Drilling Technology

1 Introduction
Since the first concessions were granted on the Norwegian Continental Shelf in 1965, there have been huge
technical developments within all technology areas, including drilling technology. Development of fields in the
North Sea and further north has essentially been pioneering in nature as regards dimensioning and technical
solutions. Demands to be able to operate at increasing water depths, under extreme climatic conditions, along
with the industry's and the authorities' requirements for safety have resulted in technological advances which,
over a few years, have made Norway a leading nation in many areas.
Drilling technology and the performance of drilling operations is a very important part of the technological
processes which lead to the primary goal of producing oil and natural gas from a reservoir. We must emphasise
that it is an important part of a much larger process. To see what happens during a field's lifetime, we start with
the first data collection and evaluation, and from there proceed via exploration drilling and new evaluations to a
development and installation phase. Drilling, production and transport facilities are installed and drilling of the
first production wells can begin.
After a period of development, the field is ready to go 'on production' from the first wells, followed by a period of
simultaneous development drilling and production. During this phase, primary drilling activity proceeds at the
same time as the installation's production processing and exporting systems are operating. This sets tough
challenges for the overall safety on board the installation. To comply with the authorities' rules and regulations,
operators are required to document which operations can be undertaken simultaneously and the requirements
and guidelines for their safe performance. The management documentation will establish clear demands and
limitations for what may be undertaken simultaneously and the precautions to be taken before operations may
proceed in parallel.
Primary drilling from an installation will include the drilling and completion of a set number of planned wells.
This is by no means the end of drilling and well activities on the installation. A field may have a planned lifetime
of 8-10 years and up to 30 years. We should note that a planned lifetime of 30 years is based only on
employing currently available knowledge and technology. Historically we have data from the 70's for field life
expectancy based on technology and understanding at the time, which our current experience has shown to be
extendable to well over 50 years for several large fields.
In other words, for every installation there follows a maintenance phase extending over many decades. Wells
will be in production, they will need work-over and side step drilling to new down-hole locations is very
common. Well slots will also be available for new wells as knowledge and understanding of the reservoir
dictates.
It is a long path to final 'plug and abandon' for a production well. Drilling the well is only one, albeit very
important, part of the complete process. Drilling a well has only one aim, to establish communication with the
reservoir.
The well is a line of communication for gas and liquid, but also importantly, information. It is vital to understand
that we not only establish this communication but maintain it and improve it in line with technological
development over many decades.
Drilling technology development is often determined by the operator's need for extending boundaries. New
prospects where the physical constraints are at the technological limit, or beyond, are discovered. Deeper
water, and extreme pressure and temperature set new challenges to both surface equipment and down-hole
drilling equipment. Demands for better exploitation of the resources in older fields create new standards for
how wells need to be drilled. New demands are being made to the equipment which a drilling installation must
be able to handle and what down-hole equipment must be able to achieve.
The North Sea and the Norwegian Continental Shelf have always made extreme demands upon people and
technology. Since its introduction to the Norwegian Continental Shelf, drilling technology has undergone a
formidable development. From being viewed as a relatively unsophisticated industry it has become a high

technology activity. This in turn places greater demands on skills and ability to personnel engaged in drilling
activity. Efficient operations now depend upon all parties operating as integrated teams contributing specific
skills to a total solution.
At the same time as there is a requirement for specialist skills within a given area, a general knowledge of
drilling technology remains important. It is not possible to operate as a team if the individual players are unable
to relate to each other. The team leader must have some insight into the other members' skills.
This module is part of the specialised study of drilling technology and is the first of two modules that deal with
modern drilling technology. The modules are a primer for the offshore oil industry as we know it here in Norway.
The concept of drilling technology includes the function and operation of surface equipment and down-hole
equipment, as well as the use to which such equipment is put.
The teaching plan has defined that all teaching aims required as a basis for specialisation in drilling technology
and the module Drilling Technology 1, will give the necessary detailed information to satisfy the following five
teaching targets:
Target 1. The student shall be able to select surface equipment for drilling operations.
Target 2. The student shall be able to assess and choose drill string components for various phases of
the drilling operations.
Target 3. The student shall be able to use the various drilling instruments and interpret signals which
these instruments give.
Target 4. The student shall be able to report with the aid of information technology.
Target 5. The student shall be able to select the correct drill bit for various types of formations.
This module will emphasise the overall understanding of drilling as a process and therefore focuses on a
description of those systems components and parameters which are optimised during this process.

2 Surface Equipment
2.1 Introduction
Surface equipment comprises the primary drilling facility on an installation and consists of six main systems,
(five on fixed installations). The installation can be either a mobile unit (floating rig or jack-up) or a fixed
installation (platform).
This section will give an insight into, and a basic understanding sufficient to select and assess surface
equipment for drilling operations from offshore installations. We give a systematic overview of the equipment
divided into main systems. It is vital to understand what each main system consists of. It is also important to
retain an overall focus on the drilling installation. The main systems not only connect with one another but there
is a mutual interdependence with other systems on the installation. By other systems we mean :
basic support systems such as electricity supply, compressed air, water and fuel (diesel)
emergency systems, such as sprinkler system, water jets, foam system and Aqueous Fire Fighting
Foam (AFFF) system.
alarm systems and shut-off systems such as gas detectors, fire alarms, and Emergency Shut Down
System (ESDS)
positioning and anchoring system, propulsion system, and jacking system
These systems will not be discussed in this module. They are mentioned to illustrate the range and operation of
a drilling installation, based upon a total design, where all the main systems and sub-systems are dimensioned
for the task required of the whole installation.
The task of the drilling installation is determined by geographical and reservoir technical conditions. There are
requirements for choosing mobile units during the exploration phases and fixed installations during the
development phases. The rig engaged in exploration drilling needs to have a total capacity in keeping with the

conditions expected. The drilling facility on a fixed installation must also be an integrated part of the overall
drilling/production/process package. The design of the drilling facility will be equally dependent upon the
adjacent systems in the integrated installation.
Offshore drilling is performed from a large selection of mobile units and fixed installations This module does not
set out to provide a detailed description of one, or several types but will give a brief picture of the variety of
solutions chosen, where drilling is one of a number of important functions in the development of an oil or gas
field.
Main rig types
For exploration drilling offshore, mobility is vital. Choice of mobile unit will depend upon factors such as
seawater depth, weather and sea-bed conditions. It will also depend upon the expected reservoir conditions.
The pressure, length of borehole, casing design, and any test program place demands upon the capacity of
both the installation and the drilling facility.
Various types of mobile unit are used in the North Sea.

2.1.1 Semi-submersible Rig

The semi-submersible rig is one of the most used types of mobile unit in our region. Through the years a
number of designs have been available but the principles remain the same. Floatation is provided by a system
of pontoons and ballast tanks. On location the unit is partially submerged to a given draught in order to give
stability in heavy weather (wind and waves). When raised to surface position, mobility is increased and the craft
adopts good sailing properties to enable it to be quickly moved to a new location by towing or by own
propulsion. This kind of mobile unit must always operate with a sea-bed wellhead arrangement. By contrast
with fixed installations, they need a compensating and tensioning system integrated into the drilling system.
Semi-submersible rigs have a variable water depth capacity based in part on this tensioning heave
compensating system.
The choice of surface equipment will also limit which wells the mobile unit can handle. Some units have the
capacity to drill long wells at high reservoir pressure and temperature (HPHT wells) whilst others have a lower
equipment classification. It is a matter of selecting the right design for the task. During summer in the southern
North Sea, exploration drilling at normal pressure gradients and temperatures, a winter insulated HPHT rig with
an 800 m depth range would be unnecessary. The well would be drilled correctly but at an exorbitant price.

2.1.2 Drill Ship

The drill ship is a type of mobile unit which has been used in Norwegian waters, and recently used with modern
equipment on very large ships for drilling in deep water. Good sea-worthiness combined with dynamic
positioning make these very flexible units. With new, specially built, large, deep-water units and extreme
conditions, they are much better than earlier ship designs which could be sensitive to certain weather
conditions. As with the semi-submersible rig, this type of mobile unit must always work through a sea-bed
wellhead arrangement. The drill ship will also need a heave compensation and tensioning system integrated
into its drilling system, and its depth range is dependent upon the design of this system.

2.1.3 Jack-up Platform

The jack-up platform is the last type of mobile unit we will be discussing. The drilling facility is located on a
floating triangular or oblong deck section. Three or four legs are installed, one at each corner, along with a
toothed gear wheel drive jacking arrangement. On location, the legs are lowered to the sea-bed and the unit's
deck section is jacked up to the required height above sea level.
This is a combination of the mobile unit's flexibility and the fixed platform's stability for drilling. The limitation to
its use is water depth. A large part of the southern North Sea is well within the range for modern larger rigs of

this type.
A jack-up can operate with both a wellhead at surface or through a sea-bed wellhead arrangement (mud line
suspension) but in contrast to floating units, the jack-up will not have the same motion relative to the sea-bed.
The need for a tensioning and compensation system are extremely simple as no heave compensation is
required, only a simple tensioning system.
Semi-submersible floating rig and jack-up platform.
Fixed installations in the North Sea come in a variety of versions and we will take a short look at the main types
used on our continental shelf. They all have in common that they are equipped to drill up to 50 wells from a
certain surface location. The requirement for the surface equipment depends not only upon geographical and
meteorological conditions. It is primarily the geological and pressure conditions and the well's trajectory which
determine the equipment. We are now capable of drilling around 9000 m measured trajectory such that well
planning also involves exploiting to the maximum the capacity of the drilling facility.

2.1.4 Integrated Drilling and Production Platforms

Integrated drilling and production platforms have dominated the choice for oil and gas production since
developments began during the 70's and up until the last decade. As the title implies, these are fixed
installations built to allow drilling, production, simple processing and exportation of gas and oil.
The foundation consists of either a framed steel jacket or a concrete structure designed to drill from eight or 10
and up to 50 wells for both production or injection. For relatively shallow depths, common in the southern North
Sea, developments were based on smaller fixed platforms. The traditional design is a jacket type structure on
the sea-bed with a deck section and structure suitable for a certain number of wells, often around 12-24. Larger
fields in deeper water, needing storage capacity in the field, resulted in the platforms built in the late 70's and
80's being huge concrete structures. A cluster of storage cells sits on the sea-bed from which extends three or
four pillars which form the foundations for the steel deck section. The decks and the shafts are equipped to
house 24-48 wells.
Platform with concrete foundation (Condeep-type)

2.1.5 Tension Leg Platforms

The choice of solutions includes floating installations, where the main steel or concrete structure is anchored to
the sea-bed by tension legs, which enable the floating rig's flexibility to be combined with the stability of fixed
platform installations.
As time passed, an infrastructure of storage capacity and transport lines developed, which has facilitated the
trend for economic exploitation of new, yet smaller, oil and gas fields.

2.1.6 Wellhead Platforms

Wellhead platforms are designed for 8-12 wells usually of jacket design. These permit a jack-up to position
itself to skid its cantilevered derrick over the wellhead structure. After drilling and completion the rig is skidded
back and the jack-up can leave the location. Such developments provide a cheap solution with high flexibility.
These kinds of solution are usually associated with existing main fields, to enable production to be controlled
from and led back to a mother installation.

2.1.7 Sub-sea Installations

Sub-sea installations are designed for 4-8 wells which require the use of a mobile rig for drilling and completion.
The wellhead is placed on the sea-bed and production is operated by remote control back to a nearby mother
installation.

2.1.8 Tender-assisted Platform

A tender-assisted platform is a fixed installation for drilling where some of the systems (such as the mud
system) are placed on an associated floating unit, such as a barge. The floating unit will also be capable of
undertaking production from the field.
Veslefrikk is an example of a tender assisted platform
The wide range of installations we have reviewed here will necessarily give a wide range of the type of drilling
technology each employs. This will influence the choice of surface equipment, which must have the required
capacity to handle the challenges and conditions defined by geography and reservoir conditions.
Planning and conduct of a drilling operation requires a systematic choice of equipment and dimensioning based
on best available data.
Irrespective of the variations in criteria used to select the equipment, and irrespective of what type of
installation the drilling equipment is to be located upon, the equipment can be divided into six main systems
listed below. In addition a seventh category includes other diverse equipment.
hoisting system
rotating system
pipe handling system
mud handling system
heave compensation and tensioning system for floating rigs
pressure control equipment
diverse drilling equipment
There is only one system which is not common to all types of rigs and installations, namely the heave
compensation and tensioning system, which is unique to floating installations.
In this module we will look more closely at the hoisting system, rotation, pipe handling, and heave
compensation and tensioning systems, as well as some diverse items of drilling equipment. The circulation
system and pressure control systems are dealt with in separate dedicated modules.

2.2 Hoisting System

The hoisting system consists of the surface equipment required to give the drill string the necessary axial
power, lifting speed and height.
We shall look more closely at this definition. What it says is that we require a tensioning force of a certain size
to perform the tasks required of the drill string. This is however not sufficient as we also require a certain speed
of elevation with and without load and this will include requirements for the control of lowering speed. If a
hoisting system is to be effective we need a minimum lifting, or working height.
The hoisting system can be further divided into equipment groups, the main components of which are:
derrick
drawworks and wire
crown block/running block and elevator
derrick's foundation
Hoisting system

2.2.1 Drilling Derrick

The drilling derrick is a construction designed for lifting and lowering equipment. It has a fixed crown block at
the top and a travelling block, which has a specific working height, defined by the height of the derrick. It can be
viewed as a vertical crane boom with wires and blocks running inside the boom.
The drilling derrick, in addition to being the structural support for the hoisting arrangement, must also be
capable of carrying the drill string's weight and casing, when it is hoisted into and out of the hole. It also acts as
a lifting facility for all surface equipment on a well, such as the blow-out preventers, riser and sea-bed template.
Derrick
The three main types on board an offshore installations today are:
Standard derrick (four legged framework). This is the major type in our region.
Drilling mast (two main structural beams) can be laid down by rotating around the two pivots for ease of
transport and is therefore known as a mobile mast. Much used onshore but can also be found on some
offshore installations.
Hydraulic drilling mast. On a few installations a new hydraulic hoisting arrangement has been
introduced, best known as RamRig. This will be discussed later. The traditional hoisting equipment
(derrick, drawworks, wire and blocks) has been replaced by a hydraulic lifting device.
The standard drilling derrick is a framed structure with four load-bearing legs on a square base. The derrick is
supplied in various versions, the most common of which has a height of 140-190 feet in our region. The
nominal height is measured along the axis from the corner beam anchor bolt to the walkway near the crown
block (water table).
The drilling derrick is primarily constructed to withstand the main stresses listed below:
compression
wind
reactive
force
to
the
torque
from
the
top
drive

Compression and wind are the dominant forces but earlier installed derricks needed recalculating and
strengthening to withstand the additional torsion loads imposed by the introduction of top drive systems.
When calculating the permitted imposed loads based on the structure's maximum calculated load, a dynamic
safety factor must be allowed for. The maximum compressive load is defined as the sum of the strength of the
four load-bearing legs, divided by this safety factor.
Maximum nominal load = (4xK)/n, where K is the maximum load for one leg and n is the safety factor. Typical
values for maximum lift are around 500-700 t, depending upon the drilling line arrangement, the load factor for
wind and the amount of pipe racked inside the derrick.
On a mobile unit (floating rig), motion of the unit will impose additional dynamic loads upon the derrick and the
derrick is imparted an almost pendulum type movement when the unit rolls. The largest load is on the end of
the motion where the velocity change is greatest and forces highest.
The derrick is designed to store a certain number of connected drill pipe lengths known as stands. About 90 ft
(28 m) above the drill floor is a finger board for the stacking and securing of these stands and the upper
manipulator arm. On some rigs, the control cabin for the derrick man may be installed at the monkey bridge
level, high inside the derrick.
Modern lifting and rotating systems are designed for use with the top drive systems, the old Kelly system of
rotating with a the rotary table has been almost completely superseded. The derrick is therefore equipped with
guide beams for the top drive. The guide beams have two main functions:
guiding the block and the top drive
absorbing the torque when rotating the drill string

Guide beams were installed on many rigs before the introduction of the top drive, but most were not designed
to resist the drill string torque. This load was taken by the structure of the drill floor; use of the top drive now
imposes this force onto the derrick at the height that the top drive is located.

2.2.2 Drawworks and Wire

The three principle machines directly associated with the drilling operation on a platform or rig are the
drawworks, the derrick and top drive system and the rotary table. These are often connected to a common
hydraulic generator which supplies the drawworks, top drive drilling machine and the rotary table with hydraulic
power.

2.2.2.1 Hydraulic Drawworks

Hydraulically driven drawworks
The purpose of the drawworks is to hoist and lower the drilling machine and the drill string up and down the
derrick.
The hydraulic drawworks is located on the drill floor or a deck at another elevation. The lifting system consists
of a wire wound around a crown block and a travelling block, and has a fixed end anchored to the drill floor,
known as a dead line anchor.
The crown block is fixed at the top of the derrick. The wire stretches from the drawworks over the crown block
and down around the travelling block. The wire is stretched several times between crown block and travelling
block in order to increase the mechanical advantage of the system. The wire then goes from the crown block
down to the dead line anchor on the drill floor.
In this section we will describe how components of the hydraulic drawworks are assembled and the means by
which it operates.
For the operation of the drawworks, two different hydraulic systems are provided. One is a closed circuit which
operates at a pressure of 350 bar. The other is an open circuit which operates at 210 bar.
The closed hydraulic circuit is for the operation of the drawworks drum whilst the open circuit is connected to
the control system and the drawworks brakes.
By a closed hydraulic system we mean that the pump and the hydraulic generator, along with the winch motors,
are directly connected together. This means that the return oil from the motor feeds directly back to the
generator pump and not to a reservoir.
In an open hydraulic circuit the return oil from the system is fed to a reservoir before it is again drawn into the
pump inlet to be cycled through the system again.

2.2.2.2 Hydraulic Pumps (Transmission System)

The drawing shows a simplified hydraulic diagram for the drawworks. Only one variable hydraulic pump is
shown but actually there are six pumps installed in parallel. The capacity of the hydraulic pumps is therefore
very large, at up to a maximum flow of 3500 L/min. The oil flow from the pump can be continuously regulated
from 0-100%, and the pumps are choked to rotate the equipment in either direction. When there is no demand
for oil to the system, the pumps are angled out allowing the pump rotor to rotate without oil being fed to the
supply.

2.2.2.3 Hydraulic Motors

The actual drawworks drum is driven by variable-volume hydraulic motors. Only one motor is shown but there
are in fact twelve motors on each side connected in parallel. The connections for the other 22 motors are
identical to the drawing. The motors rotate the drum via two gearboxes, one on each side. The speed of the
drum is varied by altering the displacement volume to the motors and this is controlled by an electro-hydraulic
proportioning valve.
To control the power to the hydraulic motors, a Programmable Logic System (PLS) is used which processes
information from a number of sensors placed around the system. There are sensors to indicate the load
hanging on the drawworks and from these the setting on the proportioning valve is determined, in combination
with the setting of the joystick. The motor's start position (normal position) when the proportioning valve is not
activated, is always at maximum angle out or set to give maximum displacement volume. The displacement
volume to the motors is reduced by increasing the pressure from the proportioning valve. By adjusting the
volume of oil flowing through the motors, the speed of hoist will increase as the control pressure on the
proportioning valve increases. The system pressure is defined by the load hanging in the drawworks and the
displacement volume of the motors. The highest permitted working pressure is 345 bar but at this working
pressure the hoisting speed is low.
All electrical signals from the sensors in the system go via the PLS and out to the electro-hydraulic valves that
the PLS is programmed to control. The PLS is located in an over-pressure cupboard (EEXp) to comply with EX
approval for the machine. The PLS is a programmable system for distribution of electrical signals in an electrohydraulic system.

2.2.2.4 By-pass Valves

WE will first clarify the terms used to describe a hydraulic directional valve. One such valve is described as an
'x-way/y-position directional valve'. This means that the valve has x number of ports and y number of positions
for its operation. Directional valves are also commonly described as x/y-way valves or x/y-valves. Later in this
module we will use the term x/y directional valves The term '4/2 directional valve' means a 4-way 2-position
directional valve with 4 ports and 2 position settings.
A by-pass valve is installed for each of the hydraulic motors. These are 2/2 way pilot valves hydraulically
controlled from an electro-hydraulic proportioning valve. The function of this valve is to short-circuit the
hydraulic motors when lowering the load so that the load side and return side of the motors are hydraulically
connected. By regulating the setting on the by-pass valve the oil flow can be continuously adjusted.
The purpose of the by-pass valve is to be able to lower the winch very quickly without being dependent upon
the pump's capacity. The by-pass valve is only used when lowering the load as the tension will draw down any
spare wire.

2.2.2.5 Disc Brake (Parking Brake)

The winch is equipped with two disc brakes, one on each side of the drum. They are primarily used as parking
brakes but can also be used for emergency braking. In normal operation of the winch, the drum is controlled by
adjusting the displacement volume on the motors.
The brakes work as a fail-safe device meaning that if a fault occurs in the control system or electrical supply is
lost, the brakes are applied.
The brakes consist of a single-acting hydraulic cylinder with spring return which pushes the brake pads onto
the discs. When pressure is applied to the rod side of the piston, the brake pads are lifted off the disc and the
brakes release. Two 4/2 on/off directional valves with spring returns control the brakes. When electricity is
switched to the solenoids, the valve shifts and pressure is fed to the rod side of the cylinder. This causes the
brakes to release. To maintain the brake pressure, an accumulator is installed on each brake line which gives a
signal to the PLS to indicate that the brakes are off.

2.2.2.6 Pressure Lubricating System

Lubrication of the gearbox is provided by a dedicated pressure lubrication system, which has a nozzle for each
pinion. An electrically driven pump moves oil from the reservoir through a filter and an oil cooler and into the
nozzles. A pressure relief valve is installed after the pump to control the system pressure.

2.2.2.7 Emergency Lowering of the Hoist

In an emergency situation, for example during a total shut-down of the control system, when the brakes cannot
be operated, it is still possible to lower the hoist. A hand pump can be connected to each brake to allow
lowering to be done manually.
Drawwork, emergency lowering
A ball valve is installed in the line between the normal hydraulic supply and the hand pump. This valve is
normally open, but when the hand pump is to be used for lowering, this valve must be closed. The hand pump
is needed until the pressure on the rod side of the piston is high enough to enable the brakes to be released. If
it is necessary to curtail the lowering, then the ball valve can be opened to enable the pressure to bleed-off and
the brakes will re-apply themselves.

2.2.2.8 Electrical Drawworks

Electrically driven drawworks
Detailed drawing of drawworks
We will briefly describe two modern, electrically driven drawworks from one of the larger suppliers. The two
types are known as Single Speed Gear Driven (SSGD) and Active Heave Driven (AHD). They are the latest on
the market with electrical drive.
Both types are powered by alternating current (ac) motors. Both consist of the following components:
Mainframe and housing. The mainframe is a welded steel structure which is bolted to the deck substructure. The drawworks' motors, gears and other equipment are covered in, for sound insulation and
mechanical protection.
Drum. The drum for the drilling line is mounted directly onto the main drive axle. Its diameter depends
upon the type and size of drawworks. As an example, the ADH-1000 has a 72 inch drum. The drum is
dynamically balanced and is mounted on a two-piece (bolted) and welded Lebus bearing, with a groove
for the wire.
Gearbox. The drive axle has two fixed drives, one at each end, and each gearbox is designed with three
connections for axles from ac electrical motors.
Main brake system. The braking system works on the regenerating energy principle, meaning that the
ac motor, together with a Variable Speed Drive System (VSDS), acts as a generator. The generated
electrical energy is fed into the power distribution system providing braking force, counteracting the
tension forces during hoisting.
Disc brakes. These are designed as parking and emergency brakes. Two brake discs are mounted
directly onto the drum and each disc is equipped with a row of brake pads. These are spring loaded and
fail-safe, hydraulically activated, meaning that they are activated when hydraulic pressure is lost from
the system.
Lubrication system. The gearboxes are equipped with a pressure lubrication system for lubricating oil
consisting of two electrically driven pumps and water cooled heat exchangers. Lubrication with grease is
restricted to the main bearings and the disc brake pad mountings.
Electrical motors. Up to six air-cooled ac motors are installed on these two types of drawworks. For
example the SSGD 500 has four motors in all, whilst the AHD 1000 has six. The standard motors from
this manufacturer are dimensioned for 1150 HP, 600 V and 1024 A at 800 rpm.
Air cooling system. The electrical motors are equipped with a fan system to provide cooling air on each
side of the drawworks.
Control system. This consists of a control unit (drawworks control cabinet), a Motion Recording Unit
(MRU) in the MRU cabinet, emergency stop and various field instruments, pressure switches,

temperature transmitters and position switches. In addition, Kinetic Energy Monitoring System (KEMS)
software and a Power Management System (PMS) are installed.
Basically, the use of the control system is as follows:
The travelling block speed is controlled by the driller giving a speed signal to the control system by
operating a joystick.
The control unit reprograms the speed signal to the required signals for the operating system controlling
the motors. Simultaneously the control unit checks the incoming speed signal against the motor's
performance curves, operational limits and the PMS system to ensure that the drawworks is operating
within its limiting values.
The VSDS ensures that the motors give the correct torque to achieve the required block speed. This
part of the control system adjusts the amount of generated electrical power from the motors during
lowering so that the drum can be supplied with braking force.
Thus far the two units operate the same. The AHD drawworks have in addition an AHD control system which
receives heave data from the MRU. The AHD control system calculates the correct speed from these data and
feeds them to the VSDS. The VSDS corrects the block speed for the heave motion of the floating drilling
installation.
The capacity for heave compensation by this drawworks depends upon wave height and period, hook load,
number of times the drill line has been cut and the amount of electrical power available for hoisting and braking.

2.2.3 Crown Block and Travelling Block

The travelling block is, via hook or lifting links, the lifting equipment which carries the load of the top drive and
all that hangs from it, and the drill line which passes between the pulleys in the travelling and crown blocks. The
Top Drive (TDS) is also known as the Derrick Drilling Machine (DDM). The number of pulleys in the block can
vary between four and seven all mounted on a common axle. Typical diameter for the pulleys is up to 11
inches.
The travelling block is constructed with its centre of mass as low as possible with a streamlined heavy outer
profile to its housing. The last is a safety detail which avoids sharp edges and the attendant risk of catching or
snagging in other equipment.
Before the top drive entered the market, most travelling blocks were equipped with a Dolly frame which was
installed on guide beams. The Dolly frame is now mounted on TDS/DDM. Together with the guide beams it is
dimensioned to withstand the reaction force generated by the torque needed to rotate the drill string. On some
rigs the guide frame is retractable meaning that it can be moved backwards and forwards by hydraulic cylinders
to ease pipe handling and assembly of pipe connections.
Crown block and travelling block
The crown block is fixed at the top of the derrick and is a simple open block constructed with 4-7 pulleys on a
common central axle. The crown block acts as a hanger for the travelling block and everything suspended from
it.
The drilling line is the drawworks wire. The drilling line is wound around the drawworks drum and fixed to it by a
fast line anchor. Depending upon the size and type of the crown block/travelling block, the line is passed
around the crown block 4-7 times through the pulleys. The wire is fixed in a dead wire anchor with access for
the reserve wire which is wound onto a storage drum.
Looking at the cross section, the drill wire is usually composed of six parts wound around a central core. Each
part will in turn consist of several layers of spirally wound steel wire. The wires properties are generally
determined by the basic construction, number and arrangement of the parts and the wires in each section, the
ductility of the wires, type of core and any covering or lubricant.
The drilling line is exposed to variable loading and vibration, it is spooled onto the drum in several layers, and
under high tension as well as operating in highly corrosive environments. The wire construction normally

chosen for drilling line has the designation 6 x aa Seale, right handed dead cross wound. We will look more
closely at these descriptions:
6 x aa denotes the six parts wound on the core and the diameter of the line is aa millimetres
'Seal' is a type description of parallel wound wire rope and denotes that the drilling line components are
wound in this manner. Parallel wound denotes that all parts are built up from wires of various sizes such
that the wires in one layer are parallel to and supported by wires in lower layers throughout their length.
Dead wound means that the parts during production are permanently deformed to give them their final
spiral form that they will adopt in the finished wire rope. This gives a stable wire so that no threads
straighten if cut following a breakage. This gives a stiffer wire with fewer possibilities for kinks or faults
and all sections will carry an equal load.
Cross wound means that the wires in each part are wound in the opposite direction to the drilling line.
Right cross wound means that the drilling line is built up from right hand wound parts where each part
has been built up from left hand wound wires (the opposite of cross wound is parallel wound where the
parts and wires are all wound in the same direction).
Core is a steel rope designated as IWRC (independent wire rope core) is usually used as the core for
drilling line.
The dead line anchor is a fixing point in the drill floor, or alternate deck level, for the drilling line. It has an
access down to the storage drum located outside the derrick. The drill line anchor provides a secure anchor
which does not damage the drilling line. An eccentric axis combine with a load cell sensor measures directly the
tension in the drilling line. This is transformed inside the instrumentation to give a reading of hook load, weight
on the drill bit etc. The maximum weight for lifting and speed of hoisting depend on the how many times the
drilling line passes between the crown block and the travelling block. It is important that the weight indicator
and other secondary instruments are calibrated to the correct number of windings.
Hydraulically driven drawworks
The drilling line is subjected to heavy loading in a corrosive atmosphere and must therefore be renewed from
the reserve spool according to a fixed routine. The loads to which the drilling line is subjected is continuously
monitored and the amount of force times distance the line has worked determined in ton/miles. After a given
amount of work a certain length of line will be pulled through from the reserve drum and a corresponding length
will be cut from the drawworks drum. This is known as slip and cut.

2.2.4 Derrick(s Load-bearing Structure

The derrick's load-bearing structure is the foundation consisting of a beam frame upon which the drilling
assembly is installed. On larger fixed installations, this sub-structure will be divided into upper and lower
frames. In the upper frame, a treatment system for returned mud may be installed along with the primary
treatment for drill cuttings.
The derrick/drill floor must, on an installation having several wells, be adjusted to locate over the centre of each
well. A system is therefore included to allow the derrick assembly to move by skidding the rig by its foundation.
Inside the foundation are installed two huge beams (skid beams) covering the platform from one side to the
other. The upper section of the derrick's foundations rests upon a set of skid beams which pass across the
main beams so that the derrick assembly can be moved in both directions.
At the top of the foundation is the drill floor. On every rig this is constructed to carry all the static and dynamic
loads which the derrick is subjected to, as well as the loads hanging within it and which hang from the rotary
table. It is also dimensioned to directly support the rotary system which used to contain the power connection to
the rotary table.
There are primarily two main systems for applying the forces to skid the rig, whether it be the upper frame
which moves on cross beams, or the lower frame on the main beams. The main issue is that the applied force
must exceed the frictional force between the beams and this can be applied in one of two ways:
Hydraulic cylinders with gripping claws (jacks) push and pull the overlying structure.
Cog wheel drive achieves the same but the power is provided by electrical or hydraulic motors.

There is also a system of locking wedges which secure the rig in its new position.
Drilling rig foundation

2.3 Rotating System

The rotation system consists of that surface equipment necessary for exerting the required torque and
rotational speed on the drill string.

2.3.1 Kelly/Rotary Table

The kelly or drive pipe used in combination with the rotary table was fairly standard until the introduction of
TDS/DDM as the main component of the rotary system. There are still places outside the Norwegian
Continental Shelf where this technology is still in use.
The kelly transfers the torque from the rotary table to the drill string and consists of the following main
components from the top down:
swivel with a goose neck connection, hanging links, and compressed air-powered pipe spinner
the actual drive pipe, usually hexagonal in section, 13-17 m long
the rotary kelly bushing, with insets sized for the rotary table bearing, it is equipped with an inner sleeve
which allows the kelly to pass easily through the bearing
The technological challenge for the construction is the swivel and its bearings and seal assemblies. It must
withstand high axial loads (total tension of the drill string) high rotational speeds (up to 400 rpm) and high
pressures and high flow rates (over 4000 L/minute at up to 345 bar).
Kelly

2.3.1.1 Hydraulic Rotary Table

Instead of using the top drive as discussed in paragraph 4.3, it may be more effective to use the rotary table.
Sectional drawing of the rotary table
The rotary table is located at the drill centre and is mounted into the actual deck. It may be let into the floor so
that only the top is visible from the drill floor. The main function of the rotary table is to rotate the complete drill
string in the same way as the top drive does in order to perform the drilling operation. The rotary table must
also support the weight of the drill string when hanging in the slips.
In addition to its primary function, the rotary table includes three other functions, power slips, gear locking and
lubrication.
The rotary table has four hydraulic functions:
one double-acting hydraulic motor for rotation of the actual table
two double-acting cylinders for power slips and two single-acting centralising cylinders
two double-acting cylinders for locking the gears
one hydraulic motor which drives the gear lubricating pump

2.3.1.2 Rotation of the Rotary Table

The main function of the rotary table is to rotate the whole table, to rotate the drill string. It can therefore be
used for drilling. This function is performed by one large double-acting hydraulic motor. By double-acting we
mean that the motor can rotate in both directions. It has a capacity of 625 L/min and a maximum pressure of
210 bar.
Both speed and torque of the rotary table can be controlled. The speed is adjusted by changing the volume of
oil to the motor, whilst torque is controlled by changing the pressure supplied to the motor.
The hydraulic motor speed control is performed with the aid of a 4/3 electro-hydraulic proportioning valve. (The
valve has four ports and three positions). At small openings of the slide, the valve increases the volume flow
and the motor rotates slowly. At large slide openings the valve lets through more flow and the motor rotates
faster. The setting on the proportioning valve is controlled by an electrical signal which can be adjusted by, for
example, a joystick located in the driller's cabin. The direction of rotation of the table depends upon which
solenoid is activated.
The torque on the rotary table may also be adjusted. This is done by varying the pressure supplied to the
motor. The proportioning valve controlling the rotational speed of the table has, in addition to the four ports, a
pilot or Load Sensing (LS) port. It is possible to control the outlet pressure from the proportioning valve via this
LS port. An electrically controlled pressure control valve is installed in the hydraulic line from the LS port. By
adjusting the pressure on this pressure control valve, the pressure out of the proportioning valve is controlled
accordingly. In this way the pressure out of the motor can also be adjusted, altering the torque.
Before the motor are two double over-centre valves or load control valves. An over-centre valve combines two
functions into one unit.

2.3.1.3 Rotary Table Support Functions

The support functions defined here are the power slips, gear locking and lubrication. These functions have their
own hydraulic supply with a maximum pressure of 210 bar. Before the valve terminal which controls all of these
three functions is a filter and an emergency stop valve. There are two components shown in parallel with the
filter, one is a non-return valve which allows oil to by-pass the filter if the pressure across the filter become too
high. The other is a manual pressure differential metre. When the pressure drop across the filter is too high the
metre indicates this from outside the filter unit.
The emergency stop valve consists of a seat valve, a choke valve and a 4/2 electrically operated directional
valve with a spring return. All of these functions are built into one component. The main flow through the
emergency stop valve goes via the seat valve. The reason for using both a seat valve and a directional valve is
that the directional valve has insufficient capacity to handle the full flow rate. The directional valve is used to
pilot-control the seat valve. In addition the seat valve does not suffer any leakage. When it is closed the
emergency stop valve is closed.
The three rotary table support functions share a common valve terminal. This is a valve block with common
inlet and outlet blocks having three 4/3 directional valves with spring returns. In addition to controlling the
directional valves electrically, they may also be operated manually. It is possible to adjust the outlet pressure
from the directional valve manually on the valve block. It is also possible to adjust the maximum oil flow out of
the directional valve. This is done manually on the valve block.

2.3.1.4 Power Slips

Power slips are a hydraulic gripping arrangement which is part of the rotary table which grips the pipe firmly in
order to rotate it. The slips consist of several wedges arranged in a circle, the wedges gripping the pipe and
holding it fast. In addition to the two cylinders used to squeeze the slips together there are two single-acting
cylinders which centralise the slips over the borehole. These two hydraulic functions are controlled by an
electrically operated 4/3 directional valve. It is also possible to control this function manually by a lever on the
actual valve.
For the slips to grip the pipe, the line is pressurised on the piston side of the power slips cylinders. Before these
two cylinders, two pressure control valves are installed with non-return valves on each line. The valves are

adjusted to 150 bar and work as sequencing valves. This causes the centralising cylinders to centralise the
pipe first, before the slips grip it tightly.
The sequencing valves work by not opening to let oil into or out of the power slips cylinder before the line
pressure has reached 150 bar. The oil will therefore take the line of least resistance through the hydraulically
operated 3/2 way valve installed before the centralising cylinders. The 3/2 way valve is open when it is not
pressurised, allowing oil to pass through the 3/2 way valve to the piston side of the centralising cylinders. This
causes the single-acting centralising cylinders to extend and the slips are then centralised around the pipe.
To release the power slips, the opposite line is pressurised. The outlet pressure from the 4/3 directional valve is
now adjusted to 210 bar. There is no sequence control of the two functions when the slips are released. The
pilot pressure to the 3/2 way directional valve is released, allowing this valve to return to its open position.
In addition to the 3/2 directional valve before the centralising cylinders, a manual shut-off valve is installed with
a non-return valve and an adjustable choke valve. The shut-off valve is normally open and is used only in
cases where it is required to disconnect the centralising function. The choke valve is installed to allow
adjustment of the speed with which the centralising system closes whilst the non-return valve is installed to
prevent back flow of oil.
Slips

2.3.1.5 Hydraulic Rotation Gear Locking

Another function incorporated into the rotary table is a hydraulic gear lock. This consists of two double-acting
hydraulic cylinders. The function is controlled by an electrically operated 4/3 way directional valve located in a
common valve block. It is also possible to control this function manually by using a lever on the actual valve.

2.3.1.6 Lubrication of the Rotational Gears

The last hydraulically controlled function is the operation of a hydraulic motor which drives a lubricating pump.
The hydraulic motor is single-acting, meaning it only rotates in one direction.
The system for lubrication is a self-contained circuit with its own lubrication pumps, filter, safety valve, electrical
pressure switch and nozzles spraying gear oil onto the gears. The lubricating circuit pressure is usually low but
a safety valve is installed which leaks at 10 bar pressure and above. The pressure switch is set to 0.5 bar and
this signal is used as a reference to the control system that the lubricating pump is operating.

2.3.2 Top Drive Drilling Machine (TDS/DDM)

The purpose of the drawworks as discussed in paragraph 4.2, is to enable the raising and lowering of the drill
string. The top drive machine system or derrick drilling machine, in principle is a large drill which is screwed into
and rotates the whole drill string. Today this is the most common drilling method whilst the rotary table was
primarily used up until 1983, when the use of the kelly was replaced by the top drive. We will use the term top
drive throughout this module.
Top drive machine
The top drive is mounted onto a guide frame carriage which travels on rails up and down inside the derrick. The
drawworks raises and lowers the carriage whilst all the torque from the top drive is transferred to the rails and
onto the derrick's structure. In addition to the rotational motion of the top drive, there are a number of other
functions and tools which are incorporated to connect and disconnect the drill string, and to handle the drilling
process correctly.
A top drive is primarily made up of four main parts:
rotary swivel
transmission

driver

pipe handler

2.3.2.1 Hydraulic Connections

The top drive has, as for the drawworks, two separate pressure systems, one for the top drive's main function
of rotating the drill string and one system for pipe handling functions.
The main system is a closed circuit operating at a pressure of up to 350 bar, whilst the other system is an open
circuit operating at a pressure of 180 bar.

2.3.2.2 Operation of the Rotary Swivel

The closed hydraulic circuit is the hydraulic system's primary circuit, which operates the rotary swivel. The
circuit consists of four double-acting hydraulic pumps and four double-acting hydraulic motors. The hydraulic
pumps are a part of the hydraulic power generator, whilst the motors are located on the top drive's gearbox.
The four double-acting hydraulic motors are located symmetrically around the tooth wheel of the gearbox, all at
the same height and parallel to the drill pipe. The ratio on the gearbox is around 1:6. Depending upon the
direction of rotation of the motor, the drill string will rotate in the same direction, clockwise whilst drilling.
The four hydraulic pumps have adjustable displacement volumes and are designed for use on closed hydraulic
circuits. In addition to the four pumps, the circuit is also equipped with two feed pumps to ensure that there is
always sufficient oil supply in the closed circuit. This is vital as there are always internal leaks within the
system. One feed pump is always running whilst the other acts as a standby pump. The feed pumps circulate
oil through a cooler to prevent the oil in the closed circuit becoming overheated. If the feed pump supplies more
oil than the circuit requires, the excess oil will be passed via a non-return valve through the oil cooler back to
the reservoir.
The speed and maximum torque are determined through controlling the pump. The pumps have a constant
speed rotation, but by adjusting the displacement volume, more or less oil can be supplied. The speed of the
rotary swivel is controlled by altering the delivery from the four adjustable pumps by adjusting their
displacement volume. Each pump is equipped with its own control circuit for displacement volume adjustment,
which operates at 35 bar. Depending upon the circuit's pressure, the pump will be angled in or out. The
pressure is controlled by a proportional pressure regulating valve (speed setting valve) shared by all the
pumps. The set pressure on this valve can vary between 0-35 bar and is determined by the proportional
electrical signal controlled by the drilling panel in the driller's cabin.
A torque-limiting valve, common to all the pumps, is also installed. This valve is a proportional pressure limiting
valve, which limits the maximum pressure out of the pumps. This pressure can also be regulated from the drill
panel in the driller's cabin, via a proportional electrical signal.
A dedicated distribution block is mounted on the hydraulic power generator and this determines in which
direction the swivel will rotate, or in which direction the motors will turn. The distribution block consists of four
electro-hydraulic 4/3 directional valves and a set of pilot-controlled seat valves. A directional valve is installed
for each pump and depending upon which direction the valve is activated, the oil flow will be led either to the A
port or the B port on the distribution block, and on to the four motors. When an electro-hydraulic directional
valve is not activated, all four seat valves will be closed and the swivel will not rotate.
Integrated into the distribution block is a 4/2 electro-hydraulic directional valve which pilot-controls another seat
valve. This valve has the task of connecting the A side to the B side together so that the swivel can rotate
freely. When the solenoid on the 4/2 valve is activated, the seat valve opens and the A side and B side are
hydraulically connected.

2.3.2.3 Locking the Gear on the Rotary Swivel (Main Rotation)

To prevent the unexpected rotation of the swivel, in addition to the four hydraulic motors, a double-acting
hydraulic cylinder is installed. This is located between two of the motors and locks the gears so that the swivel
cannot rotate. This cylinder is connected to the open 180 bar hydraulic circuit.
On the rod side, a pressure regulating vale is installed in parallel with a non-return valve. In this case the valve
acts as a sequencing valve. When pressure is applied to the valve's inlet port, the pressure in the valve must
exceed 20 bar before it opens. When the valve opens, the cylinder rod moves out and the lock is applied. To
release the lock, the cylinder rod moves in again and return oil from the cylinder passes through the non-return
valve. In other words it in unnecessary to build up any pressure to operate the function in reverse.

2.3.2.4 Pipe Handler on the Top Drive Drilling Machine

The pipe manipulator or pipe handling function on the top drive is bolted to the underside of the gearbox. The
pipe handler is constructed like a shell around the drilling machine's main axle and does not rotate with the
swivel. It is equipped with its own bearing and a hydraulic motor, so that the pipe manipulator can rotate
independently of the main rotation of the drilling machine.
The pipe handler has six main functions:
hydraulic swivel and transfer of hydraulic lines and pneumatic lines
compensator links
open and close arrangements for Internal Blow-out Preventer (IBOP) valve
torque wrench with lock
elevator links (bails)
elevator (pneumatically operated)
All the hydraulic functions on the pipe manipulator are controlled from one common valve block. This is electrohydraulic with several 4/3 directional valves mounted on the same block. The valve block contains a total of
seven proportionally controlled directional valves and it is mounted on the guide dolly of the top drive.
The hydraulic block is equipped with a common inlet and outlet section for all the directional valves. The inlet
section is equipped with load sensing. This means that if there is no demand for oil pressure out to the
consumer, the oil is circulated through the inlet section back to the hydraulic generator with a low differential
pressure across the valve (about 10 bar). As soon as one of the directional valves on the block is activated, and
there is a demand for oil pressure, the valve which the oil formerly circulated through closes and supplies the
pressure which the specific function requires, for example 100 bar. The directional valves in the hydraulic block
are electro-hydraulic 4/3 directional valves with spring centring and manual control option. It is possible to
adjust the outlet pressure from the A and B ports on the valve independently.

2.3.2.5 Hydraulic Swivel (Positioning the Elevator)

A hydraulic swivel is mounted inside the pipe handler. It is shaped like a hollow axle and this swivel connection
makes it possible to transfer hydraulic fluid (and air) to the hydraulic function on the pipe handler when it
revolves 360. The rotation is controlled by a double-acting hydraulic motor so that it can revolve in both
directions.
The direction and speed of the swivel's rotation is controlled by one of seven proportionally controlled 4/3
directional valves mounted in a common valve block. These are in turn adjusted by electrical signals from the
driller's cabin.

2.3.2.6 Compensator Links

The purpose of the compensator links is to prevent damage to the pipe threads during make-up and breaking
of the drill pipe. The hydraulic pressure in the compensator link's cylinder is adjusted such that it balances the
weight of the top drive and guide dolly. When the machine is lowered down towards the threads on the drill
pipe, the compensator links swing out further and thereby protect the threads from the whole weight of both top
drive and guide dolly when they land on the threads.
Two double-acting cylinders are installed for the compensator links. Before these cylinders a double overcentre valve is installed. One valve is set 5 bar higher than the set pressure for the 4/3 directional valve which
controls this function. If the cylinder is exposed to an external load trying to push them in, the pressure on the
piston side will increase, leading to the over-centre valve on the return line opening. The return oil from the
piston side of the cylinder will therefore bleed off to the opposite side and to return, and the cylinder will move
in. The cylinder will therefore move when external forces are applied.
Similarly the cylinder will be pulled outwards by external forces. The over-centre valve will open and bleed
pressure to the opposite side so that the cylinders pull out.

2.3.2.7 Elevator Links (Bails) Tilt Function

The elevator hangs on two links, known as bails, and due to the weight, these hang vertically. It is possible to
tilt these two elevator bails to the side so that the elevator hangs away from the centreline, relative to the drill
centre. This is done with the aid of two double-acting hydraulic cylinders which pull the bails to the side. When
the cylinder rods are right out, the elevator is in the mouse hole position, meaning that it is hanging away from
the drill centre. When the cylinder rods are fully retracted, the elevator will hang over the drill centre. To prevent
the elevator link arms sagging in again when in the mouse hole position, a single over-centre valve is installed
on the rod side of the cylinder. This prevents the arms sagging when the system is not pressurised.

2.3.2.8 IBOP Valve

The IBOP valve is, in principle, a ball valve which opens and closes to allow the flow of drilling mud through the
drilling machine. To open and close the ball valve, two double-acting cylinders are used. This function is
controlled by one of seven 4/3 directional valves in a common hydraulic block for the pipe handler. Before the
cylinders is a double over-centre valve. In contrast to the compensator links, the pressure on this over-centre
valve is adjusted to prevent sagging of the cylinders.

2.3.2.9 Torque Wrench with Locking Function

The torque wrench on the pipe handler is used to screw together and unscrew the tool joints on the drill pipe.
The torque wrench consists of two jaws or hydraulic tongs which close over and grip the pipe. The lower tong
squeezes the lowest part of the drill pipe joint, whilst the other closes around the upper part. With the aid of two
hydraulic cylinders it is possible to rotate the upper relative to the lower. In this way it is possible to tighten the
tool joints in the drill pipe to a preset torque and unscrew them again when necessary.
The upper and lower tongs grip the pipe firmly. Each of the tongs is operated by a double-acting hydraulic
cylinder. These two cylinders are hydraulically connected and controlled from one of seven 4/3 directional
valves mounted in a common pipe handling hydraulic block. When the tongs grip the pipe, the cylinder rod
moves out. Two single over-centre valves are installed on the piston side of the cylinder, one for each cylinder.
These valves are to prevent the cylinder sinking back or sliding back when the system is not pressurised. When
the tongs open the cylinders must move out again. Pressure must be built up to a suitably high level on the rod
side of the cylinders so that the over-centre valve opens and releases return oil from the piston side of the
cylinder. Only then can the cylinder retract and the tongs open.
The twisting function for the upper tong relative to the lower is also achieved by using two double-acting
hydraulic cylinders. Both cylinders work together and are controlled by a common 4/3 directional valve. The
cylinders are hydraulically mounted so that the same amount of force is always available for both tightening
and undoing the drill pipes. This is achieved by the cylinder areas being the same size. The cylinders are the

same size and during tightening the rod side is activated on one cylinder and the piston side on the other, and
vice versa when unscrewing.
When tightening drill pipes, an end stop valve is used. This is a 2/2 way directional valve with spring return
which is closed in one position and open in the other. The valve is activated mechanically by the piston in one
of the cylinders pushing the valve from closed to open when in the fully retracted position. The purpose is to
even out the pressure on both sides of the cylinder so that the torque wrench cannot twist the pipe any further
against the mechanical end stop.

2.3.3 Hydraulic RamRig

The hydraulic drilling machine is a relatively new concept as a major part of the surface equipment. The
conventional drilling rig with drawworks has been replaced by lifting cylinders which apply axial force to the drill
string. Referring to the figure below we shall describe the RamRig as an example of this new concept.
RamRig consists of six major components:
hydraulic main cylinders (rams)
travelling yoke
hoisting wires
equalising system
ram-guide, 'guide tower'
hydraulic system

2.3.3.1 Operating Mode for the Mechanical Functions

Axial lift from the two main cylinders is transferred to the RamRig hook as follows:
1. When the hook is at its lowest position, the cylinder piston is completely retracted. The hoist wires have a
fixed length. Four are laid in parallel for each cylinder and are made fast at one end of the drill floor. They are
passed over running pulleys and fixed to the guide dolly. When the pulley bank moves upwards from the force
from the main cylinders, the hoist wire runs over the pulley bank. When the pulley bank moves upwards by the
force from the main cylinders, the hoist wire runs over the pulleys. In this way the cylinder power is transferred
to hoisting force on the guide dolly and the hoisting speed using this arrangement is twice that of the cylinders
opening speed. The standard cylinder speed is 1 m/sec which gives a hoist speed of 2 m/sec.
2. The main cylinders are double-acting hydraulic cylinders, similar to those used in crown block mounted
compensators. The cylinders are mounted upon cylinder supports, which are constructed like a shell around
the cylinders and bolted to the drill floor. The cylinder rods are fixed to the pulley guide bearings, giving a solid
support to the cylinder rods when they extend, providing a long enough stroke, without risking the piston rod
buckling.
3. The pulley bank consists of a main beam, four pulleys and a guide liner. The guide liner provides for a guide
roller, and support for the cylinder rods. The way the components of the pulley bank are assembled, with the
pulleys located low down and adapted to the cylinder rod height, contributes to balanced motion, despite
variations in the forces applied between the two cylinders.
4. The four hoist wires are shackled directly to the hook links, thereby eliminating the conventional travelling
block. The stretch in the wire is evened out by a balancing system so that all the wires are equally loaded. This,
combined with less bending and bending only in one direction, no block weight and large pulley-to-wire
diameter ratio, gives a long lifetime for these wires. One year is calculated for a floating installation, 50% more
on a fixed platform.
5. The balancing system is located below the drill floor with wire fixing at floor level. The difference in force from
the cylinders will give a difference in the wire tensions. This is balanced by the balancing system swinging over
and compensating for the increased force by yielding as the wire on the other side tightens simultaneously until
the wires are in balance.
6. The cylinder guide replaces the drilling derrick on a conventional concept and is built only for support and
control, not for lifting. Low height and minimal weight compared to a conventional derrick give significant cost
and weight benefits.

RAM
Balancing system, RAM

2.4 Pipe Handling System

The pipe handling system includes the surface equipment necessary for the manipulation of pipes and drill
string equipment, from storage on deck until it is made up to the required torque in the rotary table.
There are a number of different pipe handling machine types. The aim of these is to transport drill pipe so that
the actual drilling operation can be done in the most efficient and safe manner possible.
During the 1990's strict requirements have been set for the remote operation and automation of the pipe
handling system. This has often been controlled from an operator chair located either in a separate operator's
cabin or in the driller's cabin.
Drill pipes are usually stored on the pipe deck and are transported from there to the drill floor and into a vertical
position directly over the drill centre. There are often a number of pipe handling machines operating together to
achieve this. Depending upon the various machines installed on the platform they will have different functions.
In this section we will look at the following machines and describe how they work and the hydraulic system
used to operate them:
pipe deck machine (crane)
conveyor
pipe racking system
pipe handling arm (for example, Eagle Light)

2.4.1 Delivery to the V doors

2.4.1.1 Pipe Deck Machine
The pipe deck machine is located on the pipe deck and its purpose is to lift pipes from the pipe deck and onto
the conveyor or another type of machine which can carry the pipe onto the drill floor. This is needed when
running into the hole during the drilling process. When tripping out of the hole the function is the reverse, the
pipe deck machine will only pick up the pipes from the conveyor and replace them onto the pipe deck.
Delivery to the V doors
The picture shows a pipe deck machine located on Ulla (manufactured by Hydralift). The machine is equipped
with its own built-in hydraulic generator and only needs electricity from the platform supply.
The machine has four hydraulic functions:
the complete machine is rotated by three hydraulic motors
the main boom is moved up and down by a cylinder
the jointed boom is moved up and down by a cylinder
the jointed boom is moved in and out by a telescopic cylinder
In addition to these main machine functions, the gripping mechanism has three other main functions:
open/close function for the gripping mechanism
side displacement of the gripping mechanism
rotation of the gripping mechanism
tilt (angle adjustment)
Note: We are discussing a particular installation and this has a claw.

2.4.1.2 Hydraulic Generator

The hydraulic generator is located inside the machine's base. The oil tank has a capacity of 1200 L, a pump
capacity to the generator of a maximum volume flow of 410 L/min, and a maximum pressure of 280 bar.
The pump is a variable pressure and volume pump such that it can never give both maximum volume and
maximum flow simultaneously.
A damper is installed immediately after the pump. This prevents large pressure pulses in the system when the
pump starts up. A non-return valve is installed to prevent oil flowing in the wrong direction back into the pump.
The reservoir is equipped with an oil level monitor and this activates an alarm if the tank level becomes too low.
For refilling, a dedicated filling unit can be supplied with an electric and a hydraulic pump. The unit connects to
the generator using a quick connector and the refilled oil is led through the return filter into the reservoir.
The generator has a return filter and an air filter. The return filter has pressure differential indicators visual and
electrical, to indicate when the filter is becoming blocked. This send an alarm to the cabin that the blocked filter
needs to be exchanged.
The generator is equipped with neither a pressure filter nor a circulation filter. The reason is that both pressure
and volume flow in this case are high and a pressure filter of this capacity would be very expensive and to save
costs this has been eliminated.
The oil tank is relatively small compared to the power produced by the generator. During operation the oil heats
up so an oil cooler is installed on the return side. The oil cooler is controlled by a temperature transmitter which
starts and stops the cooling fan motor.
The generator is also equipped with a hand pump for emergency operation of the machine. If the crane stops
whilst a pipe is hanging in the grips it must be possible to lower the load by use of a hand pump. Only three of
the functions can be operated in an emergency, the rotation and the two booms.

2.4.1.3 Main Functions

All four functions on the machine require relatively large volumes of oil. This leads to relatively large pressure
and flow loads on the valve which therefore requires large forces to push the control slides in the directional
valves from one position to another. The directional valves are therefore hydraulically operated for these
functions to exert sufficient forces. These four main valves are 4/3 valves which are proportionally controlled.
That is to say that the slide can have intermediate positions relative to the positions drawn in the symbol and by
this means it is possible to adjust the speed on the various functions. (Proportional function is shown with a line
up/down on the actual hydraulic symbol for directional valves).
The main valves are located in a common valve block where they have joint inlet and outlet ports. It is possible
to regulate the outlet pressure from each main valve as each function has different pressure requirements. On
the inlet side of the valve block, a load cell function is installed which in turn is connected to the adjustment
mechanism for the pump. If none of the valves are operating there is no need for oil pressure and the pump
angles out. If any one of the valves are activated the pump angles in again and begins to supply oil. The load
sensing functions by allowing the pump to only supply the amount of oil required. If the function activated
requires only 60 bar, the pump only delivers 60 bar.
The four main valves are pilot-controlled via two electro-hydraulic joysticks. These are located in the cabin
where the operators sit driving the machines. One joystick sends oil to the pilot side of the main valve for
rotation and the main boom whilst the other send oil to the jointed boom and the telescopic arm. The reason
that it is possible to control the main valves proportionally, that is that the speed can be adjusted for the two
functions, is that the pilot oil pressure out of the joystick can be controlled proportionally with the displacement
of the joystick. In this way it is possible to adjust how much the main valve slide must move and consequently
the speed of the particular function.

The oil supply into the cabin comes from the main generator but the pressure is reduced to 35 bar, which is
needed by the pilot pressure for the main valves. An accumulator is installed on the line to maintain an even
control pressure into the cabin, even when the main pump is angled out. Between the two joysticks and the
machine's main valve, eight electro-hydraulic valves are installed and located in their own cabinet (EEXecabinet). These are normal 4/2 directional valves with spring return which are controlled as on/off valves. These
valves are installed for safety reasons so that they cannot operate any of the main functions of the machine
unless they are activated electrically. If the electricity to these valves fails, all movement of the machine stops
even if the joystick is moved. This is possible if, for example, the electrical emergency stop switch is operated.
If the eight electro-hydraulic valves are not operated electrically, it is impossible to operate the pipe handling
machine.
There are four switches which can be operated from the cabin. All the electrical signals go via a PLS and on to
the eight electro-hydraulic valves. The PLS is located in an over-pressure cabinet (EEXp).

2.4.1.4 Rotation
Rotation of the machine is achieved by three hydraulic motors with three hydraulic brakes. The motors rotate in
both directions to enable the machine to revolve in both directions. The motors are connected in series and
located on a toothed wheel at 120 to each other.
Before the motors can revolve the hydraulic brake must be released. In principle this is a cylinder with spring
return which pushes the brake pads against a disc in the motor, preventing it from revolving. For the brakes to
be released, pressure must be applied to the rod side of this cylinder. This is done by a choke non-return valve
positioned immediately before the brake. A spring accumulator is placed on the rod side of the brake cylinder to
prevent the brake being applied too suddenly so reducing juddering of the brakes. The return oil from the brake
is led through the spring accumulator to the motor's drain line.
On the common main line to the three motors, a double over-centre valve with non-return function is installed.
This valve has several functions, one of which is to lead the oil to the brakes in order to release them. This is
done via a shuttle valve integrated into the over-centre valve and then on to the brake. The purpose of this
double over-centre valve is twofold. The first stops it along with the machine from rotating out of control. If the
machine is subjected to, for example a side wind, this will cause a force which will attempt to turn the machine
in the wind's direction. Both brake and motor and the over-centre valve will prevent this happening as the valve
requires pressure on the pressure line to open the return line and allow oil to flow back to the reservoir. Another
advantage of using an over-centre valve is that it gets a smoother and more even rotational motion when
stopping and starting the machine.

2.4.1.5 Emergency Operation of Rotation

It must be possible to operate the machine in an emergency, even when the electrical supply fails. This will
cause the main pump on the hydraulic generator to stop working. It will also be impossible to operate the main
valve manually so these will also not be operable during an electrical failure.
As described earlier, a generator hand pump is installed for emergency operation of the machine. In order to
rotate the machine, a manual 3/2 directional valve (ball valve) is operated so that the oil from the hand pump is
fed to the brakes on the three hydraulic motors. When the hand pump is used the motor's brakes are released
and the boom can be turned away from any danger area manually (by pushing or pulling the boom away). This
is a relatively heavy task as, even with the brakes off, the double over-centre valve will try to prevent oil
returning from the motor. One possibility is therefore to disconnect the hydraulic hose on the return side and so
turn the machine away.
Remember to clean up any spilled oil after opening and draining the system.

2.4.1.6 Main Boom

The main boom is operated by one, large, single-acting cylinder. The cylinder can be used as a double-acting
cylinder but the way it is connected into the system it only works as a single-acting cylinder. Only the piston
side of the cylinder is supplied with pressure.
The main boom is controlled by the main valve block. On one side of the valve, a pressure regulating valve set
at 60 bar is installed. This valve ensures that the pressure out of the directional valve's A port never exceeds 60
bar, even though the pressure on the valve may be higher. On the B port the pressure out of the valve will be
the same as the generator supply pressure. The main valve is a 6/3 directional valve but designated a 4/3
directional valve as two of the ports are internal and not visible from outside.
The reason for reducing the A port pressure to 60 bar is that this side is only used to open an over-centre valve
located near the cylinder so that the valve releases oil from the cylinder (piston side). The weight of the boom
will push oil out of the cylinder allowing the boom to lower. It there was no pressure in the pilot line which opens
the over-centre valve, the boom would remain locked, so the over-centre valve is also known as the locking
valve or hanging valve. By shifting the directional valve in the opposite direction, pressure is applied to the A
port out of the directional valve. Oil will then go between the two non-return valves in the over-centre valve and
the boom will be lifted.
It can be seen from the hydraulic diagram, that the rod side of the cylinder is also hydraulically connected
directly to the return tank. The reason is that it is desirable to keep hydraulic fluid on this side of the piston in
order to reduce corrosion. If the cylinder had been connected to atmosphere it would draw in air which after
some time would cause condensation and associated corrosion rapidly damaging the cylinder.

2.4.1.7 Emergency Operation of the Main Boom

To operate the boom in an emergency, a manual 3/2 valve (ball valve) must be operated in the same way as for
emergency operation of rotation. In an emergency, it is possible to lower the arm if a pipe is hanging in the
gripping jaws. A 4/3 way directional valve must also be operated. By operating this directional valve in one
direction the main boom is operated and in the opposite direction the jointed boom operates.

2.4.1.8 Jointed Boom

The jointed boom is operated by one, large, double-acting cylinder. The boom is lifted and lowered by applying
oil pressure to the piston and rod sides. The maximum pressure requirement to move the boom is 260 bar, that
is, the pressure out of the B port of the directional valve and into the rod side of the cylinder is no higher than
260 bar. The pressure requirement on the opposite side is the same as supplied by the hydraulic generator,
280 bar.
Before the cylinder, a double over-centre valve is installed. Two pressure valves connected in parallel on the
piston side of the cylinder are designed to increase capacity. The large difference in area between the rod side
and the piston side of the cylinder means that the volume demand on the piston side is much greater than on
the rod side. Two valves in parallel gives sufficient volume capacity.
Return oil from the cylinder is fed through the pressure limiting valve in the double over-centre valve, through
an adjustable choke directly back to the tank. The return oil therefore does not go through the directional valve
as normal. The reason is that it is not desirable to have a large pressure drop in the return line and by feeding
the return oil directly to the tank such pressure build-up is avoided.
Integrated into the double over-centre valve are four non-return valves. Two of them prevent return flow from
the cylinder passing via the directional valve. The other two are to prevent cavitation in the cylinder during
possible overloading. An external overload on the jointed boom will compress the cylinder. The pressure on the
rod side increases, and when the pressure exceeds 250 bar, the pressure relief valve will open and release the
oil. This will cause the boom to lower as the cylinder retracts. This will again cause an under-pressure on the
piston side of the cylinder as the piston side volume increases. This is solved by oil which has been pushed out
of the cylinder on the piston side being drawn back on the rod side via the non-return valve. In this way cylinder
overload cavitation is avoided.

2.4.1.9 Emergency Operation of the Jointed Boom

The main boom and the jointed boom share a manual 4/3 way directional valve which must be operated during
emergency operation of the jointed boom. It is not necessary to operate any other valves in order to lower the
boom.

2.4.1.10 Telescopic Function of the Jointed Boom

The last of the four main functions of the jointed boom is its telescopic function. It is possible to extend the
jointed boom by about 3 m to increase the reach of the machine. This function requires a maximum pressure of
80 bar and 210 bar (210 bar out of the A port and 80 bar out of the B port on the directional valve).
As can be seen in the drawing, the telescopic cylinder consists of two sections. There are internal canals inside
the cylinder such that the piston areas inside the cylinder are supplied with pressure and the cylinder can move
in and out. Also on this cylinder, an over-centre valve is installed to prevent the telescopic cylinder sliding out.
When the cylinder is to move in, oil goes through the non-return valve in the over-centre valve and directly to
the cylinder. The return oil goes from the opposite side via the directional valve to the tank. In the opposite
direction, oil pressure is fed so that the cylinder moves outwards. Oil passes directly from the directional valve
to the cylinder whilst the return oil must pass through the over-centre valve to the tank.

2.4.1.11 Gripping Mechanism

The gripping mechanism's function requires lower volume flow than required for the main functions of the
machine. A direct electro-hydraulic valve therefore controls these functions. In other words, hydraulic pilot
control of the valve block, as required for the machine's primary functions, is not necessary.
The directional valve used for controlling the gripping function is located in a common hydraulic block, as for
the main functions. This valve also has shared inlet and outlet ports and it is equipped with load sensing in the
same way as the main valve. This valve is also equipped with pressure limiting valves which make it possible to
control the pressure out of the valve.
We will go through the hydraulic diagram for the gripping mechanism in detail but it is worth mentioning that on
some installations the pipe handling machine is equipped with electro-magnets rather than gripping claws.

2.4.1.12 Conveyor
The conveyor is located between the pipe deck and the drill floor, and it is used to transport pipes from the pipe
deck to the drill floor.
The conveyor consists of a framework and a rubber belt which pulls the pipes back and forth on the band. The
actual frame is located on the pipe deck, whilst the front of the transport belt is fixed in the V doors of the drill
floor.
Delivering pipes to the V door
The picture shows a conveyor located on Ulla (manufactured by Hitech). In addition to the actual conveyor, the
machine is equipped with an integrated tail-in function and a feed mechanism for pipes, to increase its
efficiency.
The feed machine, or feed table has the task of temporarily storing the pipes. The deck machine can lay pipes
directly onto the conveyor or stack the pipes onto the feed table. The feed table has arms which push the pipes
onto the belt or flip them off of the conveyor onto the feed table. In this way the deck machine and the conveyor
can be coordinated more efficiently so neither machine creates a bottle-neck.
Tail-in function is a telescopic arm which can be brought onto the drill floor and into the drill centre. On the end

of the tail-in function is a tail-in arm which can be turned from just below horizontal and up to 10 past the
vertical. The purpose of the tail-in function is to steer the pipe end so that it locates right into the drill centre. In
the centre the pipe is picked up by an elevator hanging under top drive (the pipe is hoisted up into the drill
centre). During drilling a new stand is screwed in. During this phase the tail-in arm must secure the back end of
the pipe so that it does not swing around the drill floor.
The machine depends upon hydraulic power from the hydraulic generator, which supplies all the machines on
the drill deck with hydraulic power.
The machine has six primary functions.
belt in and out (two hydraulic motors)
tail-in and tail-out (one hydraulic motor)
tail-in arm up and down (two hydraulic cylinders)
feed table in (two hydraulic cylinders)
unloading mechanism for the feed table (two hydraulic cylinders)
pipe tilt at the end of the conveyor (one hydraulic cylinder)
The machine is operated from a local control panel. This is a hydraulic cabinet where the valve centre is
located. The panel is only meant for emergency or testing operation, as the main control of the machine is from
the operator's or driller's cabin via a PLS.

2.4.1.13 Hydraulic Connection Local Control Panel

The local control panel is located forward on the conveyor and consists of a hydraulic block containing six
directional valves and an emergency stop valve. If the emergency stop valve is not activated, either electrically
or manually, the machine cannot be operated.
The hydraulic block is equipped with a shared inlet and outlet section for all directional valves. The inlet section
is equipped with load sensing. This means that if there is no demand for oil pressure out to consumers the oil is
circulated through the inlet section and back to the generator with a low differential pressure across the valve
(about 10 bar pressure drop). As soon as one of the directional valves on the block is operated, demanding oil
pressure, the valve through which the oil formerly circulated closes and supplies the required, for example 100
bar. The directional valve on the hydraulic block is an electro-hydraulic 4/3 directional valve, which can be
operated manually or by spring centring. It is possible to regulate the outlet pressure from the A and B ports on
the valve independently of each other.
In addition to the hydraulic valves, an electrical connection box is located inside the panel. All cables to
directional valve solenoids and the stop valve are connected here and go via a shared cable to a PLS.

2.4.1.14 Functions
The conveyor operation back and forward consists of two double-acting hydraulic motors connected in series.
One motor is located at the front whilst the other is at the rear of the conveyor. In this way one of the motors will
always pull the conveyor instead of pushing it. On this function, only one directional valve is installed. There is
neither brake nor over-centre valve for stopping the motion. The reason is due to the high friction between the
belt and the base which immediately halts movement once the directional valve is not activated.
On the tail-in function, which is operated by a double-acting hydraulic motor, a double over-centre valve is
installed to prevent the tail-in arm being dragged out or pushed in by external forces such as the pipe hanging
in the elevator.
The flipping mechanism on the tail-in arm is operated by two hydraulic cylinders coupled in parallel. This
function is also equipped with a double over-centre valve to avoid the arms sagging under external forces.
The machine's unloading function comprises two cylinders coupled in parallel and which flip the conveyor belt
up so that the pipe rolls off and down onto the feed table. A valve, known as a volume flow divider, is installed

before the two cylinders. This valve distributes an equal flow of oil to each of the cylinders, ensuring that both
cylinders move together.
The feed table's loading function consists of two cylinders connected in parallel, which push the pipes onto the
conveyor belt. The two arms which push the pipes in are mechanically coupled. There is therefore no need for
a hydraulic flow divider to get both cylinders operating together.
The last function on the feed table is a pipe tilt function. This is a cylinder which is located at the rear of the
conveyor and associated with the end stop. It is possible to lift the end stop up to allow the pipe to lie slanted
across the belt. In this way it is possible for the pipe deck crane to pick the pipe directly from the conveyor and
not via the feed table.

2.4.2 Loading and Vertical Suspension in the Derrick

Loading and vertical suspension in the derrick

2.4.2.1 Handling Arm 'Eagle' and 'Eagle Light'

There are several other types of pipe handling machines besides those discussed here, such as the eagle or
eagle light. The difference between them is primarily the size.
The purpose of this pipe handling machine is to transport drill pipe from a horizontal position on the conveyor
located on the drill deck and into a vertical attitude in the drill centre. This machine performs an equivalent
function to the tail-in function on the conveyor as described in paragraph 1.5.2 in combination with the elevator.
The machine consists of a mainframe which is hoisted up and lowered by a hydraulic winch, an arm which can
flip in and out, and a gripping arrangement which tightens onto the drill pipe. When raising and lowering the
mainframe, it is controlled by two vertical tracks placed in the derrick's V door opening. A hydraulic cylinder is
fixed to the upper side of the arms to allow them to move. The actual gripping mechanism holding the drill pipe
firm is equipped with two functions, one which grips the pipe and the other which controls it so that it cannot fall
out. In addition it is possible to tilt the gripping head so that it can twist or turn the pipe from the horizontal to the
vertical and the other way round.
The machine requires hydraulic power from the hydraulic generator supplying the other machines on the drill
floor.
The machine has five primary hydraulic functions:
raising and lowering the machine using a hydraulic winch (two hydraulic motors with brakes)
tilting the main arm jib up and down (one hydraulic cylinder)
tilting the gripping head yoke from horizontal to vertical (one hydraulic cylinder)
controlling the guide on the yoke (one hydraulic cylinder)
clawing the clamp on the yoke (one hydraulic cylinder)

2.4.2.2 Hydraulic Connections Local Control Panel

This machine is also equipped with a local control panel located in the V door opening on the drill floor. The
control panel consists of a hydraulic block containing four electro-hydraulic proportioning directional valves,
filters and various valves for pressure adjustments of the two yoke functions. From this panel it is possible to
control all the machine's hydraulic functions, except the hoisting function.
The directional valves in the block are electro-hydraulic 4/3 directional valves with spring centring and optional
manual operation. All valves are controlled proportionally. It is possible to control the outlet pressure from the A
and B ports independently. The valves are also equipped with pressure regulating valves on all outlet ports.
These valves act as safety valves in case line pressure becomes too high.

The hoist function, or the hydraulic winch, is controlled by its own electro-hydraulic proportioning valve located
close to the winch. Before the valve is a filter to prevent contamination entering the proportioning valve. An
electrically operated emergency stop valve is located in the main line of both control panels. If the emergency
stop valve is not activated either manually or electrically it is impossible to operate the machine.

2.4.2.3 Functions
Hydraulic Winch (Hoisting and Lowering)
A hydraulically operated winch with two hydraulic motors raises and lowers the machine's mainframe. The
frame is guided on two tracks placed vertically by the V door opening. A proportional directional valve with a
capacity of 225 L/min controls the winch. This valve is equipped with load sensing and with reduced pressure
for pilot control of the valve. A safety valve is installed on the valve's A port, which bleeds pressure off if it
exceeds 225 bar.
The two motors are hydraulically connected in parallel and they are each equipped with their own hydraulic
brake. Before each motor a single over-centre valve (hanging valve) is installed and between the A port and the
B port a there is a pressure limiting valve.
The single over-centre valve has the task of stopping the winch sagging when the system is not pressurised (in
addition to the hydraulic brake). This valve will also permit the winch to be lowered in a controlled way without
destabilising the hydraulic system (meaning that it avoids pressure surges)
The purpose of the pressure-limiting valve between port A and port B is to prevent pressure building up in the
system when braking the winch on lowering. If the directional valve suddenly closes, hydraulic supply to the
motor will stop, but because of the large mass hanging in the winch (the whole machine) the motor cannot stop
immediately. Pressure on the return side of the motor will therefore increase and this pressure build-up will
cause the pressure relief valve to open and bleed return pressure over to the pressure side of the motor. This is
a common way to connect hydraulic motors. The inertia of the system is so large that even if the hydraulic
supply to the motor stops the motor cannot stop immediately.
Main Arm (Jib Tilt)
The machine's main arm is controlled by one double-acting hydraulic cylinder. The directional valve which
controls this function is set to an outlet pressure on the A and B ports of 160 bar on each. Both safety valves
are set to 225 bar. Before the cylinder a double over-centre valve is installed as a hanging valve. This prevents
the arm from sinking when the system is not pressurised.
An extra safety valve is installed on the hydraulic line for tilting the arm upwards. The return line from this safety
valve leads past the directional valve directly to the tank. This valve is installed to relieve any pressure build-up
if an extra load is applied to the arm.
Tilt of the Yoke
Tilting the yoke is done in the same way as for the main arm, by operation of a double-acting hydraulic cylinder.
For this function the outlet pressure from the directional valve is set differently on the A and the B ports, being
80 bar and 160 bar respectively. The safety valves after the directional valve are set to 150 bar and 190 bar
respectively. A double over-centre valve is also installed to prevent the yoke angle changing once the system
has been pressurised.
Gripping Head
There are two functions on the gripping head: a claw which grips around the drill pipe and a gripper guide
which prevents the pipe tilting or turning out of the claw.
Depending upon whether the machine is lifting a normal drill pipe or a drill collar, it is possible to adjust the
power of the grip by reducing the outlet pressure from the two directional valves. If the claw grips too hard onto
normal drill pipe, the pipe may be damaged. A 4/2 way electrically operated directional valve is therefore
installed in the local control panel. When the valve is activated, the pilot oil goes from the two directional valves
through a pressure limiting valve set at 210 bar. When the 4/2 valve is activated the oil flow goes through the
pressure limiting valve set at 120 bar. In other words the outlet pressure from the B port is reduced from 210
bar to 120 bar when the 4/2 way valve is activated (the outlet pressure to both the claw and the claw tilt

function are reduced).

The gripping function is controlled by one double-acting hydraulic cylinder. In the line between the directional
valve and the cylinder, a pilot-controlled non-return valve and a single over-centre valve are installed. This
gives a double assurance that the claw cannot open if the system loses pressure. A small accumulator is also
installed to also ensure that the claw does not open if pressure is lost. This double safety and the accumulator
is installed for safety reasons to prevent the pipe dropping out of the claw should hydraulic supply for any
reason unexpectedly fail.
The gripping claw control function is also operated by a double-acting cylinder. This also has a pilot-controlled
non-return valve and a single over-centre valve to prevent the claw opening if the pressure is lost. For
functional reasons it may be necessary to bleed off pressure to the gripper guide (gripper guide pressure
release). This is done by activating a 4/2 way directional valve located on the local control panel.
Pipe Racking System
The job of the drilling rig's pipe racking system is to transport a stand of drill pipes from the drill centre and to a
storage area (racking area) on the drill floor and the other way round. One stand of pipes consists of two to four
drill pipes coupled together. A stand is often composed of three pipes screwed together having a height of
around 30 m.
The reason for storing pipe vertically in stands is to increase efficiency of the drilling process when tripping into
or out of the hole.
The pipe racking machine described here is a so-called star racking system. The reason is that the pipes are
stored star fashion and the machine is located at the centre and turn around its own axis. The machine locates
and collects pipes between the storage area and the drill centre and the finger board supports the pipes so that
they stand safely in their star formation.
Pipe racking system
The machine primarily consists of an upper arm and a lower arm with a finger board for storing the pipes. The
upper and lower arms are hydraulically independent of each other as they are controlled from separate control
panels. The machine is usually operated from the driller's cabin or the operator's cabin and controlled by a
PLS. Operators therefore will not appreciate that the arms are independent since they operates one joystick
and both arms move together.
The lower arm has the job of lifting the pipe stand whilst the upper arm guides the stand by its top.
Lower arm
The lower arm of the pipe racking system has two primary functions and four claw functions:
hoisting
lower arm in and out
claw (four)
All the lower arm functions are controlled from a local control panel. This is built up in the same way as the
control panel for the conveyor, with a stop valve and a shared hydraulic block, where all the directional valves
are located. An electrical connection box is also located inside the panel where all the solenoids for the
directional valves and the emergency stop valve are connected.
Picture lower arm
Upper and lower arm
Hoist and Lower Function
The hoist and lower function is performed by one hydraulic cylinder with integrated position indication. This
means that inside the cylinder there is an electrical inductive measuring device which sends a signal to the
PLS, indicating the position of the piston in the cylinder. This information is used by the control system for
various operational and safety purposes for the machine. A single over-centre valve is installed on the rod side

to prevent sagging and to ensure smooth motion when lowering the load. The over-centre valve also works as
a safety valve and if the pressure on the rod side of the cylinder exceeds 250 bar, the valve opens and the
cylinder sinks slowly.
The cylinder is equipped with hydraulic damping in one of its end positions (the cylinder moves more slowly
when the rod is almost all the way out). This is done by choking the port on the rod side of the cylinder. When
the cylinder moves out quickly, oil flows out of this port and when the piston is almost completely out the port,
the opening is reduced (choked). This causes the flow out of the cylinder to reduce causing the cylinder to
move more slowly. This causes a huge pressure increase on the rod side of the cylinder and an extra safety
valve is therefore installed which is set to 350 bar to avoid too high a pressure inside the cylinder. (Both the
over-centre valve and the safety valve will open).
The machine's hoist and lower functions are controlled proportionally, that is, the operator can control the
speed by varying the displacement of the joystick.
Arm In and Out
The arm in and out function is also performed by a hydraulic cylinder with integrated position measurement.
The information on the cylinder's position is sent to the PLS, which uses it in connection with different
operations and safety functions for control of the machine.
Picture, lower arm
A scissor geometry allows the lower arm to move in and out. The cylinder is located between the two arms and
pulls them out and pushes them together. This causes the claw on the arm to move in and out. This geometry
means that the speed of the claw is not proportional to the speed of the cylinder. It is helpful if the claw moves
in and out at an approximately constant speed. When the arms are far out the cylinder must move very quickly
in order to maintain a constant speed whilst it must move very slowly when the arms are close in.
Because of this, two directional valves are installed in parallel to control the in and out motion. Both valves are
proportional. The one proportional valve has a small volume flow whilst the other has a large volume flow
capacity. In this way it is possible to accurately regulate the arm both when it is close in as well as extended. At
slow movements of the piston (when the arms are close in) the smallest proportional valve is used. For rapid
movements of the cylinder both valves are used simultaneously.
Operators using the machine will not notice that a proportional valve is installed to control this function. They
operate a joystick and the arm either moves in or out.

2.4.2.4 Claw Functions

The pipe racking machine has four lower arm functions.
spade for drill pipe 1
spade for drill pipe 2
locking
collar
claw

Spade 1 and 2
The spades are shaped for lifting a drill pipe stand below the tool joint. The spades have two sizes; one spade
for the two most common sizes of drill pipe on board. It is easy to exchange the sizes of spade to the other if
required (this is done manually).
When a stand is to be lifted, the correct size of spade is down so that the claw can be driven under the pipe
stand to lift it up. The spade stands either up (vertical) or down (horizontal) and both functions are operated by
one small hydraulic cylinder. The spade functions are each controlled by a 4/3 hydraulic directional valve with
an on/off function. That means that it is possible to adjust the speed of the movement. The outlet pressure from
the cylinder is reduced to 50 and 80 bar.

Locking Function
For safety reasons the claw is equipped with a locking function. There are two tipping arms which flip down to
lock the pipe into the claw and this is designed to prevent the pipe stand falling out during transport. The
locking function is operated by one small hydraulic cylinder as used for the spades.
The locking function must be operable during an emergency from the local control panel in the absence of
electrical supply to the panel. A manual 4/3 directional valve is, therefore, installed in parallel with the electrical
valve. This manual valve is normally not in use, but can be employed during electrical supply failure or for
maintenance of the machine.
Drill Collar Claw
The drill collar claw is the last function of the gripping head on the lower arm. The purpose of this function is to
grip around a drill collar pipe stand and clamp this firmly in the claw so that it can be lifted. The cylinder which
operates this function is built as an integrated part of the lower claw.
Several safety factors have been incorporated into its design. The valve which controls the function is a 4/2
directional valve with halt function as for the locking operation. This causes the slide in the valve to keep its
position even if the power to the solenoid is lost. In addition, an over-centre valve and small accumulator are
installed by the cylinder. If the hydraulic supply fails, the accumulator will maintain the pressure on the drill
collar claw for a time. This is done for safety reasons to prevent the claw losing the pipe even if power and
hydraulic pressure to the machine fail.
For this function also it must be possible to operate it from the local control panel during a power failure. In the
same way as for the locking function, a manual 4/2 directional valve is installed in parallel with the electrical
valve. The manual vale is normally not in use but can be used during power failures or for maintenance of the
machine.
NOTE: The two shut-off valves between the 4/2 valves and the cylinder must be closed when the manual
directional valve is to be operated.
It must also be possible to lift ordinary drill pipes with the drill collar claw. For this, the pressure supplying the
drill collar claw must be reduced to prevent the claw pressing too hard and damaging them. A pressure
reducing valve is therefore installed and an electro-hydraulic 4/2 way directional valve with spring return is
installed in the control panel.

2.4.2.5 Upper Arm

Upper claw and upper arm
The upper arm on the pipe racking system has three primary functions and the four claw functions:
rotating the whole machine
upper arm in/out
tilt of the upper arm
claw functions (four)
All upper arm functions are controlled from a local control panel. This panel is built up in the same way as the
lower arm control panel with a stop valve and a shared hydraulic block where all the directional valves are
located. An electrical connection box is provided inside the panel where all the directional valve solenoids and
the stop valve are connected.
Rotation of the Machine
A double-acting hydraulic motor with a gear and brake is mounted at the upper end of the machine and rotates
it. The hydraulic brake prevents the machine rotating uncontrollably when subjected to external forces such as
wind. When the line to the motor is under pressure, oil passes through the shuttle valve and to the brake. This
causes the brake to release so the motor can rotate.
The machine can turn through 115 from the central position (at the mid position the machine is turned

towards the well centre). Two end stop valves are installed to prevent the machine rotating beyond 115. This
consists of two 4/2 directional valves with mechanical activation and spring returns. Only two of the valve ports
are in use whilst the other ports are plugged. The valve therefore operates as a 2/2 way valve, open in one
position and closed in the other setting. When the machine rotates to the outer position the mechanical valve
actuator is depressed and the valve closes. This causes hydraulic supply to stop and the machine stops
rotating. In order to drive the machine in the opposite direction when the end stop valve is activated, a nonreturn valve is installed in parallel with the end stop valve which allows the motor's return oil to flow back.
Upper Arm In/Out
The upper arm movement in and out is operated by a telescopic cylinder. This has three sections which causes
large differences in area between the piston side and the rod side. This means that two parallel proportioning
valves are installed to operate this function, one having a small and one a large volume capacity. In this way it
is easier to obtain good speed control of the telescopic arm. Before the telescopic cylinder, there is an overcentre valve to prevent the arm dropping outwards. A pilot-controlled non-return valve is also installed so that
return oil from the piston side of the telescopic cylinder can be led back to the tank and not through the
directional valve. This is to prevent pressure building up on the return side.
Tilt of the Upper Arm
The purpose of this function is to tension the drill pipe stand in case it is very bent. The whole upper arm can
therefore be turned up. This is done by a double-acting hydraulic cylinder.

2.4.2.6 Claw Functions

The pipe racking machine has four claw functions on the upper arm:
spade for drill pipe 1
spade for drill pipe 2
locking function
gripping function
The functions of the two spades and the lock are as for the lower arm
Gripping Function
This is used in connection with the upper arm tilting function and when tensioning the pipe. It consists of two
arms which are lowered from each side and which clamp the drill pipe. When the arm moves up the pipe is
drawn up simultaneously. The clamp is operated by a small hydraulic cylinder. The control valve is an electrohydraulic 4/2 directional valve with stop function, and a manually operated 4/3 directional valve for manual
operation of the function.

2.4.3 Applying Torque to the Tool Joint

2.4.2 Loading and Vertical Suspension in the Derrick

2.4.3.1 Iron Roughneck

The job of the iron roughneck is to connect together and lock the tool joints on the drill string. The iron
roughneck is a hydraulic power tong or power torque wrench.
A roughneck was previously a drill floor worker whose job was to screw together and disconnect the drill pipe
during the drilling operation. The pipes needed to be screwed together with a predetermined torque to prevent
them loosening inside the well. This was a hard and dangerous job as manual tongs were used with chains for
connecting and disconnecting the tool joints. There was a high risk of being injured and it was the source of
many offshore accidents. A machine which could do this work was devised and it became known as the iron
roughneck.

Location of the manual tongs

In the North Sea today an iron roughneck is always used during drilling operations. The machine can be
operated locally but on newer platforms and rigs it is operated from an operator or driller's cabin
Iron roughneck
The iron roughneck is located on the drill floor usually on a pair of tracks. This allows it to be driven from a
starting position forward to locate directly over the well centre. In this position it can connect and disconnect
tool joints on the drill pipe and then return to its original position. The iron roughneck cannot remain over the
well centre during drilling. In some cases it is located on an arm to allow the device to be swung over the well
centre.
The iron roughneck has a vertical opening in front so that when it is driven forward to the well centre, the drill
pipe enters the vertically-opening jaws. The drill pipe is locked into the device and two sets of tongs grip each
part of the tool joint in preparation for connection or disconnection. There is a function which twists the upper
tongs relative to the lower tongs to enable the pipe to be screwed up or loosened to a defined torque. This
turning motion is relatively small (about 30), but they must be rotated further to free the threads completely. A
pipe spinning action is incorporated to rapidly turn the pipe in either direction. There are no limits to the number
of turns the pipe spinner can rotate as it has four independently rotating rollers.
In addition to these functions it is often possible to adjust the height of the jaws, that is, the height of the two
tongs and spinner. It is vital that the tongs clamp only the tool joint and not the pipe, to prevent the pipe
becoming damaged by the imposed torque. When tripping into or out of the hole during drilling operations, the
tool joints will arrive at slightly different heights each time. It is therefore important that the jaws on the iron
roughneck are placed at the correct height to clamp the tool joints. It is possible to tilt the jaws on the iron
roughneck in cases where the tool joints are out of alignment.
In addition to the functions described here, the iron roughneck can be equipped with additional mechanisms
such as pipe centring and mud bucket. These refinements will not be discussed in detail, merely mentioned.
The machine does not have its own hydraulic power source but relies upon the main hydraulic generator
supplying the other drill floor machines for its hydraulic supply.
To perform its tasks, the iron roughneck is often equipped with the following functions:
two hydraulic motors for driving the machine to and from the well centre
two hydraulic cylinders to adjust height of the jaws
one hydraulic cylinder for the jaws tilt function
two
hydraulic
cylinders to clamp the tongs together to grip the pipe for the upper and lower parts of the

tool joint (pipe wrench)

two hydraulic cylinders for the set torque; twisting the upper tong 28 (pipe torque)
four hydraulic motors for the pipe spinning function (pipe spinner motors)
two hydraulic cylinders for pushing the four rollers against the pipe (pipe spinner clamp)
The machine is equipped with two electrically operated main valve blocks to control all the iron roughneck's
main functions. The machine is also equipped with an electro-hydraulic shut-off valve which is in the main
supply line to the machine to act as an emergency stop valve.

2.4.3.2 Hydraulic Connection

Two electro-hydraulic main valve blocks control all the iron roughneck's features. One valve block controls five
of the functions and the other controls three. It is also possible to connect extra features onto the iron
roughneck such as pipe centring and mud bucket.
Both valve blocks are equipped with shared inlet and outlet sections.

One block consists of five directional valves. Two of the functions are proportional whilst three are ordinary
on/off functions. The two proportionally controlled functions are tightening of the torque during connection and
the spinner motors. Those three functions for clamping the pipe are controlled as normal on/off (pipe wrench
and pipe spinner clamp).
The other block has six directional valves but only three control iron roughneck primary functions. Two of these
functions are proportionally controlled whilst the other four are normal on/off functions. These are driving the
iron roughneck back and forth and height positioning of the jaws which are proportionally controlled.
It is possible to operate both valve blocks electrically and manually. Manual operation is only needed for
emergency operation of the machine.

2.4.3.3 Hydraulic Pipe Wrench

The machine is equipped with two hydraulic tongs. Their job is to clamp the pipe. Each tong is operated by a
double-acting hydraulic cylinder which clamps the pipe when operated. One tong clamps the upper part of the
tool joint and the other tong the lower.
It is important that the pipe is not damaged and depending on whether drill pipe or drill collars are to be
clamped, the clamping force can be altered. This is achieved by varying the outlet pressure from the two
directional valves controlling these two functions.

2.4.3.4 Pipe Torque or Torque Wrench

To tighten or loosen the pipe, the tongs must be twisted relative to each other. This is done by two doubleacting hydraulic cylinders which twist the upper tongs up to 30 relative to the lower.
The directional valve controlling this function is proportional so that it is possible to adjust the speed of this
feature. It is also possible to adjust the torque applied by the tongs. This is done by adjusting the outlet
pressure from the directional valve. This is done in the same way as setting the force with which the two
clamps grip.
To ensure that the cylinders move in parallel, a volume flow divider is installed on their rod side. This valve
allows equal volumes of oil to be supplied to and from both cylinders, so that they move simultaneously.

2.4.3.5 Spinner Function

There are two hydraulic functions for operating the pipe spinner. The purpose of the spinner function is to screw
the upper pipe relative to the lower so that the pipe can be released or screw in the threads. There are not
significant forces available for this function but there are no limits to how many degrees the pipe can be turned.
The lower part of the pipe is held firm by the lower pipe wrench whilst the four spinner rollers are pushed onto
the upper pipe by two hydraulic cylinders (pipe spinner clamp).

2.4.3.6 Spinner Motors

Four double-acting hydraulic motors are installed connected in parallel. They are controlled by an electrohydraulic proportioning valve so that it is possible to adjust the speed of rotation. On this feature it is possible to
adjust the outlet pressure from the directional valve. Before the four motors are three volume flow dividers. This
is to ensure that all motors receive identical volume flows even if the motors have different resistance. This
means that all the motors will contribute to the rotation of the pipe.

2.4.3.7 Spinner Clamp

For the spinner to contact the pipe, it must be pushed against it. This is done by two double-acting hydraulic
cylinders connected in parallel, the pipe spinner clamp. The two cylinders are located on either side of the iron
roughneck and squeeze two rollers in towards the centre of the of the machine, clamping the pipe between the
four rollers.
This function is controlled by one on/off directional valve and it is not possible to adjust the outlet pressure from
the directional valve.

2.4.3.8 Driving the Iron Roughneck Back and Forwards to the Well
Centre
Moving the iron roughneck back and forth is operated by two double-acting hydraulic motors. They each rotate
one wheel which pulls the iron roughneck along on its track. There is one wheel at each side of the machine so
that it cannot be dragged off line. The motors are connected in series meaning that the flow is first fed to one
motor and the return oil to motor number 2 and so on. As the motors are connected in series this function uses
less oil (half) than if the motors had been connected in parallel. On the other hand the power from the motors is
also halved compared to a parallel arrangement, but it is important that we have one wheel on each side of the
machine so that it can be moved smoothly. This is the reason that the motors are connected in series and not
in parallel.
This function is controlled by the other valve block which is installed on the iron roughneck. In an emergency it
is possible to operate this function manually with handles on the valve block.

2.4.3.9 Height Adjustment of the Jaws

To position the tongs at the correct height relative to the tool joint on the drill pipe, a height adjustment function
is provided. This is operated by two double-acting cylinders connected in parallel. The function is controlled
proportionally so that the speed of jaw adjustment up and down can be accurately controlled.
On the rod side of the two cylinders a single over-centre valve is installed to prevent the jaws sinking when the
function is not being operated.

2.4.3.10 Tilt of the Jaws

Occasionally it is necessary to tilt the jaws, the tongs and spinner to enable a pipe stand to be built in the
mouse hole arrangement, simultaneously with a drilling operation. The tilt function is operated by a doubleacting cylinder. This feature is also equipped with a single over-centre valve which prevents the jaws returning
to the horizontal when the system is not pressurised. This function is controlled as a normal on/off function.

2.5 Compensation and Tension Systems for Floating Rigs

The compensation and tensioning system includes the necessary surface equipment to allow correction for the
relative motion between the floating unit and the sea-bed.
HIV, rocking and rolling
The requirements are that the marine riser must be held in continuous tension, the guide wires must be held
with a certain tension and the drill bit must experience a constant bit weight, irrespective of the relative motion
between the floating installation and the sea-bed.

2.5.1 Riser's Tension and Compensation System, Lead Line

Compensator.

The riser acts as an extension of the well from the BOP valve on the sea-bed up to the rig. To prevent the pipe
buckling under its own weight it must be held in tension up to the rig. The weight of drilling mud being led back
to the rig in the riser is included in calculations of the tension required to avoid the pipe buckling.
Riser length
The tension mechanism must, as well as the wave motion, also provide the rig with an opportunity to move with
the tides.
The riser compensation system
The riser arrangement is normally made up of two, three or four pairs of tensioning units, symmetrically placed
around the well centre. Each tensioning unit is equipped with a wire which is fixed to the top of the riser and
passes over a pulley fixed under the drill floor. The pulley is moveable to allow the rig and the riser to move
freely relative to each other without the wire running out of line with the pulley. From the pulley the wire goes to
the first pulley on the tensioning unit. The wire passes over two pulleys on the top of the cylinder rod so that the
cylinder stroke is quadrupled as wire motion. The fixed end passes three times around a capstan and is made
fast in a clamp before it passes on to a storage drum.
The storage drum makes it possible to change wire which has worn due to its passage over the pulleys.
When changing the wire a symmetrical pair must be changed simultaneously in order to retain the balanced
tension on the riser.
The tensioning unit consists of a plunger cylinder which is connected to a piston accumulator through a quick
closing valve (Olmstead valve). The rapid valve has the task of monitoring the motion speed by passing fluid
flow between the accumulator and the cylinder. If the speed exceeds twice the maximum calculated operational
speed, the valve will close. The value should be high enough to ensure that the valve does not close during
operations to avoid breaking the wires.
The piston accumulator is connected to the air reservoir through a valve panel located close to the driller's
operating area. From this location the driller can close and open the tensioning units (diagonal pairs). The
panel contains valves for blowing down air from the reservoir and the tensioning units and for blowing in air to
the units from storage bottles. A small equalising valve is connected to the panel in parallel with the main valve
for each pair in order to equalise the pressure on each side of the main valve. The panel has in addition a
manometer showing pressure in each pair and the pressure in the storage bottles.
Tensioning system, wire and hydraulic arrangement

2.5.1.1 Changing Worn Wire (Slip and Cut)

Pressure is blown down for that pair which is to be changed as the pressure is increased on the remaining
tensioning pairs to maintain the calculated riser tension. When the wire is slack. a new wire can be pulled in
and fixed to the riser and the tension wire with the correct amount of wire slack. This will cause the tension pair
to work round the middle of the stroke. Then the pressure can be increased on the tension pair simultaneously
with it being reduced in the other pairs to maintain even loading on all the tension units. The total riser tension
wire travel is 50 ft. This is sufficient for most situations. By comparison, a low line has a travel of 49 ft. This
means that the riser tensioning line has 5 ft allowance for measuring the wire.
Each tensioning unit is designed for a maximum wire tension of 80 000 lb. The number varies between two and
four pairs of tension lines. The cylinder stroke is 12 ft, which is quadrupled to 50 ft in wire travel.

2.5.1.2 Leader Wire Compensator

The leader wire compensator acts in principle as a tension wire compensator for marine risers but on a much
smaller scale. The stroke length and working length will be identical and a standard type can compensate for a

tension of 7500 kp.

The primary function is to keep constant tension on the wire to guide the equipment to its location. When the
equipment is run along the line the tension can be adjusted to give the best control of the equipment. It must be
possible to slacken the line, so it must be possible to vary the length considerably. It is also important to be able
to change the leader wire quickly if it is broken.
The difference between leader wire compensator and the tension line compensator can be summarised thus:
The leader wire compensator operates by compressed air directly from high pressure working air
storage bottles.
The wires length must be varied throughout the operation.
The wire is wound on a winch so that the wire can be fed in to the system and is therefore independent
of water depth.
The dimensions are much smaller.
Tension wire system and its hydraulic arrangement

2.5.2 Motion Compensation of the Drill String

The motion compensator for the drill string (drill string compensator) which was formerly very common, is
mounted between the travelling block and the hook works according to the following principle:
A floating installation has a certain heave, meaning a cyclic vertical motion, relative to the sea-bed. When the
installation rises, pistons in the compensating cylinders compress air below and the hook will move down in
relation to the drill floor. The motion is such that the distance from hook to the bottom of the borehole is
constant and the load on the drill bit against the bottom will be constant. Going downwards, the piston in the
cylinder displaces air out to the working pressure reservoir. The volume of this air which is forced out will cause
a certain increase in pressure inside a closed system. Therefore a working pressure reservoir, which is large
enough to ensure that the pressure changes are minimal, must be used.
Drill string compensator
The invention of active crown block compensators was a great development. The drill string compensators
were a limiting influence, as larger rigs with heavier equipment were built, at the same time as wells became
deeper and more demanding on equipment. Compensation for heave was moved from the mobile to the
stationary parts of the lifting system so that the distance from the crown block to the sea-bed is constant and
compensated for heave.
The active compensation system is a combined air/oil system as shown in the diagram below. Upward motion
of the installation will drive the oil back from the oil cylinder in the derrick to the oil/air cylinder. This will in turn
compress air and drive a volume back to the working air reservoir.
Active heave compensator
This has achieved the following:
Crown block compensators have higher consumption of working air volume.
Less hook weight makes the drill line lasts longer and the retraction system for the block and drilling
machine is less loaded.
The compensator can be locked in all positions.
A higher maximum load can be accommodated.

2.6 Other Surface Equipment

A certain amount of loose equipment also belongs with the two systems we have discussed, as well as some
others. Some of this equipment, depending on its intended use, may be considered in one of the two main
systems and some is impossible to assign to any category. We are discussing equipment which is more or less

in continuous use and some equipment which is used only for special situations.
Regulations for the Norwegian sector require automatic pipe handling equipment but there are still cases and
situations where we need to use manual equipment. It is therefore unavoidable that manual equipment is
available on the installation not least as a back-up when the automatic equipment fails.

2.6.1 Permanent Surface Equipment

2.6.1.1 Slips
Slips are composed of hang-off wedges and their use is to hang off drilling and down-hole strings in the rotary
table bushing. The wedges are assembled in a row with several internal gripping elements or 'dice'.
The remotely operated slips are primarily used as described earlier.
2.3.1 Kelly/Rotary Table
Manual slips come in several versions. There are types for drill pipe, collars and casing. The version for drill
pipe is constructed with three joints as shown in the illustration. This version is supplied in a number of sizes for
the standard drill pipe dimensions which are in normal use (3.5", 5", 5 ", 6", 5/8").
The manual slips for collars and casing have more and fewer joints depending upon the diameter of the pipe
needing to be hung off.
Slips

2.6.1.2 Mud Bucket

The mud bucket is used to collect and remove mud when drill pipe stand tool joints are being unscrewed when
pulling out of the hole. It is not always possible to over-balance mud inside the drill string enough to remain dry,
the mud bucket is designed to remove mud which flows down from the pipe length over the drill floor when the
connection is broken out or lifted. There are several versions on the market both manual and
pneumatically/hydraulically operated.
Basically they are constructed as a cylinder, split and hinged lengthwise with a locking mechanism on the front.
The halves are locked around the tool joint after breaking out and before it is taken apart. The upper and lower
seal elements and along the opening tighten around the drill pipe and the mud flows out through a hose in the
bottom when the pipe is removed. The mud bucket mounted on a trolley/manipulating arm is remotely
controlled. Adjustment as well as wear on the seals is a challenge to achieve greater efficiency.

2.6.1.3 Safety Collar (Dog Collar)

When a relatively light or smooth pipe, which may slide is hung off in the slips, it is good practice to use a
restraint known as a safety clamp or dog collar. The safety clamp is simply used to prevent a hanging pipe
sliding through the rotary table and falling down the hole. The clamp is designed like a coarse linked chain with
gripping elements facing into the pipe surface and end claws with a close fitting bolt and nut for tightening so
that the clamp locks onto the pipe. Links can be removed or added in order to adjust to the pipe's diameter for
various weights and sizes of pipe and casing.

2.6.1.4 Dope Applicator

Dope lubricant and sealing compound for drill pipe tool joints is normally applied manually with a hand brush.
There are efforts to automate this part of pipe handling but so far this remains a challenge. There are some

types on the market including some which work like a spray booth. The lubricant is applied as a spray using
compressed air but thus far it has been difficult to develop an efficient process.

2.6.1.5 Tugger and Winches for Personnel Transport

For smaller lifting operations, the drill floor has a number of pneumatically driven lifting winches, the standard
size for safe load being 4 t. The winch has a wire threaded through a single pulley block which is hung from the
beam construction at the top of the derrick. According to the regulations from Petroleum Directorate it is only to
be used for handling equipment with a weight below its specified capacity.
The working equipment winch cannot be used for transporting personnel. For this purpose a dedicated winch,
of which most drilling installations have two, must be used. The personnel winch, known as a 'man rider winch'
has special requirements for braking if compressed air is lost, and must have a limiter which restricts the
maximum pulling force to 150 kg.
Typical working winch on the drill floor

2.6.2 Temporary Surface Equipment

Temporary equipment means rig equipment which is only in use under special operations. Most of this
equipment belongs in other modules and will be described there. We shall list the most important:
Power elevator used when running casing. This type is pneumatically driven. Inside the elevator are
linings and air operated slips where the casing is hung off. It has also been usual to use such an
elevator as power slips (spider). When used as slips it is located on the rotary table.
Side door elevator. This is a manual elevator which is hinged so that one side swings out and the casing
is placed inside. The lock for the opening is secured with a locking pin.
Pick up elevator. Light manual side door elevator for retrieving single pipes from the conveyor.
Casing tongs. A hydraulically operated wrench for screwing in and undoing lengths of casing.
Cementing head. A valve which is mounted on top of the casing or drill pipe for pumping cement slurry.
Casing tong
Elevator

3 Down-hole Equipment for Drilling Operations

Down-hole equipment, as we know it from production drilling in the North Sea, is characterised by requirements
for controlled directional drilling from one location. High rig rates and installation costs, together with limited
space, have made the offshore industry a world leader in using new technology for directional drilling and
measurement methods.
In this chapter we will also discuss simpler rotary drill strings designed for drilling vertical boreholes but the
emphasis is on describing down-hole equipment for directional drilling from production drilling installations.
The casing program for a typical well design is similar from field to field in our area. Basically the fundamental
criteria are:
loose surface
2000 m or more with clays of variable character
a short transition zone to the reservoir
reservoir of sandstone (some limestone reservoirs in the south)

reservoirs can consist of several strata with impermeable clays between

The general borehole design can be summarised as a table. The table does not include drilling of HTHP fields
that lie at extreme reservoir depths. The design shown is typical for low to medium high reservoir pressures.
Hole size

Casing

Depth
(TVD RT)

Comments

Reference

'Drill & drive' with 26"

pilot hole
or drill and cement
with 36"/34" hole size

30" conductor

100-200 m down into

the sea-bed

Hole size varies from

26" to 34" 36" on
Norwegian
installations 3.4.1
Drilling for the 30"
Conductor

26"/24"

20" surface casing

600-1100 m

Size 18 5/8" and

down to 16" casing is
used also 3.4.2
Drilling the 26" Hole
for the 20" Casing

17 "

13 3/8" intermediate
casing

1300-2200 m

3.4.3 Drilling the 7 12 "

" Hole for 3 3/8"
Casing

9 5/8" intermediate
casing or production
casing

1900-2600 m

Sometimes set as a
liner 3.4.4 Drilling
the 12 " hole for 9
5/8" casing

8 "

2100-3500 m

3.4.5 Drilling of 8
" Hole for 7" Casing

7" production casing

or liner

Typical well design

3.1 Drill String Components

The complete drill string consists of two main parts:
Drill string drill pipe which the BHA hangs from. Standard sizes for drilling have traditionally been 5"
nominal diameter supplied in lengths of something over 9.5 m including the tool joint.
Bottom Hole Assembly (BHA) which is assembled in order to drill the target section.
The drill string is usually run fairly clean, meaning that there is little additional equipment of any sort.
Occasionally wear pads of vinyl are used, and intermediate finned connectors have been tried like a small
stabiliser, with the intention of increasing the movement of the drilling mud to improve hole cleaning.
The composition of the BHA will determine the overall drill string characteristics. It is assembled to have the
capacity to follow the planned well trajectory to a given depth.
BHA main components are:
Equipment

Main types

Reference

Drill bit

Roller cone bit,

Stabiliser
perforating depth control
(PDC) drill bit, diamond
drill bit, coring bit 3.2
Drill Bits

Near bit stabiliser, string stabiliser of several types and designs

Steerable system

Steerable

mud motor,
turbine, and
rotating
steerable
systems
Rotating
bottom hole
string: stiff,
pendulum
and fulcrum
3.3
Directional
Drilling and
Steerable
Drilling
Systems
3.3.1
Rotating
BHA

3.1.3 Stabilisers

Drill collars

Thread, circulation, non-return, orientation shock cross-overs

Connectors (Subs)

Heavy weight drill pipe

3.1.4

Non-magnetic and steel

with spiral grooves
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

Connectors
subs

Jarring tools

Hydraulic or
mechanical
jarring tools
3.1.5
Jars

HWDP with shoulder

upset or spiral grooves
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

For special operations where a pilot hole is drilled, which is later opened out, a rotating drill string is run with a
hole opener or under-reamer.
3.1.6 Under-reamer and Hole Opener

3.1.1 Drill Bits

3.2 Drill Bits
Drill bits roller cone bit and PDC drill bit

3.1.2 Drill Pipe and Collars

The drill pipe's functions are to:
transfer the torque from the drilling machine (TDS/DDM/rotary table) to the drill bit
take up any tension forces in order to handle the BHA along the length of the hole
allow circulation of mud around the hole
The drill pipe length is manufactured as seamless steel pipe with welded, threaded tool joints, supplied
according to API standards. They are classified as follows:

 outer diameter: in inches)

length:
Cl. I: 18-22 ft (5.5-7.0 m)
Cl. II : 27-30 ft (8.2-91 m)
Cl. III: 38-45 feet (11.6-13.7 m)
strength: steel grade C, E, G and S gives steel quality in the pipe lengths

Note that the standard class according to the API is defined by the pipe length, not counting the tool joints. The
strength will also be dependent upon the wall thickness. The weight of a length is used to determine the mass
and also the wall thickness, the standard unit being the pound per foot (ppf) (kg/m). If the outer diameter and
weight (in ppf) are known, tables found in the Drilling Data Handbook will give all other vital parameters
strength and volume calculations.
According to the API standard, the tool joints on the drill pipe must be welded. This also assumes that the drill
pipe has been forged at the ends. Forging involves hammering in a certain length of the pipe ends along the
length to give an increased material thickness. External forging will give an increased diameter over a short
distance near the weld and this increased material thickness gives the necessary strength (with safety factors)
to withstand mechanical and metallurgical stresses around the weld.
Drill pipe breakage can have a number of reasons. Good inspection practice, handling and maintenance are
essential for avoiding losing parts of the drilling and BHA in the hole.
Drill pipe, heavy weight drill pipe and collars
4.3.2 Failure of Down-hole Equipment

3.1.2.1 Good practice for caring for drill pipe and tool joints
focuses on the following:
1. Use correct equipment in the correct manner when handling and connecting pipe lengths. Fatigue failures of
the steel will most often occur where the pipe has received mechanical damage. The watch word is the correct
use of the slips and bushing in the rotary table, use of the correct elevator and correct handling with the iron
roughneck when pipe lengths are spun, making up and breaking out. For example use of the wrong size slips
or bushing in the rotary table lead to only a few of the gripping teeth carrying the weight of the string in the
table, which then produces deep grooves in the pipe surface.
2. Inspect and maintain pipe handling equipment. Preventive measures are regular inspection of the gripping
wedges in tongs, iron roughneck and slips. Worn equipment is a potential source of mechanical damage to
pipe or threads.
3. Use correct torque to tighten the tool joints. Too low a torque and the tension loads and rotation will cause
movement in the threads. Box and pin can wobble and grind against each other damaging the threads. The
motion can also squeeze lubricating dope out which is replaced with drilling mud. Too low a torque can also
lead to the tool joint being tightened above its tolerance limit due to rotation in the hole. During tightening the
threads get a certain pre-stress. If this is less than the combined tension and torsion forces the drill pipe is
subjected to in the hole, then the tool joint will tighten up. Both these conditions are characterised by an
unusually high torque needed to break out the tool joints.
4. Clean and protect the threads in storage. Cleaning and application of pipe dope and the use of protector
caps should be standard procedure when pipes are laid down.
5. Pay special attention in a corrosive environment. Exposure to hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide and acids
in the environment are corrosive. In particularly corrosive environments, special grades of steel may need to be
considered. Some completion fluids have high salt concentrations, which can be very corrosive to the drill
string.

6. The operating company planning the well trajectory must be aware of the angle limitations (dog legs) in the
well and the critical rotary speed. High angle changes will subject the drill pipe to continuous bending forces,
which can cause fatigue failures. At the critical rotary speed, vibrations will be set up in the drill string, both in
the individual pipe lengths and the drill string as a whole. Vibrations are set up around nodes in the drill string
that reinforce on another. This can be experienced at surface as vibrations in the drill string and an increase in
required torque. The critical rotary speed is characteristic for the hole and pipe geometry. Metallurgical
investigations of such breakages have shown that the vibrations produce large temperature increases in the
steel at nodes, and thereby lower strength.
Inspection and classification should focus on material strength, (measurement of cross sectional area), inner
wear and fatigue strength of the pipe. Special points to check are:
Measure the cross sectional area at the tool joint and pipe.
Measure the diameter wear at the tool joint.
Test for crack formation at the tool joint.
Check especially the area for setting the slips for visible damage.
Check for mechanical or corrosion damage internally and externally.
Check the threads and shoulders for wear washing out, marks and angle changes.

3.1.2.2 Heavy Weight Drill Pipe (HWDP)

Heavy Weight Drill Pipe (HWDP) is used frequently. Modern directional drilling requires slim, flexible BHA
solutions. They can be used as drill collars, can be used above these as a transition in the drill string, to provide
strength against loadings in the transition between the BHA and the drill string.
Twisting and vibrations of the drill string imposed by the torque and rotary speed from the surface are
transferred here to the BHA, simultaneously with impact or vibrations and lateral motion from the BHA is
transferred upwards. HWDP is made in several versions, having a greater wall thickness (for example 3" ID in
5" HWDP) and the same nominal diameter as for drill pipe. The usual version is as for drill pipe, but has an
extra shoulder at the middle of each pipe length. The tool joint will be longer and there is an extra wear edge of
hard facing on the tool joint and the mid-shoulder.
HWDP is also supplied with spirally cut grooves, as for collars. Non-magnetic heavy weight drill pipe is used in
bottom hole assemblies where a minimum of drill collars are required.
Drill pipe, heavy weight drill pipe and drill collars

3.1.2.3 Drill Collars (DC)

Drill Collars (DC) are thick-walled pipes designed to give sufficient weight on the drill bit and simultaneously
ensure that the drill string is in tension. The collars, along with stabilisers in the BHA, provide the necessary
stiffness, pendulum effect or weight rod effect.
The standard pipe lengths are 30 ft (9.1 m) long. Reference books, such as Drilling Data Handbook provide the
necessary data for weight and volume calculations. The standard steel version will normally have a spirally cut
groove along the drill collar's length to minimise the contact surface area with the hole wall, and so reduce the
probability of differential sticking
Non-magnetic drill collars (Monel DC) of stainless steel are smooth as changes in shape will create magnetic
fields along the deviation. Damage grooves in non-magnetic drill collars will create the same effect. This type
have an additional purpose in preventing magnetic interference with down-hole measuring tools such as
Measurement While Drilling (MWD) and Logging While drilling (LWD).

3.1.3 Stabilisers

Stabilisers are a very important part of the BHA. Their main functions are as follows:
In a rotating drill string, stabilisers are support points against the hole wall. Along with the drill collars,
they give sufficient stiffness, pendulum effect and weight rod effect.
For steerable BHAs, this function is the same, but the focus is on creating the required support points to
permit optimal performance of the steerable unit (turbine, motor, down-hole steering system) in
accordance with the planned well trajectory.
Stabilisers support the BHA away from the hole wall so that the probability of differential sticking is
drastically reduced. This is especially important for smooth components, such as non-magnetic drill
collars and MWD.
Stabilisers
Standard steel, or non-magnetic stabilisers, have spiral fins which rotate with the drill string. The fins are of
hard faced metal elements to resist wear and their base pipe is made the same as standard drill collars for the
particular hole diameter. This is also the case for the tool joints. Stabilisers to be set upwards in the BHA are
made with the thread pin down and the box up. In addition a special stabiliser is used close to the drill bit (nearbit stabiliser) which has the thread box in both ends matched to the drill bit which always has its pin upwards.
Use of steerable systems of different types has led to a development of fixed stabilisers and some types which
clamp onto BHA components. They are usually supplied ready mounted onto the component. Location and size
is accurately fixed from experience and theoretical assessments.
Stabiliser wear will alter the steering characteristics of the BHA, which is partly dependent upon the diameter of
the support blades. Changes due to wear as small as 1/16" will create variations in the down-hole string's
ability to hold a given hole angle. Careful control of the outer diameter measurement both when running in and
running into the hole is essential. There are some stabilisers which have variable outer diameter blades.
Andergauge have developed a stabiliser which can be adjusted mechanically and locked hydraulically for two
different diameters. This type is widely used in production drilling.
Finally, there is the sleeve type which has rubber elements which rotate with the string. The actual stabiliser
lining is loose on the base pipe. These are used mainly for higher hole sizes mainly at the top of the hole.

3.1.4 Connectors (Subs)

Connectors come in a variety of types with various functions.

3.1.4.1 Thread Cross-overs

As the name implies, this type of connector crosses over from one type of thread to another, for example drill
collars to drill pipe or heavy weight drill pipe. The standard type have a thread pin down and a thread box
upwards. The cross-over can for example be from 4 " IF Box x 6 5/8" REG Pin; this specifies the thread type
for which the cross over is made. Some cross-overs go from box x box, or pin x pin are used as required.

3.1.4.2 Float Sub (Connector with a Non-Return Valve)

This BHA connector contains a non-return valve, usually a flapper valve type. This is a cover, hinged on one
side which swings open during pumped fluid flow. Reverse flow or pressure causes the flapper to close against
the valve's seat. In this way fluid is prevented from flowing back into the drill string. This is important for
stopping larger particles and drill cuttings from entering sensitive components in the BHA, such as motors,
turbines and MWD equipment. The valve also prevents formation fluids, oil, gas and water, flowing into the drill
string when the well is under-balanced. Several operators adopt the standard procedure that they always use a
non-return valve in the BHA where this is practical.

3.1.4.3 Circulating Sub

This is located uppermost in the BHA and provides a means of opening communication with the annulus. In
situations where circulation through the drill string is impossible (lost returns, packing off, plugged BHA or
differentially stuck) this can be opened. The opening mechanism can be a spring-loaded valve, which opens at
a set pressure differential, or a lining which is pushed down by pressing up against a ball, a dropped dart, or a
combination of weight setting and pressure.

3.1.4.4 Universal Borehole Orienter (UBHO) Sub

This connector is placed in the BHA, above a stabiliser and above any motor or MWD. It has angle cut grooves
for landing a directional measuring instrument. The job of this connector is to act as a landing and lock for the
instrument when it is necessary to perform a directional measurement in the drill string.

3.1.4.5 Bumper Sub

This description is used for several different types of equipment. When fishing, a bumper sub has the same
function as an accelerator, which amplifies the impact to a jar. The term is also used for a connector which has
an outer holster and an inner stem, which has free longitudinal movement of up to 1 m. This gives flexibility
during a well operation when it is necessary to set down a certain small weight, simultaneously with having a
neutral load on the drill string. The term is also used for a shock absorber or shock sub. This is a spring loaded
connector which is located directly above the drill bit. As the name implies it will absorb shocks and vibrations
from the bit under normal conditions so protecting more sensitive elements of the BHA from these stresses.

3.1.5 Jars
In situations where the BHA is differentially stuck or where fishing is on-going, it may be necessary to impose a
mechanical shock or impact onto the BHA. There are three main types of impact tools:

3.1.5.1 Hydraulic Jars

Hydraulic jars are the most used. A piston sliding in a cylinder between two oil chambers provides the force for
the impact tool. By pulling on the upper part, containing the piston, the design of the piston will at a given point
rapidly release the oil past itself so that the axial force accumulated during the pulling is released and hits
upwards against the top of the cylinder in that section of the tool. The force of the impact is directly proportional
to the imposed pulling, or axial, load and the effect is amplified by locating a drill collar over the impact tool.
Impact tools currently in use can be set for both upward and downward impacts.

3.1.5.2 Mechanical Jars

Mechanical jars have a gripping arrangement which holds the piston, which is set to release at a given axial
load. In the same way as the hydraulic version, it will release the axial load in an upward impact and can be set
to repeat the impact sequence many times. Mechanical jars are more prone to wear damage than the hydraulic
and will become less effective more quickly.

3.1.5.3 Hydro-mechanical Jars

Hydro-mechanical jars are a combination of these two principles, and are frequently used. These are doubleacting, meaning that they give impact force upwards like a hydraulic jar and downwards like a mechanical jar.
Jars and accelerator
The impact tool is set in the BHA so that there is enough weight below for necessary tension for it to release,
and enough weight above for it to be reset. During tripping in or out and normal drilling, a preset mechanical

lock holds the impact tool in the neutral position. To hit hydraulically upwards, sufficient over-pull in the drill
string is employed to release the mechanical lock. It will then work as a pure hydraulic impact tool upwards.
When the impact has been released enough weight is set down to re-engage the mechanical lock again.
The impact tool is now ready for either hitting upwards again or enough weight can be set down so that the
mechanical lock releases to give a mechanical impact downwards. The mechanical lock can be set to levels
adjusted to the BHA and the expected tension or compression for normal operations.
During fishing operations the impact tool is often run together with a bumper sub and or an accelerator. None of
these give an impact but will enhance the effectiveness of the impact from the tool.

3.1.5.4 Accelerator
The accelerator is located above the impact tool. It has a chamber full of nitrogen gas. The gas is compressed
when the accelerator piston moves up under imposed tension in the drill string. Gas expansion will reinforce the
effect of the impact on the BHA with a force equivalent to 8 to 10 times the drill collars weight, if the string is
correctly assembled. It will also absorb some of the shock in the overlying drill string and save the surface
equipment unnecessary stresses.

3.1.6 Under-reamer and Hole Opener

3.1.6.1 Under-reamer
It can be necessary to increase a hole section to a greater diameter than the ID of the overlying casing. It may
be necessary to place a gravel pack or create extra clearance for running a difficult casing or liner. A pilot hole
is drilled which is later enlarged to the required diameter. An under-reamer is used, which has two or three
arms with cutters which open up to a preset diameter. The cutters can be roller cones or PDC cutters as on a
PDC drill bit. The under-reamer's body is equipped with jets for cleaning the cutters and there is a threaded
section for connection of other components below it. It is normal to use a bullnosed plug below, perhaps with a
centre jet for cleaning. The length and composition of the terminal section will vary but the terminal section
must be gauged to the hole size to enable it to follow the pilot hole with minimal potential for side stepping out
from it.
A common mechanism contains the cutting arms inside a sliding sleeve which is held up by a strong spring.
Without circulation the spring mechanism will hold the liner up and the arms inside their grooves in the body.
When this is run in the hole the arms will also be retained with shear pins.
During circulation of drilling mud, a constriction in the sliding sleeve will cause a frictional force driving the
sliding sleeve downwards and releasing the arms outwards. The force depends upon circulation rates. At a
particular force the shear pins cut and the arms can extend to the full diameter. When circulation stops the
spring will drive the sliding sleeve up and the arms fold inwards.
Hole opener

3.1.6.2 Hole Opener

In some situations it will be necessary firstly to drill a hole through the formation, or a hole section, with a
smaller diameter than is required for the next casing. This may be for well control reasons or for better steering
using a smaller BHA. The main difference from an under-reamer is that the arms are fixed at a set diameter. A
hole opener should only give a normal diameter hole compared to the inner diameter of the overlying casing.
When there is a large discrepancy between the pilot hole and the final hole diameter, different sized hole
openers can be run in tandem.
In considering the volume of drill cuttings and hole cleaning, a good illustration is to calculate the amount of
cuttings per unit length produced when drilling a pilot hole and then increase it to twice the diameter.

3.2 Drill Bits

Roller cone bits in a cheap and simple form entered the market in 1860 but in the inter-war years, technical
development accelerated giving us the drilling bit primarily as we know it today. We got the three cone bit from
1930 and during the 40's the development of the jet bit. The design and materials choice has since undergone
considerable development but the basic bit remains unaltered.
Access to better and harder materials for the cutting structure on drill bits led to the development of modern
drag type bits during the 1970's. Diamond drill bits were already in use especially in coring bits. Then the
Stratapax type cutters were introduced. A cutting surface of poly-crystalline synthetic diamond, combined with a
fixing of tungsten carbide integrated into the drill bit structure in a certain pattern forms the basic design of what
has cone to be known as the Poly-diamond Crystalline (PDC) drill bit.

3.2.1 Different Types of Drilling Bits

Modern drill bits can be divided into three main categories:
roller cone bits
PDC drill bits
diamond drill bits

3.2.2 Roller Cone Bits

The standard roller cone bit is equipped with three rolling conical elements numbered 1,2 and 3 clockwise.
Cone number 1 is easily identified as it has the innermost point of teeth which prevents the build up of a minicore at the bit's cutting centre. The roller cone bit is used mainly in drilling the top hole and first intermediate
sections.
Roller cone bit
The three conical elements are mounted on each drill bit leg with a bearing pin. The bearing pin is designed
according to the bearing type and mounting and the pin angle towards the centre line of the bit corresponding
to the cone angle. The correspondence between these two angles is very important for the construction of the
drill bit. With the correct angle, the correct cutting surface is obtained both at the hole's bottom surface and with
the rear cutting row against the hole's side wall. Displacement of these right angles will lead to reduced contact
area for the cutters and consequent extreme wear at that part of the surface contacting the formation. The
cones can also be mounted with a certain offset, which we shall return to later.
Roller cone bits are divided into two main groups depending on whether the cones are supplied with machined
cutting teeth made of steel, (mill tool bit) or if they have tungsten carbide cutting teeth inset (inset bit).
Each main type is divided into four sub-classes based on size and density of cutters. The groups are based on
which formation strength they are intended for. Each of these in all eight classes is again sub-divided into four
hardness grades of formation. The main difference is the size and density of the teeth on each cone. The drill
cones for soft formations have longer, fewer teeth whilst those for harder formations have more, shorter teeth:
1-1 to 1-4 are drill bits with machined teeth for soft formations
2-1 to 2-4 same design for medium to medium hard formations
3-1 to 3-4 same design for hard and partly abrasive formations
4-1 to 4-4 for extremely hard formations bits from sub-groups 8-1 to 8-4 are selected
5-1 to 5-4 are bits with inset teeth (tungsten carbide) soft to medium soft formations
6-1 to 6-4 same for medium hard formations
7-1 to 7-4 same for hard and abrasive formations (medium and high) formations
8-1 to 8-4 same for extremely hard and abrasive formations

Roller cone bits are classified also by the type of rotational bearing used on the bearing pins and whether they
have radial gauge protection in tungsten carbide. This sub-classification is shown in the last number in x-y-z.
For example a 2-1-7 is intended for the softest type medium to middle hard formation (2-1), which has sealed
sliding bearings and radial gauge protection (-7).
The combination of roller bearings and ball bearings was for a long time universal. This design combined roller
bearing's ability to tolerate radial loads (normal to the roller pins) and the ball bearings ability to withstand axial
loads (along the bearing pin's length ). The bearings also act as a mounting for the cone onto the bearing pin.
The journal bearing, also known as a friction bearing, came into the market in 1969. Instead of roller bearings
these have a metal-to-metal contact of special alloy between the cone and the bearing pin. The journal bearing
takes up both axial and radial loads, its increased contact area giving a good distribution of the imposed forces
and thereby lower overall wear.
Both roller and ball bearing and journal bearings have sealed bearing systems meaning that the bearing is
sealed against the ingress of drilling mud. Lubrication of the bearings is a closed system. This increases the
lifetime of the bits through reduced wear.
The roller bearing bit works essentially by the hammer and chisel principle, where each cutter is set down with
a certain force which exceeds the compressive strength of the formation, so chiselling away chips of the
formation. There is also a scraping effect which results in bigger pieces being removed. This is used on bits for
soft and up to medium hard formations, within that area of expected imposed forces where the bearing pins
and the cones can resist the extra loading, and the wear that it produces. This is achieved in two ways :
The cones are designed with two load bearing surfaces at an angle to each other. The wedge surface
has a bigger angle relative to the centre line on the other part. The cutter will therefore rotate around two
different centres and the difference in speed between the two teeth rows will give a scraping effect
which cuts the formation.
The bearing pins are angled so that the cone's centre line does not pass through the bit's centre line,
but is off set by a certain angle. The drill bit's rotation within the hole radius causes the desired scraping
effect.
Standard drill bits are equipped with three jetting nozzles, which direct jets directly at the formation near where
each cone's working surface impacts against the formation. Some drill bits are supplied with an extra centre
nozzle for better removal of formation material at the middle of the bit.
The nozzles are exchangeable so that the flow area can be chosen for maximum effect relative to the
circulation speed.
3.2.7 Hydraulics and Nozzle Selection

3.2.3 Poly-diamond Crystalline (PDC) Drill Bits

PDC-drill bits
Eccentric drilling bit
PDC drill bits (also known as Stratapax bits), cut the formation by exploiting the PDC's ability to withstand
scraping (drag) necessary for cutting the formation. The cutting element's effect on the formation can be
compared to the way the cutting bit on a lathe cuts metal.
The PDC drill bit consists of a body, or matrix, which is inset with cutting elements and jets and has a traditional
roller cone standard thread pin upwards. The PDC drill bit has been produced in a large variety of designs
through the years. The PDC bit set a new standard for the length of time that can be drilled without pulling to
change the bit. The life and wear on other components of the BHA became more decisive for the length of time
that could be drilled continuously.

The PDC drill bit has a number of applications but it is especially good at drilling soft to medium hard
formations. Extensive research on the patterns, composition of the cutting elements and hydraulics has given
us a drilling bit which is highly effective in either sandstone, shales or limestones. Optimisation of the design as
opposed to hydraulics gives the various drill bits their good characteristics with all types of drilling mud. Some
particularly hard or abrasive formations are not suitable for drilling with PDC bits. Formations containing pyrite,
flint and chert produce enormous wear on a PDC bit, making this type of bit unsuitable.
Based on today's requirements, the Norwegian offshore industry makes considerable use of PDC drill bits for
drilling of 12 " hole sections and smaller. This is especially the case when drilling long deviated production
wells with long slim hole sections.
We will now look at some characteristics of PDC drill bits. Firstly the drilling bit's design.

3.2.3.1 Body/Matrix
The body and matrix are produced in forged or machined steel, with a layer of tungsten carbide to resist
erosion. Alternatively, with the aid of metallurgical powder technology, it may be cast tungsten carbide. Here are
some terms which describe the drill bits form (see figure above):
Gauge: full diameter section
Shoulder: rounding from full diameter section
Taper: right conical part down near the rounded nose, not all profiles have this
Nose: rounded section in front of the bit
Cone: hollow in front of the drill bit profile
Blades:
the bit has from 3-4 up to 10-12 blades mounted on the PDC cutters

Waterways: passage between the blades (also called junk slots)

Nozzles: exchangeable jets in number from 3-4 up to 7-8
The bit's characteristics are directly associated with its design.

3.2.3.2 PDC Cutters

Cutting elements consist of a cutting surface of poly-crystalline diamond disc, which, by a metallurgical process
have been cemented to a support disc of tungsten carbide, which is again cemented to a disc-shaped or
cylindrical support button for mounting into the drill bit's matrix or core.
The cutting face is poly-crystalline which means that it consists of a large number of very small diamonds which
are oriented at random. The crystals axes lie in all directions, no specific direction being preferred over any
other.
The cutting element's ability to cut the formation is dependent upon how they are located relative to the
direction of rotation. They will be placed with a certain backwards angle and side angle. Placed directly
upwards and normal to the direction of rotation both these angles are 0o.

3.2.3.3 Design Characteristics

The following essential characteristics are associated with design:
By placing the cutter at a slight angle to the side, drill cuttings will be lifted sideways. A PDC drill bit with
vertical cutters will be more aggressive as it will cut deeper down into the formation, requiring high
torque for rotation. This will also give highly variable torque. In order to make the bit less aggressive, the
cutting elements are set sloping backwards at angle of around 30o. This produces a more even cut and
less drill cuttings, the torque is more stable, and the BHA is easier to control for drilling in the required
direction.
The length of a full diameter section has a big influence on the drill bit's directional stability and
resistance to wear. Long, full diameter will give directional stability and high resistance to wear, whilst

short will give a drill bit which has good directional properties but higher wear. It is important to balance
this against the task that the bit is to perform. A 12 " drill bit will have good balance between directional
stability, steering characteristics, and wear resistance with a full diameter length of 4". For larger angle
changes, a shorter drill bit should be selected.
The number of blades the cutter is inset with, along with the number and location of the jets, influences
the bit's ability to remove drill cuttings quickly, apart from the cooling properties being effected. Poor bit
cooling will rapidly burn the poly-crystalline diamond surface and thereby drastically reduce the drill bit's
lifetime. More blades give better cooling and lower cutting force on each cutter and so longer lifetime.

3.2.4 Special Drilling Bits

3.2.4.1 Diamond Drill Bits
A diamond drill bit consists of a matrix, inset with industrial diamonds the matrix being designed for optimal
cooling and length/form for the required directional stability. Turbo drilling at high rpm and particularly hard
formations are still the main area of economic use for diamond drill bits. Most will also be familiar with coring as
an area of application for diamond drilling technology.
Diamond drill bit

3.2.4.2 Coring Drill Bit

A coring drill bit will either be a diamond or a PDC drill bit. The figure shows a typical design of this type of bit.
There are many variations of coring bits. The most important design criterion is best possible recovery of the
core sample. Penetration rate and hydraulics do not have the same importance as in the design of normal drill
bits. What is emphasised is that the waterways on the outside are such that a maximum fluid volume can pass
simultaneously as the fluid rate around the core at the entrance to the bit is kept to a minimum.
Drilling bit for coring

3.2.4.3 Junk Bit

A junk bit is designed with a relatively flat base profile and coarse cutter arrangement. It is designed only to
gnaw at scrap lost down the hole, which cannot be fished for in small pieces,

3.2.5 Grading of Drill Bits

Grading of drill bits, either roller cone or PDC, is done according to this table. This is an International Standard
of grading:
CUTTING STRUCTURE

REMARKS

Inner
rows

Outer
rows

Dull
Characteristic

Location

Bearings/
seals

Gauge
1/16"

Other
Characteristic

Reason
pulled

(1)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(8)

Codes used in this standard:

Cutter wear
(1) & (2)

Dull Characteristic
(3) & (7)

Wear location
(4)

Bearing Wear (5)

Gauge Wear (6)

Reason pulled (8)

0 = no wear (as new)

1......increasing
2......wear...........
3........................
4........................
5.......................
6......................
7......................
8 = no usable cutter
structure

BC: broken cone.

BT: broken teeth/
cutters.
BU: balled up
CC: cracked cone*
CD: cone dragged*
CI: cone interference*
CR: cored
CT: chipped cutters
ER: erosion
FC: flat crested wear*
HC: heat checking
JD: junk damage
LC: lost cone*
LN: lost nozzle
LT: lost cutters
OC: off-centre wear
PB: pinched bit
PN: plugged nozzle/
flow passage
RG: rounded gauge
RO: ring out
SD: shirt tail dmgd*
SS: self sharpening
wear*
TR: tracking
WO: washed out bit
WT: worn teeth/ cutters
NO: no major/other dull
characteristics

C: Cone
N: Nose (row)
T: Taper
S: Shoulder
G: Gauge
A: All areas/rows
M: Middle row
H: Heel row

BEARING:
Non-sealed
bearings:
0 = no life used
1........ increased
2........ life used..
3........................
4........................
5........................
6.......................
7.......................
8 = all life used.
Sealed bearings:
E = seals effective
F = seals failed
X = Fixed cutters
bits (PDC,
diameter)
GAUGE:
I: In gauge
1/16" , 2/16"....
etc for wear on
diameter of bit.

BHA: change BHA

DMF: Down-hole motor
failure
DSF: Drill string failure
DST: Drill stem test
DTF: Down-hole tool
failure
LOG: Run logs
RIG: Rig repair
CM: Condition mud
CP: Core point
DP: Drill plug
FM: Formation change
HP: Hole problems
HR: Hours
PP: Pump pressure
PR: Penetration rate
TD: Total depth/ casing
depth
TQ: Torque
TW: Twist-off
WC: Weather cond.
WO: washout drill
string.

* = only for roller cone bits

Roller drill bits grading
PDC-drill bits grading

3.2.6 Assessing the Consequences of Wear

Drill bit wear must be assessed according to the table and the codes shown in 3.2.5. The assessment matrix is
a good tool for a standardised approach to assessing a used drilling bit. The final decision of whether a drilling
bit is fit to run again or not remains the domain of those performing the assessment.
We will look at some rules for evaluating the suitability of a drill bit to run again. There are consequences for a
wrong assessment. What do we intend to gain from the bit if it should run in the hole again? If the cutter
elements are worn to 4 on a PDC drilling bit run for 600-800 m and the bit otherwise in good condition we could
run the bit a couple of hundred metres more to finish the section. However, the answers to some questions may
show that is not wise the run the drill bit again. Consider the following:

If the bit diameter is measurably worn then it should not run again. In hard formations it will make a tight
hole which can jam the next bit or stabilisers. This gives increased risk of getting stuck.
If sealed bearings have failed, the bit must not be run again. A cone could easily be lost in the hole.
If non-sealed bearings are worn to more than 2-3, the bit bearings should not be re-run.
Heavy wash-outs are an alarm signal. The bit must not be re-run as the risk of losing parts is high and
the choice of bit and nozzles needs to be re-assessed.
If teeth/cutters are worn, an assessment must be made on what remains to be done in the hole section.

Generally it easier, especially with PDC bits, just to run a new bit. The penetration rate must be
considered, as a bit worn to more than 2-3 will often drill more slowly. The bit can survive losing some
cutters but a PDC bit, for example, which has lost a row of cutters the same distance from the centre will
need to be changed.
Bit balling can indicate that the bit may be good, but the jet hydraulics and bit cleaning need to be
assessed with circulation rate, rotational speed and mud properties.
If the torque is too high, maybe the bit, especially PDC, is too aggressive for good steering, is difficult to
steer and perhaps may need changing even though it looks good.
If a drill bit shows signs of over-heating due to friction, it must not be re-run. Consider the choice of bit
and not least the drilling parameters in this case. The bit has been subjected to excessive loads relative
to the cooling effect of the drilling fluid.

3.2.7 Hydraulics and Nozzle Selection

The pumping pressure read off at the surface is the sum of pressure losses throughout the circulation system,
assuming constant density and mud properties throughout the system.
Circulation system
Models for the calculation of pressure loss must consider the type of flow and flow rate, and whether it is
laminar or turbulent. The pressure drop in the pipe or annulus will also depend upon the geometry of the flow
area. The calculation sections are shown below:

total system pressure drop (read from the pumps): PT = sum of all part pressures
pressure loss in surface system Psurf
pressure loss in drill string: Pdp
pressure loss in HWDP: Pdc
pressure loss in MWD: Pmwd
pressure loss motor/turbine: Pm eller Pt
pressure loss across bit: Pbit
pressure loss annulus HWDP/hole: Padc cover the annulus for all BHA-components
press loss annulus drill pipe/hole: Padph
press loss annulus drill pipe/csg: Padpcsg

The principle of force/reaction always applies so that at every point, the dynamic pressure is equal to the
reaction in that part of the circulation system in front of that point. As an example we can take the pressure
conditions at the bottom of the hole, outside the drill bit. The dynamic pressure is that pressure required to
exceed the friction in the system beyond that point or the sum of all frictional pressures in the annulus = Padc +
Padph + Padpcsg.
Also, at the bottom hole, there will be a hydrostatic pressure due to the mud column. If we add the static and
dynamic pressure we can calculate an equivalent mud density, the Equivalent Circulating Density (ECD). This
is the real mud density which the formation at the bottom of the hole is exposed to. ECD can also be calculated
for any point in the well, not just TD.
We are interested in the pressure drop across the drilling bit. Good calculation programs have been developed
for optimisation of the jetting effect through the nozzles. Available hydraulic power given in Hk is the product of
flow volume per unit time and the pressure changes the fluid is subjected to. In metric units the formula for
available power from the mud pumps is:
Hk = Q*P*m*104/75, where Q is the volume flow rate (m3/s), P is the pressure change (kp/cm2), and m is the
pump's efficiency.
The model assumes one of these principles:
To obtain optimal benefit from the hydraulic impact relative to the available hydraulic force supplied by

the pump at surface. The hydraulic impact model calculates the jetting effect on the formation as a
product of mud density, flow rate and fluid velocity through the nozzles. From this model the maximum
available jetting force at the drill bit will be: Hk(drill bit) = 0.48 * Hk(surface)
Obtain optimal benefit from the hydraulic horse power (bit hydraulic horsepower) in relation to the
available horse power provided by the pump at the surface. This model calculates the hydraulic horse
power through the jets on the drill bit as a product of pressure drop through the jets and the overall flow
rate. With this model the total horse power available through the jets will be: Hk(drill bit) = 0.65 *
Hk(surface)

Models can also be constructed for optimal cleaning as an assessment of the scouring effect towards the
bottom. This is a concept which can only be applied to drilling through hard formations as the jet effects alone
create penetration in softer formations.
The calculation models discussed take account of other factors which are essential for the selection of nozzle
area through the bit:
MWD requires a pressure difference of a certain size from inside the annulus, which means that we
must introduce a pressure drop in that part of the BHA which lies below the MWD.
Hole cleaning is considerably more critical than maximum power at the drill bit. Nozzles will frequently
be chosen for maximum fluid throughput allowable compared to the pressure drop that we must have.

3.3 Directional Drilling and Steerable Drilling Systems

Controlled directional drilling is the planning and performance of a controlled well trajectory designed to
connect with a planned target in a particular structure. Steerable drilling systems are bottom hole assemblies
composed and operated so that within certain tolerances they follow a planned trajectory and such that
changes made in the composition will give predictable changes in inclination/direction.
The first commercial controlled directional drilling was done in the 1920's. Earlier it was clear that deviations
from assumed vertical well path were occurring and several theories were proposed for why this happened.
From using this knowledge to explain the problems that caused the deviations, to seeking solutions where this
could be used in a planned way for an advantage, was but a short step. We began to plan steering the drill
string along a desired well trajectory to hit a given target. New methods of measurement were also used to
control the well path and adjust any required equipment parameters so that the well closely followed the
planned trajectory.
Stabilisers were introduced and simple equipment was developed for measuring the well trajectory. The
equipment was time-consuming and inaccurate but this was the beginning of the developments which have led
to modern advanced down-hole steering systems with continually updated directional parameter data.
Offshore production of oil and gas made us familiar with directional drilling technology here in Norway during
the early 1970's. The applications were clear. We were dependent upon combined drilling and production
platforms in order to exploit oil and gas in subterranean structures. Effective draining of the fields required best
possible coverage with drainage points (wells) and well trajectories had to be planned from the very limited
areas that the platform represented.
Expensive installations and high operating costs in the challenging North Sea environment focused early
attention towards development of directional drilling and directional measurements (surveys). We return to this
in a later chapter but draw attention to this as one application of directional drilling. However, there are many
others.
Wells reach
1. Drilling of Many Wells from One Offshore Platform
This has already been dealt with and will be used as an example of directional drilling development and
modern technology.

2. Drilling Multiple Wells from Limited Land Areas

Inaccessible terrain on land can demand that wells be drilled one limited location as for offshore platforms.
3. Drilling Single Wells to Inaccessible Resources
The problem may not be limited access. Resources under steep cliffs or mountains, under lakes, and built up
areas are typical areas of application for controlled directional drilling.
4. Drilling to Connect Several Targets Using the Same Well Trajectory
Several oil-bearing formations in the same reservoir can be very economical to develop by one well connecting
several targets.
5. Drilling into Fault Zones
Oil formations can be located relative to a fault such that the well must be drilled into the formation at a certain
angle and direction of the well path.
6. Drilling for Increased Drainage Area in the Same Well
Larger deviations from the vertical, through a reservoir, can increase the length of the well in direct contact with
the reservoir. Longer perforated intervals give increased production and better exploitation. Horizontal sections
maximise this advantage.
7. Geo-steering
This is related to the previous point. With a steerable system and LWD/MWD it is possible to navigate so that
the well path within a thin but extensive reservoir is laid as high as possible to the top of the reservoir. The
method can also target small pockets of reservoirs in faulted areas.
8. Side Drilling
It may be necessary to drill around lost equipment or other barrier or move the well bottom hole location in
production wells.
9. Correcting Unwanted Deviations in the Well Trajectory
This is linked to the former point. The drill is pulled up and the well trajectory corrected back to vertical after the
unwanted deviation.
10. Several Exploration Wells from the Same Main Well
With an intermediate casing set, a number of prospects can be drilled from the same well within a certain
distance.
11. Drilling Round a Salt Dome
A salt dome which has pushed through the formations creates special reservoirs. During exploration as well as
production drilling there will be a need for directional drilling to reach the reservoir pockets.
12. Relief Well
In a critical well situation (surface or underground blow-out) it may be necessary to drill into the lower part of
the well path from a surface location some distance away.
We shall now look at and define concepts and definitions which describe the well trajectory during directional
drilling. First a little about depth measurements and their reference points. Depth will normally be referred to
RKB (rotary kelly bushing) or RT (rotary table). The last term came in when the kelly disappeared with the
introduction of the top drive. The drive bushing on the top drive is about 0.50 m high and therefore this is the
depth difference between the two references. Be aware that even if the RT is used more in Norway the RKB
reference dominates elsewhere.
Other disciplines will use other reference points, petroleum engineers and geologists use sea-bed and/or mean
sea level as their depth reference points.
Well trajectory
Here are the most used definitions. American technical terms are in every day communication use. They are

also the origin of many day-to-day abbreviations and acronyms. Hence the need for this list:

MD or mMD
Measured Depth or meter Measured Depth, meaning the well's depth measured with reference to the
RT. This is the well's length measured along its trajectory.

TVD or mTVD
True Vertical Depth, the vertical depth down to a defined target or measured depth. Mathematically this
is shown as a normal projection back to the vertical axis through the centre of the rotary table.

Inclination
The well angle at a point on the well path is the angle between a vertical line and the wells trajectory at
that point. A perfectly vertical well would have an inclination of 0 whilst a perfectly horizontal section
has an inclination of 90.

Azimuth
Geographical direction. The azimuth at a point in the well path gives the direction at that point in relation
to geographical north. The azimuth measures as an angle of 0-360 clockwise with reference to
geographical north as zero point.

KOP
Kick Off Point. The KOP gives the point in the well trajectory where the planned change of either
inclination or direction (azimuth) angle starts and is given as a depth in metres measured depth. The
term is mostly used for that point in the well trajectory where the angle starts to be built from the vertical
in a directional well.

Build Section
The planned angle building section which starts after the KOP and is that part of the well path which is
drilled for planned changes in angle and direction.

EOB
End Of Build. This is the depth to the point in the well trajectory where the angle building section ends
and we have established the required angle and direction changes.

Hold Section or Tangent Section

The tangent section is a planned straight section after the angle building section where the well path
runs in a straight line with a given angle and direction.

Drop section
A section on the well which is directionally drilled with reducing inclination. The section will have its own
defined KOP and can either go over into a tangent section or continue to final depth as a drop section.

DL Dog Leg or DLS Dog Leg Severity

This is an angle change rate in the well. This means the combined inclination and direction changes
over a given unit of hole length. If there is no change in direction between the measuring points then the
dog leg will be the change in inclination either build rate or drop rate. The angle change rate is
measured in degrees per 30 m or internationally degrees per 100 feet.

Closure
The same as horizontal distance. If we imagine a horizontal plane where we plot the centre of the well
(wellhead) and the position to a given point in the well trajectory (for example a depth for a direction
measurement) the horizontal distance will be the same as the length of the line between these two
points. This is the direct horizontal distance from well centre, out to a position in the well.

Vertical Section
This is the same as horizontal deviation where the horizontal plane is a projection of the horizontal
distance (closure) onto a plane laid through the centre axis of the wellhead going in the wells main
direction. We will explain more closely. When we receive the direction plan for a well we get a horizontal

plot showing the well path and the target in a horizontal plan. We also get a vertical plan of the well
trajectory. This vertical plan will be laid through the well centre at surface and out in the wells direction. It
can be laid through the centre of the target but for well trajectories with large variations in planned
azimuth it may be better to deviate from this. The vertical plane chosen will appear as a line on the
horizontal plot and if we draw a line from this given point in the well path the horizontal difference will be
the distance from the well centre and out to the point where the normal meets the line.

Target
The goal or goal area for the trajectory. The target is provided from geological prognosis and will be laid
on top of the reservoir and a centre of target will define the ideal well position for penetrating the target
formation. The target area can be a square a rectangle or a circle of varying size. The size and shape
will indicate the tolerances and there will also be the azimuth and inclination required to when hitting the
target.

Hard Line
A boundary line in the target area which must not, for any reason be crossed. It is in other words an
absolute boundary limit. Such a boundary may be included due to physical conditions, for example an
assumed fault, or for political reasons such as the boundary to another licence.

3.3.1 Rotating BHA

Designs of conventional rotating bottom hole assemblies for directional and inclination control were the
established technique in controlled directional drilling. Experience coupled with calculation of the forces acting
on the lower part of the BHA formed a good basis for the use of the more traditional rotating drill string.
By rotating drill string we mean a string which is composed of fixed components which rotate with the drill
string. The use of motors, turbines, and down-hole steerable systems will be discussed in following chapters
but the only modern refinement to the BHA we will include is the use of MWD.
Steering with rotating BHAs exploits the flexibility of the weighted drill pipe lengths and the axial and radial
forces which act on the drill string and bit. Active influencing of the steering characteristics of a BHA is limited to
the lowest 45 m of the BHA. This is partly determined by the hole's inclination and for highly deviated holes this
part can be reduced down to about 20 m.
Many factors influence the working of the BHA and these are listed in the table below but we must always be
aware that in all calculations of imposed forces, gravity has a major influence as a steering factor:
BHA, equipment

Drilling parameters

Borehole

Formation

Choice of bit

Weight on the Bit (WOB)

Hole diameter

Type of formation

Choice of collars

RPM

Hole stability

Formation changes

OD collars

Pump rate

Cross section of the hole

Formation hardness

Choice of stabiliser, form

and material

Type drilling mud (friction)

Inclination

Abrasivity (wear
characteristics)

Number of stabilisers

Mud weight

Hole trajectory's curvature

Formation fluid pressure

Stabiliser's position

ROP

Relationship between hole

and BHA diameters

Borehole angle relative to

the main plane in the
sediments

Stabiliser's diameter

Stresses in the formation

Rotating BHAs are classified according to their steering design principle. We define the following types:

Pendulum

Location, internal distance and diameters of the stabilisers to produce a negative pendulum force
inwards to the plumb line. BHA will try to swing back to 0 inclination to reduce the angle.
Fulcrum
Location, internal distance and diameter so that the BHA will behave like a fulcrum with the lowest
stabiliser or drill bit as the tilting point. The opposite effect or positive pendulum force is obtained, which
turns the cutting face of the drill bit upwards, so building angle.
Locked in
Location internal distance and diameter balance the positive and negative pendulum forces so that the
BHA will maintain its angle. We are discussing the angle in a tangent section and of maintaining the
angle in a planned vertical borehole, for last case the negative pendulum force is chosen to amplify.

Even so other forces and factors listed above will determine how a BHA will behave. A string assembled for the
pendulum principle can convert and behave according to the fulcrum principle if greater bending is introduced
by for example increasing WOB too much.
Rotating BHA

3.3.2 Steerable Motors

Steerable motors or displacement motors are the term used to describe a liquid-driven positive displacement
motor. These definitions apply equally to turbines and steerable motors:
The rotor is the revolving part of a liquid-driven motor/turbine.
The stator is the part of the liquid-driven motor-/-turbine fixed to the drill string above.
Eccentric means out of centre-line.
The principle for the steerable motor is the reverse application of the pump principle (Moineau-principle after
the inventor), and works by the following principle when used as a motor.
The drill bit is made up as an extension to the rotor, which has a helical axle located eccentrically to the stator.
The means that the mid-axis of the stator and the rotor in a positive displacement motor are not the same. The
rotor has a number of lobes, N. We will give the reason later. It will rotate when liquid is pumped through it
when it is located inside a stator which has N+1 lobes. The reason for this is that rotor and stator in such a
configuration will create a series of sealed voids. When liquid is pumped through, the pressure in these voids
drives the rotor around in an eccentric rotation. Simultaneously the imposed rotation allows liquid to pass whilst
it, with the aid of the pressure, transfers the rotational force to the axle and on to the connection to the drilling
bit. To obtain sealing between the voids, the inside of the stator is manufactured from an elastomer material.
Useful torque and rotational speed depend upon the lobe's configuration in the motor. The ratio between
number of lobes in the rotor and stator is always N : N+1 but N can vary from 1-7 in standard motors.
We will not go into the mathematical calculations of torque and speed but as a rule of thumb, low N gives lower
torque or higher rotational speed. Correspondingly if we require higher torque, we would use a motor with more
lobes (higher N)> increasing number of lobes will also lead to a lower maximum speed of rotation.
The torque transferred to the bit is not only dependent on the number of lobes but it is also directly proportional
to the pressure drop across the power section. This is seen at surface as an increase in stand pipe pressure
when the WOB increases. The maximum torque for any specific motor is limited by the mechanical strength of
the elastomer in the stator. A long power section is more effective than a shorter one but there are other
practical limitations for the total length of the complete motor. It must be possible to move it safely to and from
the installation and it must also be practical for the rig capacity and incorporation into the other BHA
components.
The rotational speed is lower for more lobes. For a given configuration the rate of rotation will be proportional to
pump rate.
When giving the bit rotational speed we have referred it to the stator, which is fixed into the overlying drill string.
If this drill string is driven in rotational mode, the drill bit speed will be the sum of the RPM motor and RPM drill

string. The RPM motor is directly proportional to the mud flow rate rpm/L.
Steerable motors
The transmission section is the mechanical transfer/transmission which connects the power unit to the
operational connection and drill bit, and which transfers the torque and rotational speed to them. The
operational connection must also handle the eccentric rotation of the rotor relative to the stator, and the
eccentricity which results from installed deflection connector.
One of the concepts for the transmission section is use of flexible axles for the connectors and the coupling to
the integrated deflection connectors. These components are constructed of titanium alloy which imparts the
right strength and flexibility. This material has the advantage of not needing lubrication or any form of protection
from the drilling mud, simplifying maintenance.
Deflection connectors are set in order to give the motor steerable properties and they are constructed to
provide a given difference in angle between the BHA's central axis and the starting angle for the deflection
transition. As an example an AKO housing is a highly useful concept as the deflection angle can be set and
adjusted in the field. The AKO is a physical bend in the BHA.
The AKO connector's position in the BHA is between the motor's stator and the bearing housing. Setting the tilt
angle is defined by the motor and hole diameter and by the required rate of change of angle. In addition, the
motor's steering properties must also take into account the forces and wear which the system is subjected to in
rotating mode.
The bearing assembly is composed of radial and axial bearings and is the foundation for the forces which the
operational connector via the drill bit are subjected to during rotation and drilling. It must also smoothly transfer
the torque and speed of rotation from the power unit, the motor itself.
Axial forces and weights which work along the drill string's direction, are supported by a row of specially
designed ball bearings. The journal radial bearing absorbs the lateral or crosswise forces and gives lateral
support above and below, the axial ball bearings.
The housing surrounding the bearing section can be of various types. It can be constructed:
straight (slick) with no fitting for the stabiliser
with
the threaded section for assembly/exchange of various stabilisers collars in the field

with
integrated stabilisers, meaning that they are built into the housing

For motors with extended power and motor sections, and increased torque and power, a clamp-on stabiliser
has been developed. This concept is very practical for fine adjustment of the BHA's ability to hold the hole
angle in long, straight, high-angle sections, where the drill string is to be rotated as much as possible.

3.3.2.1 Steerable Motor In Operation

A BHA can be used in either orientation mode or rotational mode. In orientation mode the drill string is not
rotating and the drill string is set for the planned angle or direction change.
In rotating mode, the BHA is often configured to keep a constant hole angle in the well trajectory but can also
be set up for constant angle building or drop. The BHA's characteristics are determined by location and outer
diameter of stabilisers and irrespective of which characteristics we wish to have, the stabilisers will always have
a smaller outside diameter than the bit.
The configuration of a standard steerable system with stabiliser and bent housing is basically a simple threepoint geometry. The three stabilisation points are the drill bit, stabiliser on the bearing housing and top
stabiliser. The last is located over or in the top of the bottom hole motor. The two lines, which are given by the
distance from the mid-point on the top stabiliser to the-mid point of the stabiliser's bearing housing, and from
this last one to the drilling bit's last full diameter section, defines a certain curve which gives a predictable
capacity for angle rate of changes or dog leg. The drill bit's tilt angle is the resulting angle between the bit's

central axis and an axis through the two stabilisers.

The calculation basis for BHA properties is based on experience and assumptions relating to stabiliser
diameters, hole diameter and BHA component's stiffness. Suppliers have developed prediction programs for
calculating BHA characteristics.
Changes to the BHA rate of angle change are usually done by changing diameter and/or location of the top
stabiliser, or by changing the setting of the AKO. It is normal to assemble a BHA with a slightly greater ability for
angle change than actually planned for. This allows a little more capacity in cases where, for example, due to
formation issues it has not been able to achieve the required change of angle.
There are also other operational considerations:

Pressure loss in the system

Design of a down-hole motor where the gap between rotor and stator is a sealed chamber means that
the passage is sealed when there is no pressure drop across the motor. A certain minimum pressure is
needed to overcome the resistance to rotation. This is known as the no load pressure.
Off bottom pressure is the sum of this and the other pressure losses in the system. When the drill bit is
set on bottom, with the same pump rate, the torque will increase and we will see an increase in pump
pressure. We can then see the on-bottom pressure for a given WOB. The difference in these two
pressures is the motor's differential pressure.

Stalling
The differential pressure above will increase in proportion to the torque required to rotate the drill bit as
the WOB increases. We observe a pumping pressure increase proportional to the increase in WOB.
When the WOB is so high that the torque exceeds the power limit of the motor it will stall when the
rotating section suddenly stops. We see this as a rapid and extreme increase in pump pressure. This is
very undesirable. Quick reactions are needed to cut the pump rate and pull off bottom and so limit any
damage to the motor's components.

Elastomer and temperature

The elastomers in the stator are high quality synthetic nitrile, which has good resistance to water-based
and synthetic oil-based fluids. The standard product will normally up to 130C, but elastomers that can
withstand up to 160C are available.

Rotor jet
A motor can be adapted with a rotor jet so that part of the liquid flow goes past the working volume
between stator and rotor. This allows for greater circulation rates where required.

Dump valve
This is a by-pass valve which is often located above and allows circulation above the motor unit. It is
spring loaded so that it stays open until a given circulation rate has been reached. This lets the drill
string empty when tripping out of the hole.

Non-return valve
It is standard to have this above the motor section so avoiding back-flow through the motor when
tripping in the hole.

Maximum WOB
The different maximum WOB for various motors is determined by either the bearing section's limitations
(at low torque) or the motor section's maximum differential pressure (at high torque).

Handling/testing on the drill floor

During handling on the drill floor, it is normal to test run the motor. Liquid is pumped initially at low rate to
see if it passes through the space between the operational connection and the radial bearing. Then the
motor is lowered down the riser to check that it works at higher pump rates.

Start orientation mode

The stabiliser (string) should be out in open hole before the directional drilling begins so that the tool
face direction can be set under the correct conditions allowing for reactive torque effects.

Rotating mode
The BHA with the motor can rotate the maximum rotational speed depending on the AKO setting. With
AKO set to 0 it should be possible to rotate at least 150 rpm, and for shorter intervals the motor could
stand to this speed with a certain AKO setting. High rpm is essential for good hole cleaning and this
must be balanced against the risk of tool failure.

3.3.3 Steerable Turbines

In directional drilling, down-hole turbines can also be use as power units for drill bits. Typical areas of use are
longer tangent sections with relatively high hole angles. Turbines have the advantage of high rotational speeds,
good power transfer to the bit and are well suited for formations needing diamond drill bits. Modern turbines
also less sensitive to particles in the drilling mud being more resistant to wear, giving them a longer lifetime
than down-hole motors.
The main principle of a turbine is that it has a rotor and a stator:
The stator is the external static housing with internal stator blades. This is screwed into the overlying
BHA.
The rotor is the internal axle with rotor blades including the rotating axle through the bearing section and
the drive tube. The drive tube acts as fixing for the drill bit.
Steerable turbines
As the figure shows, the motor primarily consists of a drive tube, bearing section, and one or more motor
stages. The total motor power from a turbine is directly dependent on how many stages the motor section(s)
contain(s). The bearing section and motor section(s) have integral stabilisers.
The figure's performance curve is a typical curve at constant circulation rate. The power delivered by the
turbine is maximum at about its maximum speed (no load). The torque which the turbine delivers depends
upon the torque transferred to the drilling bit. This will be maximum when the bit stalls.
Nominal rotational speed is linked to the maximum power at the circulation rate employed, and is reached at a
given torque transferred to the bit. The best performance and highest drilling rate is achieved by rotational
speeds of 400 to 1000 rpm, depending upon how the turbine is assembled. This is considerably higher than
used with displacement motors.

3.3.4 Rotating Steerable Bottom Hole Systems

Autotrak and pressure pulse manifold

3.3.5 MWD/LWD
MWD and later LWD, simultaneous drilling and directional measurement (even logging) came into the market in
the early 1980's the biggest challenge was to transfer data from the drill string sensors to the surface for
reading. It was natural to look to the surrounding medium, drilling mud, and find a way of using it for signal
transmission. It was found that the mud properties could be used directly by producing down-hole sequences of
pressure waves which could in turn be measured at surface and translated into comprehensible data.
Transmission of data by pressure waves became the dominant MWD technology. In general, the MWD unit
comprises the following components:

Sensors for directional measurement.

One set of data for directional measurements (survey) consists of measured depth, inclination and
azimuth at the point of measurement. The instrument for these two angles is magnetic, meaning that it
seeks toward the magnetic north pole and must therefore be corrected for local deviation from
geographical north.

Electronic/computer package.
The inclination and azimuth data for a point is stored and communication with the computer package
happens by using a specific pump rate and pressure sequence at surface. When the computer package
has a data set ready it sends control signals in binary code to a pressure control valve giving it the
sequences to transmit.

Pressure control valve.

On a signal from the computer, the sequences are sent in binary code in the form of negative pulses
through the mud. By negative pulses we mean pressure reduction pulses. An MWD will require a certain
pressure differential between the inside and the annulus in order to create the signal. If the internal
pressure drop in the BHA under the MWD unit is too low, a nozzle is installed in the lower part of the
unit.

Flow generator.
A turbine driven by the mud supplies the whole BHA with the necessary flow to operate.
Drill collar housing.
The MWD's components are mounted inside a non-magnetic specially designed drill collar as the
instrumentation is sensitive to magnetic interference. For the same reason the drill collar above and
below must also be non-magnetic and reliable signals cannot be assumed near overlying casing or
casing from a nearby well. If an MWD unit is run near another magnetic component, for example a
down-hole motor, where the size of the magnetic influence is known, a correction factor can be used for
calculating the measurements.

Pressure pulses are collected at the surface by pressure sensors in the surface system and transferred to the
computer, which calculates the values to the normal decimal system and shows the results as inclination and
azimuth at the point of measurement in its display.
Based on the MWD principle, Logging While Drilling (LWD) was developed. The logging instruments were
modified for a non-magnetic drill collar and the computer and transmission unit were developed for transfer of
the necessary data. Most logs are now available as LWD measurements such as:
gamma ray log (measures natural radioactivity)
resistivity
log (electrical resistance in the formation, inverse of conductivity)

temperature log
neutron density log (measures the formation's density)
In addition, weight sensors have been developed measuring WOB, and pressure sensors for measuring ECD
which are transmitted in real time to the surface. We differentiate between real time and continuous signals
sent with a gap of a few seconds, and those which are stored in a down-hole computer. A neutron density unit
is set up to collect data in this way. This unit has its own battery pack for power so there is a time limit for how
long it can operate. A down-hole computer will also have limited storage capacity so it will displace data. This
means that if it has a capacity to store 100 hours of information. Data older than that will be removed from the
memory store.
If the directional measurements indicate that direction or azimuth requires changing, then the steerable motor
will be used to change from rotational to steering mode. The string is worked up and down a few times without
rotation to remove the torsion from the drill string. The tool face, the direction of the motors set angle, is read
off. When the drilling bit is then set down there will be a twisting of the drill string due to the reactive torque from
the rotor. This must be adjusted from the surface by locking the string in a position to give the correct tool face
orientation. Then, based on experience, a certain number of metres will be steered before engaging rotation
mode again. The final confirmation of the change in direction will not be made until drilling ahead sufficiently far
that the MWD sensors have passed the section drilled in steering mode.

MWD/LWD

3.4 The Borehole (A Typical North Sea Design)

This section gives a foundation for assessing and choosing BHA equipment for various phases of drilling a well.
We use as our base case a typical North Sea well, using a standard design. It is true that wells are being drilled
with different hole sections and casing which differ from this standard program but these are exceptions caused
by particular hole problems.
In exploration and production drilling the requirements for well trajectory and section length will vary
enormously. There are simple designs for short vertical wells to very long reach production wells requiring
considerable well information gathering. Even then there is a recognisable basic design.
Typical well design
Spudding the well and drilling the various sections involves different techniques and equipment depending on
what conditions are met, including whether it is a wellhead on the sea-bed or on a platform. The purpose of this
section is to give a basic understanding of drilling and drilling equipment used in the various sections. To focus
our attention we will look at a platform well which requires simpler equipment, but new challenges with some
extreme well trajectories.
The basic principles and purpose of the different sections are the same, the difference lies in handling the
wellhead. Hanging off the casing and installing the seal elements is easier to relate to. The same applies to
completion of the well for production.
After studying this chapter the student will be able to:
explain the drill string composition for drilling the various sections
give reasons for the choice of equipment for different situations
explain the purpose of individual components of the drill string
explain function and operation of equipment used in various steerable drilling systems
explain the principle and methods used to drill with steerable BHAs
explain the methods used for core drilling
explain the equipment and methods used for fishing operations
assess the various methods used to drill multi-lateral wells

3.4.1 Drilling for the 30" Conductor

The purpose of setting a 30" conductor is that it should:
hold back the surface formations for further drilling
create a foundation for the first casing (20") which will give the well pressure integrity and with the 20"
casing, create a foundation for the rest of the installations to be done in the well
lead the return mud back to the drilling facility when drilling the 26" section
form a diverter system essential for controlled removal of gas, if shallow gas problems are encountered
in the 26" hole, along with the 30" conductor
In this phase we find the biggest difference in operations and equipment between sea-bed wells and wells on
fixed installations. For sub-sea wells a pilot hole is drilled from a template which is later opened up to 36"
diameter. Then a conductor pipe is run to landing in the template and cemented.
From a bigger (Condeep-type) platform, another method is to drive the conductor down by the 'drill and drive
method', alternating between drilling the pilot hole and driving with a hammer. All drilling in this phase will be
without mud returns to the drilling facility. Alternatively a full borehole can be drilled and cemented as for subsea wells.

In each slot on the platform it is usual to have a pre-installed length of conductor from the lowest level of the
main structure to the lowest level of the deck structure. A general operation sequence would then be:

Recover the pre-installed 30" conductor, using a short drill string and handling tool, then hang off the
conductor in the slips below the drill floor.
Drill out any cement plug in the lowest main structure with a 26" bit and drill string with a stiff pendulum
then open the hole through the plug to 36" with an under-reamer. It is possible to run this as a BHA. A
26" roller cone bit is installed on the required extension in front of the under-reamer instead of a
bullnose.
Make up one or more lengths of conductor and lower the conductor string to the sea-bed. If there is a
very loose bottom, a hydraulically driven hammer can be used with a chaser joint on top of the
conductor to drive the conductor some way into the sea-bed.
Secure the conductor (hung off the slips) and a section drilled ahead with a 26 " stiff pendulum drill
string. How much pilot hole is drilled out each time is a matter of experience. It is a matter of trial end
error for the first conductors installed. Depending upon the type of surface formations, their hardness
and stability, it will be necessary to calculate, alternating between drilling and driving 2-6 times, to get
the conductor deep enough into the sea-bed. The return mud or water in this phase goes to the sea
through a port collar in one of the upper pre-installed conductor lengths.
When the drilling sequence is completed, drive the conductor to a point where progress is slow
(predetermined number of blows per metre) or set a length suited to access to a connector on deck
where there are tongs for making up the connections. On the last length, drive the conductor down to
the refusal point which will have been established in terms of blows per metre.
Close the port collar, then cut and hub weld a conductor on at the correct height on the wellhead deck.
This landing hub is the connection for the riser when drilling the 26" hole and landing the first wellhead
section when the 20" casing is landed.

In summary, we will need two different drill strings, one for opening of the plug/sole at the base of the steering
funnel and the other for drilling the pilot hole. For both of these, the reasons for the choice will be:

Choose the toughest components available to withstand the hard treatment when drilling out from the
installation and repeated use for the same task.
Use the best possible stiffness for the straightest possible pilot hole. This is essential since there are
many production slots close together on a production platform with centre-to-centre distance of 1.5-2.0
metres.

Example of a BHA
BHA for drilling out from platform

Components/dimensions (outer diameter)

(")

BHA under-reamer
Drill pipe
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

Thread cross-over

6 5/8 x 5

9 x Heavy weight drill pipe

3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

6 5/8

2 x Collars

Jar
3.1.5 Jars

3 x collars

Thread cross-over
3.1.3 Stabilisers

9x8

1 x collar
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

Stabiliser (string)
3.1.3 Stabilisers

Body 9 , OD 26 rubber
sleeve type

1 x collar
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

Drill bit sub with non-return

valve
3.1.4 Connectors (Subs)

Under-reamer
3.1.6 Under-reamer and
Hole Opener

Body xxxx, arms 36

Short collar or sub

3.1.2 Drill Pipe and
Collars

Roller cone bit (mill tooth

type)
3.2.2 Roller Cone Bits

26 jets balanced to UR

It is important to be clear that this is only one example of many possible solutions. It is not certain that 6 5/8"
heavy weight drill pipe is suitable on a drilling installation and it may be practically simpler to cross back over to
5" or 5 " heavy weight drill pipe and only use (HWDP) as the drill string.
The main issue is that a robust, simple and stiff drill string and BHA are required. Repeated use requires that it
is easy to set back and return to the pilot hole BHA.
Example of a 26 " BHA:
Drill string for 26" conductor pilot hole
Rotary drill string with MWD/LWD

Components/dimensions (outer diameter)

(")
Drill pipe

Thread cross-over

5 x 6 5/8

9 x Heavy weight drill pipe

6 5/8

Thread cross-over

6 5/8 x 8

2 x collar

Jar

3 x collar

Thread cross-over

8x9

Stabiliser (string)

Body 9 , OD 24

1 x collar

Stabiliser (string)

Body 9 , OD 24

1 x collar

Totco-ring

n.a.

Sub with non-return valve

Stabiliser

Body 9 , OD 24

Roller cone bit (mill tooth

type)

26 with max diameter jets

3.1 Drill String Components

3.3.1 Rotating BHA
What have we achieved, here? Two stiff and simple bottom hole assemblies where we have changed from one
to another by exchanging the lowest stand. By building up a drilling stand and an under-reamer stand we use
minimum rig time handling drill string equipment.
A comment about the stabilisers used:
Rubber sleeve-type stabilisers have rotating linings on a core and are a good choice when working
inside casing. In the way we have used them here the installed pipe lengths and threads will be
subjected to heavy impact stresses.
For drilling the pilot hole, a diameter slightly smaller than the nominal diameter has been chosen. This
reduces the risk of snagging when pulling out the BHA as well as being stiff enough.

3.4.2 Drilling the 26" Hole for the 20" Casing

From the 30" conductor the next section will be drilled for setting the 20" casing to a set depth. The surface
casing has clear purposes in that:
It is the first real casing which is set, so that it gives the necessary strength to contain any pressures in
the formations below. When the 20" casing is set, we have the possibility to secure the well's integrity by
shutting in the well in a pressure control scenario.
The finished cemented 20" casing together with the conductor forms the foundation for the wellhead and
the weight loadings of later casing strings, the valve tree and production tubing.
The method for drilling this well, and thereby deciding on the composition and size of the drill string and BHA
will vary somewhat. There is the choice between drilling the 26" hole directly or via a 17 " (or smaller) pilot
hole. This can be crucial if hole angle is to be built or not and the existence of shallow gas in the area. In the
latter case a smaller pilot hole gives lower hole volume and is therefore easier to control.
A simple vertical well will require a stiff pendulum and 26" drilling bit as a natural choice and the drill string and
BHA is chosen to give the straightest possible hole down to a specified depth.
3.3.1 Rotating BHA
3.4 The Borehole (A Typical North Sea Design)
For the production well we are using as an example, the KOP will lie in that part of the well and therefore also
the initial part of the build-up section. It might therefore be more natural to choose a drill string for drilling a 17
" pilot hole with a steerable motor combined with MWD for directional control. After this has been drilled the

hole can be opened to 26" with a hole opener.

The KOP will be selected on the basis of the location lithology (geological conditions) and how quickly the
angle up to the well's main deviation (sail angle) is to be to built. By selecting a steerable motor with a certain
set angle, this can be done, using the same BHA:
Drill the straight sections, vertical or angled, by rotating the drill string from the surface.
Fairly easily begin building hole angle, even in relatively loose formations.
Have good control of the changes in inclination and azimuth in the well by altering the length per stand
drilled in steering mode.
The stiffness of a 20" casing which will be set later will limit the DLS which is allowed. Therefore the choice of
set angle for the motor along with the lengths of the steered sections is decisive for following the planned well
trajectory.
3.3.2 Steerable Motors
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

BHA for directionally drilled 17 " pilot hole

Components/dimensions (outer diameter)

(")

BHA steerable motor

Drill pipe

Thread connector

6 5/8

9 x heavy weight drill pipe

6 5/8

2 x collars

Jar

1 x collars (NM)

Stabiliser (string NM)

Body 8, OD 12

1 x collars (NM)

Stabiliser (string NM)

Body 8, OD 17

MWD

CDR

Stabiliser

Body 9 , OD 17

Steerable motor with fixed

set angle
(Navidrill AKO x.x)

12

Roller cone bit

17 , jets balanced against

the required pressure drop

It is important to remember that this is an example on how to assemble a BHA and motor. We have selected
equipment from BHI (motor) and Anadrill (CDR/MWD) for the example. The components are assembled with
those points we commented upon in focus. The supplier will assemble a motor based on simulations and
experience from nearby platforms and fields.
Some final comments on this BHA:
Choice of drilling bit will be based on supplier specifications, data and experience. The choice of jets
and pressure loss across the bit focuses on the pressure difference between the internal pipe and
annulus which the MWD requires to operate, as well as the principle of 'maximum flow for maximum
hole cleaning'.
The BHA used can be made more flexible by inserting a variable stabiliser instead of a fixed one directly
above the motor.
Here a stabiliser with smaller OD has been installed uppermost. This is because of the requirement to
have as many collars as possible without a stand-off, as well as there being experience which indicates
that this will ease the work of coming out of the hole, if circulating and rotating (back reaming).
The choice of drill pipe and heavy weight pipe is again for flexibility. We have chosen a combination
which most drilling facilities are able to handle. Others will perhaps be limited to 5" drill string by surface
equipment. Some rigs will also be set up for use of 6 5/8" DP.
When the pilot hole, in this case 17 ", has been drilled it must be opened out to 26" diameter. The choice of
BHA will now include a hole opener with arms set to drill 26 " diameter. Below we show a typical BHA with hole
opener:
BHA for hole opener

Components/dimensions (outer diameter)

(")
Drill pipe

Thread connector

6 5/8

12 x heavy weight drill pipe

6 5/8

2 x collars

Jar

3 x collars

Thread connector

9x8

1 x collar

Stabiliser (string)

Body 9 , OD 24

1 x collar

Drill bit sub with non-return

valve

Hole opener
3.1.6 Under-reamer and
Hole Opener

Body xxxx arms 26

Bullnose
3.1.6 Under-reamer and
Hole Opener

Jet balanced to jets on the

cutters

3.1 Drill String Components

On the BHA chosen we see that the hole opener terminates in a bullnose, a rounded end with or without a jet.
This equipment is supplied with recommended jet size to distribute the mud supply over the jets and through
the bottom of the string. This will improve the cleaning and jetting around the BHA. In the dimensions and
depths used in the example this is essential because we can encounter loose formations and produce large
volume of cuttings. A calculation of the difference in volume per metre of a 17 " and 26" hole illustrates the
point graphically. Many a driller has experienced that opening a pilot hole with a hole opener or under-reamer is
not straightforward and the unexpected can happen.
The main purpose of the bullnose is to guide the hole opener to follow the pilot hole. Due to the potential for the
pilot hole caving in, a part worn drill bit may be considered for this purpose. This is a solution to be considered
with care as the cutting action may cause an unplanned side track. The result of this may be that the hole has
to be plugged back and the hole section restarted.

3.4.3 Drilling the 7 " Hole for 3 3/8" Casing

After the 20" casing has been set, cemented and tested, drilling the 17 " section is the next step in the
program. The choice of drill string/BHA will be assessed on:
Angle building through the section. The tolerances for DLS are somewhat higher but cannot go to
extreme values. It is important to achieve an even build, which will be specified by the drilling program.
Each sharp DLS in the well will create additional friction, resulting in increased torque on the string
through all the other hole sections. For long wells, where the operating limits are being challenged to the
maximum, this may make the difference between achieving TD or failing.
The length of the section and the geological conditions (lithology). These are essential factors for the
correct choice of drilling bit and quality of stabiliser. A 17 " section in a relatively long reach well will
itself be long and it is an obvious aim to complete this section with the fewest possible runs.
Steerable motors will most often be the preferred choice in this section. Rotating steerable bottom hole systems
have, since the late 1990's, become a very good alternative. This will be illustrated by the choice of BHA in
paragraph 3.4.4, which discusses the drilling of the 12 " hole section. The consideration of the composition,
reasons for the choices and purposes of individual components are the same as for the drilling of the 17 "
pilot hole in the previous section.
Reference for BHA:
3.3.2 Steerable Motors
3.4.2 Drilling the 26" Hole for the 20" Casing
We shall now look more closely at the factors which are of importance for what we choose to drill with and the
methods for drilling a 17 " hole section:
Geological conditions (lithology). Increasing hardness of the formations, alternating clays and sands,
locally hard stringers of limestone and formation stability in relationship to hole angle are some of the
considerations in choosing a drill string.
Hole cleaning is critical for successful drilling of this section. Drilling/BHA must therefore be designed for
greatest possible liquid throughput, whilst ensuring sufficient choking to give the required pressure
differential between the string and the annulus for the MWD to operate.
Other questions that must be asked in this context are:
How fast can we rotate at surface, that is, what is the maximum rpm that the motor can tolerate at a set
angle?
How long intervals and how often must we steer (no surface rotation) and how long intervals can we
rotate?

It is essential for hole cleaning that we can rotate frequently at the highest possible rpm. At the same time,
quicker building of the angle in steering mode requires higher set angles for the motor, which in turn means that
the motor can only withstand lower rpm.
What we are seeking to illustrate with this is that choosing a BHA and components is a constant balance of
several aims. A selection which gives positive benefits for one variable may often give a negative effect for
another.
This can be complex so it is essential to refer to all the experience of the operators, contractors and service
companies in planning, and to be clear on what is to be achieved with the equipment selected.

3.4.4 Drilling the 12 " hole for 9 5/8" casing

In a standard production well, the 12 " section is normally designed as the last section before drilling into the
reservoir. There will normally be relatively good formation strength with respect to mud weight and pressure
control. The section can be relatively long depending upon the hole inclination. It is also common that this is a
holding section with a constant inclination and azimuth. Depending upon the well profile selected, there may be
a build section at the beginning of this section.
The conclusion of this section of the plan may be to:
enter the underlying reservoir at the same angle
enter the underlying reservoir at a lower inclination by using a drop section at the end of the section
enter the reservoir almost horizontally for onward horizontal drilling in the reservoir by using a build
section at the end of this hole section
The choice of drill string is determined by the planned well trajectory. The requirement is a BHA which
maintains inclination/azimuth in rotation mode. It must have good steering properties for correction of the well
trajectory when inclination and azimuth deviate from that planned, and it must be relatively easy to steer even
at large measured depths. We also want to be able to rotate as much as possible at high rpm, as long sections
challenge long lifetimes for bits and the steerable system.
During the 1990's a new system entered the market, a rotating steerable BHA which combined all the
properties mentioned above.
Two options of steerable system will be described: a combination of steerable motor and MWD and rotating
steerable down-hole system:

3.4.4.1 Combination of Steerable Motor and MWD

This BHA is familiar from earlier hole sections. It is a robust assembly with lifetime and reliability enough to run
in a long hole section. Correction of the well trajectory normally goes well but in high reach wells (extended
reach drilling) can be challenging to achieve a planned reduction or increase in the well's inclination.
Steered intervals and limited rpm will prejudice good hole cleaning. Optimisation for maximum pump rate is one
equally important factor, so by the correct choice of drill string and motor/bit jets, such a BHA can be good to
work with.
Other factors that support our selection are:
PDC drilling bit dominates the bit choice for this section.
3.2.3 Poly-diamond Crystalline (PDC) Drill Bits
We have chosen to include an accelerator to amplify the jar. The accelerator amplifies the blows when
operating the jar. Our choice in this case is due to the length and inclination of the well and the resulting
increased friction and stretch in the drill string.
3.1.5 Jars

The choice of MWD and LWD is in addition to the need for directional data and basic GR and Res. logs
also dictated by the need for reliable verification of drilling in reservoir rock or not.
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

BHA for directionally drilled 12 " section

Alternative 1:
BHA steerable motor

Components/dimensions (outer diameter ")

Drill pipe
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and Collars

Thread connector
3.1.4 Connectors (Subs)

6 5/8

6 x Heavy weight drill pipe

3.1.2 Drill Pipe and Collars

6 5/8

Accelerator
3.1.5 Jars

6 x Heavy weight drill pipe

(HWDP)

6 5/8

1 x collar
3.1.2 Drill Pipe and Collars

Jar
3.1.5 Jars

7 7/8

1 x collar

2 x collar (NM)

Isonic
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

MWD
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

CDR
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

Stabiliser
3.1.3 Stabilisers

Body 8, OD 12

Steerable motor with fixed set 9 with 12 1/8 integrated

angle
stabiliser
(Navidrill AKO x.x)
PDC drilling bit
3.2.3 Poly-diamond
Crystalline (PDC) Drill Bits
3.3 Directional Drilling and Steerable Drilling Systems
3.4.2 Drilling the 26" Hole for the 20" Casing

3.4.4.2 Rotating Steerable Down-hole System

12 , jets balanced for

required pressure loss

Here we will introduce a new concept developed during the 1990's, which is a system that can be continuously
steered in rotation mode. The aim is:
good steering and holding characteristics
good hole cleaning
a
robust
and reliable system

Development of these steerable systems has been a big step in the required direction and most of the
requirements have been achieved. Continuous rotation gives a higher average rate of penetration as the result
of a number of factors:
No steering mode without rotation of the drill string. Common to all the systems is faster drilling in
rotation mode than in steering mode as we know from drilling with steerable motors.
No time used in getting a BHA to slide in steering mode. This can be a problem with motor drilling
especially in changing geological conditions. Getting the correct steering with a motor in long wells can
be a big and time consuming challenge.
Continuous rotation gives continuous good hole cleaning. There will be little need for reaming and
circulating before each connection to maintain the transport of cuttings up the annulus, so saving time.
Why do we then not always choose such systems? The answer lies in product development, reliability and
costs. We are discussing relatively new equipment with expensive components, not least the surface
equipment, so costs are higher. We know that the systems work and a further development in reliability and
cost levels would result in their more frequent use than at present.
In this 12 " section we will use a Powerdrill-900 (PD-900). A typical BHA for this section is:
Steerable BHA for 12 " section,
Alternative 2
BHA steerable down-hole system

Components/diameter (outer diameter ")

Drill pipe

Thread connector

6 5/8

6 x Heavy drill pipe

6 5/8

Accelerator

2 x Heavy weight drill pipe

(HWDP)

6 5/8

2 x collars (NM)

Jar

1 x collars (NM)

CDR
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

MWD
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

Stabiliser (NM)

Body 9 , OD 12 1/8

PD-900
3.3.4 Rotating Steerable

9 with integrated
stabilisation /control

Bottom Hole Systems

PDC drilling bit

12 , jets balanced for

required pressure loss
3.3.4 Rotating Steerable
Bottom Hole Systems

3.4.5 Drilling of 8 " Hole for 7" Casing

Also in this section we will select a rotating steerable down-hole system. AutoTrak has been on the market long
enough to be dominant in this technology. The system is a totally integrated package which replaces the downhole motors and MWD/LWD. The whole drill string rotates except for a non-rotating sleeve just above the
drilling bit where three hydraulic ribs give sideways force against the hole wall.
Together with the steering unit is a fully integrated MWD with directional data, gamma ray/resistivity log and
vibration measurements. In addition, the inclination sensor is close to the drill bit so that trajectory angle
changes are quickly observed. The MAP-sub sends Equivalent Circulating mud Density (ECD) continuously
and it is also possible to include a neutron porosity log.
Autotrak has a computer-controlled steering and communication system. All communication with the Autotrak in
the hole is done by negative mud pulse telemetry via the ByPass Actuator (BPA) which is mounted by the stand
pipe.
A representative down-hole string looks like this:
Steerable BHA for 8 " reservoir section,
Alternative 1
BHA steerable down-hole system

Components/dimensions (outer diameter ")

Drill pipe

2 x heavy drill pipe

Accelerator

9 x heavy drill pipe

Jars

3 x heavy drill pipe

Thread connector

2 x NMCSDP

Isonic

Stop sub
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

MAP
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

Autotrak
3.3.4 Rotating Steerable Bottom Hole
Systems

6 with integrated
stabilisation and control

Bit sub

6 5/8

PDC drill bit

8 , jets balanced for

required pressure loss

3.3.4 Rotating Steerable Bottom Hole Systems

Autotrak and pressure pulse manifold

3.4.6 Core Drilling

There are, or have been tried, several advanced techniques for the drilling and recovery to surface of reservoir
core with the minimum of disruption. The basic idea of all of these systems is an inner pipe which captures the
core and an outer pipe which transfers the weight, rotation and circulation to the core drilling bit. There are
systems which shut the core in and seal in the original formation pressure (pressure coring). There are also
systems which recover the original formation fluids as the core passes into a gel-filled liner, where the pores
are sealed (gelled coring). In order to keep a poorly consolidated core intact, there are systems where the inner
pipe is replaced by a flexible rubber liner (rubber sleeved coring).
Core drilling equipment
Conventional core drilling is still the most used. The principle for this is the basis of all coring techniques. The
equipment will vary, especially the choice of the inner liner, or core barrel. The inner steel liner was for a long
time dominant but gradually aluminium and glass fibre, have also become commonplace. These have
operational advantages giving significant time savings. They are light to handle, simple to assemble and easy
to cut into sections for transport. Glass fibre barrels are temperature resistant to 120C and are supplied in
standard 9 m lengths.
We will use core drilling in the 8 " hole as an example, in which the dimension of the BHA for core drilling
(core barrel) is given as 6 " x 4" x 120', that is, 6 " for the outer diameter of the pipe, 4" for the inner
diameter of the pipe (the diameter of the core being cut) and 120' for the total length of the core drilling
assembly. Up to 180' (48 m) lengths have been attempted successfully, but as standard we would normally run
between 60-120'.
Recovery, or the retrieved result in percentage, gives the length of core taken in relation to the length of core
actually drilled.
The safety joint at the top of the core drilling barrel makes it possible to pull out of the hole with the inner pipe, if
the outer pipe becomes stuck in the hole. The threads on the safety joint also simplify the break out assembly
of a new inner liner.
In the transition to the swivel below there is a seat for a mid-bearing washes. This allows the inner pipe to be
extended or shortened to give better adjustment between the lower shoe/core catcher and the core drill bit. The
swivel has mud-cooled bearings and allows the outer pipe to rotate around the static inner pipe.
The landing seat for the ball and pressure release plug allow circulation through the inner pipe before coring
starts. When the ball is dropped and lands in the seat, the mud flow is diverted through the circulation ports and
between the outer and inner pipes down to the coring bit.
When making up a new tool joint at the surface, rotation and pumping is stopped. When the bottom is pulled
off, the core catchers are activated. The core is broken by pulling up and the core catchers task is to hold the
core sample in position inside the inner pipe.

The most common problem with coring is that the sample becomes jammed before the inner pipe is completely
filled. This happens most frequently at the entrance where the core catcher is located. The reason may be
technical failure of the core catcher, or other equipment, but it is also often formation related. The changing
formations between sand and shale, swelling clays or unstable formation which break under the core's own
weight can also be the cause of jamming. In such situations, drilling can be attempted by going through the
operation sequence as for starting up after making up a pipe connection, but usually the core retrieved and
pulled out of the hole has to be accepted.

3.4.7 Fishing Operations

Parts of the drill string or other lost equipment can unintentionally be left in the hole and fishing it out must be
considered. Fishing is not always carried out. Sometimes it will be more economical to set a cement plug over
the fish and side track around it later.
This becomes a matter of assessing rig rate in relation to the costs of lost equipment and the probability of
retrieving the fish on the first trip into the holes. Sometimes it is essential to recover the equipment. It may be a
radioactive source in a BHA which is down there or a BHA which is giving communication between two
reservoir intervals, which is undesirable. It may also be extremely expensive components such as an Autotrak
or Powerdrive combined with an advanced MWD/LWD assembly.
The reason for equipment remaining in the hole can be:
drilling/BHA breaks, often at a tool joint, due to fatigue, overloading or washing out
tool joint in the drilling/BHA backs off due to kick-back following high rotational torques
drilling/BHA shot due to differential sticking (stuck pipe situation)
lose loose equipment or tools in the hole from the drill floor
drill cone from a roller cone bit
losing
wire or wireline equipment during logging or surveying

Fishing is a specialised branch of drilling technology. A number of standard fishing tools have been developed
to deal with most situations which occur, but occasionally special tools must be manufactured for a specific job.
The success of a fishing operation demands detailed knowledge of the hole and experience to interpret what is
physically happening in the hole, from the limited data available.
In performing a drilling operation, planning is important as equipment can and does get left in the hole. Once
this situation has occurred the probability for success often depends on how soon fishing operations begin. If
something is lost or jammed in the casing this is not as important, but in open hole it becomes essential. Drill
cuttings drop down around the equipment, unstable formations cave in and barite drops out of the drilling fluid.
All these are factors which make the chances of success less as time passes. This is also vital when the drill
pipe is differentially stuck, when the pressure difference between the formation pressure and the borehole
hydrostatic pressure holds the drill string fast.
What can be done to be best prepared? Most important is to select and dimension equipment to perform the
drilling procedure which gives lowest probability of getting a fish in the hole. Once the worst has happened
there are three important matters:
The drilling facility must be equipped with a standard fishing package. This means that on the
installation there must be a store of equipment to be used for fishing for all diameter sizes going into the
drill string and BHA components.
All equipment and components in the drilling and BHA must be accurately measured for length, outer
and inner diameter and length of the fishing neck. It is good practice to have a scaled drawing of each
component available.
Central personnel (drilling leader, drilling manager and driller) must be trained to use the available tools.
The simplest form of fishing operation is to run a magnet with an outer diameter suited to the inner diameter of
the casing or hole. This is essentially routine if one loses smaller items down the hole or casing before having
drilled it out. This may be hand tools, or smaller pieces of drilling or completion equipment. It is also wise to try
a magnet when the cones on a roller cone bit have been lost.

After being on the bottom and caught the fish, it is essential not to rotate the drill pipe in the hole during tripping
out. Under every form of fishing operation it is also good practice to pull the fishing string slowly and avoid
quick starts and sudden stops.
If parts of the drill string are lost due to breaks or toll joints have backed off, the choice is almost always to go in
with an overshot as shown in the illustration. If there is any possibility of a tool joint having backed off it may be
possible to catch the fish by screwing it together again. This possibility must be assessed for each case. The
hole geometry and what position the upper end of the fish has in the hole will decide if this is possible.
Before going in with an overshot, how the top of the fish looks must be evaluated. We have already mentioned
the importance of accurate measurements of drill string components in order to assemble the correct sized
tools for the fishing string. If the component pulled out reveals breaks due to washing out, twisted off during
rotation or pulling it is still important to assess how clean the break is. Success at the first attempt depends
upon choosing the correct dimension and that the diameter of the top of the fish is known.
If the lower part of that part of the drill string that has been retrieved is flattened, burred up or ripped outwards,
it may be possible to dress off the top. This means running in a mill and milling the top of the fish with the aim
of making a fishing neck of known outer diameter.

3.4.7.1 Overshot
Overshot
The Overshot (see illustration above) is constructed for gripping and sealing around the top of a pipe length
which is sticking up. The lip guide has the biggest diameter and is made for lifting the top fish out from the hole
wall using careful rotation, so that the top of the fish is led into the gripping section.
The gripping section is a spring-shaped spring grapple or basket shaped basket grapple. Internal knife
threads bite into the steel of the fish when it enters over and weight is applied.
The grapple seal seals around the top of the fish and allow us to circulate down through the fish. If this for any
reason is not desirable, the overshot can be run without the seal. The lengths of the various components must
be adapted to the available fishing neck. The grapple depth and the distance to the guide from the spring
grapple can be varied with different available lengths for the overshot's components.

3.4.7.2 Fishing Spear

Fishing spear
The fishing spear can be useful, especially when fishing for larger diameter pipes, or the fish's outer geometry
makes it impossible to attach to with an overshot. The gripping part is spear shaped and equipped with knife
threads which bite into the steel internally in the top of the fish when weight is applied. Otherwise the same
basic principle applies of assessing how the top of the fish looks for possibly going in and milling it off.
When the fish is part of the BHA it will at times be necessary to work down over a longer length of the fish. If we
imagine a tool joint on an overshot elongated. If we imagine a tool joint on an overshot extended with one or
more pipe lengths and the guide replaced by with a burn shoe we have built a wash pipe assembly. We then
have a bottom hole string for washing/rotating over a section of a BHA.
The burn shoe can be inset with PDC cutters for drilling away formation and cuttings or a coarse tungsten
carbide layer for milling the metal. One burn shoe with tungsten carbide can have various forms, straight, wavy,
or saw toothed, depending upon what needs to be milled away and the operator's experience.

Wash pipe assembly

Based on the experience that fish can get stuck, especially strong jars with accelerators have been developed
for use in freeing them. A bumper sub in the BHA is also preferred for fishing.
For fishing smaller pieces of junk, a magnet is not suitable due either to the shape of the scrap or because it is
not magnetic. A reverse-circulating junk basket can then be employed instead.
Ports in the junk collector lead the return fluid flow via a closed chamber where smaller components fall out and
are collected when circulating. The return fluid passes freely through the return port whilst the solid
components are held back and remain inside the chamber so that they can be retrieved to surface.
Fishing for cable tools is a separate well operations field. Variation in fishing tools and what there is to be fished
for is extremely wide. We show a simple fishing spear for retrieving lost cable with the drill string, if during
logging or other cable operation, has suffered a breakage and lost the logging equipment and some cable in
the hole. Simple and effective, the hooks grip the collapsed coils of cable.
To summarise:
A detailed assessment must be made as to whether to fish at all. If not other criteria (regulations,
reservoir conditions) dictate that fishing must be done, the costs of doing so and the probability for
success on the first trip are absolutely decisive.
Have accurate measurements available for what is to be fished. This includes an assessment of the
condition of the top of the fish.
Have available a package of fishing tools on the drilling facility. Check particularly for availability of an
overshot for all pipe diameters being run in the hole.
Choose the correct tools. Use expert assistance when available. The chances of success in fishing
operations increase with the depth of experience available. Few operations involve so many
uncertainties and field experience is vital in this type of operation.

3.4.8 Multi-lateral Drilling

Multi-lateral drilling, in principle, involves drilling several wells from one central borehole. The technology
available can be used in existing wells where milling out must be done directionally from an existing casing, or
it can be designed for this application in new wells. In new wells a landing cross, with a window below which
can be opened under controlled conditions, will be pre-installed.
Several such two-way crosses can be installed in the same well, allowing the well to have several branches
above each other, each cross being installed with its own orientation key. This allows a controlled choice, and
aim for, a branch for later intervention. The connection technology is what separates multi-lateral wells from
conventional wells. Multi-lateral drilling is performed with a rotating BHA and/or the usual steerable systems
discussed in this module. Coiled tubing drilling has also been done to drill multi-lateral wells using a down-hole
motor on coiled tubing.
Multi-lateral well
Multi-lateral wells are divided into six levels depending upon the functionality of the connections:

Several single, open-hole side tracks out from the last casing above the reservoir. This method can be
used in very stable formations; as a production well this is a form of open-hole completion.
One or more open-hole side tracks from a central borehole, where the central one has a casing
installed.
One or more side tracks with casing and mechanical connections to the casing in the central borehole.
There is no requirement for sealing of this mechanical connection.
As for level 3 but there is a requirement for sealing (with cement) of the mechanical connection.
Same as level 4 but there is a requirement for mechanical sealing of the mechanical connection.
The mechanical connection is a cross with the casing which divides into two at a split-off. In contrast to
levels 2-3-4-5 we obtain two equal boreholes below the cross.

4 Instrumentation and Drilling Parameters

Measuring and recording the quality of borehole parameters is essential for our knowledge of the borehole
condition. Measuring instruments take the pulse of the hole condition at any time and the data collected gives
us essential experience on which to base planning for future drilling.
This section deals with the instrumentation and measurement of parameters directly related to the borehole.
Monitoring instruments, for surface equipment (electric motors, pressurised components) are not part of this. In
general, for measurement and recording of data we are dependent upon the following value chain operating
effectively:

Sensor is the collective name for devices which respond to the medium they are measuring by
producing a primary signal. These devices will respond to thermal, mechanical (motion/pressure),
electro-magnetic, optical or radioactive influences.
Along with sensors for some instrument packages there will be a need for converters or amplifiers for
the signals to effectively transmit them for conversion and display.
Transmitters transfer signals from sensor to display. Signals can be electrical, mechanical,
(pressure/pressure pulse in liquid), acoustic or optical.
Displays are instruments for the reading of data. They can be mechanical or electrical. A converter
combined with a display instrument may be required to read comprehensible values.
Data storage can be anything from manual notation to computer-based continuous recording.

4.1 Recording of Borehole Parameters

Recording of borehole parameters embraces measuring, reading and storing of data. In the Norwegian sector it
is a requirement to have two independent systems for measuring parameters. This requirement is applied
differently on different installations. It can be interpreted and used such that the whole value chain must consist
of two independent systems. This could mean having two sets of sensors, transmitters, and display
instruments. This allows for 100% secondary coverage should any part of the chain fail.
The requirement is also applied by having two different transfer and display systems for the same sensor. For
example a weight sensor on the dead line anchor on the drill floor measures the force in the drilling line and is
the basis for recording all the axial tension applied to the drill string. The primary registration takes place in the
driller's cabin. The driller depends on the correct reading in order to perform his tasks correctly. If a mud logger
is connected to the same weight cell it will record the same signal on his separate display system. The mud
logger's data will normally be transmitted to a display at various parts of the rig including the driller's cabin. If a
fault occurs in the sensor, this error will be conveyed to both display systems. We have no way of discovering
the faulty data from this sensor so the systems are not independent.
If, however, there is a separate tension monitor on the drill line for transferring separate signals back to the mud
logger, then a difference will trigger a data check comparing the driller's and mud logger's data. Another
problem is that connection of a secondary system to a primary sensor can itself cause an error as the fault in a
secondary system display can transfer errors to the sensor.
Parameters which are recorded and applied directly for the performance of drilling operations are in addition to
the displays based on measuring the three basic units, namely force, volume and length. In order to read the
required borehole parameters we measure the following eleven properties:
tension in the drilling line => weight on the drill bit in metric tonne
pumping pressure on the mud pump => bar
pump
rate out of the pump => litre per minute and strokes per minute

fluid balance for mud in/mud out of the borehole => m3

 rotation speed of the drill string => revolutions per minute

applied torque on the drill string => kiloNewton metre
applied torque for tool joint connection and break out => kNm
upper tool joint height above the drill floor => metre
pipe tally=> metre (and how many)
mud weight => SG
rate
of
penetration
=> metres per minute

In addition to these are measurements of gas in the drilling fluid in returns and mud temperature.
Tension in the drilling line is calibrated for each time it is cut, corrected for known weight of surface equipment
(travelling block, top drive) and goes directly to display on the weight indicator, giving weight on the drill string.
Errors are corrected for against a neutral weight. They give the weight on the bit as a secondary direct reading.
Pump pressure is measured by a sensor on the pressure side of the pump and on a high pressure manifold on
the mud line on the drill floor. It is important to correlate the theoretical pressure calculations, with the sensor
location. What is actually measured is the pressure loss (friction) in the large circulating system. If we take the
two measurement points mentioned there will be a marked difference between the two measurements for two
reasons :

The sensor on the manifold on the mud line on the drill floor does not measure pressure loss from the
pump to the manifold, but the sensor on the mud pumps does.
There is usually a marked height difference between the mud pumps and the manifold on the drill floor.
On the biggest fixed installations it may be 30 m or more. The mud pump sensor registers hydrostatic
pressure of the drilling fluid in addition to the pressure losses throughout the system.

Pump rate is measured mechanically by a stroke counter on the mud pump or is read directly from the
instrument. The signal is sent to the computer and this converts the reading into a rate in L/min which can be
displayed directly onto a screen. This conversion is calibrated to the cylinder volume, by stroke x cross
sectional area, The pumps will in practice deliver a fraction less than the theoretical volume per stroke. The
difference between the actual and the theoretical expressed as a percentage gives the pump efficiency. The
expected efficiency is normally around 95-98%.
The liquid balance in the circulation system is recorded by volume checks on all active mud tanks in the surface
system, and by measuring the returned volume from the borehole. Level sensors are located in the operating
mud tanks and there is an additional sensor for return flow in the drilling mud return line. Accurate control of the
total volume is essential for good well control practices. Direct measurement of return flow rate gives the first
warning of well control or circulation problems.
The applied torque, either for rotation of the drill string or for connecting and breaking out tool joints, is
achieved by directly measuring the force applied to the drill string or drill pipe. The measured force is converted
to a moment by multiplying with a fixed radius of rotation, and it is this converted signal which we read as the
torque.
Height above the drill floor can be measured mechanically, optically or by pressure sensors. The height signal
is transferred for direct reading. Along with the measured length of drill string, the signal is also converted to
show the hole's measured depth, bit depth and possibly the distance between drill bit to bottom. Changes in
height per time unit are recorded as running rate in metres per time unit or time per length unit and as ROP in
metres per hour when actually drilling.
Accuracy in measurements, drill pipe tally and components in the drill string is essential.
Driller's cabin
Driller's instrument console

4.1.1 Rig's Own Equipment

The drilling facility as we know it is equipped with its own systems, irrespective of the type of installation it is
located upon. It consists of the following two parts:
Direct measurement of pressure, force, and length for reading of transferred or converted signals to the
driller's cabin, where the driller can read off vital parameters as listed previously.
Recording system for drilling data, known as Drilling Data AQnuisition System (DDAS) is a computerbased data recording system for drilling parameters. The same measurements are converted to
electrical signals which are read into and stored in the computer system. The system is equipped with a
number of different screen configurations for different situations, so that information of different types
can be presented as curves as a function of time. Using this, operators can follow the trends of
significance to the operation.

4.1.2 Mud Logger's Equipment

Measurement and storage of borehole data is done in parallel by a dedicated company, specialised in this area.
Ideally the measurements should be independent of the drilling facility's own systems, including the use of
separate sensors. The mud logger will use sensors for measuring the same raw data as the facility's own
system and types of sensor as detailed earlier. In some cases it may be acceptable to take signals from the
drilling facility's own sensors.
The mud logger's system of recording, storing and reporting is computer-based. All data is converted to
electrical signals providing good scope for calculation and reporting. Data is transmitted to permanent storage
and to the monitoring screens. On the screens, momentary values of given drilling parameters are shown,
together with trend curves for essential data.
Permanently stored borehole data will normally be summarised by well. A separate well report is sent to the
operator for future reference.
Data from mud logger

4.2 Directional Measurements

We have based our study on drilling production wells from a fixed installation, meaning that all boreholes are
drilled by controlled directional drilling. We have a planned well trajectory to follow and we undertake point
measurements which are used to calculate the actual well path. Controlled directional drilling was discussed in
an earlier chapter.
3.3 Directional Drilling and Steerable Drilling Systems
The data we require at a measurement point in the well trajectory is:
measured depth (metres measured from a fixed point of reference such as the rotary table mMD RT)
inclination (angle relative to the vertical, 0 = vertical, 90 = horizontal)
azimuth (direction in relationship to geographical north: 0-360)
The measured data are calculated back to the previous point, which are again calculated back to the point
before, and so on. In all measurements there is some inaccuracy or error. Since the calculations at every point
are based upon the previous point we will also accumulate some error from the previous measurement point.
The accumulated error gets bigger the further we drill. This error is illustrated by a horizontal inaccuracy ellipse
at every depth in the well trajectory. In addition there will be increasing inaccuracy in TVD.
In completely vertical wells the inaccuracy ellipse will be a circle. In directional drilled wells, the circle become
elliptical in shape, with the greatest axis across the well path and the shortest in the well's direction. The reason
is that there is more error in measuring the azimuth than inclination.
The inaccuracy ellipse is a statistical parameter and it tells us that the point lies within the ellipse with a highest
mathematical probability of lying at the centre of the ellipse.

Measurements of directional data in a directionally drilled well are mainly done by MWD, which is discussed in
an earlier chapter.
Data print-out from directional drilling.
3.3.5 MWD/LWD

4.2.1 Gyro Cable Tools

To confirm the well trajectory and obtain better precision measurements, a gyro directional measuring
instrument is run on a cable in the borehole. There are various types of gyro instruments but they all operate on
the same principle. The rotating part of the gyro registers velocity changes in a plane. When a gyro compass is
set in relation to a reference point, and the gyroscope's drift is corrected, a fairly accurate measurement of
directional changes is produced.
The advantages of gyroscopic instruments are:
They are not influenced by magnetic fields. The gyroscope can be run and give good measurements
inside or close to installed casing and inside a drill string.
They give fairly accurate measurements. The well trajectory is fixed with a high degree of accuracy and
the inaccuracy ellipse gets smaller.
The same accuracy is produced irrespective of direction relative to magnetic north. Using magnetic
instruments, boreholes in east west orientation are more accurate than in a north/south direction
The instrument for magnetic single shots is well known in the drilling industry. It is not often used on the
Norwegian Continental Shelf but is worth knowing about. The instrument can be dropped into the drill string
and retrieved using a cable when checking for deviation during drilling, or it can be dropped at the end of a hole
section and taken out when the drill string is tripped out. Both approaches assume that we have a section of
non-magnetic drill collars and a landing ring (Totco ring) in the BHA.
The instrument consists of a magnetic compass and angle measure, camera/light section with a film disc,
battery section and clock, all mounted in a non-magnetic housing. The instrument will take a picture at a preset
time after the instrument has been dropped.
The instrument for magnetic multi-shots works in broadly the same way. Instead of a film disc, a purposedesigned film is used, which is wound on following each picture. The clock is also more advanced as it is set to
go off at preset intervals from the start. This instrument is dropped into the drill string providing measurements
when it is retrieved with the BHA or it can be run on wireline.

4.3 Equipment and Borehole Problems

The importance of good data was emphasised in the previous chapter. The data collected should be viewed as
a condition report from the borehole or equipment, whether it concerns the borehole data or data from
monitoring the operational parameters on mechanical or electrical equipment.
At some level we all know about monitoring an engine, gearbox or other form of mechanical equipment. We
measure and record the temperature of a bearing, oil pressure in a lubricating system, or voltage in an
electrical circuit. We record wear on components and can, by experience, predict that a machine can operate
so long at a given rotational speed without any special problems. If we experience any problems then
measured parameters will forewarn us. The temperature slowly creeps up in the bearing, wear in a component
gradually approaches the tolerance limits, or the torque reading is slightly less stable. The operational
parameters show trends which tell a good technician what can fail.
We are going to apply this to the drilling operation where we will look at problems which can occur to the drilling
equipment and in the borehole. The situation is comparable to that outlined above. We have a range of
parameters which we measure and record. Parameters can change. They alter gradually over time or they may
change abruptly as formations change down-hole. They alter to command when we impose a change of

applied force, rotation or fluid flow. Irrespective of the scope for variation the same applies to a borehole as to
any other mechanical system. The operational parameters show trends which reveal to a professional what
may go wrong.
This cannot be emphasised too much when dealing with boreholes. Look for the trends in the recorded
parameters. Down-hole equipment can suddenly stop working, breaks can occur instantaneously, and leaks
happen suddenly, but the majority of major hole problems do not come without some warning. The warnings lie
in fault trends or changes of trend for one or more parameters. The result can be a fish in the hole, something
we will return to later in this section.
This chapter will primarily deal with equipment and formation problems in the borehole, but we will always be
mindful of the importance of surface equipment and its condition and maintenance requirements. Successful
drilling depends upon reliable operation of the drilling facility's equipment. Failure of surface equipment which
causes loss of pumping capacity, lifting or rotational capability can rapidly lead to serious down-hole problems.
These will normally have been the result of unfortunate developments in trends, which result in stuck pipe, lost
circulation or well control problems.
Preventive maintenance must be done and it is essential that modern maintenance management programs are
applied by the contractor and should include continuous condition assessment and replacement frequency. The
preventive maintenance program also needs to be actively and continually improved as one of the best
assurances for reliable, continuous operations.
A well operated drilling facility will also have a minimum of maintenance back-log work. This means that jobs
are preformed according to the preventive maintenance schedule Should there be a real technical reason for
claiming that a job recurs too frequently, then adjustment can be part of continual improvement. If there are
technical reasons for longer intervals then a review of the program is needed and the interval set according to
experience. Should equipment indicate from its condition that it is routinely being worked for too long between
jobs or that there are too many corrective maintenance interventions required, then the program also requires
review.
To summarise:
continuous operations prevent down-hole problems
down-hole problems are a large safety risk and cost large sums
an active preventive maintenance program prevents loss of continuity
the correct preventive maintenance program increases safety and reduces costs

4.3.1 Failure of Surface Equipment

Referring to measurement and recording of borehole parameters, changes in parameters, sudden or steady,
tell us of changes in the hole's or the equipment's condition. In this section we will not deal with maintenance or
repairs to surface equipment, but only focus on a sound basis for fault finding and assessment of faults.
When unexpected changes in parameters occur, with no apparent explanation, check the surface equipment.
How this can be done depends on the situation. A golden rule is first to eliminate any prospect of faulty surface
equipment before pulling out of the hole to check the BHA.
Situation-dependent means that every situation of this type needs to be investigated individually. There is no
point in checking the surface equipment if the well suddenly kicks, or that it is clear that a second's delay can
mean the difference between a free or stuck pipe.
Here are examples of some frequent situations and what to look for when they occur:
Mud pump pressure unexpectedly reduces during drilling. This could be caused by a leakage in a mud
pump system valve. The liquid part of the pump (liners, piston or valve seats) must be checked. Also
valves to neighbouring systems need to be checked. The worst problem could be a washout requiring

pulling the string.

Pressure is lost during a pressure test or formation leak-off test. Check all valves to the cement pump
system. The worst problem could be in the formation or the cementing.
The pump pressure fluctuates violently. Check the set pressure on the pulsation dampers on the mud
pumps.
Recording changes are observed in the mud returns from the well. Check the return line sensor.
Compare the changes in return flow with total mud volume at surface. This is usually the most reliable
indication of a kick. The well should be closed.
When unexpected changes in parameters occur generally, check sensors and/or the instrument for
display error readings.
Reduced surface volume is recorded. This may be a simple transfer of mud between tanks that has not
been notified. A sensor may have failed or there may be a leak out of the active system. It could also be
caused by a kick or lost circulation.

Two independent systems for parameter recording give a basis for checking the recorded data on the rig's
systems with that of the mud logger. Continuous communication between driller and mud logger is important so
that any deviations between two sets of measurements as registered as soon as possible.
The common aspects can be summarised as follows:
Check pumps lines and valves.
Check sensors and instrument display readings and compare with a secondary system.
Ensure communication between all parties in the drilling crew.
If we go a little beyond the drilling system which this module deals with, failure of support systems could have a
major impact for ongoing drilling operations. Loss of compressed air, water or electricity (black-out) will stop all
activity. These situations will occur and can at the worst lead to critical well situations. The effort must be
concentrated on re-starting the main system or emergency systems, as fast as possible. If we are to avoid a
potential stuck pipe problem, movement of the drill string and circulation pumping capacity is vital. We will
always have the diesel-powered cement pumps as a back up independent system. Quick reactions of the
personnel involved could be developed by training with the drilling crew.

4.3.2 Failure of Down-hole Equipment

Technical drilling problems can be associated with failures in the drill string and BHA, formation properties or a
combination of all of the above. It is worth noting that equipment problems may not always mean damage to
equipment. The term includes also the wrong choice of equipment where the devices chosen are unsuitable for
the task required of them.
Choice of drilling and BHA are connected back to the extremely important planning phase where the
dimensions and selection of equipment must be based on best experience available. This is reflected in
examples we have chosen where we emphasise what needs investigation when diagnosing problems. The
solutions and possible reasons will be discussed. The analysis to find one or more reasons for the problem is
the basis for future experience which will minimise future problems.
So what tools do we have to diagnose the nature of our problem? Referring back to Chapter 4, the answer lies
in our measured and recorded drilling parameters.
4 Instrumentation and Drilling Parameters
We will discuss some of the situations which can occur, some of which are single events whilst others are more
complex with multiple causes.

4.3.2.1 Losing Part of the Drilling Assembly or BHA

This can happen suddenly during drilling by twisting off, where, for various reasons the ultimate tensile strength
or torsion limit of a component has been exceeded. This may be caused by a progressive weakening over time

due to a wash-out, mechanical damage (slips or wrench marks) or through corrosion. Parting of the drill string
can be dramatic, especially if it happens at a relatively high point in the borehole. Tensile forces, torque and
pumping rate are all tuned to the total resistance provided by a complete drilling and BHA. When such an event
occurs much of the resistance is lost shocking the system quite seriously.
A twist-off will in most cases occur in the actual pipe usually close to a tool joint where the drill pipe's length is
exposed to mechanical damage. Damage or wear on the threads at a tool joint is also a common occurrence.
To summarising the situations which can occur:
Event
Twist-off of the drill string

Symptoms
Immediate loss of weight on
the hook torque and pump
pressure

Causes

Action

Cracks due to wear and over Wash-out of the drill

loading
string or BHA.
Wrong torque when
tightening the tool joint
Wrong size of tool joints
Wash-out not detected in
time 3.4.7 Fishing
Operations

Gradual loss of pump

pressure, can start by a
slight sudden fall in
pressure when the leak
occurs

Crack formation due to wear

or overloading

Stop mud pumps

immediately

Wear in down-hole motor

and stalling

Wrong torque on tightening

the tool joint

Eliminate the possibility of

leakage in the surface
equipment. If doubt pull out
Fault in seal surface of a tool of the well
joint
Pull wet out of the hole and
continuously observe for the
leakage.
Check the whole drill
string/BHA.
If there is high resistance
and the string needs to be
worked out of the well no or
minimum circulation/rate

Stalling

Exchange the component

over and below the point of
leakage
Stalls easier, the rotor part
keeps stopping

Difficult to start with a

steering sequence

Limit of the motor's lifetime

has been reached

In advanced long reach

wells, down-hole motors at
the limit of their capacity are
Several pieces of elastomer often used, so nominal
from the stator in the mud
lifetime may not be
returns
representative

Assess the need to steer or

whether progress can be
continued in rotation mode
Assess the risk of further
directional drilling which
could lose the rotor in the
well
Pull out of the well to change
the motor

Drilling bit related

problems

- Pump pressure rises

suddenly
-tool face shifts over
- No ROP

New drill bit gives poor/no

ROP or too high torque to
be used
Sudden increase in pump
pressure

- Wear in the motor

- jammed stabiliser/drilling
bit
- Formation change, drill bit
too aggressive

Quick reaction needed:

- Turn off mud pump
- Pull off bottom
- Start up pumps
-Reset the tool face and
resume steering or drill
some in rotational mode

Wrong choice of bit

3.2.2 Roller Cone Bits

3.2.3 Poly-diamond
Crystalline (PDC) Drill Bits

Jet(s) plugged

Drill ahead at the same rate

if the pressure is acceptable.
Consider if reduced pump
rate is acceptable. When
drilling ahead sudden
pressure drop can indicate
the plug has been washed
away

Sudden reduction or stop in Formation dependent

ROP
Drill bit:
Roller cone bit can have lost
a cone, junk in the hole
could have damaged the
cutters on a PDC drill bit.

Formation-related
Gradual reduction in ROP,
problems steering
Worn drill bit
Poor/incomplete signals

Noise in the signals

Pressure loss in the hole too

small

Optimise parameters if still

drillable
Assess from case to case
check possible negative
torque development or
pumping pressure. If this is
not formation related pull the
string and change the bit
Optimise drilling parameters
and steering intervals
Can also be combined wear
of stabilisers/bit. Overall
assess life of bit, well
trajectory, remaining section
length
Check pressure loss
calculations through MWD
and in BHA under MWD with
the actual pump rate and
mud properties. If less than
specification:
-If possible increase pump
rate till required pressure
loss reached.
- Pull drill string, change jets
in bit or choke settings under
the sensors.

Check pulse dampers on

mud pumps. Check for
Failure of surface equipment leaks/loose components in

MWD signal fails

valves in mud lines

Total loss of signals
Failure in MWD, surface or
down-hole

MWD-operator check out

receiver/computer. If fault
down-hole pull out of well to
change MWD

What we have listed are some of the more common problems, symptoms and solutions which may be correct.
There are many variables and conditions in the drilling process so to give 100% correct solutions for all
problems is impossible.

4.3.3 Stuck Drill String

Stuck drill string costs the industry an enormous amount every year. It is one of the most expensive and in part
most complex unwanted events in the drilling process. The excuse often heard is " It started with us getting
stuck in the hole" There is only one thing to say about that. It is not true.
A stuck situation does not begin by the drill string or BHA becoming stuck. There are a number of problems and
combinations of problems which can lead to becoming stuck. In other words getting stuck is the result of one or
more problems related to equipment and/or the formation and in 99% of cases there has been a warning of
increased risk of getting stuck. Once the situation has developed to becoming stuck, with the string in the hole,
then we have a completely different set of problems and solutions. How are these solutions to be applied
safely, efficiently and most cheaply?
The complete picture is therefore:
The best solution is to avoid stuck pipe situations. We need to plan, select equipment for and perform drilling so
as to minimise the risk of getting stuck.
When the stuck pipe situation has occurred, quick and correct reactions are essential to get free. Assess the
situation and find what mechanisms are the cause. In this chapter we show a work sheet which summarises
many years experience, from several large operators. All leading personnel (the driller and his assistant, drilling
manager, drilling supervisor) must all be familiar with this.
If the stuck pipe is freed, the underlying reasons must be found. In 99% of cases there were warnings
indicating a problem. It may be necessary to change equipment and current practices. If the stuck pipe cannot
be freed, and we need to shoot off or back out from the drill string or BHA, then we have the problem of to fish
or not.
3.4.7 Fishing Operations
To summarise:
during planning, focus on avoiding getting stuck
react correctly on getting stuck
analyse after the problem has been solved
We will go into more detail into these phases of the problem later. First we will look at the main mechanisms
behind a stuck pipe event. We will divide them into three primary groups:
Pack off or bridge. Pack off is where formation material (cuttings or caved in solids) pack around the
drill/BHA. Bridge is where medium to large pieces of hard formation pack around the drill/BHA.
Differentially stuck pipe or differential sticking
Well bore geometry
Stuck pipe
Behind each of the main mechanisms there are several causes which lead to a stuck pipe event. In the table
below we have listed these systematically. Differential sticking is unique by being a combination of some
specific situations which lead to getting stuck.
Pack off/bridging

Differentially stuck pipe

Hole geometry

Cuttings fall out towards the bottom or Combination of a static drill

low side of the borehole causing
string/BHA in contact with a
packing off
permeable formation and creation of
a filter cake which holds the string
against the hole wall. High over
balance aggravates the situation

Stiff BHA. Drill string is too stiff to

adjust to the curve in the hole section
with the changing angle

Unstable shale falls into the borehole

and causes packing off or bridging.
Refer to definitions below the table

Key seat: Short section with high

angular changes (dog leg) where the
drill string has worn a round groove in
the hole wall. The hole diameter gets
a profile like a key hole the diameter
of the groove is too small for the BHA

Poorly consolidated formations fall

into the borehole and lead to packing
off or bridging

Micro Dog legs.

Successive angle corrections give a
sequence of dog legs which wedge
and jam the BHA

Fractured formations fall into the

borehole leading to packing off or
bridging

Edges and shelves. Formation

changes soft (wash-out) and hard
(right diameter) formations create
shelves which can jam the BHA

Soft cement creates packing off

Mobile formation.
Over-burden or tectonic stress
creates movement in plastic clays or
salt so that parts of the hole become
smaller in diameter than nominal

Cement blocks fall into the borehole

and cause jamming

Reduced hole diameter including

ovality of the borehole cross section.
Hard formation (abrasive) wears
down the diameter of the bit.
Coring cam give a hole diameter
smaller than nominal.
BHA with motor creates an oval hole,
rotating bottom hole assemblies do
not.
In all these cases a new bit or BHA
can jam

Junk from the BHA or surface can

cause jamming
We will now go into more detail regarding the mechanisms described as unstable shale. We define five different
types of underlying mechanisms. The first is chemically induced, the other four are mechanical:
Reactive shale can be the cause of packing off. This is due to chemical instability to the liquid in drilling
mud. Lack of inhibition causes water to imbibe into the shale which then expands losing strength which
causes it to fall into the borehole. Soft cuttings can readily cause packing off, which in turn can cause
stuck pipe events.
Over-pressured shale (geo-pressured shale) can be a reason for packing off. The liquid pressure inside
the shale is greater than hydrostatic pressure inside the borehole and forces from the pressure in the
formation liquid crack the shale into smaller splinter-shaped cavings. The amount, together with drill
cuttings leads to packing off, which in turn causes stuck pipe events.
Hydrostatic over-pressured shale (hydro-pressured shale) can be a cause of packing off. This occurs
over time when we drill with a high overbalance. Pressures in the formation liquids close to the borehole
are charged up by the hydrostatic overbalance, producing cracks which cause cavings which fall from
the hole wall, as for over pressured shale.
Overburden stress can be a cause of cracking and packing off. The overburden stress is a force or
stress in the formation caused by the weight of the overlying formations, (in the same way as pressure

defines forces in a liquid, the stress defines the forces inside a solid or structure). If mass is drilled away,
the hydrostatic pressure in the borehole must have sufficient force to balance the formation stress. This
will have a dimension which increases with increasing hole angle. Too low mud weight will cause the
stress to exceed the formation strength, causing cracking and cavings to fall into the borehole.
Tectonic stress can be a cause of jamming and packing off. Tectonic tresses occur as resistance to
lateral (horizontal) movement of the formations. It can be difficult to increase mud weight enough to
restrain this mechanism. This type of formation should only be open for the minimum amount of time.
This mechanism can cause slumping in sandstones and create a hole diameter which is less than
nominal.

4.3.3.1 Fractured Formations

Combinations of horizontal and lateral stress also cause faults and cracking of the formation. Around a fault,
cracking is commonly found and mechanically unstable formations fall into the borehole on drilling. This
condition is a combination of the last two mechanisms mentioned and can cause packing off and jamming.

4.3.3.2 Poorly Consolidated Formations

We are mainly concerned with sand or gravel layers where sand or gravel grains are poorly cemented together.
Relatively small forces (stress or pressure) are required to break them apart and it may not be possible to
prevent them moving by hydrostatic pressure in the borehole. Good filter cake properties can help in such
situations.

4.3.3.3 Planning and Operational Practices

Planning and review of operational practices for prevention of stuck pipe events is the most important of the
three points we introduced earlier. It cannot be emphasised too much that there are a number of problems
which cause a stuck pipe condition. We can do nothing about shale being over-pressured or that the formation
has high horizontal stresses, or that there is a fault or cracked formation, but we can plan for these things. It is
more difficult to get cuttings out of a high angle hole, but we should plan with respect to this.
We cannot give a complete cook book approach but we can list those factors which must be considered during
planning:
Choice of set depth for casing. We mentioned above several conditions which can aggravate hole
stability with time. This must be considered when choosing the setting depth so that unstable formation
exposure time is within what experience considers to be acceptable.
Choice of drill string. If we are to drill zones with high permeability, or use high hydrostatic overbalance
in permeable zones, the BHA must be assembled using a minimum of surfaces which can lie against the
formations.
Mud type and properties. The type of mud (water-based, oil-based, KCl mud) program for mud specific
gravity and rheology must be selected from available experience on formation strength, well trajectory,
and hole geometry. Choice of right drilling mud weight is essential not only for well control. Formation
strength and pore pressure are decisive factors for the selection of correct mud weight. The mud's
specific gravity must balance between the pore pressure (+ safety margin) as a minimum and formation
strength as a maximum. Where in this interval it should lie is again dependent upon on borehole stability
and considerations of differential sticking.
Pump rate. Pump rate selected, choice of equipment and hydraulic optimisation must be planned so that
there is sufficient flow velocity in the annulus. This is especially important for hole cleaning in high angle
wells, critical inclination of the hole is 45-68.
Circulation. Low inclination will mean that drill cuttings will be circulated up from the bottom of the
borehole after pumping 10-20% more than the annulus volume (bottom up). If the inclination is over 45
it may be necessary to pump, in combination with high rotation rate, 2.5 to 3 times the annulus volume
before the borehole has been adequately cleaned.
Circulating/rotating when connecting in order to move drill cuttings up the hole is good practice to avoid
getting stuck due to stopping pumping as the cuttings fall to the low side of the hole.

Rotation of the drill string/BHA. Especially for high angle wells it is important to plan for as much rotation
as possible (minimum steering intervals) and high revolutions per minute. The combination of flow
velocity and high rotation speed is essential for good hole cleaning. Rotation at 150-180 rpm should be
planned for as long as this is possible, given equipment limitations to the steerable units.
Changes in the mud column's effective pressure. Equivalent circulating density is the effective mud
weight at the bottom of the borehole. It can be very useful to include a pressure sensor in the MWD
assembly. When tripping into and out of the hole, working the string up and down when connecting must
be planned with caution. Pressure surges in the mud due to excessive velocity or sudden acceleration
can damage unstable formations and contribute to increased risk of getting stuck. It is necessary to be
careful when starting up the mud pumps, precisely due to such considerations.
Back reaming. The hole's condition, or formation stability and cleanliness, must dictate whether to back
ream/pump out of the hole. This is a good way to recover all the drilled cuttings in cases where hole
cleaning is a problem. There is a risk of damaging already unstable/loose formations with impacts or
wear against the hole wall which excessive rotation can cause.

4.3.3.4 Stuck Pipe Event

When this situation is a fact, quick and correct evaluation and reaction is absolutely essential to achieving
success. The work sheet in the illustration below gives a short summary for guidance:
Stuck pipe

4.3.3.5 Tidying Up
Whether the result is that the pipe is freed, shoots off the drill string and side tracks or shoots off and fishes the
drill string, it is good practice to return the situation to normal drilling:

Clean up the hole of drilled cuttings and formation cavings. When activating a jar, pull out of the hole
and change components in the BHA which may have been damaged by the impact forces.
Considering fishing or not has already been dealt with. When setting a cement plug for side tracking, the
exposure time of the hole above the fish must be considered. Could it be necessary to plug back the
whole section?
Undertake a thorough assessment of drilling practice before drilling ahead or side tracking the same
formation. What went wrong and what needs to be planned differently? Trends in parameters, failed
surface equipment or down-hole, or inadequate capacity to drill with optimum parameters may give the
answers needed.

4.3.4 Lost Circulation

During drilling operations it will be necessary to continually change the volume of mud. Adding base liquid,
solids, and chemicals will be balanced against the increase in hole volume. A certain loss of liquid will be
wetting the drilled cuttings and flowing over the shale shakers along with some fluid loss to permeable zones in
the hole. This will form a mass balance which we can check.
When we have a measurable loss, in excess of this mass balance, we have lost circulation to the formations.
We rank the seriousness of this down-hole problem according to the amount of lost drilling mud:
Seepage losses. Continuous loss of up to 3 m3 per hour under normal drilling. This is an indication that
we are lying in the boundary area of what the exposed formations can tolerate.
Partial loss of circulation. Continuous loss of more than 3 m 3 per hour under normal drilling operations
but we still have returning mud from the hole's annulus. This indicates that there are conditions which
cause us to lie above what the formations can tolerate.
Total loss of circulation. Tolerance limit for the pressure imposed on the formations has clearly been
exceeded and return flow from the annulus has disappeared. Mud loss can also cause the annulus level
to drop and it is not unusual for this level to fall by many tens of metres.

There is a development scale in this classification and it is then often that the first two conditions act as a
warning for the third, total loss of circulation. In order to develop this idea we are in a situation which can
develop into both a well control problem and a stuck pipe event.
Problems which can cause lost circulation can be divided into two main mechanisms:
Pressure induced fracturing. This means that the liquid pressure in the borehole exceeds the fracture
pressure for the formations.
Natural fractures/high permeability. Formations with naturally formed fractures or high permeability are
exposed to a liquid pressure in the borehole which exceeds their limit for loss.
Lost circulation
Pressure induced fractures can have various causes. The mud weight can quite simply be too high for the
exposed formations or alternatively an equivalent circulating density may be too high. The latter is the sum of
the mud weight plus the frictional losses in the annulus plus the weight of drilled cuttings in the mud. It is
important to remember that the highest ECD is at the drill bit. It is the reaction to the friction in the annulus
which gives a contribution to the ECD and the greater part of the total friction force in the drilling mud in the
annulus is between the BHA and the borehole. There is least clearance here so the higher the fluid velocity the
higher the friction. For a given point in the well, the liquid pressure in the borehole will be a maximum as the
drill bit passes. It will then decline as components with large diameter pass by.
Pressure pulses or pressure shocks in the drilling mud can also be a trigger for total or partial loss of
circulation. Pressure in the hole which builds up under a barrier, for example a bridge or pack off of cuttings or
cavings from the borehole can exceed the fracture pressure of the underlying formations, and lead to loss of
circulation. In the same way a shut-in pressure in the well can cause weak zones to fracture.
Drilling into a formation with low formation pressure can cause loss of circulation. The formation pressure, or
drilling pressure in the formation, and the fracture pressure will follow one another. If a low pressure zone is
drilled into, it will also have a lower fracture pressure than the overlying formations. If the mud used gives a
borehole pressure higher than the fracture pressure of these formations, then the outcome is obvious.
Naturally fractured and high permeability is basically the same mechanism. The borehole pressure is higher
than the strength of the weakest zone. The natural fracturing of a formation will have weaknesses due to the
already existing fracturing, so it is only a question of exceeding the fracture closure pressure for these fractures
to open them up again. A fault which has not sealed will by the same argument be a lost circulation trap.
High permeable zones are often poorly consolidated, for example sand zones where the cementing of grains is
weak. Drilling into these zones with a mud weight high enough to control the unstable shale higher up will often
lead to drilling into such sand zones with too high a mud weight. Some formations can have greater or lesser
development of voids. Drilling in with high over-balance mud in the borehole relative to the formation fluid
pressure can also be a reason for total or partial loss of circulation.
We are now beginning to recognise the causes of stuck pipe events. This brings us to the most important
aspect of preventing lost circulation, that is planning the method and operational procedures which focus on
minimising risk of losing circulation. This will simultaneously concentrate on preventing getting stuck. Good
operational planning is as essential in this respect since loss of circulation has a high possibility of further
developing into just such a stuck pipe event.
In the list below there are a number of hints on operational practices. Such a list cannot guarantee never
experiencing lost circulation. If we compare the list of measures suggested we will see that if we follow some of
these actions uncritically and to the extreme, the probability of getting stuck will be reduced. In other words it is
absolutely necessary to assess the situation overall. It is necessary to find an optimal balance between
opposing requirements. The correct solution will often be obtained from previous experience of other
operations.
The best considerations we should include in our planning are:
Design the casing so that we can isolate low pressure zones and assumed lost circulation areas as
soon as possible after drilling in/through.

Plan for minimum mud weight for control of the known formation pressure. This is a property where we
balance against a high mud weight required to hold other formations in place.
Reduce ECD as much as possible. Drilling mud needs a certain rheology in order to clean the hole
adequately, at the same time an excessively viscous mud increases friction and gives a higher ECD.
Good hole cleaning is essential as more cuttings increases ECD. Before drilling into known thief zones it
will pay to take time to circulate the hole clean and if necessary also make a cleaning trip with or without
back reaming to the last casing shoe. It may also be necessary to lower the amount of cuttings in the
annulus.
Pre-treat the mud with Lost Circulation Materials (LCM ) before drilling into known thief zones. Regular
additions can often assist in keeping a zone of slight or partial circulation loss under control.
Avoid pressure pulses to the system, plan for careful tripping into and out of the hole, soft start and stop
of all movements before and after connections of tool joints. Break up mud gel strength when circulation
begins by starting rotation first. Start the mud pumps carefully and increase in small steps with full return
before the next increase.
If possible eliminate restrictions in the annulus and ream at regular intervals unstable formations which
fall in.
Assemble the BHA to handle LCM in the drilling mud. It is especially important to check that the
MWD/LWD equipment can also tolerate LCM. Have a plan for how the rig crew handle LCM in the mud
at surface. It can be associated with high risks of stopping circulation completely for a period due to
plugging of surface equipment.