Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
Untouchability is a sin
Untouchability is a crime
Untouchability is inhuman
TAMILNADU
TEXTBOOK CORPORATION
College Road , Chennai- 600 006
i
Government of Tamilnadu
First Edition 2004
Reprinit - 2005
Chairperson
Dr. J. Jothikumar
Reader in Statistics
Presidency College
Chennai 600 005.
Reviewers
Thiru K.Nagabushanam
Thiru R.Ravanan
S.G.Lecturer in Statistics
Presidency College
Chennai 600 005.
S.G.Lecturer in Statistics
Presidency College
Chennai 600 005.
Authors
Tmt. V.Varalakshmi
Tmt. N.Suseela
S.G.Lecturer in Statistics
S.D.N.B. Vaishnav College
for women
Chrompet,
Chennai 600 044.
P.G.Teacher
Anna Adarsh Matric
Hr. Sec. School
Annanagar,
Chennai600 040.
Tmt.S.Ezhilarasi
P.G.Teacher
P.K.G.G. Hr. Sec. School
P.G.Teacher
S.S.V. Hr. Sec. School
Parktown, Chennai 600 003.
Tmt. B.Indrani
P.G.Teacher
P.K.G.G. Hr. Sec. School
Ambattur, Chennai 600 053.
Price: Rs.
This book has been prepared by the Directorate of School
Education on behalf of the Government of Tamilnadu.
ii
CONTENTS
Page
1.
2.
11
Collection of data,
Classification and Tabulation
28
Frequency distribution
49
68
94
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Measures of Dispersion,
Skewness and Kurtosis
141
8.
Correlation
191
9.
Regression
218
10.
Index numbers
241
iii
Introduction:
In the modern world of computers and information
technology, the importance of statistics is very well recogonised by
all the disciplines. Statistics has originated as a science of statehood
and found applications slowly and steadily in Agriculture,
Economics, Commerce, Biology, Medicine, Industry, planning,
education and so on. As on date there is no other human walk of
life, where statistics cannot be applied.
1.2
Origin and Growth of Statistics:
The word Statistics and Statistical are all derived from
the Latin word Status, means a political state. The theory of
statistics as a distinct branch of scientific method is of
comparatively recent growth. Research particularly into the
mathematical theory of statistics is rapidly proceeding and fresh
discoveries are being made all over the world.
1.3
Meaning of Statistics:
Statistics is concerned with scientific methods for
collecting, organising, summarising, presenting and analysing data
as well as deriving valid conclusions and making reasonable
decisions on the basis of this analysis. Statistics is concerned with
the systematic collection of numerical data and its interpretation.
The word statistic is used to refer to
1. Numerical facts, such as the number of people living
in particular area.
2. The study of ways of collecting, analysing and
interpreting the facts.
1.4
Definitions:
Statistics is defined differently by different authors over a
period of time. In the olden days statistics was confined to only
state affairs but in modern days it embraces almost every sphere of
1
1.5.2 Comparison:
Classification and tabulation are the two methods that are
used to condense the data. They help us to compare data collected
from different sources. Grand totals, measures of central tendency
measures of dispersion, graphs and diagrams, coefficient of
correlation etc provide ample scope for comparison.
If we have one group of data, we can compare within itself.
If the rice production (in Tonnes) in Tanjore district is known, then
we can compare one region with another region within the district.
Or if the rice production (in Tonnes) of two different districts
within Tamilnadu is known, then also a comparative study can be
made. As statistics is an aggregate of facts and figures, comparison
is always possible and in fact comparison helps us to understand
the data in a better way.
1.5.3 Forecasting:
By the word forecasting, we mean to predict or to estimate
before hand. Given the data of the last ten years connected to
rainfall of a particular district in Tamilnadu, it is possible to predict
or forecast the rainfall for the near future. In business also
forecasting plays a dominant role in connection with production,
sales, profits etc. The analysis of time series and regression analysis
plays an important role in forecasting.
1.5.4 Estimation:
One of the main objectives of statistics is drawn inference
about a population from the analysis for the sample drawn from
that population. The four major branches of statistical inference are
1.
2.
3.
4.
Estimation theory
Tests of Hypothesis
Non Parametric tests
Sequential analysis
In estimation theory, we estimate the unknown value of the
population parameter based on the sample observations. Suppose
we are given a sample of heights of hundred students in a school,
based upon the heights of these 100 students, it is possible to
estimate the average height of all students in that school.
1.5.5 Tests of Hypothesis:
4
5.
aptly statistics are like clay of which one can make a God or
Devil as one pleases .
Statistics is only, one of the methods of studying a
problem:
Statistical method do not provide complete solution of the
problems because problems are to be studied taking the
background of the countries culture, philosophy or religion
into consideration. Thus the statistical study should be
supplemented by other evidences.
Exercise 1
I.
II.
10
2. INTRODUCTION TO SAMPLING
METHODS
2.1
Introduction:
Sampling is very often used in our daily life. For example
while purchasing food grains from a shop we usually examine a
handful from the bag to assess the quality of the commodity. A
doctor examines a few drops of blood as sample and draws
conclusion about the blood constitution of the whole body. Thus
most of our investigations are based on samples. In this chapter, let
us see the importance of sampling and the various methods of
sample selections from the population.
2.2
Population:
In a statistical enquiry, all the items, which fall within the
purview of enquiry, are known as Population or Universe. In other
words, the population is a complete set of all possible observations
of the type which is to be investigated. Total number of students
studying in a school or college, total number of books in a library,
total number of houses in a village or town are some examples of
population.
Sometimes it is possible and practical to examine every
person or item in the population we wish to describe. We call this a
Complete enumeration, or census. We use sampling when it is
not possible to measure every item in the population. Statisticians
use the word population to refer not only to people but to all items
that have been chosen for study.
2.2.1 Finite population and infinite population:
A population is said to be finite if it consists of finite
number of units. Number of workers in a factory, production of
articles in a particular day for a company are examples of finite
population. The total number of units in a population is called
population size. A population is said to be infinite if it has infinite
number of units. For example the number of stars in the sky, the
number of people seeing the Television programmes etc.,
11
2.3.1 Sample:
Statisticians use the word sample to describe a portion
chosen from the population. A finite subset of statistical individuals
defined in a population is called a sample. The number of units in a
sample is called the sample size.
Sampling unit:
The constituents of a population which are individuals to be
sampled from the population and cannot be further subdivided for
the purpose of the sampling at a time are called sampling units. For
example, to know the average income per family, the head of the
family is a sampling unit. To know the average yield of rice, each
farm owner s yield of rice is a sampling unit.
Sampling frame:
For adopting any sampling procedure it is essential to have
a list identifying each sampling unit by a number. Such a list or
map is called sampling frame. A list of voters, a list of house
holders, a list of villages in a district, a list of farmers etc. are a few
examples of sampling frame.
2.3.2 Reasons for selecting a sample:
Sampling is inevitable in the following situations:
1. Complete enumerations are practically impossible when the
population is infinite.
2. When the results are required in a short time.
3. When the area of survey is wide.
4. When resources for survey are limited particularly in respect
of money and trained persons.
5. When the item or unit is destroyed under investigation.
2.3.3 Parameters and statistics:
We can describe samples and populations by using measures
such as the mean, median, mode and standard deviation. When
these terms describe the characteristics of a population, they are
called parameters. When they describe the characteristics of a
sample, they are called statistics. A parameter is a characteristic of
a population and a statistic is a characteristic of a sample. Since
samples are subsets of population statistics provide estimates of the
13
parameters. That is, when the parameters are unknown, they are
estimated from the values of the statistics.
In general, we use Greek or capital letters for population
parameters and lower case Roman letters to denote sample
statistics. [N, , , are the standard symbols for the size, mean,
S.D, of population. n , x , s, are the standard symbol for the size,
mean, s.d of sample respectively].
2.3.4 Principles of Sampling:
Samples have to provide good estimates. The following
principle tell us that the sample methods provide such good
estimates
1. Principle of statistical regularity:
A moderately large number of units chosen at random from
a large group are almost sure on the average to possess the
characteristics of the large group.
2. Principle of Inertia of large numbers:
Other things being equal, as the sample size increases, the
results tend to be more accurate and reliable.
3. Principle of Validity:
This states that the sampling methods provide valid
estimates about the population units (parameters).
4. Principle of Optimisation:
This principle takes into account the desirability of
obtaining a sampling design which gives optimum results. This
minimizes the risk or loss of the sampling design.
The foremost purpose of sampling is to gather maximum
information about the population under consideration at minimum
cost, time and human power. This is best achieved when the sample
contains all the properties of the population.
Sampling errors and non-sampling errors:
The two types of errors in a sample survey are sampling
errors and non - sampling errors.
1. Sampling errors:
Although a sample is a part of population, it cannot be
expected generally to supply full information about population. So
there may be in most cases difference between statistics and
14
023
277
353
600
794
109
179
272
284
450
641
148
908
280
Since some numbers are greater than 500, we subtract 500 from
those numbers and we rewrite the selected numbers as follows:
203
023
277
353
100
294
109
272
284
450
141
148
408
280
179
n N1 = 50 200=20
N
500
n2
n N2 = 50 300=30
N
500
K=
500
Samplesize
= 10
50
K = 10 is the sampling interval. Systematic sample consists
th
in selecting a random number say i K and every K unit
21
India/State/
Union
territories*
INDIA 1,2
Andaman &
Nicobar Is.*
Andhra
Pradesh
Arunachal
Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Chandigarh*
Population
Variation
FEMALES 1991-2001
Sex ratio
(females
per
thousand
males)
PERSONS
MALES
1,027,015,247
531,277,078
495,738,169
21.34
933
356,265
192,985
163,280
26.94
846
75,727,541
38,286,811
37,440,730
13.86
978
1,091,117
573,951
517,166
26.21
901
26,638,407
82,878,796
900,914
13,787,799
43,153,964
508,224
12,850,608
39,724,832
392,690
18.85
28.43
40.33
932
921
773
25
Chhatisgarh
20,795,956
10,452,426
10,343,530
18.06
990
Dadra &
Nagar Haveli*
Daman &
Diu*
Delhi*
Goa
Gujarat 5
Haryana
Himachal
Pradesh 4
Jammu &
Kashmir 2,3
Jharkhand
Karnataka
Kerala
Lakshadweep*
Madhya
Pradesh
Maharashtra
220,451
121,731
98,720
59.20
811
158,059
92,478
65,581
55.59
709
13,782,976
1,343,998
50,596,992
7,570,890
685,617
26,344,053
6,212,086
658,381
24,252,939
46.31
14.89
22.48
821
960
921
21,082,989
11,327,658
9,755,331
28.06
861
6,077,248
3,085,256
2,991,992
17.53
970
10,069,917
5,300,574
4,769,343
29.04
900
26,909,428
52,733,958
31,838,619
60,595
13,861,277
26,856,343
15,468,664
31,118
13,048,151
25,877,615
16,369,955
29,477
23.19
17.25
9.42
17.19
941
964
1,058
947
60,385,118
31,456,873
28,928,245
24.34
920
96,752,247
50,334,270
46,417,977
22.57
922
Manipur
2,388,634
1,207,338
1,181,296
30.02
978
Meghalaya
2,306,069
1,167,840
1,138,229
29.94
975
Mizoram
Nagaland
Orissa
891,058
1,988,636
459,783
1,041,686
431,275
946,950
29.18
64.41
938
909
36,706,920
18,612,340
18,094,580
15.94
972
Pondicherry*
973,829
486,705
487,124
20.56
1,001
Punjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
Uttaranchal
West Bengal
24,289,296
56,473,122
540,493
62,110,839
3,191,168
166,052,859
8,479,562
80,221,171
12,963,362
29,381,657
288,217
31,268,654
1,636,138
87,466,301
4,316,401
41,487,694
11,325,934
27,091,465
252,276
30,842,185
1,555,030
78,586,558
4,163,161
38,733,477
19.76
28.33
32.98
11.19
15.74
25.80
19.20
17.84
874
922
875
986
950
898
964
934
26
Notes:
1. The population of India includes the estimated population
of entire Kachchh district, Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and
Wankaner talukas of Rajkot district, Jodiya taluka of
Jamanagar district of Gujarat State and entire Kinnaur
district of Himachal Pradesh where population enumeration
of Census of India 2001 could not be conducted due to
natural calamity.
2. For working out density of India, the entire area and
population of those portions of Jammu and Kashmir which
are under illegal occupation of Pakistan and China have not
been taken into account.
3. Figures shown against Population in the age-group 0-6 and
Literates do not include the figures of entire Kachchh
district, Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and Wankaner talukas of
Rajkot district, Jodiya taluka of Jamanagar district and
entire Kinnaur district of Himachal Pradesh where
population enumeration of Census of India 2001 could not
be conducted due to natural calamity.
4. Figures shown against Himachal Pradesh have been arrived
at after including the estimated figures of entire Kinnaur
district of Himachal Pradesh where the population
enumeration of Census of India 2001 could not be
conducted due to natural calamity.
5. Figures shown against Gujarat have been arrived at after
including the estimated figures of entire Kachchh district,
Morvi, Maliya-Miyana and Wankaner talukas of Rajkot
district, Jodiya taluka of Jamnagar district of Gujarat State
where the population enumeration of Census of India 2001
could not be conducted due to natural calamity.
27
3. COLLECTION OF DATA,
CLASSIFICATION AND TABULATION
3.1
Introduction:
Everybody collects, interprets and uses information, much
of it in a numerical or statistical forms in day-to-day life. It is a
common practice that people receive large quantities of information
everyday through conversations, televisions, computers, the radios,
newspapers, posters, notices and instructions. It is just because
there is so much information available that people need to be able
to absorb, select and reject it. In everyday life, in business and
industry, certain statistical information is necessary and it is
independent to know where to find it how to collect it. As
consequences, everybody has to compare prices and quality before
making any decision about what goods to buy. As employees of any
firm, people want to compare their salaries and working conditions,
promotion opportunities and so on. In time the firms on their part
want to control costs and expand their profits.
One of the main functions of statistics is to provide
information which will help on making decisions. Statistics
provides the type of information by providing a description of the
present, a profile of the past and an estimate of the future. The
following are some of the objectives of collecting statistical
information.
1. To describe the methods of collecting primary statistical
information.
2. To consider the status involved in carrying out a survey.
3. To analyse the process involved in observation and
interpreting.
4. To define and describe sampling.
5. To analyse the basis of sampling.
6. To describe a variety of sampling methods.
Statistical investigation is a comprehensive and requires
systematic collection of data about some group of people or
objects, describing and organizing the data, analyzing the data with
28
Food
3000
Education
2000
Others
3000
Total
8000
2002
3500
3000
4000
10500
2003
4000
3500
5000
12500
2004
5000
5000
6000
16000
Categories of data:
Any statistical data can be classified under two categories
depending upon the sources utilized.
These categories are,
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
3.3.1 Primary data:
Primary data is the one, which is collected by the
investigator himself for the purpose of a specific inquiry or study.
Such data is original in character and is generated by survey
conducted by individuals or research institution or any organisation.
30
Example 4:
If a researcher is interested to know the impact of noonmeal scheme for the school children, he has to undertake a survey
and collect data on the opinion of parents and children by asking
relevant questions. Such a data collected for the purpose is called
primary data.
The primary data can be collected by the following five
methods.
1. Direct personal interviews.
2. Indirect Oral interviews.
3. Information from correspondents.
4. Mailed questionnaire method.
5. Schedules sent through enumerators.
1. Direct personal interviews:
The persons from whom informations are collected are
known as informants. The investigator personally meets them and
asks questions to gather the necessary informations. It is the
suitable method for intensive rather than extensive field surveys. It
suits best for intensive study of the limited field.
Merits:
1. People willingly supply informations because they are
approached personally. Hence, more response noticed in
this method than in any other method.
2. The collected informations are likely to be uniform and
accurate. The investigator is there to clear the doubts of the
informants.
3. Supplementary informations on informant s personal
aspects can be noted. Informations on character and
environment may help later to interpret some of the results.
4. Answers for questions about which the informant is likely
to be sensitive can be gathered by this method.
5. The wordings in one or more questions can be altered to suit
any informant. Explanations may be given in other
languages also. Inconvenience and misinterpretations are
thereby avoided.
31
Limitations:
1. It is very costly and time consuming.
2. It is very difficult, when the number of persons to be
interviewed is large and the persons are spread over a wide
area.
3. Personal prejudice and bias are greater under this method.
2. Indirect Oral Interviews:
Under this method the investigator contacts witnesses or
neighbours or friends or some other third parties who are capable of
supplying the necessary information. This method is preferred if the
required information is on addiction or cause of fire or theft or
murder etc., If a fire has broken out a certain place, the persons
living in neighbourhood and witnesses are likely to give
information on the cause of fire. In some cases, police interrogated
third parties who are supposed to have knowledge of a theft or a
murder and get some clues. Enquiry committees appointed by
governments generally adopt this method and get people s views
and all possible details of facts relating to the enquiry. This method
is suitable whenever direct sources do not exists or cannot be relied
upon or would be unwilling to part with the information.
The validity of the results depends upon a few factors, such
as the nature of the person whose evidence is being recorded, the
ability of the interviewer to draw out information from the third
parties by means of appropriate questions and cross examinations,
and the number of persons interviewed. For the success of this
method one person or one group alone should not be relied upon.
3. Information from correspondents:
The investigator appoints local agents or correspondents in
different places and compiles the information sent by them.
Informations to Newspapers and some departments of Government
come by this method. The advantage of this method is that it is
cheap and appropriate for extensive investigations. But it may not
ensure accurate results because the correspondents are likely to be
negligent, prejudiced and biased. This method is adopted in those
cases where informations are to be collected periodically from a
wide area for a long time.
32
2. Unpublished Sources
All statistical material is not always published. There are
various sources of unpublished data such as records maintained by
various Government and private offices, studies made by research
institutions, scholars, etc. Such sources can also be used where
necessary
Precautions in the use of Secondary data
The following are some of the points that are to be
considered in the use of secondary data
1. How the data has been collected and processed
2. The accuracy of the data
3. How far the data has been summarized
4. How comparable the data is with other tabulations
5. How to interpret the data, especially when figures collected
for one purpose is used for another
Generally speaking, with secondary data, people have to
compromise between what they want and what they are able to
find.
Merits and Demerits of Secondary Data:
1. Secondary data is cheap to obtain. Many government
publications are relatively cheap and libraries stock
quantities of secondary data produced by the government,
by companies and other organisations.
2. Large quantities of secondary data can be got through
internet.
3. Much of the secondary data available has been collected for
many years and therefore it can be used to plot trends.
4. Secondary data is of value to:
- The government help in making decisions and
planning future policy.
- Business and industry in areas such as marketing,
and sales in order to appreciate the general economic
and social conditions and to provide information on
competitors.
- Research organisations by providing social,
economical and industrial information.
37
3.4
Classification:
The collected data, also known as raw data or ungrouped
data are always in an un organised form and need to be organised
and presented in meaningful and readily comprehensible form in
order to facilitate further statistical analysis. It is, therefore,
essential for an investigator to condense a mass of data into more
and more comprehensible and assimilable form. The process of
grouping into different classes or sub classes according to some
characteristics is known as classification, tabulation is concerned
with the systematic arrangement and presentation of classified data.
Thus classification is the first step in tabulation.
For Example, letters in the post office are classified
according to their destinations viz., Delhi, Madurai, Bangalore,
Mumbai etc.,
Objects of Classification:
The following are main objectives of classifying the data:
1. It condenses the mass of data in an easily assimilable form.
2. It eliminates unnecessary details.
3. It facilitates comparison and highlights the significant
aspect of data.
4. It enables one to get a mental picture of the information and
helps in drawing inferences.
5. It helps in the statistical treatment of the information
collected.
Types of classification:
Statistical data are classified in respect of their
characteristics. Broadly there are four basic types of classification
namely
a) Chronological classification
b) Geographical classification
c) Qualitative classification
d) Quantitative classification
a) Chronological classification:
In chronological classification the collected data are
arranged according to the order of time expressed in years, months,
weeks, etc., The data is generally classified in ascending order of
38
time. For example, the data related with population, sales of a firm,
imports and exports of a country are always subjected to
chronological classification.
Example 5:
The estimates of birth rates in India during 1970 76 are
Year
1970 1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976
Birth
36.8
36.9
36.6
34.6
34.5
35.2
34.2
Rate
b) Geographical classification:
In this type of classification the data are classified according
to geographical region or place. For instance, the production of
paddy in different states in India, production of wheat in different
countries etc.,
Example 6:
Country America China
Denmark France
India
Yield of
wheat in 1925
893
225
439
862
(kg/acre)
c) Qualitative classification:
In this type of classification data are classified on the basis
of same attributes or quality like sex, literacy, religion, employment
etc., Such attributes cannot be measured along with a scale.
For example, if the population to be classified in respect to
one attribute, say sex, then we can classify them into two namely
that of males and females. Similarly, they can also be classified into
employed or unemployed on the basis of another attribute
employment .
Thus when the classification is done with respect to one
attribute, which is dichotomous in nature, two classes are formed,
one possessing the attribute and the other not possessing the
attribute. This type of classification is called simple or dichotomous
classification.
A simple classification may be shown as under
39
Population
Male
Female
The
classification, where two or more attributes are
considered and several classes are formed, is called a manifold
classification. For example, if we classify population simultaneously
with respect to two attributes, e.g sex and employment, then
population are first classified with respect to sex into males and
females . Each of these classes may then be further classified into
employment and unemployment on the basis of attribute
employment and as such Population are classified into four classes
namely.
(i) Male employed
(ii) Male unemployed
(iii) Female employed
(iv) Female unemployed
Still the classification may be further extended by
considering other attributes like marital status etc. This can be
explained by the following chart
Population
Male
Employed
Female
d) Quantitative classification:
Quantitative classification refers to the classification of data
according to some characteristics that can be measured such as
height, weight, etc., For example the students of a college may be
classified according to weight as given below.
40
Weight (in lbs)
No of Students
90-100
100-110
110-120
120-130
130-140
140-150
Total
50
200
260
360
90
40
1000
Sub-Headings
Sub
Heading
Caption Headings
Caption Sub-Headings
Stub
Body
Total
Foot notes:
Sources Note:
43
Total
Body:
The body of the table contains the numerical information of
frequency of observations in the different cells. This arrangement
of data is according to the discription of captions and stubs.
Footnotes:
Footnotes are given at the foot of the table for explanation
of any fact or information included in the table which needs some
explanation. Thus, they are meant for explaining or providing
further details about the data, that have not been covered in title,
captions and stubs.
Sources of data:
Lastly one should also mention the source of information
from which data are taken. This may preferably include the name of
the author, volume, page and the year of publication. This should
also state whether the data contained in the table is of primary or
secondary nature.
Requirements of a Good Table:
A good statistical table is not merely a careless grouping of
columns and rows but should be such that it summarizes the total
information in an easily accessible form in minimum possible
space. Thus while preparing a table, one must have a clear idea of
the information to be presented, the facts to be compared and he
points to be stressed.
Though, there is no hard and fast rule for forming a table
yet a few general point should be kept in mind:
1. A table should be formed in keeping with the objects of
statistical enquiry.
2. A table should be carefully prepared so that it is easily
understandable.
3. A table should be formed so as to suit the size of the paper.
But such an adjustment should not be at the cost of
legibility.
4. If the figures in the table are large, they should be suitably
rounded or approximated. The method of approximation
and units of measurements too should be specified.
44
Two-way Table:
A table, which contains data on two characteristics, is called a twoway table. In such case, therefore, either stub or caption is divided
into two co-ordinate parts. In the given table, as an example the
caption may be further divided in respect of sex . This
subdivision is shown in two-way table, which now contains two
characteristics namely, occupation and sex.
The umber of adults in a locality in respect of occupation and
sex
Occupation
No. of Adults
Total
Male
Female
Total
Manifold Table:
Thus, more and more complex tables can be formed by
including other characteristics. For example, we may further
classify the caption sub-headings in the above table in respect of
marital status, religion and socio-economic status etc. A
table ,which has more than two characteristics of data is considered
as a manifold table. For instance , table shown below shows three
characteristics namely, occupation, sex and marital status.
Occupation
No. of Adults
M
Male
U Total
Total
Female
U Total
Total
Foot note: M Stands for Married and U stands for unmarried.
46
48
4. ( c)
5. (a)
4.
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION
10.5.3 Introduction:
Frequency distribution is a series when a number of
observations with similar or closely related values are put in
separate bunches or groups, each group being in order of magnitude
in a series. It is simply a table in which the data are grouped into
classes and the number of cases which fall in each class are
recorded. It shows the frequency of occurrence of different values
of a single Phenomenon.
A frequency distribution is constructed for three main reasons:
1. To facilitate the analysis of data.
2. To estimate frequencies of the unknown population
distribution from the distribution of sample data and
3. To facilitate the computation of various statistical
measures
4.2
Raw data:
The statistical data collected are generally raw data or
ungrouped data. Let us consider the daily wages (in Rs ) of 30
labourers in a factory.
80 70 55 50 60 65 40 30 80 90
75 45 35 65 70 80 82 55 65 80
60 55 38 65 75 85 90 65 45 75
The above figures are nothing but raw or ungrouped data
and they are recorded as they occur without any pre consideration.
This representation of data does not furnish any useful information
and is rather confusing to mind. A better way to express the figures
in an ascending or descending order of magnitude and is commonly
known as array. But this does not reduce the bulk of the data. The
above data when formed into an array is in the following form:
30 35 38
60 60 65
75 75 75
49
40
65
80
45
65
80
45
65
80
50
65
80
55 55
65 70
85 90
55
70
90
Solution:
Frequency distribution of the number of children
Number of
Children
0
Tally
Marks
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
Frequency
3
7
10
8
6
4
2
40
Number of
employees
4
12
22
33
16
8
5
100
LU
2
For example, if the class interval is 20-30 then the mid-value is
= 25
20 30
2
f) Frequency:
Number of observations falling within a particular class
interval is called frequency of that class.
Let us consider the frequency distribution of weights if
persons working in a company.
Weight
(in kgs)
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
Number of
persons
25
53
77
95
80
60
90-100
30
Total
420
In the above example, the class frequency are
25,53,77,95,80,60,30. The total frequency is equal to 420. The total
frequency indicate the total number of observations considered in a
frequency distribution.
g) Number of class intervals:
The number of class interval in a frequency is matter of
importance. The number of class interval should not be too many.
For an ideal frequency distribution, the number of class intervals
can vary from 5 to 15. To decide the number of class intervals for
the frequency distributive in the whole data, we choose the lowest
and the highest of the values. The difference between them will
enable us to decide the class intervals.
Thus the number of class intervals can be fixed arbitrarily
keeping in view the nature of problem under study or it can be
53
1+3.322 log10 N
Where Range = Largest Value smallest value in the distribution.
4.4
(Rs.)
0 - 5000
5000-10000
10000-15000
15000-20000
20000-25000
Total
60
95
122
83
40
400
4.6
Example 2:
Given below are the number of tools produced by workers in a
factory.
43
40
34
33
28
31
32
23
21
22
18
25
18
39
44
19
20
20
26
45
38
25
13
14
27
41
42
17
31
32
27
33
37
25
26
32
25
34
35
46
29
34
31
34
35
24
30
41
32
29
28
30
31
30
34
35
36
29
26
32
36
35
36
37
23
22
29
33
37
33
27
24
36
42
29
37
29
23
44
41
45
39
21
42
22
28
22
15
16
17
28
29
35
31
27
40
23
32
40
37
Construct frequency distribution with inclusive type of class
interval. Also find.
1. How many workers produced more than 38 tools?
2. How many workers produced less than 23 tools?
Solution:
Using sturges formula for determining the number of class
intervals, we have
Number of class intervals = 1+ 3.322 log10N
= 1+ 3.322 log10100
= 7.6
Sizes of class interval =
Range
Number of class interval
= 46 - 13
7.6
5
Hence taking the magnitude of class intervals as 5, we have 7
classes 13-17, 18-22 43-47 are the classes by inclusive type.
Using tally marks, the required frequency distribution is obtain in
the following table
58
Class
Tally Marks
Number of
Interval
tools produced
(Frequency)
6
11
18
25
22
11
7
100
13-17
18-22
23-27
28-32
33-37
38-42
43-47
Total
No. of
students
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
Total
59
3
8
12
17
6
4
50
Frequency
percentage
6
16
24
34
12
8
100
4.8
Cumulative frequency
more than
64
61
54
39
18
6
cell and thus, obtain the bivariate frequency table. The formate of a
bivariate frequency table is given below:
Format of Bivariate Frequency table
x-series
Class-Intervals
Mid-values
Marginal
Frequency
of Y
MidValues
Class-intervals
y-series
fy
Marginal
frequency of X
Total
fx
fx= fy=N
S.No.
Height Weight S.No.
Height Weight
1
70
170
11
70
163
2
65
135
12
67
139
3
65
136
13
63
122
4
64
137
14
68
134
5
69
148
15
67
140
6
63
121
16
69
132
7
65
117
17
65
120
8
70
128
18
68
148
9
71
143
19
67
129
10
62
129
20
67
152
Solution:
Bivariate frequency table showing height and weight of persons.
Height(x)
Weight(y)
62-64
64-66 66-68 68-70
70-72 Total
115-125 II (2) II (2)
4
125-135 I (1)
I (1)
II (2) I (1)
5
135-145
III (3) II (2)
I (1)
6
145-155
I (1)
II (2)
3
155-165
I (1)
1
165-175
I (1)
1
Total
3
5
4
4
4
20
The marginal distribution of height and weight are given in
the following table.
Marginal distribution of
Marginal distribution
height (X)
of (Y)
CI
Frequency CI
Frequency
62-64
3
115-125
4
64-66
5
125-135
5
66-68
4
135-145
6
68-70
4
145-155
3
70-72
4
155-165
1
Total
20
165-175
1
Total
20
64
Exercise - 4
I. Choose the best answer:
1. In an exclusive class interval
(a) the upper class limit is exclusive.
(b) the lower class limit is exclusive.
(c) the lower and upper class limits are exclusive.
(d) none of the above.
2. If the lower and upper limits of a class are 10 and 40
respectively, the mid points of the class is
(a) 15.0
(b) 12.5
(c) 25.0 (d) 30.0
3. Class intervals of the type 30-39,40-49,50-59 represents
(a) inclusive type
(b) exclusive type
(c) open-end type
(d) none.
4. The class interval of the continuous grouped data is
10-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
50-59
(a) 9 (b)10
(c) 14.5
(d) 4.5
5. Raw data means
(a) primary data
(b) secondary data
(c) data collected for investigation (d)Well classified data.
II. Fill in the blanks:
6. H.A.Sturges formula for finding number of classes is
________.
7. If the mid-value of a class interval is 20 and the difference
between two consecutive midvalues is 10 the class limits
are ________ and ________.
8. The difference between the upper and lower limit of class is
called ______.
9. The average of the upper and lower limits of a class is
known as _________.
10. Number of observations falling within a particular class
interval is called __________ of that class.
III. Answer the following questions:
11. What is a frequency distribution?
12. What is an array?
13. What is discrete and continuous frequency distribution?
65
16
23
25
7
34
36
15
23
22
6
28
18
22
11
22
12
9
24
18
28
5
26
21
9
22
16
10
24
33
11
32
15
12
18
24
20
23
37
21
27
39
7
20
14
26
30
31
17
19
17
21
23
29
13
17
21
66
X
2
2
0
5
1
12
140
36
315 57
416
24
256
27
440 44
380
33
360
57
390 48
492
22
470
21
590 48
370
44
470
51
250 52
312
37
380
27
550 41
330
29
280
42
360 69
590
55
420
43
570
48
390
52
290
18. The ages of 20 husbands and wives are given below. Form a two-way
frequency table on the basis of ages of husbands and wives with the
class intervals 20-25,25-30 etc.
Age of
husband
28
37
42
25
29
47
37
35
23
41
Age of wife
23
30
40
26
25
41
35
25
21
38
Age of
husband
27
39
23
33
36
32
22
29
38
48
Age of wife
24
34
20
31
29
35
23
29
34
47
IV .Suggested Activities:
From the mark sheets of your class, form the frequency
tables, less than and more than cumulative frequency tables.
Answers
I. 1. (a)
2. (c)
3.(a)
4.(b)
5. (a)
II. 6. k = 1 + 3.322 log10N
7. 15 and 25
8. width or size of class
9. Mid-value
10. Frequency
67
Line Diagram:
Line diagram is used in case where there are many items to be
shown and there is not much of difference in their values. Such
diagram is prepared by drawing a vertical line for each item
according to the scale. The distance between lines is kept uniform.
Line diagram makes comparison easy, but it is less attractive.
Example 1:
Show the following data by a line chart:
0
No. of children
1
2
3
4
5
Frequency
10
14
9
6
4
2
Line Diagram
Frequency
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
No. of Children
Example 2:
Represent the following data by a bar diagram.
Year
Production
(in tones)
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
45
40
42
55
50
Solution:
Simple Bar Diagram
60
(in tonnes)
Production
50
40
30
20
10
0
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
Year
Example 3:
Draw a multiple bar diagram for the following data.
Profit before tax
Profit after tax
Year
( in lakhs of rupees )
( in lakhs of rupees )
1998
195
80
1999
200
87
2000
165
45
2001
140
32
Solution:
1999
2000
2001
Year
Monthly expenditure
(in Rs.)
Family A
Family B
75
95
20
25
15
10
40
65
25
35
Expenditure items
Food
Clothing
Education
Housing Rent
Miscellaneous
Solution:
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
Family A
Family B
Expenditure item
Food
Clothing
Housing Rent
Miscellaneous
Education
Example 5:
Represent the following data by a percentage bar diagram.
Particular
Selling Price
Quantity Sold
Wages
Materials
Miscellaneous
Factory A
400
240
3500
2100
1400
Factory B
650
365
5000
3500
2100
Solution:
Convert the given values into percentages as follows:
Particulars
Selling Price
Quantity Sold
Wages
Materials
Miscellaneous
Total
Solution:
Factory A
Rs.
%
400
5
240
3
3500
46
2100
28
1400
18
7640
100
Factory B
Rs.
%
650
6
365
3
5000
43
3500
30
2100
18
11615
100
Percentages
80
60
40
20
0
Factory A
Factory B
Particulars
74
Selling price
Quantity sold
Materials
Miscellaneous
Family A
(Income
Rs.5000)
2000
1000
800
400
800
5000
Family B
(income Rs.8000)
2500
2000
1000
500
2000
8000
Solution:
The items of expenditure will be converted into percentage
as shown below:
75
Items of Expenditure
Family A
Family B
Food
Clothing
House Rent
Fuel and Lighting
Miscellaneous
Total
2000
1000
800
400
800
5000
40
20
16
8
16
100
2500
2000
1000
500
2000
8000
31
25
13
6
25
100
Percentage
80
60
40
20
0
Family A (0-5000)
Food
Clothing
House Rent
Family B (0-8000)
Miscellaneous
Squares:
The rectangular method of diagrammatic presentation is
difficult to use where the values of items vary widely. The method of
drawing a square diagram is very simple. One has to take the square
root of the values of various item that are to be shown in the
diagrams and then select a suitable scale to draw the squares.
Example 7:
Yield of rice in Kgs. per acre of five countries are
Country
U.S.A
Australia U.K
Canada
Yield of rice
in Kgs
per 6400
1600
2500
3600
acre
Represent the above data by Square diagram.
76
India
4900
4 cm
USA
2cm
2.5 cm
AUST
UK
3 cm
3.5 cm
CANADAINDIA
Country
Cuba
Australia
India
Japan
Egypt
Solution:
The values are expressed in terms of degree as follows.
Production of Sugar
In
Country
In Degrees
Quintals
Cuba
62
134
Australia
47
102
India
35
76
Japan
16
35
Egypt
6
13
Total
166
360
Pie Diagram
Cuba
Australia
India
Japan
Egypt
4 cm
Undergraduate
3 cm
Postgraduate
2 cm
professional
Solution:
HISTOGRAM
30
Number of Workers
25
20
15
10
5
0
50
100
150
200
250
Example 11:
For the following data, draw a
histogram.
Marks
21-30
31-40
41-50
51-60
61-70
71-80
Solution:
For drawing a histogram, the frequency
distribution should be continuous. If it
is not continuous, then first make it
continuous as follows.
Marks
20.5-30.5
30.5-40.5
40.5-50.5
50.5-60.5
60.5-70.5
Number of
Students
6
15
22
31
17
9
Number of
Students
6
15
22
31
17
70.5-80.5
81
HISTOGRAM
35
30
25
Number of Students
20
15
10
5
0
20.5
30.5
40.5
50.5
60.5
70.5
80.5
Marks
Exam
ple 12:
Draw a
histogr
am for
the
followi
ng
data.
Profits
(in lakhs)
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-50
50-80
80-90
90-100
Soluti
on:
W
hen the
class
interva
ls are
unequa
l,
a
correct
ion for
unequa
l class
interva
ls must
be
made.
The
freque
ncies
are
adjuste
d
as
follow
s: The
freque
ncy of
the
class
30-50
shall
be
divide
d by
two
since
the
class
interva
l is in
double
.
Similar
ly the
class
interva
l 50-80
can be
divide
d by 3.
Then
draw
the
histogr
am.
82
Number of
Companies
4
12
24
16
16
6
6
6
9
3
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100
HISTOGRAM
30
No. of Companies
25
20
15
10
5
0
10
5.6.2
20
30
40
50
Profits (in Lakhs)
60
70
80
90
100
Frequency Polygon:
If we mark the midpoints of the top horizontal sides of the
rectangles in a histogram and join them by a straight line, the figure
so formed is called a Frequency Polygon. This is done under the
assumption that the frequencies in a class interval are evenly
distributed throughout the class. The area of the polygon is equal to
the area of the histogram, because the area left outside is just equal
to the area included in it.
83
Example 13:
Draw a frequency polygon for the following data.
Number of
Students
4
7
10
18
14
8
3
Number of Students
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
5.6.3
Frequency Curve:
If the middle point of the upper boundaries of the rectangles
of a histogram is corrected by a smooth freehand curve, then that
diagram is called frequency curve. The curve should begin and end
at the base line.
84
Example 14:
Draw a frequency curve for the following data.
Monthly Wages
(in Rs.)
0-1000
1000-2000
2000-3000
3000-4000
4000-5000
5000-6000
6000-7000
7000-8000
No. of family
21
35
56
74
63
40
29
14
Solution:
FREQUENCY CURVE
80
70
No. of Family
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1000
2000
3000
7000 8000
5.6.4 Ogives:
For a set of observations, we know how to construct a
frequency distribution. In some cases we may require the number
of observations less than a given value or more than a given value.
This is obtained by a accumulating (adding) the frequencies upto
85
90
100
107
110
3
0
Cumulative frequency
Ogives
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
20
y axis 1 cm = 10 units
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Class limit
5.6.5
Lorenz Curve:
Lorenz curve is a graphical method of studying dispersion. It
was introduced by Max.O.Lorenz, a great Economist and a
statistician, to study the distribution of wealth and income. It is also
used to study the variability in the distribution of profits, wages,
revenue, etc.
It is specially used to study the degree of inequality in the
distribution of income and wealth between countries or between
different periods. It is a percentage of cumulative values of one
variable in combined with the percentage of cumulative values in
other variable and then Lorenz curve is drawn.
The curve starts from the origin (0,0) and ends at (100,100). If
the wealth, revenue, land etc are equally distributed among the
people of the country, then the Lorenz curve will be the diagonal of
the square. But this is highly impossible.
87
Profit earned
(in thousands)
Area A
5
26
65
89
110
155
180
200
Area B
7
12
14
28
33
25
18
8
13
25
43
57
45
28
13
6
Solution:
5
26
65
89
110
155
180
200
88
5
31
96
185
295
450
630
830
1
4
12
22
36
54
76
100
7
12
14
28
33
25
18
8
7
19
33
61
94
119
137
145
5
13
23
42
65
82
94
100
13
25
43
57
45
28
13
6
Cumulativepercentage
No. ofcompanies
Cumulativenumber
Area B
Cumulativepercentage
No. ofcompanies
Cumulativenumber
Area A
Cumulativepercentage
In Rs.
Cumulativeprofit
Profits
13
38
81
138
183
211
224
230
6
17
35
60
80
92
97
100
LORENZ-CURVE
100
90
80
70
60
Line of Equal Distribution
50
Area-A
40
Area-B
30
20
10
0
0
20
40
60
80
Exercise 5
I Choose the best answer:
1.
Which of the following is one dimensional diagram.
(a) Bar diagram (b) Pie diagram (c) Cylinder
(d) Histogram
2.
Percentage bar diagram has
(a) data expressed in percentages
(b) equal width
(c) equal interval
(d) equal width and equal interval
89
100
3.
Frequency curve
(a) begins at the origin
(b) passes through the origin
(c) begins at the horizontal line.
(d) begins and ends at the base line.
4.
With the help of histogram we can draw
(a)
frequency polygon
(b) frequency curve
(c)
frequency distribution
(d) all the above
5.
Ogives for more than type and less than
type distribution intersect at
(a) mean
(b) median
(c) mode
(d) origin
II Fill in the blanks:
1. Sub-divided bar diagram are also called _____ diagram.
2. In rectangular diagram, comparison is based on _____
of the rectangles.
3. Squares are ______ dimensional diagrams.
4. Ogives for more than type and less than type
distribution intersects at ______.
5. _________ Curve is graphical method of
studying dispersion.
III. Answer the following:
1. What is diagram?
2. How diagrams are useful in representing statistical data
3. What are the significance of diagrams?
4. What are the rules for making a diagram?
5. What are the various types of diagrams
6. Write short notes on
(a) Bar diagram
(b) Sub divided bar diagram.
7. What is a pie diagram?
8. Write short notes on
a)
Histogram
b) Frequency Polygon
c)
Frequency curve
d) Ogive
9. What are less than ogive and more than ogive? What purpose
do they serve?
10. What is Lorenz curve? Mention its important.
90
13.
14.
91
Profit (in
thousands)
2
6
11
15
20
27
15.
16.
17.
Number of
men
8
14
21
18
10
No. of
students
7
15
28
17
5
Number
of workers
10
19
28
15
6
18. The following table given the weekly family income in two
different region. Draw the Lorenz curve and compare the two
regions of incomes.
92
Income
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000
2500
3000
No. of families
Region A
Region B
12
5
18
10
29
17
42
23
20
15
11
8
6
3
3.(d)
II.
1. Component bar
2. Area
3. Two
4. Median
5. Lorenz
93
4. (d)
5.(b)
94
6
5
Short-Cut method :
Under this method an assumed or an arbitrary average
(indicated by A) is used as the basis of calculation of deviations
from individual values. The formula is
d
xA
Solution:
X
75
A
d=x-A
7
0
12
24
-12
31
68
80
92
56
Total
xA
d
n
31
= 68 +
5
= 68 + 6.2
= 74.2
Grouped Data :
The mean for grouped data is obtained from the following formula:
x Nfx
Short-cut method :
fd
x A
c
N
where d x A
c
A = any value in x
N = total frequency
c = width of the class interval
Example 3:
Given the following frequency distribution, calculate the
arithmetic mean
Marks
: 64
63
62 61
60
59
Number of
Students
96
: 8
18
12
Solution:
X
64
63
62
61
60
59
F
8
18
12
9
7
6
fx
512
1134
744
549
420
354
60
d=x-A
2
1
0
1
2
3
fd
16
18
0
9
14
18
3713
-7
Direct method
x fx
N
Short-cut method
x A
= 3713 61.88
60
fd
N
= 62
7
= 61.88
60
Example 4 :
Following is the distribution of persons according to
different income groups. Calculate arithmetic mean.
Income
Rs(100)
Number of
persons
Solution:
Income
C.I
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
97
0-10
10-20
20-30
10
Number of
Mid
Persons (f)
X
6
5
8
15
10
25
A 35
12
7
45
4
55
3
65
50
30-40
40-50 50-60
12
d = xA
60-70
Fd
c
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
-18
-16
-10
0
7
8
9
-20
Mean = x A
fd
N
= 35
20
10
50
= 35
4 = 31
Merits and demerits of Arithmetic mean :
Merits:
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is easy to understand and easy to calculate.
3. If the number of items is sufficiently large, it is more
accurate and more reliable.
4. It is a calculated value and is not based on its position in the
series.
5. It is possible to calculate even if some of the details of the
data are lacking.
6. Of all averages, it is affected least by fluctuations of
sampling.
7. It provides a good basis for comparison.
Demerits:
1. It cannot be obtained by inspection nor located through a
frequency graph.
2. It cannot be in the study of qualitative phenomena not
capable of numerical measurement i.e. Intelligence, beauty,
honesty etc.,
3. It can ignore any single item only at the risk of losing its
accuracy.
4. It is affected very much by extreme values.
5. It cannot be calculated for open-end classes.
6. It may lead to fallacious conclusions, if the details of the
data from which it is computed are not given.
Weighted Arithmetic mean :
For calculating simple mean, we suppose that all the values or
the sizes of items in the distribution have equal importance. But, in
practical life this may not be so. In case some items are more
98
Monthly salary
(in Rs)
1500
800
500
250
100
Strength of
the cadre
10
20
70
100
150
Solution:
Designation
Class 1 officer
Class 2 officer
Subordinate
staff
Clerical staff
Lower staff
Monthly
salary,x
1,500
800
500
Strength of
the cadre,w
10
20
70
wx
15,000
16,000
35,000
250
100
100
150
350
25,000
15,000
1,06,000
wx
w
Weighted average, x w
= 106000
350
= Rs. 302.86
i
For a frequency distribution
i 1
H.M.
f
i 1
N
1
Example 6:
From the given data calculate H.M 5,10,17,24,30
100
1
x
0.2000
0.1000
0.0588
0.0417
0.0333
0.4338
5
10
17
24
30
Total
n
1
H.M =
5
0.4338
= 11.526
Example 7:
The marks secured by some students of a class are given
below. Calculate the harmonic mean.
Marks
20
21 22 23
24
25
Number of
4
2
7
1
3
1
Students
Solution:
Marks
X
20
21
22
23
24
25
No of
students
f
4
2
7
1
3
1
18
101
H.M =
N
1
1
x
0.0500
0.0476
0.0454
0.0435
0.0417
0.0400
0.2000
0.0952
0.3178
0.0435
0.1251
0.0400
0.8216
18
= 21.91
0.1968
Merits of H.M :
1. It is rigidly defined.
2. It is defined on all observations.
3. It is amenable to further algebraic treatment.
4. It is the most suitable average when it is desired to give
greater weight to smaller observations and less weight to the
larger ones.
Demerits of H.M :
1. It is not easily understood.
2. It is difficult to compute.
3. It is only a summary figure and may not be the actual item in
the series
4. It gives greater importance to small items and is therefore,
useful only when small items have to be given greater
weightage.
Geometric mean :
The geometric mean of a series containing n observations
th
is the n root of the product of the values. If x1,x2, xn are
observations then
G.M = n x1. x2 ... xn
=
= (x1.x2 xn)
log GM =
1/n
log(x .x x )
1 2
n
n
= (logx1+logx2++logxn n
= log xi
n
log xi
GM = Antilog
n
102
GM = Antilog
Example 8:
Calculate the geometric mean of the following series of monthly
income of a batch of families 180,250,490,1400,1050
x
180
250
490
1400
1050
GM =
logx
2.2553
2.3979
2.6902
3.1461
3.0212
13.5107
Antilog
= Antilog
log x
13.5107
5
Solution:
Class of people
Landlords
Cultivators
Landless
labours
Money lenders
Office Assistants
Shop keepers
Carpenters
Weavers
GM = Antilog
Annual Number
income
of
( Rs) X families
(f)
5000
2
400
100
200
50
3750
3000
750
600
300
4
6
8
6
10
186
f log x
Log x
f logx
3.6990
2.6021
2.3010
7.398
260.210
115.050
3.5740
3.4771
2.8751
2.7782
2.4771
14.296
20.863
23.2008
16.669
24.771
482.257
482.257 = Antilog
186
= Antilog (2.5928)
= Rs 391.50
Merits of Geometric mean :
1. It is rigidly defined
2. It is based on all items
3. It is very suitable for averaging ratios, rates
and percentages
4. It is capable of further mathematical treatment.
5. Unlike AM, it is not affected much by the presence
of extreme values
Demerits of Geometric mean:
1. It cannot be used when the values are negative or if
any of the observations is zero
2. It is difficult to calculate particularly when the items are
very large or when there is a frequency distribution.
104
Combined mean
X=
n1 n2
x2 = 3
Solution:
n1 x1 n 2 x2
Combined mean X =
n1 n2
20 4 30 3
20
30
80 90
= 50
3.4
170 =
50
Positional Averages:
These averages are based on the position of the given
observation in a series, arranged in an ascending or descending
order. The magnitude or the size of the values does matter as was in
the case of arithmetic mean. It is because of the basic difference
105
that the median and mode are called the positional measures of an
average.
Median :
The median is that value of the variate which divides the
group into two equal parts, one part comprising all values greater,
and the other, all values less than median.
Ungrouped or Raw data :
Arrange the given values in the increasing or decreasing
order. If the number of values are odd, median is the middle value
.If the number of values are even, median is the mean of middle
two values.
By formula
n 1 th
Median = Md =
item.
2
Example 11:
When odd number of values are given. Find median for
the following data
25, 18, 27, 10, 8, 30, 42, 20, 53
Solution:
Arranging the data in the increasing order 8, 10, 18, 20, 25,
27, 30, 42, 53
th
The middle value is the 5 item i.e., 25 is the
median Using formula
n 1 th item.
Md =
9 1
10
=
= 25
Example 12 :
106
th
th
2
th
5 item
item.
item
When even number of values are given. Find median for the
following data
5, 8, 12, 30, 18, 10, 2, 22
Solution:
Arranging the data in the increasing order 2, 5, 8, 10,
12, 18, 22, 30
Here median is the mean of the middle two items
(ie) mean of (10,12) ie
11
10 12 = =
median = 11.
Using the formula
n 1
Median =
2
2
8 1
=
th item.
2
th
item.
th
= 4.5 th item
1
item
2 (5
th
=
item +
= 10 +
= 10 +1
= 11
th
item 4
[12-10]
2
1
= 10 +
th
Example 13:
The following table represents the marks obtained by a
batch of 10 students in certain class tests in statistics and
Accountancy.
Serial No
107
10
ite
Marks
(Statistics)
Marks
(Accountancy)
53
55
52
32
30
60
47
46
35
28
57
45
24
31
25
84
43
80
32
72
n 1
1
28
2
30
3
32
4 5
35 46
6
47
7
52
8
53
9
55
10
60
24
25
31
32
45
57
72
80
84
43
10 1 th
th
2
Median =
item =
item =5.5
item
2
th
th
Value of 5 item value of 6 item
=
46 47
2
Md (Statistics)
=
= 46.5
2
Md (Accountancy) = 43 45 = 44
2
There fore the level of knowledge in Statistics is higher than that
in Accountancy.
Grouped Data:
In a grouped distribution, values are associated with frequencies.
Grouping can be in the form of a discrete frequency distribution or
a continuous frequency distribution. Whatever may be the type of
distribution , cumulative frequencies have to be calculated to know
the total number of items.
Cumulative frequency : (cf)
Cumulative frequency of each class is the sum of the frequency of
the class and the frequencies of the pervious classes, ie adding the
frequencies successively, so that the last cumulative frequency
gives the total number of items.
108
th
Discrete Series:
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
N 1 Step2: Find
2
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies the value just greater than
N 1
4 5
7 8
9 10
11 12
6 10
13
9 5
3 2
2 1
Solution:
X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Median = size
109
f
1
3
5
6
10
13
9
5
3
2
2
1
60
cf
1
4
9
15
25
38
47
52
55
57
59
60
N 1
of
th
item
= size of
60 1
th
item
2
th
= 30.5 item
The cumulative frequencies just greater than 30.5 is 38.and
the value of x corresponding to 38 is 6.Hence the median size
is 6 members per family.
Note:
It is an appropriate method because a fractional value
given by mean does not indicate the average number of members
in a family.
Continuous Series:
The steps given below are followed for the calculation
of median in continuous series.
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
N
Step2: Find
2
Step3: See in the cumulative frequency the value first greater than
N
2
class. Then apply the formula
N m
Median = l 2
c
f
Where
l = Lower limit of the median class
m = cumulative frequency preceding the
median c = width of the median class
f =frequency in the median
class. N=Total frequency.
Note :
If the class intervals are given in inclusive type convert
them into exclusive type and call it as true class interval and
consider lower limit in this.
Example 15:
110
300-350
350-400
400-450
450-500
500-550
550-600
600 and above
111
62
180
45
30
25
15
18
10
2
325
225
255
280
295
313
323
325
N 325
=162.5
2
62
= 250+35.89
= 285.89
Example 16:
Calculate median from the following data
True class
c.f
Value
0-4 5-9 10-14 f
Value
interval 7
8
6
Frequency
5
0-4
5
0.5-4.5
5
5-9
8
4.5-9.5
13
10-14 10
9.5-14.5
23
15-19 12 14.5-19.5
35
20-24
7
19.5-24.5
42
25-29
6
24.5-29.5
48
30-34
3
29.5-34.5
51
35-39
2
34.5-39.5
53
53
15-19
10
Md
20-24
12
53 = 26.5
2
N
= l
2 m
26.5 23 5
12
= 14.5+1.46 = 15.96
= 14.5 +
Example 17:
Following are the daily wages of workers
in a textile. Find the median.
112
25-29
30-34
3
35-3
2
Wages
( in Rs.)
less than 100
less than 200
less than 300
less than 400
less than 500
less than 600
less than 700
less than 800
less than 900
less than 1000
Number of
workers
5
12
20
32
40
45
52
60
68
75
Solution :
We are given upper limit and less than cumulative
frequencies. First find the class-intervals and the frequencies. Since
the values are increasing by 100, hence the width of the class
interval equal to 100.
Class
interval
0-100
100-200
200-300
300- 400
c.f
5
7
8
12
5
12
20
32
400-500
40
500-600
600-700
700-800
800-900
900-1000
5
7
8
8
7
75
45
52
60
68
75
113
N
75
=
= 37.5
Md = l +
37.5 32
= 400 +
2
f
Example 18:
Find median for the data given below.
Marks
Number of students
Greater than 10
70
Greater than 20
62
Greater than 30
50
Greater than 40
38
Greater than 50
30
Greater than 60
24
Greater than 70
17
Greater than 80
9
Greater than 90
4
Solution :
Here we are given lower limit and more than cumulative
frequencies.
Class interval
f
More than c.f Less than c.f
10-20
8
70
8
20-30
12
62
20
30-40
12
50
32
40-50
8
38
40
50-60
6
30
46
60-70
7
24
53
70-80
8
17
61
80-90
5
9
66
90-100
4
4
70
70
N
70 = 35
2
114
Median = l + 2
xc
f
35 32 10
= 40 +
8
= 40 +3.75
= 43.75
Example 19:
Compute median for the following data.
Mid-Value
5
15 25
35 45 55 65 75
Frequency
7
10 15
17 8
4
6
7
Solution :
Here values in multiples of 10, so width of the class interval is 10.
Mid x
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
N
C.I
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
74
2
N
Median = l
f
115
+ 2
f
7
10
15
17
8
4
6
7
74
= 37
c.f
7
17
32
49
57
61
67
74
10
37 32 = 30 +
17
= 30 + 2.94
= 32.94
Graphic method for Location of median:
Median can be located with the help of the cumulative
frequency curve or ogive . The procedure for locating median in
a grouped data is as follows:
Step1: The class boundaries, where there are no gaps between
consecutive classes, are represented on the horizontal axis
(x-axis).
Step2: The cumulative frequency corresponding to different classes
is plotted on the vertical axis (y-axis) against the upper limit
of the class interval (or against the variate value in the case
of a discrete series.)
Step3: The curve obtained on joining the points by means of
freehand drawing is called the ogive . The ogive so drawn
may be either a (i) less than ogive or a (ii) more than ogive.
Step4: The value of N or N 1 is marked on the y-axis, where
2
2
N is the total frequency.
Step5: A horizontal straight line is drawn from the point N or
2
N 1
percent cumulated frequency on the y-axis parallel to the xaxis to intersect the ogive. A perpendicular drawn from this
point of intersection on the horizontal axis gives the value of
the median.
Example 20:
Draw an ogive of less than type on the data given
below and hence find median.
Weight(lbs)
Number of
persons
100-109
8
110-119
15
120-129
21
130-139
34
140-149
45
150-159
26
160-169
20
170-179
15
180-189
10
190-199
6
Solution:
Class
interval
100-109
110-119
120-129
130-139
140-149
150-159
160-169
170-179
180-189
190-199
Y
No of
persons
8
15
21
34
45
26
20
15
10
6
True class
interval
99.5-109.5
109.5-119.5
119.5-129.5
129.5-139.5
139.5-149.5
149.5-159.5
159.5-169.5
169.5-179.5
179.5-189.5
189.5-199.5
Less than
c.f
8
23
44
78
123
149
169
184
194
200
225
200
175
150
125
N
2
100
75
50
Md
25
0
.50
99
.50
109
.50
119
.50
129
.50
139
.50
149
.50
159
.50
169
.50
179
.50
189
.50
199
Example 21:
Draw an ogive for the following frequency distribution
and hence find median.
Marks
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
80-90
90-100
118
Number of
students
5
4
8
12
16
25
10
8
5
2
Solution:
Class
boundary
Cumulative Frequency
Less than
More than
0
95
5
90
9
86
17
78
29
66
45
50
70
25
80
15
88
7
93
2
0
95
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Y
Ogives
100
90
80
70
N
2
60
50
40
30
20
Md
10
0
10
20
10 20 30
30 40
40
50
60
70
80 90
50 60 70 80
119
90 100
Merits of Median :
1. Median is not influenced by extreme values because it is
a positional average.
2. Median can be calculated in case of distribution with
open-end intervals.
3. Median can be located even if the data are incomplete.
4. Median can be located even for qualitative factors such
as ability, honesty etc.
Demerits of Median :
1. A slight change in the series may bring drastic change
in median value.
2. In case of even number of items or continuous series,
median is an estimated value other than any value in
the series.
3. It is not suitable for further mathematical treatment
except its use in mean deviation.
4. It is not taken into account all the observations.
Quartiles :
The quartiles divide the distribution in four parts. There are
three quartiles. The second quartile divides the distribution into two
halves and therefore is the same as the median. The first (lower)
quartile (Q1) marks off the first one-fourth, the third (upper)
quartile (Q3) marks off the three-fourth.
Raw or ungrouped data:
First arrange the given data in the increasing order and use the
formula for Q1 and Q3 then quartile deviation, Q.D is given by
Q - Q1
Q.D = 3
2
n 1 th
n 1 th
Where Q1=
item and Q3 = 3
item
4
4
Example 22 :
Compute quartiles for the data given below 25,18,30, 8,
15, 5, 10, 35, 40, 45
Solution :
5, 8, 10, 15, 18,25, 30,35,40, 45
120
Q1 =
n 1
th
item
4
10 1 th item
th
(2.75) item
rd
nd
3 (3 item-2 item)
nd
2 item +
4
3
8+
(10-8)
4
=
=
=
=
= 8 +
4
= 8 + 1.5
= 9.5
Q3 =
n 1
th
item
4
th
= 3 (2.75) item
th
= (8.25) item
1
th
th
th
= 8 item + 4 [9 item-8 item]
1
[40-35]
4
= 35+1.25=36.25
Discrete Series :
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies.
N 1
Step2: Find
4
= 35 +
4
N 1
Step4: Find 3
121
Example 23:
Compute quartiles for the data given bellow.
X
f
5
4
8
3
12
2
15
4
19 24
5
2
30
4
Solution:
x
5
8
12
15
19
24
30
Total
Q1
Q3
N 1
th
4
N 1
= 3
4f
3
2
4
5
2
4
24
24 1
item =
th
item = 3
c.f
4
7
9
13
18
20
24
24 1
4
25
= 6.25
th
item
4
th
=18.75
Continuous series :
Step1: Find cumulative frequencies
N
Step2: Find
4
Step3: See in the cumulative frequencies, the value just greater
N
than
, then the corresponding class interval is called
4
first quartile class.
122
4
is called 3 quartile class. Then apply the
respective formulae
N m
1
c
Q1 = l 4
1
1
f1
N
3
m3
rd
123
c3
f3
Where l1 = lower limit of the first quartile class
f1 = frequency of the first quartile class
c1 = width of the first quartile class
m1 = c.f. preceding the first quartile class
rd
l3 = 1ower limit of the 3 quartile class
rd
f3 = frequency of the 3 quartile class
rd
c3 = width of the 3 quartile class
rd
m3 = c.f. preceding the 3 quartile class
Example 24:
The following series relates to the marks secured
by students in an examination.
Marks
No. of students
0-10
11
10-20
18
20-30
25
30-40
28
40-50
30
50-60
33
60-70
22
70-80
15
80-90
12
90-100
10
Q3 = l3
204
4
N
m
Q1 = l
Q3 = l3
= 51
N
4
= 153
= 20 + 8.8 = 28.8
cf
11
29
54
82
112
145
167
182
194
204
f1
= 20 + 51 29 10
25
N m3
1
f
11
18
25
28
30
33
22
15
12
10
204
c
3
f3
124
observation
10
5(6 1)
10
th
observation
th
= (3.5) observation
1 th
rd
rd
= 3 item +
[ 4 item 3 item]
2
1 [20 12] = 12+ 4 = 16
= 12 +
2
Deciles for Grouped data :
Example 26:
Calculate D3 and D7 for the data given below
Class
0-10 10-20 20-30 30-40 40-50
Interval
Frequency :
5
7
12
16
10
Solution :
C.I
f
c.f
0-10
5
5
10-20
7
12
20-30
12
24
125
30-40
16
40
40-50
50-60
60-70
10
8
4
62
50
58
62
50-60 60-70
8
3N
D3 item =
th
item
10
3 62
th
item
10
th
= (18.6) item
which lies in the interval 20-30
N
m
D3 = l
D7
10
= 20 + 18.6 -12 10
12
= 20 + 5.5 = 25.5
7 N th
item =
item
10
7 62
th
item
10
434 th item
th
= (43.4) item
10
which lies in the interval(40-50)
7N
10
D7 = l
c
f
= 40 + 43.4 40 10
10
= 40 + 3.4 = 43.4
Percentiles :
The percentile values divide the distribution into 100
parts each containing 1 percent of the cases. The percentile (P k) is
that value of the variable up to which lie exactly k% of the total
number of observations.
126
Relationship :
P25 = Q1 ; P50 = D5 = Q2 = Median and P75 = Q3
Percentile for Raw Data or Ungrouped Data :
Example 27:
Calculate P15 for the data given
below: 5, 24 , 36 , 12 , 20 , 8
Arranging the given values in the increasing
order. 5, 8, 12, 20, 24, 36
15(n 1) th
P15 = item 100
=
157
th
item
100
th
= (1.05) item
st
nd
st
= 1 item + 0.05 (2 item 1 item)
= 5 + 0.05 (8-5)
= 5 + 0.15 = 5.15
Class
interval
0-5
5-10
Frequency
10-15
12
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
16
20
10
Solution:
Class Interval
0-5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
Total
127
Frequency
5
8
12
16
20
10
4
3
78
C.f
5
13
25
41
61
71
75
78
P53 = l +
53N m
100
c
f
= 20+ 41.34 41 5
20
= 20 + 0.085 = 20.085.
Mode :
The mode refers to that value in a distribution, which occur most
frequently. It is an actual value, which has the highest concentration of
items in and around it.
According to Croxton and Cowden The mode of a distribution
is the value at the point around which the items tend to be most heavily
concentrated. It may be regarded at the most typical of a series of values.
It shows the centre of concentration of the frequency in around a given
value. Therefore, where the purpose is to know the point of the highest
concentration it is preferred. It is, thus, a positional measure.
Its importance is very great in marketing studies where a manager
is interested in knowing about the size, which has the highest
concentration of items. For example, in placing an order for shoes or
ready-made garments the modal size helps because this sizes and other
sizes around in common demand.
Computation of the mode:
Ungrouped or Raw Data:
For ungrouped data or a series of individual observations, mode is
often found by mere inspection.
Example 29:
2 , 7, 10, 15, 10, 17, 8, 10, 2
Mode = M0 =10
In some cases the mode may be absent while in some cases there
may be more than one mode.
128
Example 30:
1. 12, 10, 15, 24, 30 (no mode)
2. 7, 10, 15, 12, 7, 14, 24, 10, 7, 20, 10
the modes are 7 and 10
Grouped Data:
For Discrete distribution, see the highest frequency and
corresponding value of X is mode.
Continuous distribution :
See the highest frequency then the corresponding value of class
interval is called the modal class. Then apply the formula.
1
Mode = M 0 = l +
1+
C
2
=f1-f2 f1 =
frequency of the modal class
f0 = frequency of the class preceding the modal class f 2
= frequency of the class succeeding the modal class
The above formula can also be written as
Mode = l +
f1 -f 0
2f 1 - f 0 - f 2
Remarks :
1. If (2f1-f0-f2) comes out to be zero, then mode is
obtained by the following formula taking absolute
differences within vertical lines.
( f1 f0 )
2. M0= l +
c
| f1 f 0 | | f1 f2 |
15. If mode lies in the first class interval, then f0 is taken
as zero.
129
f
5
14
40
91
150
87
60
38
15
0-50
50-100
100-150
150-200
200-250
250-300
300-350
350-400
400 and above
Solution:
The highest frequency is 150 and corresponding class interval
is 200 250, which is the modal class.
Here l=200,f1=150,f0=91, f2=87, C=50
f1 -f0
Mode = M0 = l +
2f 1
-f0 -f2
= 200
2950
150-91
2 150 91 87
50
= 200 +
122 = 200 +
24.18 = 224.18
Determination of Modal class :
For a frequency distribution modal class corresponds to the
maximum frequency. But in any one (or more) of the following
cases
130
510
12
1015
15
Grouping Table
CI
0- 5
5-10
10-15
15-20
20-25
25-30
30-35
35-40
131
f
9
12
15
16
17
15
10
13
Class
interval
Frequency
1520
16
2025
17
21
27
2530
15
32
25
23
3540
13
36
43
31
33
3035
10
48
48
42
38
Analysis Table
Columns
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
0-5
5-10
1
1
10-15
15-20
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
4
20-25
1
1
1
1
1
5
25-30
30-35
35-40
1
1
= f1 f0 = 17 16 = 1
= f1f2 = 17 15 = 2
M0 = 20 + 1 5
12
= 20 + 1.67 = 21.67
Graphic Location of mode:
Steps:
1. Draw a histogram of the given distribution.
2. Join the rectangle corner of the highest rectangle (modal
class rectangle) by a straight line to the top right corner of
the preceding rectangle. Similarly the top left corner of
the highest rectangle is joined to the top left corner of the
rectangle on the right.
3. From the point of intersection of these two diagonal
lines, draw a perpendicular to the x -axis.
4. Read the value in x-axis gives the mode.
Example 33:
Locate the modal value graphically for the
following frequency distribution.
Class
0-10
10-20 20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
interval
Frequency
5
8
12
7
5
3
132
2
Solution:
HISTOGRAM
14
12
Frequency
10
2
0
10
20 Mode
Daily
30
40
ClassWages (inIntervalRs.)
50
60
Merits of Mode:
1. It is easy to calculate and in some cases it can be located
mere inspection
2. Mode is not at all affected by extreme values.
3. It can be calculated for open-end classes.
4. It is usually an actual value of an important part of the
series.
5. In some circumstances it is the best representative of data.
Demerits of mode:
1. It is not based on all observations.
2. It is not capable of further mathematical treatment.
3. Mode is ill-defined generally, it is not possible to find mode in
some cases.
133
[2mean+mode]
3
1
[2 35.4 + 32.1]
3
= 34.3
Exercise - 6
I Choose the correct answer:
1. Which of the following represents median?
a) First Quartile
b) Fiftieth Percentile
c) Sixth decile
d) Third quartile
134
2.
c
)
a)
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
b
)
16
25
d
)
1
1 0
0 0
10
100
In
a
symmetric
b) mean = median
distribution
mode
a) mean = median =
d) mean< median
mode
mode
c) mean > median >
mode
<
is
43.
11.
12.
13.
135
14.
28.
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
10
15
18
50-60
60-70
70-80
7
8
5
3
Obtain the mean weekly wage.
29.
Mean of 20 values is 45. If one of these values is to be taken
64 instead of 46, find the corrected mean (ans:44.1)
30.
From the following data, find the missing frequency when
mean is 15.38
Size :
10
12
14
16
18
20
Frequency: 3
7
__
20
8
5
31.
The following table gives the weekly wages in rupees of
workers in a certain commercial organization. The
frequency of the class-interval 49-52 is missing.
Weekly
40-43
43-46
46-49
49-52
52-55
wages (in
rs) :
Number
31
58
60
__
27
of
workers
It is known that the mean of the above frequency
distribution is Rs .47.2. Find the missing frequency.
32.
Find combined mean from the following data
X1
= 210
n1=50
n
X
2 = 150
2 =100
33.
Find combined mean from the following data
Group
1
2
3
Number
200
250
300
Mean
25
10
15
137
34.
35.
36.
Family :
Income(Rs)
37.
B
10
C
500
D
75
E
8
F
G
250
8
H
42
Diameter(m.m)
No. of. Screws
38.
A
70
130
3
135
4
140
6
145
6
146
3
148
5
149
2
150 157
1
1
138
Establishments
8
12
18
30
20
12
100
139
46.
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
2.
6.
10.
14.
16.
17
II
(c)
(d)
(d)
(c)
n 1
3.
7.
11.
15.
th
20 75
(a)
(d)
(a)
(b)
4. (b)
8. (b)
12. (c)
III
26. 130
27. 13.13
28. 35
29. 44.1
30. 12
31. 44
32. 170
33. 16
34 2542
35. 34
36. G.M.= 45.27
37. 142.5 mm
38. Rs.14.63 39. MD= 18
40.51.42
41. 34
42. 57.3
43.Q1=30.714;Q2=49.44; MD=41.11;D6=44.44;P20=27.5
44. MD=125.08; Q1=114.18; Q3=135.45
45 Mode=71.34
140
7.
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
SKEWNESS AND KURTOSIS
7.1
Introduction :
The measure of central tendency serve to locate the
center of the distribution, but they do not reveal how the items
are spread out on either side of the center. This characteristic of
a frequency distribution is commonly referred to as dispersion.
In a series all the items are not equal. There is difference or
variation among the values. The degree of variation is
evaluated by various measures of dispersion. Small dispersion
indicates high uniformity of the items, while
large dispersion indicates less uniformity.
For example
consider the following marks of two students.
Student I
Student II
68
85
75
90
65
80
67
25
70
65
Both have got a total of 345 and an average of 69 each.
The fact is that the second student has failed in one paper.
When the averages alone are considered, the two students are
equal. But first student has less variation than second student.
Less variation is a desirable characteristic.
Characteristics of a good measure of dispersion:
An ideal measure of dispersion is expected to possess
the following properties
1.It should be rigidly defined
2. It should be based on all the items.
3. It should not be unduly affected by extreme items.
141
Co-efficient of Range =
LS
Example1:
Find the value of range and its co-efficient for the following
data.
7, 9, 6, 8, 11, 10, 4
Solution:
L=11, S = 4.
Range
= L S = 11- 4 = 7
LS
Co-efficient of Range =
11 4
11 4
= 7 = 0.4667
15
Example 2:
Calculate range and its co efficient from the following
distribution.
Size:
60-63
63-66 66-69 69-72 72-75
Number:
5
18
42
27
8
Solution:
L = Upper boundary of the highest class.
= 75
143
Co-efficient of Range =
LS
75 60
75 60
15
= 0.1111
135
7.3.3 Merits and Demerits of Range :
Merits:
1. It is simple to understand.
2. It is easy to calculate.
3. In certain types of problems like quality control, weather
forecasts, share price analysis, et c., range is most widely
used.
Demerits:
1. It is very much affected by the extreme items.
2. It is based on only two extreme observations.
3. It cannot be calculated from open-end class intervals.
4. It is not suitable for mathematical treatment.
5. It is a very rarely used measure.
7.4 Quartile Deviation and Co efficient of Quartile
Deviation :
7.4.1 Quartile Deviation ( Q.D) :
Definition: Quartile Deviation is half of the difference
between the first and third quartiles. Hence, it is called Semi
Inter Quartile Range.
In Symbols, Q . D =
Q3 Q1
Q3 Q1
144
Q3 Q1
Example 3:
Find the Quartile Deviation for the following data:
391, 384, 591, 407, 672, 522, 777, 733, 1490, 2488
Solution:
Arrange the given values in ascending order.
384, 391, 407, 522, 591, 672, 733, 777, 1490, 2488.
th
Position of Q1 is n 1 =10 1 = 2.75 item
4
4
nd
rd
nd
Q1 = 2 value + 0.75 (3 value 2 value )
= 391 + 0.75 (407 391)
= 391 + 0.75 16
= 391 + 12
= 403
th
Position Q3 is 3 n 1 = 3 2.75 = 8.25 item
4
th
th
th
Q3 = 8 value + 0.25 (9 value 8 value)
= 777 + 0.25 (1490 777)
= 777 + 0.25 (713)
= 777 + 178.25 = 955.25
Q Q
12
Q.D = 3
= 955.25 403
2
552.25
=
= 276.125
2
Example 4 :
Weekly wages of labours are given below. Calculated Q.D and
Coefficient of Q.D.
Weekly Wage (Rs.) :100
200
400
500 600
No. of Weeks
: 5
8
21
12
6
145
Solution :
Weekly
Wage (Rs.)
100
200
400
500
600
Total
No. of Weeks
5
8
21
12
6
N=52
Cum. No. of
Weeks
5
13
34
46
52
th
Position of Q1 in N 1 = 52 1 = 13.25 item
Q1
th
th
th
th
th
th
= 39 value + 0.75 (40 value 39 value)
Q3
= 500 + 0.75 (500 500)
= 500 + 0.75 0
= 500
Q 3 Q1 500 250 = 250 = 125
Q.D. =
=
2
2
2
Q Q1
Coefficient of Q.D. = 3
Q3 Q 1
= 500 250
500 250
250
=
= 0.3333
750
146
Example 5:
For the date given below, give the quartile deviation and
coefficient of quartile deviation.
X : 351 500 501 650 651 800 801950 9511100
f :
48
189
88
4
28
Solution :
x
351- 500
501- 650
651- 800
801- 950
951- 1100
Total
48
189
88
47
28
N = 400
N m
1
c
Q1 = l + 4
1
1
f1
N = 400 = 100,
4
4
Q1 Class is 500.5 650.5
True class
Intervals
350.5- 500.5
500.5- 650.5
650.5- 800.5
800.5- 950.5
950.5- 1100.5
100 48
189
= 500.5 +
= 500.5 + 41.27
= 541.77
3N m
3
4
c3
Q 3 = l3 +
f3
147
150
52 150
189
Cumulative
frequency
48
237
325
372
400
3 N = 3 100 = 300,
4
Q3 Class is 650.5 800.5
l3 = 650.5, m3 = 237, f3 = 88, C3 = 150
Q3 = 650.5 + 300 - 237 150
88
63 150
= 650.5 +
88
= 650.5 + 107.39
= 757. 89
Q Q
12
Q.D = 3
= 757.89 541.77
2
= 216.12
2=
108.06
Coefficient of Q.D =
Q3 Q1
Q1
Q3
= 757.89 541.77
757.89 541.77
216.12
=
= 0.1663
1299.66
7.4.3 Merits and Demerits of Quartile Deviation
Merits :
1. It is Simple to understand and easy to calculate
2. It is not affected by extreme values.
3. It can be calculated for data with open end classes also.
Demerits:
1. It is not based on all the items. It is based on two
positional values Q1 and Q3 and ignores the extreme 50%
of the items
148
Mean deviation
Coefficient of mean deviation: =
Mean = x =
n
= 3321 =369
9
= Value of
2
9 1
th
item
2 =
th
Value of 5 item
= 360
150
item
X
100
150
200
250
360
490
500
600
671
3321
M.D from mean
D x x
269
219
169
119
9
121
131
231
302
1570
D
= n
D x Md
260
210
160
110
0
130
140
240
311
1561
1570
= 174.44
9
M.D
Co-efficient of M.D = x
=
= 174.44 = 0.47
369
D
n
=1561 = 173.44
9
M.D
= 173.44 = 0.48
Co-efficient of M.D.= Median
360
7.5.4 Mean Deviation Discrete series:
Steps: 1. Find out an average (mean, median or mode)
2. Find out the deviation of the variable values from
the average, ignoring signs and denote them by D
3. Multiply the deviation of each value by its respective
frequency and find out the total f D
151
4. Divide
Symbolically, M.D. =
D
N
Example 7:
Compute Mean deviation from mean and median from the
following data:
Height 158 159
160 161
162 163 164 165 166
in cms
No. of
15 20
32 35
33
22
20
10 8
persons
Also compute coefficient of mean deviation.
Solution:
Height
No. of
d= x- A
|D| =
f|D|
X
persons
A =162
fd
|X- mean|
f
158
15
-4
- 60
3.51
52.65
159
20
-3
- 60
2.51
50.20
160
32
-2
- 64
1.51
48.32
161
35
-1
- 35
0.51
17.85
162
33
0
0
0.49
16.17
163
22
1
22
1.49
32.78
164
20
2
40
2.49
49.80
165
10
3
30
3.49
34.90
166
8
4
32
4.49
35.92
195
- 95
338.59
x =A
fd
N
= 162 95 = 162 0.49 = 161.51
M.D. =
195
D
N
152
= 338.59
195
= 1.74
Median = Size of
= Size of
persons
f
15
20
32
35
33
22
20
10
8
195
N +1
15
35
67
102
135
157
177
187
195
f D
X Median
3
2
1
0
1
2
3
4
5
45
40
32
0
33
44
60
40
40
334
th
2
195 +1
c.f.
item
th
item
2
th
= Size of 98 item
= 161
f
D = 334 = 1.71
M.D =
195
N
M.D
1.71
Coefficient of M.D. = Median =
=.0106
161
7.5.5 Mean deviation-Continuous series:
The method of calculating mean deviation in a continuous
series same as the discrete series.In continuous series we have to find
out the mid points of the various classes and take deviation of these
points from the average selected. Thus
f|D|
M.D =
N
153
Where D = m - average
M = Mid point
Example 8:
Find out the mean deviation from mean and median from the
following series.
Age in years
No.of
persons
0-10
20
10-20
25
20-30
32
30-40
40
40-50
42
50-60
35
60-70
10
70-80
8
Also compute co-efficient of mean deviation.
Solution:
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
x =A
fd
20
25
32
40
42
35
10
8
212
mA
c
(A=35,C=10)
d=
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
D
fd
-60
-50
-32
0
42
70
30
32
32
mx
31.5
21.5
11.5
1.5
8.5
18.5
28.5
38.5
N
= 35 32 10
212
154
f D
630.0
537.5
368.0
60.0
357.0
647.5
285.0
308.0
3193.0
M.D. =
D = 3193 = 15.06
N
212
Calculation of median and M.D. from median
X
0-10
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
c.f
|D| = |m-Md|
f |D|
5
15
25
35
45
55
65
75
20
25
32
40
42
35
10
8
20
45
77
117
159
194
204
212
32.25
22.25
12.25
2.25
7.75
17.75
27.75
37.75
Total
645.00
556.25
392.00
90.00
325.50
621.25
277.50
302.00
3209.50
N = 212 = 106
2
2
l = 30, m = 77, f = 40, c = 10
N m
c
2
Median = l +
= 30 + 106 - 77 10
40
29
= 30 + 4
= 30 + 7.25 = 37.25
M. D. = f | D |
N
= 3209.5 = 15.14
212
M.D
=15.14
37.25
155
= 0.41
Thus =
x2
or
is standard deviation.
(x x)2
n
n
b) Deviations taken from assumed mean:
This method is adopted when the arithmetic mean
is fractional value.
Taking deviations from fractional value would be a very
difficult and tedious task. To save time and labour, We apply
short cut method; deviations are taken from an assumed mean.
The formula is:
d 2
d2
=
N
N
Where d-stands for the deviation from assumed mean = (X-A)
Steps:
1. Assume any one of the item in the series as an average (A)
2. Find out the deviations from the assumed mean; i.e., XA denoted by d and also the total of the deviations d
2
3. Square the deviations; i.e., d and add up the squares
2
of deviations, i.e, d
4. Then substitute the values in the following formula:
157
d2
N
n
Note: We can also use the simplified formula for standard
deviation.
1
n d 2 d 2
n
For the frequency distribution
c
N fd 2 fd2
N
Example 9:
Calculate the standard deviation from the following data. 14,
22, 9, 15, 20, 17, 12, 11
Solution:
Deviations from actual mean.
Values (X)
14
22
9
15
20
17
12
11
120
X = 120 =15
8
(x x)2
140
8
= 17.5
= 4.18
-1
7
-6
0
5
2
-3
-4
1
49
36
0
25
4
9
16
140
158
Example 10:
The table below gives the marks obtained by 10 students
in statistics. Calculate standard deviation.
Student Nos : 1 2 3
4
5
6 7
8
9 10
Marks
: 43 48 65 57 31 60 37 48 78 59
Solution: (Deviations from assumed mean)
Nos.
Marks (x)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
43
48
65
57
31
60
37
48
78
59
d2
n
1952
-14
-9
8
0
-26
3
-20
-9
21
2
d=-44
n = 10
d
196
81
64
0
676
9
400
81
441
4
d =1952
n
44
d=X-A (A=57)
10
10
= 195.2 19.36
= 175.84 = 13.26
7.6.3 Calculation of standard deviation:
Discrete Series:
There are three methods for calculating standard
deviation in discrete series:
(a) Actual mean methods
(b) Assumed mean method
(c) Step-deviation method.
159
f
f
Where d = X A , N = f.
Example 11:
Calculate Standard deviation from the following data.
X:
20
22
25
31
35
40
42
f:
5
12
15
20
25
14
10
160
45
6
Solution:
Deviations from assumed mean
x
f
d = x A
(A = 31)
20
5
-11
22
12
-9
25
15
-6
0
31
20
35
25
4
40
14
9
42
10
11
45
6
14
N=107
=
=
=
fd 2 fd
f
fd
121
81
36
0
16
81
121
196
-55
-108
-90
0
100
126
110
84
fd=167
fd
605
972
540
0
400
1134
1210
1176
fd2
=6037
f
16
6037 7 2
10
10
7 7
56.42 2.44
53.98 = 7.35
161
Example 12:
Compute Standard deviation from the following data
Marks
:
10
20
30
40
50
No.of students:
8
12
20
10
7
Solution:
Marks x
F
d = x 30
fd
10
10
8
-2
-16
20
12
-1
-12
0
0
30
20
40
10
1
10
50
7
2
14
60
3
3
9
N=60
fd =5
109
60 60
1.817 - 0.0069 10
60
3
fd
32
12
0
10
28
27
fd 2
= 109
10
= 1.8101 10
= 1.345 10
= 13.45
7.6.4 Calculation of Standard Deviation Continuous series:
In the continuous series the method of calculating standard
deviation is almost the same as in a discrete series. But in a
continuous series, mid-values of the class intervals are to be found
out. The step- deviation method is widely used.
162
d =
mA
, C- Class interval.
C
Steps:
1.Find out the mid-value of each class.
2.Assume the center value as an assumed mean and
denote it by A
3.Find out d =
mA
C
4.Multiply the deviations d by the respective frequencies and
get fd
2
5.Square the deviations and get d
2
6.Multiply the squared deviations (d ) by the
2
respective frequencies and get fd
7.Substituting the values in the following formula to get
the standard deviation
Example 13:
The daily temperature recorded in a city in Russia in a
year is given below.
Temperature C 0
No. of days
-40 to 30
10
-30 to 20
18
-20 to 10
30
-10 to
0
42
0 to
10
65
10 to
20
180
20 to
30
20
365
Calculate Standard Deviation.
163
Solution:
Temperature
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
to -30
to -20
to -10
to - 0
to
10
to
20
to 30
Mid
No. of
value
(m)
-35
-25
-15
-5
5
15
25
days
f
10
18
30
42
65
180
20
d =
m (
5n )
10n
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
fd
-30
-36
-30
0
65
360
60
7.6.5
90
72
30
0
65
720
180
fd = fd 2
=1157
389
N=365
1157
fd
389
10
365
365
=
3.1699 - 1.1358 10
= 2.0341 10
= 1.4262 10
= 14.26c
Combined Standard Deviation:
If a series of N1 items has mean X1 and standard deviation
164
Where d1 = X1 X12
d2 = X2
X12
Example 14:
Particulars regarding income of two villages are given
below.
Village
A
B
No.of people
600
500
Average income
175
186
Standard deviation of
10
9
income
Compute combined mean and combined Standard deviation.
Solution:
Given N1 = 600, X1 = 175, 1 = 10
N2 = 500, X2= 186, 2 = 9
Combined mean
= 600 175 500 186
600 500
= 105000 93000
1100
= 198000
1100 = 180
165
d1 = X1 X12
= 175 180
= 5
d2 = X2 X12
=186 180
=6
600 100 500 81 600 25 500 36
600 500
12 =
1
3
3
5
0
0
1
1
0
0
= 121.364
= 11.02.
7.6.6 Merits and Demerits of
Standard Deviation: Merits:
1. It is rigidly defined and its value is
always definite and based on all the
observations and the actual signs of
deviations are used.
2. As it is based on arithmetic mean, it
has all the merits of arithmetic
mean.
3. It is the most important and
widely used measure of
dispersion.
4. It is possible for further algebraic
treatment.
5. It is less affected by the fluctuations of
100
X
If we want to compare the variability of two or more series,
we can use C.V. The series or groups of data for which the C.V. is
greater indicate that the group is more variable, less stable, less
uniform, less consistent or less homogeneous. If the C.V. is less, it
indicates that the group is less variable, more stable, more uniform,
more consistent or more homogeneous.
Example 15:
In two factories A and B located in the same industrial area,
the average weekly wages (in rupees) and the standard deviations
are as follows:
Coefficient of variation (C.V) =
Factory
A
B
Average
34.5
28.5
Standard Deviation
5
4.5
No. of workers
476
524
100
X
1
5
100
34.5
= 14.49
C.V (B) =
2
X
100
4.5 100
28.5
=
15.79
Factory B has greater variability in individual wages, since
C.V. of factory B is greater than C.V of factory A
Example 16:
Prices of a particular commodity in five years in two cities are
given below:
Price in city A
Price in city B
20
10
22
20
19
18
23
12
16
15
Which city has more stable prices?
168
Solution:
Actual mean method
20
22
19
23
16
City A
ons
from X=20
dx
0
2
-1
3
-4
x=100
dx=0
Deviati
Prices
(X)
dx
(Y)
Prices
0
4
1
9
16
10
20
18
12
15
dx =30 y=75
City A: X x
n
(x x)
x=
n
30
5 =
City B:
dy=0
= 100 = 20
5
dx2
6 =2.45
100
x
2.45
=
100
20
= 12.25 %
y
Y
n
C.V(x) =
City B
Deviations
from Y =15
dy
-5
5
3
-3
0
= 75
= 15
5
(y y)2
=
=
n
dy2
n
dy
25
25
9
9
0
2
dy
=68
169
68
= 13.6 = 3.69
5
=y x 100
y
3.69
=
C.V.(y)
=
100
15
= 24.6 %
City A had more stable prices than City B, because the
coefficient of variation is less in City A.
7.7
Moments:
7.7.1 Definition of moments:
Moments can be defined as the arithmetic mean of various
powers of deviations taken from the mean of a distribution. These
moments are known as central moments.
The first four moments about arithmetic mean or central
moments are defined below.
Individual series Discrete series
First moments
(x x) = 0
=0
about the mean; 1
Second moments
about the mean; 2
f (x x)
(x x)2
x)2
Third moments
about the mean ; 3
(x x)3
Fourth
moment
about the
Mean ; 4
(x x)4
N
f (x
N
f (x
x)3
x)4
about a working origin and then change it into moments about the
actual mean. The moments about an origin are known as raw moments.
170
(X A) d
N
N
3
(X A)
d3
=
N
N
=
2
2
= (X A) d
N
N
4
(X A)
d4
=
N
N
Where d =
XA
Where d =
7.8
mA
A origin , C Class internal
C
Example 17:
Calculate first four moments from the following data.
X: 0
1 2
3
4
5
6
7
F:
510 15 20
25
20
15
10
Solution:
X
f
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
X
1
3
5
10
15
20
25
20
15
10
5
N
=125
fx
0
10
30
60
100
100
90
70
40
fx
=500
d=x- x
(x-4)
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
d
=0
fx
500
=
= 4
N
125
fd
0
=
= 125 = 0
N
fd3
0
=
=
=0
N
125
8
5
fd
fd2
fd3
fd4
-20
-30
-30
-20
0
20
30
30
20
fd
=0
80
90
60
20
0
20
60
90
80
-320
-270
-120
-20
0
20
120
270
320
1280
810
240
20
0
20
240
810
1280
=0
=4700
fd
=500
fd
fd
fd 2
500
= N = 125
=4
fd 4
4700
= N = 125
= 37.6
Example 18:
From the data given below, first calculate the first four
moments about an arbitrary origin and then calculate the first
four moments about the mean.
X :
f :
172
30-33
2
33-36
4
36-39
26
39-42 42-45
47
15
45-48
6
Solution:
X
Midvalues
d =
(m 37.5)
3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
(m)
30-33
33-36
36-39
39-42
42-45
45-48
31.5
34.5
37.5
40.5
43.5
46.5
2
4
26
47
15
6
N=
100
fd '
fd
87
N
fd
'3
'4
8
4
0
47
60
54
fd
-16
-4
0
47
120
162
3
fd = fd =
173
309
1557
c = 100 9 = 100
309
8343
3
c
261 = 2.61
c = 100
c =
N
100
fd '2
173
2
N
fd
-4
-4
0
47
30
18
fd
=87
fd
= 100 27 = 100
809
65529
= 15.57
= 83.43
= 655.29
c =100 81 = 100
4 = N
Moments about mean
1 = 0
2
2 = 2 1
2
= 15.57 (2.61)
= 15.57 6.81 = 8.76
3
3 = 3 3 2 1 + 2 1
3
= 83.43 3(2.61) (15.57)+2 (2.61)
= 83.43 121.9 + 35.56 = 2.91
2
4
4 = 4 4 3 1 + 6 2 1 3 1
2
4
= 665.29 4 (83.43) (2.61) + 6 (15.57) (2.61) 3(2.61)
fd 4
32
4
0
47
240
486
fd =
809
7.9
Skewness:
7.9.1 Meaning:
Skewness means lack of symmetry . We study skewness
to have an idea about the shape of the curve which we can draw
with the help of the given data.If in a distribution mean = median =
mode, then that distribution is known as symmetrical distribution.
If in a distribution mean median mode , then it is not a
symmetrical distribution and it is called a skewed distribution and
such a distribution could either be positively skewed or negatively
skewed.
a) Symmetrical distribution:
N=9
Mean
d2
0
100
4
225
4
0
4
0
25
2
d =362
=A+ d
n
= 25 + 2
9
= 25 0.22 = 24.78
d 2 d 2
=
n
n
362 2 2
9 9
= 40.22 0.05
= 40.17 = 6.3
Mode = 25, as this size of item repeats 3 times Karl
Pearson s coefficient of skewness
= Mean - Mode
S . D.
176
=
24.78 25
6.3
=
0
.
2
2
6
.
3
= 0.03
Example 19:
Find the coefficient of skewness from the data given below
Size :
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Frequency: 7
10
14 35
102 136
43
8
Solution:
Size
Frequency
(f)
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
7
10
14
35
102
136
43
8
N=355
Deviation
From A=6
(d)
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
4
d2
9
4
1
0
1
4
9
16
= A+
fd2
-21
-20
-14
0
102
272
129
32
fd=480
63
40
14
0
102
544
387
128
2
fd =1278
fd 2
fd
Mean
fd
N
=6
fd
480
480
= 1278
355
355 355
= 3.6 1.82
= 1.78 = 1.33
= 6 + 1.35
= 7.35
Mode = 8
Coefficient of skewness =
Mean - Mode
S
.
D
.
1
7
7
Example 20:
Find Karl Pearson s coefficient of skewness for the
given distribution:
X : 0-5
5-10
10-15 15-20 20-25 25-30 30-35 35-40
F :
2
5
7
13
21
16
8
3
Solution:
Mode lies in 20-25 group which contains the maximum frequency
f1 - f 0
Mode = l +
C
2f1 - f0 - f2
l =20, f1=21, f0=13, f2=16, C=5
21 13
5
Mode = 20 +
2 21 13 16
8 5
= 20 +
42 29
= 20 + 40 = 20 + 3.08 = 23.08
13
Computation of Mean and Standard deviation
X
Mid Frequen Deviations
fd
d 2 fd 2
point
cy
d =
m 22.5
M
f
5
0-5
2.5
2
-4
-8
16
32
5-10
7.5
5
-3
-15
9
45
10-15 12.5
7
-2
-14
4
28
15-20
17.5
13
-1
-13
1
13
20-25
22.5
21
0
0
0
0
25-30
27.5
16
1
16
1
16
30-35
32.5
8
2
16
4
32
35-40
37.5
3
3
9
9
27
fd =
fd 2=
N=75
-9
193
178
Mean = A+
fd
N
9
= 22.5 +
= 22.5
75
45
75 =
22.5 0.6 = 21.9
fd 2
=
fd
N
N
193 9 2 5
75 75
2.57 0.0144 5
=
=
2.5556 5
= 1.5986 5 = 7.99
Karl Pearson s coefficient of skewness
Mean - Mode
=
=
S.D.
21.9 23.08
7.99
=
1
.
1
8
=
0
.
1
4
7
7
7
.
9
9
7.10.2 Bowley
s
Coefficient
of
skewness:
In Karl Pearson s method of
measuring skewness the
whole of the series is needed. Prof.
Bowley has suggested a formula based on
relative position of quartiles. In a
symmetrical distribution, the quartiles are
equidistant from the value of the median;
ie.,
Median Q1 = Q3 Median. But
in a skewed distribution, the quartiles will
not be equidistant from the median. Hence
Bowley has suggested the following
formula:
Q3 Q1 2 Median
Q3 Q1
179
Example 21:
Find the Bowley s coefficient of skewness for the following
series. 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22
Solution:
The given data in order
2, 4, 6, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22
n 1 th
Q1
size of
item
4
11 1
= size of
item
4
rd
= size of 3 item = 6
n 1 th item
= size of 3
4
11 1
= size of 3
item
4
th
= size of 9 item
= 18
n 1
th
Q3
th
Median
size of
th
item
2
11 1
= size of
th item
2
th
= size of 6 item
= 12
Q3 Q1 2 Median
Q1
Q3
= 18 186 62 12 = 0
Solution:
Size
4
4.5
5
5.5
6
6.5
7
7.5
8
f
10
18
22
25
40
15
10
8
7
N 1
= Size of
Q1
c.f
10
28
50
75
115
130
140
148
155
th item
155 1
= Size of
th item
4
th
= Size of 39 item
= 5
= Median = Size of
Q2
= Size of
= Size
= 6
Q3
N 1
155 1
th item
th item
th
of
78 item
N 1
= Size of 3
4 th item
= Size of 3
4
th
155 1
th item
Q 3 Q1 2 Median
Q3 Q1
= 6.5 5
2
6 6.5
5
= 11.51
2
=
0.
5
1.
5
1.
5
= 0.33
Example 23:
Calculate the value of the Bowley s coefficient of
skewness from the following series.
Wages : 10-20
20-30
(Rs)
No.of
Persons : 1
3
Solution:
Wages(Rs)
10-20
20-30
30-40
40-50
50-60
60-70
70-80
N
4
30-40 40-50
11
F
1
3
11
21
43
32
9
N=120
m1
c1
Q1 = l1 +
f1
N 120
=
= 30
21
50-60 60-70
43
c.f
1
4
15
36
79
111
120
32
70-80
Q1class
40-50
f1=21, c1=10
182
Q1
= 40 + 30 15 10
21
150
= 40 + 21
= 40 + 7.14
= 47.14
N
m
2
Q2 = Median = l +
N 120
=
2
= 60
2
Medianal class = 50 60
l= 50 , m=36, f = 43, c=10
60 36 10
median
43
240
= 50 + 43
=
5
0
= 50 + 5.58
= 55.58
3N m 3
c3
Q3
= l3 +
f3
3 N = 3 120 = 90
4
4
Q3 class = 60 70
l3=60, m3=79, f3=32, c3=10
90 79
Q3 = 60 +
32
10
110
= 60 + 32
= 60 +3.44
= 63.44
183
Q3 Q1 2 Median
Q3 Q1
= 63.44 47.14 2 55.58
63.44 47.14
=
110.58 111.16
16.30
= 0
.
5
8
1
6
.
3
0
= 0.0356
7.10.3 Measure of skewness based on moments:
The measure of skewness based on moments is
denoted by
1 and is given by:
Kurtosis:
The expression Kurtosis is used to describe the
peakedness of a curve.
The three measures central tendency, dispersion
and skewness describe the characteristics of frequency
L = Lepto Kurtic
M = Meso Kurtic
P = Platy Kurtic
0
=
=
=
=4
2
N
125
fd3
fd 4 4700
3
=0
N
0
64
185
= 37.6
125
4
2
2
2
37.6
42
37.6
= 2.35
16
The value of 2 is less than 3, hence the curve is platykurtic.
Example 25:
From the data given below, calculate the first four moments
about an arbitrary origin and then calculate the first four central
moments.
X : 30-33 33-36 36-39 39-42 42-45
45-48
f :
2
4
26
47
15
6
Solution:
[Hint: Refer Example 18 of page 172 and get the values of first four
moments about the origin and the first four moments about the
mean. Then using these values find the values of 1 and 2.]
1 = 0,
2 = 8.76
1 =
3 = 2.91,
(2.91) 2
8.47
=
(8.76) 3
672.24
4 = 291.454
= 0.0126
= 291.454 = 3.70
(8.76) 2
Since 2 >3, the curve is leptokurtic.
Exercise 7
I. Choose the best answer:
1. Which of the following is a unitless measure of dispersion?
(a) Standard deviation
(b) Mean deviation
(c) Coefficient of variation (d) Range
2. Absolute sum of deviations is minimum from
(a)
Mode
(b) Median
(c)
Mean
(d) None of the above
186
38. Calculate mean deviation from mean from the following data:
X :2 4
6
8
10
f
:1 4
6
4
1
39.Calculate mean deviation from median
Age
No. of
People
15-20 20-25
9
16
25-30
12
30-35
26
35-40
14
40-45
12
45-50
6
50-55
5
16
21
41
43
57
78 83 93
95
1719
4
150170
4
3. (a)
8. (d)
4. (b)
9. (c)
13. M.D
18. 0.1
III.
36. Q.D = 1.5
39. M.D = 7.35
190
5. (b)
10.(b)
8. CORRELATION
Introduction:
The term correlation is used by a common man without
knowing that he is making use of the term correlation. For example
when parents advice their children to work hard so that they may
get good marks, they are correlating good marks with hard work.
The study related to the characteristics of only variable such
as height, weight, ages, marks, wages, etc., is known as univariate
analysis. The statistical Analysis related to the study of the
relationship between two variables is known as Bi-Variate Analysis.
Some times the variables may be inter-related. In health sciences
we study the relationship between blood pressure and age,
consumption level of some nutrient and weight gain, total income
and medical expenditure, etc., The nature and strength of
relationship may be examined by correlation and Regression
analysis.
Thus Correlation refers to the relationship of two variables
or more. (e-g) relation between height of father and son, yield and
rainfall, wage and price index, share and debentures etc.
Correlation is statistical Analysis which measures and
analyses the degree or extent to which the two variables fluctuate
with reference to each other. The word relationship is important. It
indicates that there is some connection between the variables. It
measures the closeness of the relationship. Correlation does not
indicate cause and effect relationship. Price and supply, income and
expenditure are correlated.
Definitions:
1. Correlation Analysis attempts to determine the degree
of relationship between variables- Ya-Kun-Chou.
2. Correlation is an analysis of the covariation between
two or more variables.- A.M.Tuttle.
Correlation expresses the inter-dependence of two sets of
variables upon each other. One variable may be called as (subject)
191
Perfect Negative
Correlation
O
O
192
X axis
(r = 1)
X axis
X
1. If all the plotted dots lie on a straight line falling from upper
left hand corner to lower right hand corner, there is a perfect
negative correlation between the two variables. In this case
the coefficient of correlation takes the value r = -1.
2. If the plotted points in the plane form a band and they show
a rising trend from the lower left hand corner to the upper
right hand corner the two variables are highly positively
correlated.
Highly Positive
Y
Highly Negative
Y
X axis
X axis
1. If the points fall in a narrow band from the upper left hand
corner to the lower right hand corner, there will be a high
degree of negative correlation.
2. If the plotted points in the plane are spread all over
the diagram there is no correlation between the two
variables.
No correlation
( r = 0)
Y
O
X
193
Merits:
1. It is a simplest and attractive method of finding the nature
of correlation between the two variables.
2. It is a non-mathematical method of studying correlation. It
is easy to understand.
3. It is not affected by extreme items.
4. It is the first step in finding out the relation between the two
variables.
5. We can have a rough idea at a glance whether it is a
positive correlation or negative correlation.
Demerits:
By this method we cannot get the exact degree or
correlation between the two variables.
Types of Correlation:
Correlation is classified into various types. The most
important ones are
i) Positive and negative.
ii) Linear and non-linear.
iii) Partial and total.
iv) Simple and Multiple.
Positive and Negative Correlation:
It depends upon the direction of change of the variables. If
the two variables tend to move together in the same direction (ie)
an increase in the value of one variable is accompanied by an
increase in the value of the other, (or) a decrease in the value of one
variable is accompanied by a decrease in the value of other, then
the correlation is called positive or direct correlation. Price and
supply, height and weight, yield and rainfall, are some examples of
positive correlation.
If the two variables tend to move together in opposite
directions so that increase (or) decrease in the value of one variable
is accompanied by a decrease or increase in the value of the other
variable, then the correlation is called negative (or) inverse
correlation. Price and demand, yield of crop and price, are
examples of negative correlation.
194
(x x )( y y)
XY
X= xx ,Y= y y
X . Y
when the deviations are taken from the actual mean we can apply
any one of these methods. Simple formula is the third one.
The third formula is easy to calculate, and it is not necessary
to calculate the standard deviations of x and y series respectively.
Steps:
r =
cov(x , y)
x.y
= (x x ) y
- y)/n
x x ) . y y)
n
n
196
X=x x
X = x 67
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
0
66
67
65
68
70
68
72
476
x 469 67 ; y
7
XY
r =
X
. Y
X2 Y = y y
9
4
1
0
1
4
9
28
Y2
Y = y - 68
-2
-1
-3
0
2
0
4
0
476 68
7
25
XY
4
1
9
0
4
0
6
2
3
0
2
0
12
25
25
0.81
16
34
25
30.85
28 34
952
We have r = C ov( x, y)
xy
(x x )( y y )
Cov( x,y) =
n
197
( xy x y yx x y)
n
x
- yx - y + x y
n
n
n
+
= xy
n
x
y
Cov(x,y) =
n
x 2
2x2
xy
xy
y 2
- x 2 , 2 y2 n - y
C ov( x, y)
xy
xy x y
n
y
2
2
x
- x . n
= xy
n
xy
Now r =
- y
n xy - ( x ) ( y)
[n x 2 (x )2 ][n y 2 - (y)2 ]
Note: In the above method we need not find mean or standard
deviation of variables separately.
Example 2:
Calculate coefficient of correlation from the following data.
X
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Y
9
8
10
12
11
13
14
16
15
x
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
y
9
8
10
12
11
13
14
16
x2
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
y2
81
64
100
144
121
169
196
256
xy
9
16
30
48
55
78
98
128
9
45
15
108
81
285
225
1356
135
597
198
r
n xy - ( x ) ( y)
[ n x 2 ( x ) 2 ][ n y 2 - ( y) 2 ] 9 597 - 45 108
r =
9285(45)2.(91356(108)2)5373 - 4860
(2565 2025)(.12204 11664)
513
540 540
513 0.95
540
xy
(x x )( y y)
n
Take the deviation from x as x A and the deviation from y as y B
[( x - A) ( y - B ) - ( x - A) ( y - B) n
- (x A)( y B ) (x A )( y B)]
1
n
( x - A)
[( x - A) ( y - B ) - ( y - B)
n
( x A) ( y - B ) ( x - A )( y B)
n
n
n
( x - A)( y - B ) ( y B ) ( x A )
n
(x A) ( y
nB
) (x A) ( y B) n
199
( x - A)( y - B) ( y B ) ( x A)
=
n
- (x A) ( y B) ( x A) ( y B)
=
(x - A)( y - B)
n
Let x- A = u ; y - B = v;
( x A) ( y B)
x Au ; y Bv
u
Cov (x,y) = v uv
n
2
2
2
x u
u u2
x
n
v2 2
y2y
v v2
n
n uv ( u)(v)
n u
( u)
) (v)
(nv
Example 3:
Calculate Pearson s Coefficient of correlation.
X
45 55 56 58 60 65 68 70
Y
56 50 48 60 62 64 65 70
X
45
55
56
58
60
65
68
70
75
80
85
200
r=
r
Y
56
50
48
60
62
64
65
70
74
82
90
u = x-A v = y-B
-20
-14
-10
-20
-9
-22
-7
-10
-5
-8
0
-6
3
-5
5
0
10
4
15
12
20
20
2
-49
u2
75
74
v2
400
100
81
49
25
0
9
25
100
225
400
1414
80
82
uv
196
400
484
100
64
36
25
0
16
144
400
1865
201
85
90
(1865 11 ( 49) 2 )
280
200
198
70
40
0
-15
0
40
180
400
1393
15421
15550 18114
15421 0.92
16783.11
22
fxfx
22
222
22
fyfy
22
x
yy
N xx ;;yy y NN
x
N total N
frequency
N fxy - ( fx ) (fy)
r
[ N fx 2 ( fx )2 ].[ N fy 2 (fy)2 ]
Theorem:
The correlation coefficient is not affected by change
of origin and scale.
then rxy =ruv
If u x A ; v y B
c
d
Proof:
uxA
c
cu = x- A
x = cu +A
x =cu+A
v y
B
d
vd = y B
y = B + vd y = [B + v d]
x = c u ; y = d v
cov(x , y )
rxy =
x y
f (x x)( y y)
cov(x,y) =
n
f[(cu+A) (cu+A)]
[(dv+B) - (d
v+B)] n
= 1 f cu-cu
(dv-d v )
n
= 1 f c(u u ) d (v
v )
= 1 f cd u - u v v
N
= 1 cd f (u u ) (v - v )
N
f (u u ) (v - v )
cd cov(u, v)
= cd
N
cov( x, y) c.d cov(u, v)
rxy cov(x , y ) cd cov(u , v ) cov(u , v ) ruv
c .. u . d .
x y
v
u v
rxy ruv
202
Steps:
1. Take the step deviations of the variable x and denote these
deviations by u.
2. Take the step deviations of the variable y and denote these
deviations by v.
3. Multiply uv and the respective frequency of each cell and
unite the figure obtained in the right hand bottom corner of
each cell.
4. Add the corrected (all) as calculated in step 3 and obtain the
total fuv.
5. Multiply the frequencies of the variable x by the deviations of
x and obtain the total fu.
6. Take the squares of the step deviations of the variable x and
multiply them by the respective frequencies and obtain the
2
fu
2
Similarly get fv and fv . Then substitute these values in the
formula 1 and get the value of r .
Example 4:
The following are the marks obtained by 132 students in two tests.
Test-1 30-40 40-50
50-60 60-70
70-80 Total
Test-2
20-30
2
5
3
10
30-40
1
8
12
6
27
40-50
5
22
14
1
42
50-60
2
16
9
2
29
60-70
1
8
6
1
16
70-80
2
4
2
8
Total
3
21
63
39
6
132
Calculate the correlation coefficient.
Let x denote Test 1 marks.
Let y denote Test 2 marks.
u x 55
v y 45
10
10
203
mid x
35
45
55
65
75
fv
fv2
fuv
mid y
25
2
2
5
8
2
35
10
1
8
2
8
0
45
5
0
-1
2
55
-2
-2
65
1
-2
75
f
u
fu
fu2
fuv
3
-2
-6
12
10
21
-1
-21
21
14
N fuv - (
3
0
0
12
0
0
22
0
0
16
0
0
8
0
0
2
0
63
0
0
0
0
-1
6
-6
0
14
0
1
9
9
2
6
12
3
4
12
39
1
39
39
27
-2
-20
40
18
27
-1
-27
27
29
29
29
11
16
32
64
14
24
72
24
132
0
24
96
71
38
232
71
0
1
42
0
2
2
4
4
1
4
6
2
12
6
2
12
24
20
fu ) ( fv)
[ N fu 2 ( fu ) 2 ].[ N fv 2 ( fv) 2 ]
132 71 24 38
=
[132 96 (24) 2 ] [132 232 (38) 2 ]
9372 912
=
(12672 576) (30624-1444)
=
10
8460
8460 0.4503
109.96 170.82 18786.78
Check
204
Example 5:
Calculate Karl Pearson s coefficient of correlation from the data
given below:
Age in years
Marks
18
19
20
21
22
0- 5
3
1
5- 10
3
2
10-15
7
10
15-20
5
4
20-25
3
2
-
u x 12.5
5
v y 20
1
y
mid x
2.5
18
19
20
21
22
-2
-4
3
-6
-1
7.5
17.5
22.5
f
u
fu
fu2
fuv
-1
5
-5
-4
-2
3
2
-12 -4
3
7
-2
-1
-6
-7
12
7
-12
-9
fv
fv2
Fuv
1
-4
-2
-8
16
-10
2
-4
-1
-5
-7
0
7
0
-2
3
-3
12.5
10
0
17
-5
10
20
-16
16
1
16
16
-9
3
2
6
12
-8
40
0
9
47
-38
50
-38
0
11
0
0
0
0
205
Check
r
=
N fuv - ( fu ) ( fv)
[ N fu 2 ( fu ) 2 ].[ N fv 2 ( fv) 2 ]
40(38) 6 9
[40 50 62 ].[40 47 92 ]
1520 54
1574
0.8373
1964 1799
Properties of Correlation:
1. Correlation coefficient lies between 1 and +1
(i.e) 1 r +1
x x ; y = y y
Let x =
y
x
2
x
y
x
y
2
2
x
y
x
y
+
2
(
x )
x 2
( )
( )
(
y y 2 x YY ) 0
d
i
v
i
d
i
n
g
b
y
w
e
g
e
t
(
x)
(
y )
)
( (
x y
1. 1 1 .1 2
. 1
x y
)
n
0
2
1 .
1
.
c
o
v
(
x
+
1
+
2
r
0
2
+
2
r
0
2
(
1
+
y
2
,
y
)
r
)
0
(
1
+
r
)
1
(
1
r )
-------------
206
Similarly, (x y ) 0
2(l-r) 0
l - r 0
r +1 --------------(2)
(1) +(2) gives 1 r 1
Note: r = +1 perfect +ve correlation.
r = 1 perfect ve correlation between the variables.
Property 2: r is independent of change of origin and scale.
Property 3: It is a pure number independent of units of
measurement.
Property 4: Independent variables are uncorrelated but the
converse is not true.
Property 5: Correlation coefficient is the geometric mean of two
regression coefficients.
Property 6: The correlation coefficient of x and y is symmetric.
rxy = ryx.
Limitations:
1. Correlation coefficient assumes linear relationship
regardless of the assumption is correct or not.
2. Extreme items of variables are being unduly operated
on correlation coefficient.
3. Existence of correlation does not necessarily indicate
cause-effect relation.
Interpretation:
The following rules helps in interpreting the value of r .
1. When r = 1, there is perfect +ve relationship between
the variables.
2. When r = -1, there is perfect ve relationship between
the variables.
3. When r = 0, there is no relationship between the variables.
4. If the correlation is +1 or 1, it signifies that there is a high
degree of correlation. (+ve or ve) between the two variables.
If r is near to zero (ie) 0.1,-0.1, (or) 0.2 there is less correlation.
207
Rank Correlation:
It is studied when no assumption about the parameters of
the population is made. This method is based on ranks. It is useful
to study the qualitative measure of attributes like honesty, colour,
beauty, intelligence, character, morality etc.The individuals in the
group can be arranged in order and there on, obtaining for each
individual a number showing his/her rank in the group. This
method was developed by Edward Spearman in 1904. It is defined
6D2
as r = 1
r = rank correlation coefficient.
3
n n
2
Note: Some authors use the symbol for rank correlation. D
= sum of squares of differences between the pairs of ranks. n =
number of pairs of observations.
The value of r lies between 1 and +1. If r = +1, there is
complete agreement in order of ranks and the direction of ranks is
also same. If r = -1, then there is complete disagreement in order of
ranks and they are in opposite directions.
Computation for tied observations: There may be two or more
items having equal values. In such case the same rank is to be
given. The ranking is said to be tied. In such circumstances an
average rank is to be given to each individual item. For example if
th
the value so is repeated twice at the 5 rank, the common rank to
be assigned to each item is
56
1
factor which is
r=1
= 1
36
n3 n
Rank
3
2
1
5
6
4
7
= 1
88
120
90
95
134 150
Price of
coffee
120
134
150
115
110
140
100
66
70 60 75
115 110 140
Rank
4
3
1
5
6
2
7
1
1
0
0
0
2
0
50
100
D2
1
1
0
0
0
4
0
2
D =6
73 7
= 1 0.1071
336
= 0.8929
The relation between price of tea and coffee is positive at
0.89. Based on quality the association between price of tea and
price of coffee is highly positive.
Example 7:
In an evaluation of answer script the following marks are awarded
by the examiners.
88
95
70
960
50
80
75
85
1st
84
90
88
55
48
85
82
72
2nd
209
D
4
0
16
0
0
1
9
30
6D2 = 1 6
3
n3n
8 8
= 1 180 = 1 0.357 = 0.643
504
r = 0.643 shows fair in awarding marks in the sense that uniformity
has arisen in evaluating the answer scripts between the two
examiners.
Example 8:
Rank Correlation for tied observations. Following are the marks
obtained by 10 students in a class in two tests.
r=1
Students
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
Test 1
70 68
67
55
60
60
75
63
60
72
Test 2
65 65
80
60
68
58
75
63
60
70
Calculate the rank correlation coefficient between the marks of two tests.
D2
Student
Test 1
R1
Test 2
R2
D
A
70
3
65
5.5
-2.5
6.25
B
68
4
65
5.5
-1.5
2.25
C
67
5
80
1.0
4.0
16.00
D
55
10
60
8.5
1.5
2.25
E
60
8
68
4.0
4.0
16.00
F
60
8
58
10.0
-2.0
4.00
G
75
1
75
2.0
-1.0
1.00
H
63
6
62
7.0
-1.0
1.00
I
60
8
60
8.5
0.5
0.25
J
72
2
70
3.0
-1.0
1.00
50.00
210
60 is repeated 3 times in test 1.
=1
990
6 53 672
990
0.68 990
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
214
15-25
1
2
3
25-35
1
12
4
17
35-45
1
10
3
14
45-55
1
6
2
9
55-65
1
4
1
6
65-75
2
2
4
Total
2
15
15
10
8
3
53
60-70
4
2
1
7
70-80
3
5
2
1
11
80-90
1
2
3
3
1
10
90-100
1
2
5
1
9
100-110
1
2
5
8
Total
8
10
9
11
7
45
215
Total
5
16
10
9
40
45. The following table gives the no. of students having different
heights and weights. Do you find any relation between height
and weight.
Weights in Kg
Height
cms
150-155
155-160
160-165
165-170
Total
in
55-60
1
2
1
4
60-65
3
4
5
3
15
65-70
7
10
12
8
37
70-75
5
7
10
6
28
RANK CORRELATION:
46. Two judges gave the following ranks to eight
beauty contest. Examine the relationship
judgements.
Judge A
4
5
1
2
3
Judge B
8
6
2
3
1
75-80
2
4
7
3
16
Total
18
27
35
20
100
competitors in a
between their
6
4
7
5
8
7
36
50
56
35
20 65
70 25
42 33 44
58 75 60
50
45
15
80
60
38
29
31
27
31
22
29
31
18
18
20
22 28
18 25
31
25
23
37
31
35
216
70
68
67
55 60
60 75
63
60
72
65
65
80
60 68
58 75
62
60
70
217
3. (b)
8. (b)
4.(b)
9. (c)
5. (a)
10. (b)
13. Multiple
16. Symmetric
31. r = 0.85
34. r = +0.58
37. r = +0.68
40. r = +0.1
43. r = +0.533
46. r = +0.62
49. r = 0.34
32. y = 6.25.
35. r = +0.98
38. r = - 0.92
41. r = +0.98
44. r = +0.596
47. r = - 0.93
50. r = 0.679
9. REGRESSION
9.1 Introduction:
After knowing the relationship between two variables we may
be interested in estimating (predicting) the value of one variable given
the value of another. The variable predicted on the basis of other
variables is called the dependent or the explained variable and the
other the independent or the predicting variable. The prediction is
based on average relationship derived statistically by regression
analysis. The equation, linear or otherwise, is called the regression
equation or the explaining equation.
For example, if we know that advertising and sales are
correlated we may find out expected amount of sales for a given
advertising expenditure or the required amount of expenditure for
attaining a given amount of sales.
The relationship between two variables can be considered
between, say, rainfall and agricultural production, price of an input
and the overall cost of product, consumer expenditure and
disposable income. Thus, regression analysis reveals average
relationship between two variables and this makes possible
estimation or prediction.
9.1.1 Definition:
Regression is the measure of the average relationship
between two or more variables in terms of the original units of the
data.
9.2 Types Of Regression:
The regression analysis can be classified into:
a) Simple and Multiple
b) Linear and Non Linear
c) Total and Partial
a) Simple and Multiple:
In case of simple relationship only two variables are
considered, for example, the influence of advertising expenditure
on sales turnover. In the case of multiple relationship, more than
218
219
r=-1
r =+1
X O
r=0
(x , y )
220
Graphic
Algebraic
Scatter Diagram
Regression Equations
(through normal equations)
221
Regression Equations
(through regression coefficient)
Example 1:
Find the two regression equations from the following data:
X:
Y:
222
6
9
2
11
10
5
4
8
8
7
Solution:
X
6
2
10
4
8
30
Y
XY
X2
Y2
9
36
81
54
11
4
121
22
5
100
25
50
8
16
64
32
7
64
49
56
40
220
340
214
Regression equation of Y on X is Y = a + bX and the
normal equations are
Y = na + bX
2
XY = aX + bX
Substituting the values, we get
40 = 5a + 30b (1)
214 = 30a + 220b . (2)
Multiplying (1) by 6
240 = 30a + 180b. (3)
(2) (3) - 26 = 40b
or b = -
26
= - 0.65
40
Now, substituting the value of b in equation (1)
40 = 5a 19.5
5a = 59.5
a = 59.5 5
= 11.9
26
b== - 1.3 20
Substituting b = - 1.3 in equation (3) gives 30 = 5a 52
5a = 82
82
a=
= 16.4 5
Hence, Required regression line of X on Y is
X = 16.4 1.3Y
(ii) Regression Co-efficents:
The regression equation of Y on X is ye y r
ye y b1 (x x)
The regression equation of X on Y is
X e x r x ( y y) y
Here, the regression Co-efficient of X on Y
b2 bxy r
(x x)
sx
X e X b2 ( y y)
224
( X X )(Y Y )
b1 = byx =
xy
( X X )
and
( X
X )(Y Y )
xy
b2 = bxy =
(Y Y )
where x X X , y Y Y
If the deviations are taken from any arbitrary values of x and
y (short cut method)
n uv u v
b1 = byx =
n u 2 u
n uv u v
b2 = bxy =
n v 2 v
where u = x A : v = Y-B
A = any value in X
B = any value in Y
2
2
225
= tan-1
m1 m2
1 m1
9
and b2 =
5
the value of r?
Solution:
The correlation coefficient
r b1b2
,
.What would be
20
4x 9
5 20
36 = 6 = 0.6
100 10
Example 3:
Given b1 = 15 and b2 = 3 , Find r
8
5
Solution:
r b1b2
=
15 x 3
8 5
9 = =1.06
8
It is not possible since r, cannot be greater than one. So the
given values are wrong
226
(1)
XeXr
(Y Y )
y
X e X b2 (Y Y )
These two regression equations represent entirely two
different lines. In other words, equation (1) is a function of X,
which can be written as Ye = F(X) and equation (2) is a function of
Y, which can be written as Xe = F(Y).
The variables X and Y are not inter changeable. It is mainly
due to the fact that in equation (1) Y is the dependent variable, X is
the independent variable. That is to say for the given values of X
we can find the estimates of Ye of Y only from equation (1).
Similarly, the estimates Xe of X for the values of Y can be obtained
only from equation (2).
Example 4:
Compute the two regression equations from the following data.
X
1
2
3 4
5
Y
2
3
5 4
6
If x =2.5, what will be the value of y?
Solution:
X
Y
1
2
2
3
3
5
4
4
5
6
15
20
227
x X X
-2
-1
0
1
2
20
y Y Y
-2
-1
1
0
2
x
4
1
0
1
4
10
y
4
1
1
0
4
10
xy
4
-1
0
0
4
9
X 15
3
5
n
Y
20 4
Y
5
n
Regression Co efficient of Y on X
byx = xy 9 0.9
x2 10
Hence regression equation of Y on X is
Y Y b yx ( X X )
= 4 + 0.9 ( X 3 )
= 4 + 0.9X 2.7
=1.3 + 0.9X
when X = 2.5
Y = 1.3 + 0.9 2.5
= 3.55
Regression co efficient of X on Y
bxy = xy 9 0.9
y2
10
So, regression equation of X on Y is
X X bxy (Y Y )
= 3 + 0.9 ( Y 4 )
= 3 + 0.9Y 3.6
= 0.9Y - 0.6
Short-cut method
Example 5:
Obtain the equations of the two lines of regression for the
data given below:
X
Y
228
45
40
42
38
44
36
43
35
41
38
45
39
43
37
40
41
Solution:
X
46
42
44
A 43
41
45
43
40
Y
40
38 B
36
35
38
39
37
41
u = X-A
3
-1
1
0
-2
2
0
-3
0
u
9
1
1
0
4
4
0
9
28
u
n
43 0 = 43
8
Y B u
n
38 0
= 38
8
The regression Co-efficient of Y on X is
X A
n uv u v
b1 = byx =
n u 2 u
3) (0)(0) = 24 = -0.11
= 8(
8(28) (0)2 224
b2 = bxy =
n v 2 v
= 8( 3) (0)
(0) 8(28)
(0)2
=
229
24
224
= - 0.11
v = Y-B
2
0
-2
-3
0
1
-1
3
0
V
4
0
4
9
0
1
1
9
28
uv
6
0
-2
0
0
2
0
-9
-3
Mean
S.D
X
65
2.5
= 0.8
= 1.12
230
Y
67
3.5
= 0.8
= 0.57
231
20
b b
Correlation Coefficient, r =
yx
xy
4 9
= 5 20
36
=
100
6
1
0
=
0
.
6
Example 8:
Regression equations of two correlated variables
X and Y are 5X-6Y+90 = 0 and 15X-8Y-130 = 0. Find
correlation coefficient.
Solution:
232
6
5
bxy = b2 =
For 15X-8Y-130 = 0
Y= 1
5
1
3
0
8
8
byx = b1
=
15
8
r = b1 b2
= 15 6
8 5
= 2.25
= 1.5 >1
It is not possible. So our assumption is wrong. So let us
take the first equation as Y on X and second equation as
X on Y.
From the equation 5x 6y + 90 = 0,
Y=
9
0
byx =
6
6
5
6
90
=
3
233
= 0.67
Example 9:
The lines of regression of Y on X and X on Y are
respectively, y = x + 5 and 16X = 9Y 94. Find the variance of X if
the variance of Y is 19. Also find the covariance of X and Y.
Solution:
From regression line Y on
X, Y = X+5
We get byx = 1
From regression line X on Y,
16X = 9Y-94
X = 9 Y 94 ,
16
16
we get
bxy = 9
16
r = b1 b2
=
=
1 9
16
3
4
Again , byx
y
= r x
2
(Since Y =16, Y = 4 )
i.e., 1 = 4
x
X = 3.
2
Variance of X = X
Again byx
=9
cov(x, y)
x
234
cov( x , y)
1 =
9
or cov (x,y) = 9.
Example 10:
Is it possible for two regression lines to be as follows:
Y = -1.5X + 7 , X = 0.6Y + 9 ? Give reasons.
Solution:
The regression coefficient of Y on X is b1 = byx = -1.5 The
regression coefficient of X on Y is b2 = bxy = 0.6
Both the regression coefficients are of different sign, which is a
contrary. So the given equations cannot be regression lines.
Example 11:
In the estimation of regression equation of two variables X
and Y the following results were obtained.
2
2
X = 90, Y = 70, n = 10, x =6360; y = 2860, xy =
3900 Obtain the two regression equations.
Solution:
Here, x, y are the deviations from the Arithmetic mean.
x
y
b1 = byx = 2
x
=3900
= 0.61
6360
xy
b2 = bxy = y2
=
3900
= 1.36
2860
Regression equation of Y on X is
Ye = Y +b1 (X - X )
= 70 + 0.61 (X 90)
= 70 + 0.61 X 54.90
= 15.1 + 0.61X
235
Regression equation of X on Y is
Xe = X + b2 (Y- Y )
= 90 + 1.36 (Y 70)
= 90 + 1.36 Y 95.2 = 1.36Y 5.2
9.7 Uses of Regression Analysis:
1. Regression analysis helps in establishing a functional
relationship between two or more variables.
2. Since most of the problems of economic analysis are based on
cause and effect relationships, the regression analysis is a highly
valuable tool in economic and business research.
3. Regression analysis predicts the values of dependent variables
from the values of independent variables.
4. We can calculate coefficient of correlation ( r) and coefficient of
2
determination ( r ) with the help of regression coefficients.
5. In statistical analysis of demand curves, supply curves,
production function, cost function, consumption function etc.,
regression analysis is widely used.
9.8 Difference between Correlation and Regression:
Correlation
Regression
S.No
1.
Correlation is the relationship
Regression means
between two or more variables,
going back and it is a
which vary in sympathy with the mathematical measure
other in the same or the opposite showing the average
direction.
relationship between
two variables
2.
Both the variables X and Y are
Here X is a random
random variables
variable and Y is a
fixed variable.
Sometimes both the
variables may be
random variables.
3.
It finds out the degree of
It indicates the causes
relationship between two
and effect relationship
variables and not the cause and
between the variables
effect of the variables.
and establishes
functional relationship.
236
4.
It is used for testing and
Besides verification it
other must be
a) greater than unity
b) equal to unity
c) less than unity
d) none of these
3. Regression equation is also named as
a) predication equation
b) estimating equation
c) line of average relationship d) all the above
4. The lines of regression intersect at the point
a) (X,Y)
b) ( X ,Y ) c) (0,0)
d) (1,1)
5. If r = 0, the lines of regression are
a) coincide
b) perpendicular to each other
c) parallel to each other
d) none of the above
6. Regression coefficient is independent of
a) origin
b) scale
c)both origin and scale
d) neither origin nor scale.
7. The geometric mean of the two-regression coefficients byx
and bxy is equal to
2
a) r
b) r
c) 1
d) r
8. Given the two lines of regression as 3X 4Y +8 = 0 and
4X 3Y = 1, the means of X and Y are
a) X = 4, Y = 5
b) X =3, Y = 4
c) X = 2, Y = 2
d) X = 4/3, Y = 5/3
9. If the two lines of regression are
X + 2Y 5 = 0 and
2X + 3Y 8 = 0, the means of X and Y are
a) X = -3, Y = 4
b) X = 2, Y = 4
c) X =1, Y = 2
d) X = -1, Y = 2
10. If byx = -3/2, bxy = -3/2 then the correlation coefficient, r is
a) 3/2
b) 3/2
c) 9/4
d) 9/4
II. Fill in the blanks:
11. The regression analysis measures ________________
between X and Y.
12. The purpose of regression is to study ________ between
variables.
13. If one of the regression coefficients is ________ unity, the other
must be _______ unity.
238
14. The farther the two regression lines cut each other, the _____
be the degree of correlation.
15. When one regression coefficient is positive, the other
would also be _____.
16. The sign of regression coefficient is ____ as that of
correlation coefficient.
III. Answer the following:
17. Define regression and write down the two regression
equations
18. Describe different types of regression.
19. Explain principle of least squares.
20. Explain (i) graphic method, (ii) Algebraic method.
21. What are regression co-efficient?
22. State the properties of regression coefficients.
23. Why there are two regression equations?
24. What are the uses of regression analysis?
25. Distinguish between correlation and regression.
26. What do you mean by regression line of Y on X and
regression line of X on Y?
27. From the following data, find the regression equation
2
X = 21, Y = 20, X = 91, XY = 74, n = 7
28. From the following data find the regression equation of Y on
X. If X = 15, find Y?
X 8
11 7
10 12 5
4
6
Y 11
30 25
44 38 25 20 27
29. Find the two regression equations from the following data.
X
25 22 28 26 35
20 22 40 20 18
Y
18 15 20 17 22
14 16 21 15 14
30. Find S.D (Y), given that variance of X = 36, bxy =
0.8, r = 0.5
31. In a correlation study, the following values are obtained
X
Y
Mean
68 60
S.D.
2.5 3.5
Coefficient of correlation, r = 0.6 Find the two regression
equations.
239
10.
10.1
INDEX NUMBERS
Introduction:
An index number is a statistical device for comparing the
general level of magnitude of a group of related variables in two or
more situation. If we want to compare the price level of 2000 with
what it was in 1990, we shall have to consider a group of variables
such as price of wheat, rice, vegetables, cloth, house rent etc., If the
changes are in the same ratio and the same direction, we face no
difficulty to find out the general price level. But practically, if we
think changes in different variables are different and that too,
upward or downward, then the price is quoted in different units i.e
milk for litre, rice or wheat for kilogram, rent for square feet, etc
We want one figure to indicate the changes of different
commodities as a whole. This is called an Index number. Index
Number is a number which indicate the changes in magnitudes.
M.Spiegel say, An index number is a statistical measure designed
to show changes in variable or a group of related variables with
respect to time, geographic location or other characteristic. In
general, index numbers are used to measure changes over time in
magnitude which are not capable of direct measurement.
On the basis of study and analysis of the definition given
above, the following characteristics of index numbers are apparent.
1. Index numbers are specified averages.
2. Index numbers are expressed in percentage.
3. Index numbers measure changes not capable of direct
measurement.
4. Index numbers are for comparison.
10.2 Uses of Index numbers
Index numbers are indispensable tools of economic and
business analysis. They are particular useful in measuring relative
changes. Their uses can be appreciated by the following points.
1. They measure the relative change.
2. They are of better comparison.
241
Un weighted
Weighted
Weighted
Simple
Simple
Weighted
aggregate
average
aggregate
average
Index
of price
index
of price
numbers
relative
number
relative
10.5.1 Simple Aggregate Index Number
This is the simplest method of construction of index
numbers. The price of the different commodities of the current
year are added and the sum is divided by the sum of the prices of
those commodities by 100. Symbolically,
p1 100
Simple aggregate price index = P01
=
p0
243
A
B
C
D
Solution:
Commodity
A
B
C
D
Total
p1 100
p0
300
100 = 120
250
10.5.2 Simple Average Price Relative index:
In this method, first calculate the price relative for the
various commodities and then average of these relative is obtained
by using arithmetic mean and geometric mean. When arithmetic
mean is used for average of price relative, the formula for
computing the index is
=
244
Simple average of price relative by arithmetic mean
p1 100
p0
P01 =
log( p 100)
P01 = Antilog
n
Example 2:
From the following data, construct an index for 1998 taking 1997
as base by the average of price relative using (a) arithmetic mean
and (b) Geometric mean
Commodity
Price in 1997
Price in 1998
A
50
70
B
40
60
C
80
100
D
20
30
Solution:
(a) Price relative index number using arithmetic mean
Commodity
Price in 1997
(P0)
A
B
C
D
50
40
80
20
Price in
1998
(P1)
70
60
100
30
Total
p1 100
p0
140
150
125
150
565
245
p
1
100
= 141.25
4
(b) Price relative index number using Geometric Mean
Commodity Price in Price in
p1 100 log( p1 100)
1997
1998
p
p
0
0
(P0)
(P1)
A
50
70
140
2.1461
B
40
60
150
2.1761
C
80
100
125
2.0969
D
20
30
150
2.1761
Total
8.5952
Simple average of price Relative index
p
1 x100
log
p
o
(P01) = Antilog
n
8.5952
= Antilog
4
= Antilog [ 2.1488] = 140.9
10.5.3 Weighted aggregate index numbers
In order to attribute appropriate importance to each of the
items used in an aggregate index number some reasonable weights
must be used. There are various methods of assigning weights and
consequently a large number of formulae for constructing index
numbers have been devised of which some of the most important
ones are
1. Laspeyre s method
2. Paasche s method
3. Fisher s ideal Method
4. Bowley s Method
5. Marshall- Edgeworth method
6. Kelly s Method
246
1. Laspeyre s method:
The Laspeyres price index is a weighted aggregate price
index, where the weights are determined by quantities in the based
period and is given by
p1 q0
L
100
Laspeyre s price index = P01 =
p0 q0
2. Paasche s method
The Paasche s price index is a weighted aggregate price
index in which the weight are determined by the quantities in the
current year. The formulae for constructing the index is
p1 q1
P
100
Paasche s price index number = P01 =
p0 q1
Where
P0 = Price for the base year
P1 = Price for the current year
q0 = Quantity for the base year q1 = Quantity for the current year
3. Fisher s ideal Method
Fisher s Price index number is the geometric mean of the
Laspeyres and Paasche indices Symbolically
F
Fisher s ideal index number = P01 = L P
= p1 q0
p q
0
p1 q1 100
p q
0
=LP2
= 1 p1q0
2
247
p q
0
A
B
C
D
2
5
4
2
8
12
15
18
4
6
5
4
5
10
12
20
Solution:
Commodity
A
B
C
D
248
p0
2
5
4
2
q0
8
12
15
18
p1
q1
4
6
5
4
5
10
12
20
p0q
0
16
60
60
36
172
p0q1
p1q0 p1 q1
10
50
48
40
148
32
72
75
72
251
20
60
60
80
220
= p1 q0
100
p0 q0
251 100 = 145.93
=
172
P
Paasche price index number = P01 = p1 q1 100
p0 q1
= 220 100
148
= 148 .7
Fisher s ideal index number
= LP
= (145.9) (148.7)
= 21695.33
= 147 .3
Or
Fisher s ideal index number =
p1 q0
p1 q1
p q
p q
0
100
(1.459) 100
=
2.170 100
= 1.473 100
= 147.3
Interpretation:
The results can be interpreted as follows:
If 100 rupees were used in the base year to buy the given
commodities, we have to use Rs 145.90 in the current year to buy
the same amount of the commodities as per the Laspeyre s formula.
Other values give similar meaning .
Example 4:
Calculate the index number from the following data by applying
(a) Bowley s price index
249
Base year
Quantity
Price
10
3
20
15
2
25
Current year
Quantity
Price
8
4
15
20
3
30
Solution:
Commodity
A
B
C
q0
10
20
2
P0
3
15
25
q1
8
15
3
P1
p0q0 p0q1
4
20
30
30
300
50
380
2
1
2
=
p1 q0 p1 q1
p q
0
p q
p1 q1
32
300
90
422
100
422
100
p 1q 0
24
40
225 400
75
60
324 500
324
1.302
100
100
= 1.309 100
= 130.9
(b) Marshall Edgeworths price index Number
(q q )p
= P01ME =
0
1
1 100
(q0 q1 )p0
=
922 =
100
704
250
= 131. 0
Example 5:
Calculate a suitable price index from the following data
Commodity
Quantity
A
B
C
Price
1996
2
5
3
20
15
8
1997
4
6
2
Solution:
Here the quantities are given in common we can use Kelly
s index price number and is given by
p1q
k
Kelly s Price index number = P01 = p0 q 100
= 186 100 = 133.81
139
Commodity
A
B
C
q
20
15
8
P0
2
5
3
k
P01
P1
4
6
2
Total
p0q
40
75
24
139
P1q
80
90
16
186
p1q
= p0 q 100
p1
100
p0
When the base year value P0q0 is taken as the weight i.e. W=P0q0
then the formula is
p1
100 p0 q0
p0 q0
=
p1 q0
100
p0 q0
100 p0 q1
p0 q1
p1 q1
100
p0 q1
P1
5
3
P0
4
2
W
60
50
P=
100
p0
125
150
PW
7500
7500
30
140
200
6000
21000
= 21000
14
0=
150
10.6 Quantity or Volume index number:
Price index numbers measure and permit comparison of the
price of certain goods. On the other hand, the quantity index
numbers measure the physical volume of production, employment
and etc. The most common type of the quantity index is that of
quantity produced.
L
Laspeyre s quantity index number = Q01 = q1 p0 100
q0 p0
q1 p1
100
=
q0 p1
100
0 1
15
225
17
Solution:
Here instead of quantity, total values are given.
quantities of base year and current year,
total value
ie. Quantity =
price
Commodity p0
q0
P1
q1
p0q0
A
10
10
12
15
100
B
12
20
15
30
240
C
15
15
17
20
225
565
340
p0q1
150
360
300
810
p1q0
120
300
255
675
p1q1
180
450
340
970
q1 p0
q0 p0 100
810 100
565
= 143.4
P
Paasche s quantity index number = q01 = q1 p1 100
q0 p1
970 100
=
675
= 143.7
F
LP
Fisher s quantity index number = q01 =
=
= 143.7
= 143.6
(or)
F
q01 =
q1 p0 q1 p1 100
q 0 p 0
=
=
254
= 1.436 100
= 143.6
10.7 Tests of Consistency of index numbers:
Several formulae have been studied for the construction of
index number. The question arises as to which formula is
appropriate to a given problems. A number of tests been developed
and the important among these are
1. Unit test
2. Time Reversal test
3. Factor Reversal test
1. Unit test:
The unit test requires that the formula for constructing an
index should be independent of the units in which prices and
quantities are quoted. Except for the simple aggregate index
(unweighted) , all other formulae discussed in this chapter satisfy
this test.
2. Time Reversal test:
Time Reversal test is a test to determine whether a given
method will work both ways in time, forward and backward. In the
words of Fisher, the formula for calculating the index number
should be such that it gives the same ratio between one point of
comparison and the other, no matter which of the two is taken as
base. Symbolically, the following relation should be satisfied.
P01 P10 = 1
Where P01 is the index for time 1 as time 0 as base and P 10 is
the index for time 0 as time 1 as base. If the product is not
unity, there is said to be a time bias is the method. Fisher s ideal
index satisfies the time reversal test.
p1 q0 p1 q1
P01 =
p q
p
P10 =
p0 q1 p0 q0
p q 1
p q 0
p1 q0
p q
1 1
p0 q0 p0 q1
p0 q1 p0 q0
p1 q1 p1 q0
255
= 1=1
Therefore Fisher ideal index satisfies the time reversal test.
3. Factor Reversal test:
Another test suggested by Fisher is known s factor reversal
test. It holds that the product of a price index and the quantity index
should be equal to the corresponding value index. In the words of
Fisher, Just as each formula should permit the interchange of the
two times without giving inconsistent results, so it ought to permit
interchanging the prices and quantities without giving inconsistent
result, ie, the two results multiplied together should give the true
value ratio.
In other word, if P01 represent the changes in price in the current
year and Q01 represent the changes in quantity in the current year,
then
Q01 = p1 q1
P01
p0 q0
Thus based on this test, if the product is not equal to the value ratio,
there is an error in one or both of the index number. The Factor
reversal test is satisfied by the Fisher s ideal index.
p1 q0
p1 q1
p q 1
P01 =
ie.
p q
0
Q01 =
q1 p0 q1 p1
q 0p
q 0 p
256
p1 q0
p1 q1 q1 p0 q1 p1
p0 q0
q0 p0 q0 p1
p0 q1
p1 q1
p q
p q
1
p0 q0
p1 q0 p1 q1
p q
0
p q
100
0 1
352 100
330
= 100
= 100
= 1.062 100 = 106.2
Time Reversal test:
Time Reversal test is satisfied when P01 P10 = 1
P01 = p1 q0 p1 q1
p q
p q
0
352
330
257
P10 =
p0 q1 p0 q0
p q
p q
1 1
330 250
=
=1
Hence Fisher ideal index satisfy the time reversal test.
=
p1q1
p1 q0
p1 q1
p q 1
p q 0
0
352
Q01 =
330
q1 p0 q1 p1
q 0p
q 0 p0
1
330 352
258
p q
1
p0
q0
Hence Fisher ideal index number satisfy the factor reversal test.
10.8 Consumer Price Index
Consumer Price index is also called the cost of living index.
It represent the average change over time in the prices paid by the
ultimate consumer of a specified basket of goods and services. A
change in the price level affects the costs of living of different
classes of people differently. The general index number fails to
reveal this. So there is the need to construct consumer price index.
People consume different types of commodities. People s
consumption habit is also different from man to man, place to place
and class to class i.e richer class, middle class and poor class.
The scope of consumer price is necessary, to specify the
population group covered. For example, working class, poor class,
middle class, richer class, etc and the geographical areas must be
covered as urban, rural, town, city etc.
Use of Consumer Price index
The consumer price indices are of great significance and is
given below.
1.
This is very useful in wage negotiations, wage contracts
and dearness allowance adjustment in many countries.
2.
At government level, the index numbers are used for
wage policy, price policy, rent control, taxation and
general economic policies.
3.
Change in the purchasing power of money and real
income can be measured.
4.
Index numbers are also used for analysing market price
for particular kinds of goods and services.
Method of Constructing Consumer price index:
There are two methods of constructing consumer price
index. They are
1.
Aggregate Expenditure method (or) Aggregate method.
2.
Family Budget method (or) Method of Weighted
Relative method.
259
p1 q0
100
p0 q0
2. Family Budget method or Method of Weighted Relatives:
This method is estimated an aggregate expenditure of an
average family on various items and it is weighted. The formula is
pw
The formula is Consumer Price Index number =
w
p
1 100 for each item. w = value weight (i.e) p q
Where P =
0 0
p0
Weighted average price relative method which we have studied
before and Family Budget method are the same for finding out
consumer price index.
Example 9:
Construct the consumer price index number for 1996 on the
basis of 1993 from the following data using Aggregate expenditure
method.
Price in
Commodity
Quantity consumed
1993
1996
A
100
8
12
B
25
6
7
C
10
5
8
D
20
15
18
Solution:
Commodity
q0
p0
p1
p0q0
p1q0
A
100
8
12
800
1200
B
25
6
7
150
175
C
10
5
8
50
80
D
20
15
18
300
360
Total
1300
1815
Consumer price index by Aggregate expenditure method
260
=
=
p q
1
100
p 0 q0
1300
100 = 139.6
Example 10:
Calculate consumer price index by using Family Budget
method for year 1993 with 1990 as base year from the following
data.
Items
Weights
Food
Rent
Clothing
Fuel and lighting
Miscellaneous
35
20
10
15
20
Solution:
Items
Price in
1990
1993
(Rs.)
(Rs.)
150
140
75
90
25
30
50
60
60
80
P0
P1
Food
Rent
Clothing
Fuel and
lighting
Miscellaneous
100
35
20
10
150
75
25
140
90
30
93.33
120.00
120.00
3266.55
2400.00
1200.00
15
20
100
50
60
60
80
120.00
133.33
1800.00
2666.60
11333.15
= 11333.15
100
= 113.33
261
PW
P =
pw
w
Exercise 10
I. Choose the correct answer:
1. Index number is a
(a) measure of relative changes
(b) a special type of an average
(c) a percentage relative
(d) all the above
2. Most preferred type of average for index number is
(a) arithmetic mean
(b) geometric mean
(c) hormonic mean
(d) none of the above
3. Laspeyre s index formula uses the weights of the
(a) base year
(b) current year
(c) average of the weights of a number of years
(d) none of the above
4. The geometric mean of Laspeyere s and Passche s price
indices is also known as
(a) Fisher s price index
(b) Kelly s price index
(c) Marshal-Edgeworth index number
(d) Bowley s price index
5. The condition for the time reversal test to hold good with
usual notations is
(a) P01 P10 = 1
(b) P10 P01 = 0
(c) P01 / P10 = 1
(d) P01 + P10 = 1
6. An appropriate method for working out consumer price index
is
(a) weighted aggregate expenditure method
(b) family budget method
(c) price relative method
(d) none of the above
262
B
10
25
12
30
C
12
15
8
20
18. Calculate the cost of living index number from the
following data.
Price
Items
Base
Current
Weight
year
year
Food
30
45
4
Fuel
10
15
2
Clothing
15
20
1
House Rent
20
15
3
Miscellaneous
25
20
2
Answers
I.
1. (d)
2. (b)
3. (a)
4. (a)
5.(a)
6. (b)
7. (b)
II.
8. Polices
9. Geometric mean
264
10. Percentage
pw
12. w