regulators
Volts per Hertz is a fixed ratio of Voltage to
Frequency
Vector regulators are dynamic. They change
based on load and motor charactoristics
Can be tuned
Too smart for multiple motor applications
Common Mode Noise

What creates CMN?
Anything with a Switch Mode Power Supply
What are symptoms of CMN?

Devices connected to Neutral are affected when the
drive is energized
Bearing Current
How can CMN be detected?

Clamp on ammeter
PowerFlex Drives combat CMN with what

components or design features
CM Bus Caps, CM Magnetic Cores (CM Chokes)
Parameters
Describe the Use or Value of:
Programmable relays
Flying Start
PID loops
Sleep Mode
Programmable Relays
What basic functions are programable
How many selections are available
Describe 3 applications where the relays
could be employed
Typical Failures
Converter faults relate to?

Inverter faults relate to?
What is the simple way to
determine health of drive
Energy Savings
Drives have unity power factor
Power factor is the ration of KW to KVA
Remember Work (Torque) to Apparent
(Magnetism)
Drive can consume less current than

the motor
Affinity Laws
Energy increases with the cube of
Speed

Lagging PF
Your Apparent Consumption
+20%
IE: Required Generation Capacity
+10%
Standard
-10%
-25%
Unity PF
Real Work
Billed KWh
Power Factor

Lagging PF
+20%
+10%
Standard
-10%
-25%
Unity PF
Real Work
Billed KWh
Power Factor

Lagging PF
+20%
+10%
Standard
-10%
-25%
Unity PF
Real Work
Billed KWh
Power Factor
Affinity Law
In Variable Torque Ideal Loads:
Energy Increases exponentially with speed
Energy Consumed = (speed)3
Energy
Consumed
Speed
Consumption
=(Speed
)
reduction
reduction
100 kWh Motor @ 50% Speed:
What does it Cost?

Er=(1/2)3
Now, how many rural

applications can you
think of?
List them on the critique sheet for
a special professional
development award
Robin Priestley
Power Control Manager
rspriestley@ra.rockwell.com
563-343-8862
2014 Robin Priestley & Rockwell Automation
MOTOR BEARING CURRENT

SOLUTIONS
Background / Why is this an Issue?
Bearing Damage / Failure Mechanisms
Sine Wave Shaft and Bearing Currents
Common Mode Voltages / Currents
Solutions
Measurements
Conclusions
BACKGROUND
Q: Since bearing currents in
rotating machinery have been
documented for at least 90
years, why is this a
contemporary issue?
BACKGROUND
Q: Since bearing currents in rotating machinery have
been documented for at least 90 years, why is this a
contemporary issue?
A: Modern PWM inverters create both common mode voltages
(CMV) and common mode currents (CMC) which provide new
opportunities for current to flow through rotating bearings
(along with couplings, gears, etc)
BACKGROUND
While the 90 year old sources of bearing
currents are well understood and
solutions exist, it is important to keep
them in mind to avoid resurrecting them
in trying to solve the challenges brought
on by common mode voltages and
currents.
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
Individual arc damage spots
Fluting in outer race, from

prolonged operation after
damage from current flow
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
Fluting on inner race, from prolonged

operation after damage from current flow
Fluting in outer race
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
Interrupted current causes melting and
re-hardening of the race material,
creating untempered martensite, which is
brittle and prone to fatigue
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
Interrupted current causes melting and re-hardening
of the race material, creating untempered martensite,
which is brittle and prone to fatigue
The normal bearing loads are then capable of breaking off
small pieces of this brittle material
Subsequent running on this brittle surface and in the presence

of the damage trash material creates the fluting
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
If the damaged material does not progress to a fluted pattern
from subsequent running, two other patterns may be seen
A frosted surface may appear, or

A number of pits may be visible under
high magnification
The verification of current flow as the root cause requires
more than visual inspection
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
False Brinnel Damage with

Appearance of Fluting
BEARING DAMAGE /
FAILURE MECHANISMS
False Brinnel Damage

with Appearance of
Fluting
SINE WAVE BEARING

CURRENTS
If it were possible to design a perfectly
balanced and symmetrical machine, both
theory and practice indicate that no
bearing current could exist - C. T.
Pearce, Bearing Currents - Their Origin
and Prevention, The Electric Journal,
August 1927.
SINE WAVE BEARING

CURRENTS
Alternating flux linking the shaft
Net flux encircling the shaft is typically
due to asymmetric magnetic properties of
stator or rotor core
Bearing current created by transformer

action in single turn secondary (shaft,
bearings, frame)
SINE WAVE BEARING

CURRENTS
Flux path
Shaft
Boyd and Kaufman, 1959

SINE WAVE BEARING

CURRENTS
Currents flow thru shaft, bearings,
endshields, and frame
Axial voltage on shaft can be measured if a
bearing is insulated (IEEE Std 112 - 1996)
Small shaft voltage (500 mV) can lead to
bearing currents above 20 amps
Bearing damage is more likely to occur in
larger machines
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
Modern PWM drives create switching patterns
where instantaneous average voltage to ground
is not zero.
Voltage has a rapid change of magnitude with
respect to time (dV/dt)
High dV/dt results in capacitively coupled

currents from motor windings to ground
through several paths
I = C x dV/dt
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
PHASE
VOLTS
CMV
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
PHASE
VOLTS
CMV
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
PHASE
VOLTS
CMV
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
HIGH FREQUENCY CURRENT PATHS
I = C X DV/DT
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
Peak Amps Through Bearing
BEARING CURRENT RELATIVE

MAGNITUDE
40
30
30
20
10
3
0.5
0
Stator Winding to
Frame/Shaft
Discharge
dv/dt Charging
COMMON MODE VOLTAGE

/ CURRENT
HIGH FREQUENCY CURRENT PATHS
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
HIGH FREQUENCY END-END
CIRCULATION
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
ROTOR DISCHARGE CURRENT
PATHS
CAPACITIVE CHARGING OF
ROTOR / BEARING
Stator Winding
Rotor
+
VCM
CSR
CRF
CSF
Frame
Bearing Voltage : Vb =
Cb
VCM
Bearing
Csr
Csr + Cb + Crf
COMMON MODE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
ROTOR DISCHARGE CURRENT
COMMON MODE VOLTAGE /

CURRENT
TRANSIENT FRAME VOLTAGE
DISCHARGE
VOLTAGE / CURRENT
Peak Amps Through Bearing
BEARING CURRENT RELATIVE

MAGNITUDE
40
30
30
20
10
3
0.5
0
Stator Winding to
Frame/Shaft
Discharge
dv/dt Charging
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
Eliminate or reduce common mode voltage
/ current (Drive design issue)
Create best high frequency ground paths
between drive, motor, and load
Electrostatic shielded induction motor
Insulated bearings
Shaft grounding brush
BEARING CURRENT SOLUTIONS
INSULATED OPPOSITE DRIVEEND BEARING FOR

CIRCULATING TYPE CURRENTS
INSULATED OPPOSITE DRIVE-END

BEARING AND DRIVE-END SHAFT
BRUSH
(BEARINGS IN COUPLED EQUIPMENT STILL AT PERIL)
INSULATED OPPOSITE DRIVEEND BEARING, DRIVE-END

SHAFT BRUSH, AND COUPLED
EQUIPMENT BOND STRAP
TWO INSULATED BEARINGS,

DRIVE-END SHAFT BRUSH, AND
COUPLED EQUIPMENT BOND
STRAP
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS FARADAY
(ELECTROSTATIC) SHIELD
Add grounded conductive layer between
stator and rotor
Eliminates stator to rotor coupling
Will not eliminate stator winding to frame
coupling
Still need good high frequency ground current path from
motor to drive ground

FARADAY SHIELD TO PREVENT ROTOR
CHARGING / DISCHARGING (BEARINGS

STILL AT PERIL FROM TRANSIENT FRAME
VOLTAGE DISCHARGE WHEN SHAFT IS
CONDUCTIVELY COUPLED TO GROUNDED
EQUIPMENT)
FARADAY SHIELD
AND COUPLED EQUIPMENT
BOND STRAP
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
Internal, end-end from magnetic
asymmetry
Insulate opposite drive-end
bearing
Insulate both bearings
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
Shaft Extension Current (stray ground current)
Insulate coupling
Insulate bearings
Bond strap from motor to load
Better low impedance ground in cable from
inverter to motor
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
Discharge of voltage on rotor
Faraday (electrostatic) shield
Shaft brush
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
Precautions
NO opposite drive end shaft brush with
single opposite drive end insulated bearing
Beware of shaft brush option in opposite
drive end encoder
MEASUREMENTS
(VOLTAGE)
250
V/div
12.5
V/div
Common
Mode
Voltage
Shaft
Voltage
MEASUREMENTS
(CURRENT) INTERNAL END-END
CIRCULATION
2 A/div
MEASUREMENTS
(CURRENT)
Common
Mode
Current
2A/div
(both).
Ground
Conductor
Current
MEASUREMENTS
(CURRENT)
Shaft
Extension
Current
(30 Amp Pulse)
MEASUREMENTS
Other than internally-sourced circulating
currents, all data is at high frequency
Data tends to be non-repetitive
Oscilloscope triggering technique
strongly influences perceived results
CONCLUSIONS
Current flow in rotating bearings is not
new
Common mode voltages and currents
from modern inverters can cause current
flow through bearings (plus couplings,
gears, etc)
CONCLUSIONS
Corrective actions are dependent upon
the particular type of current flow
Transient (high frequency) nature of the
voltages and currents imposes different
requirements than traditional 60 Hz
waveforms
CONCLUSIONS
Since the sources of the currents as well as
the paths are typically outside the machine
whose bearings are taking the hit, a thorough
understanding of the system is key
Grounding is important, but more in the sense
of point to point (low impedance) bonding
rather than earthing
COATED / INSULATED
BEARINGS
CONDUCTIVE GREASE
While the notion of a conductive grease as a solution may sound
appealing, the electrical behavior of bearing lubricants is not as
simple as "insulating" versus "conducting." Both the behavior of
the grease in bulk as well as the behavior of the thin oil film
separating races from rolling elements is strongly dependent on
external influences, including the presence of a voltage. As a
result, the current and voltage characteristics seen in a rotating
bearing are not simply described by a resistive value. In fact, it is
not simply described by a combination of fixed resistors,
capacitors, and other circuit elements. It has a "memory" effect,
based on past applied voltages and current flow, as well as
behaviors that may best be described as "stochastic."
CONDUCTIVE GREASE
Different greases can have varying electrical
characteristics, based on their chemical composition, but
still would have the "inconsistent" behavior as described
above.
Any proposed grease would obviously need to not
degrade the "normal" properties expected in a bearing.
The conclusion of the points above is that a change to a
grease with different electrical properties is not a solution
to the basic problem of bearing currents (for neither VFD
nor line-fed motors).
SHAFT VOLTAGE ?
SHAFT VOLTAGE (NOT!)
INVERTER DRIVEN
INDUCTION MOTOR
BEARING CURRENT
SOLUTIONS
QUESTIONS ?

Induction Motor Basics

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52ND ANNUAL RURAL

We can go up bubble too

Balanced with Resources

Not correct, sensitive or inclusive

Harmonics/Power Quality, Etc.

Hammer, flow, energy, aquifer management, saves

How Do AC Drives Work?

1. Alternating Current is brought into the drive.

Long ON times with

Changing the Pulse Width in a dynamic way will result in a simulated

EtherNet and 30 others

MOTOR CONTROL- WHAT IS

1) Start to spin when commanded, i.e..; suitable Breakaway Torque

5) Provide the Greatest Efficiency as a combined motor/VFD system,

i.e.: what is the wire to shaft efficiency ! !

BASIC CONTROL TYPES

Flux Vector Control

Sensorless Vector Control

Field Oriented Control

BASIC CONTROL CLASSES

V/Hz with current

VOLTS / HERTZ CONTROL

460/60 = 7.7 V/HZ (Voltage at 10hz =77v, voltage at 30hz=230v)

Allows complete motor/drive optimization to produce maximum performance with minimum

Used on applications with tougher starting, acceleration or running torque requirements.

Allows drive and motor to adapt to various starting conditions.

Provides optimum motor performance while controlling current.

Allen Bradley Speed Torque Curve

VOLTS/HERTZ CONTROLTORQUE VS SPEED

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN OUT OF THE BOX,

Constant Torque Speed Range

Out of the box = 20 :1

FLUX VECTOR CONTROL TORQUE VS SPEED

SPEED TORQUE CURVES

DC DRIVE CONTROL WITH

FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL

CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS

generated is same at all speeds

system deteriorates at reduced speed

unless equipped with blower

CONSTANT TORQUE 4:1

CONSTANT TORQUE TO ZERO

Constant Torque Range

Constant Horsepower Range

CONSTANT TORQUE LOADS

of conveyors and machine tools

demand remains constant

throughout speed range

at low speed may need

enclosure a possible issue

VARIABLE TORQUE LOADS

of Centrifugal Pumps and Fans

drops as square of speed reduction

at low speed not a problem due

to low torque requirement

enclosure not an issue

Variable Torque Loads

WHATS MY LINE VOLTAGE?

Medium Voltage (2300, 4160, 6600, 13800)

WHAT IS THE MOTOR VOLTAGE?

WHAT IS THE FULL LOAD AMP RATING

Even though motor and drive sizes

WHAT VOLTAGE DO THE DIGITAL

Will there be external controls such

Basic Impulse Level Testing: [ 1.25 VPK ] ~ 1.25 (600V * 1.414)