Fermentation: Food Products

DY Kwon, Korea Food Research Institute, Songnam, Republic of Korea

E Nyakudya, Research Center for Industrial Development of Biofood Materials, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
YS Jeong, Jeonbuk National University, Jeonju, Republic of Korea
r 2014 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Glossary
Backslopping Practice of retaining small quantities of
fermented product from the successful manufacture of a
fermented product in the previous batch and using it as the
inoculum or starter in the next batch.
Condiment An edible substance such as sauce that can be
added to food to impart a particular avor, or to improve its
avor, or to complement the dish.
Heterofermentative Producing a fermentation resulting in
a number of end products.

Introduction
Fermented foods are of great importance because they provide
and preserve great amounts of nutritious and healthy foods in
a wide diversity of avors, aromas, and textures, which enrich
the human diet. They are the source of alcoholic beverages,
vinegar, pickled vegetables, sausages, cheeses, yoghurts,
vegetable protein amino acid/peptide sauces and pastes with
meat-like avors, and leavened and sour-dough breads. Fermented foods are food substrates that are invaded or overgrown by edible microorganisms whose enzymes, particularly
amylases, proteases, and lipases hydrolyze the polysaccharides,
proteins, and lipids to nontoxic products with avors, aromas,
and textures pleasant and attractive to the human consumer
(Steinkraus, 1997). Fermentation also ensures microbiological
safety of food and may also make some foods more digestible,
and in the case of cassava, fermentation reduces toxicity of the
substrate. Milk, meat, cucumber, and cabbage are the main
substrates used in the commercial production of fermented
food. These substrates yield over 400 varieties of cheese of
20 distinct types and a very extensive range of yoghurt and
fermented milk drinks, fermented sausages and salamis,
pickles, and sauerkraut (Caplice and Fitzgerald, 1999).

Fermented Vegetables
Sauerkraut
Sauerkraut is a fermented product made from cabbage and
has its roots in central Europe. Germans and the Alsatians
prepare sauerkraut as their national dish (Sauerkraut, 2009).
Sauerkraut has also been used in Germany for medicinal purposes; traditionally in many parts of southern Germany, some
families would feed their children raw sauerkraut two times
every week this was believed to support and strengthen the
intestines of the sick children. Sauerkraut is also traditionally
produced in the Balkans using whole heads of cabbage instead
of shredded cabbage. It is usually produced by spontaneous

Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems, Volume 3

Homofermentative Producing a fermentation resulting

wholly in a single end product.
Probiotics The World Health Organization denes
probiotics as "live microorganisms, which when
administered in adequate amounts, confer a health benet
on the host."
Spontaneous fermentation Also called natural
fermentation is a method of fermentation that does not
require addition of a starter culture such as yeast to start and
control the fermentation of the substrate.

fermentation. In spontaneous sauerkraut fermentation, Leuconostoc mesenteroides initiate the fermentation process, followed
by the growth of other lactic acid bacteria (LAB), mainly
Lactobacillus brevis, Pediococcus pentosaceus, and Lactobacillus
plantarum species, among which L. plantarum is responsible for
the second phase of fermentation and high acidity of the
produced sauerkraut. The dominant species, present in the
fermentation, shift within 1 week from less acid-tolerant heterolactic to more acid-tolerant homolactic fermenting LAB
species. Shredded cabbage fermentations start with 106 colonyforming unit (cfu) g1 aerobic microorganisms, 106 cfu g1
enterobacteriaceae, and less than 102 cfu g1 yeasts and molds
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). According to Tamang and
Kailasapathy (2010), during the rst 2 or 3 days of sauerkraut
fermentation, less acid-tolerant LAB dominate, but after that
more acid-tolerant LAB predominate. Each of these populations
reaches concentrations of 108109 cfu g1. The fermentation is
complete in 2 weeks and at that time the most acid-resistant
L. plantarum predominates. Salt concentration and fermentation
temperature can also affect the growth of the naturally present
microorganisms and the sensory properties of the sauerkraut
(Wiander and Ryhanen, 2005). Two percentage of salt is usually
added to the traditional fermentation, and to reduce salt waste.
In a study of two commercial sauerkrauts, Plengvidhya
et al. (2007) reported that glucose and fructose were the primary fermentable sugars in the cabbage, with concentrations
of 1.5% and 2.2%, respectively, and sucrose concentration was
less than 0.2%. Lactic acid, acetic acid, and mannitol were
produced, and on the 14th day the pH value of all the tanks
increased from 3.4 to 3.7.

Kimchi
Kimchi is a group of fermented cabbage, radish, and garlic
foods and is consumed on a daily basis in Korea. The avor
of kimchi is dependent on the ingredients, fermentation
conditions, and LAB involved in the fermentation process
(Lee et al., 2005). Kimchi is stored for several months, when

doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00155-8

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Fermentation: Food Products

lactic acid fermentation occurs (Lee and Lee, 2006). More

than 100 types of vegetables can be used to prepare kimchi
(Kim and Chun, 2005). Chinese cabbage, radish, and cucumber, with a seasoning mixture made of red pepper powder,
garlic, ginger, and green onion, are among them (Nam et al.,
2009).
Kimchi is made through lactic acid fermentation of cabbage
at low temperatures to ensure proper ripening and preservation. Because kimchi is representative of a typical open
ecosystem, each batch of fermented food has a different
composition of bacteria and this is dependent on ingredients
and fermentation conditions, which can be variable.
LAB are the most important microorganisms in kimchi
fermentation. Using conventional methods of isolation and
phenotypic identication, the following species are found
to be responsible for kimchi fermentation: L. mesenteroides,
Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Leuconostoc lactis, L. brevis, and
L. plantarum (Kim and Chun, 2005). Leuconostoc mesenteroides
was reported to predominate during the rst hours of fermentation (Kim and Chun, 2005). The pH value gradually falls to 4
and then L. plantarum becomes predominant (Kim and Chun,
2005). To obtain a product of constant quality, a starter culture
consisting of L. mesenteroides and L. plantarum strains was used,
and the product was not different from conventional kimchi.
Leuconostoc citreum HJ-P4, a strain isolated for kimchi fermentation, with high dextransucrase activity and adapted to grow at
low temperature, has been proposed to be used as a starter
culture to produce kimchi commercially (Yim et al., 2008).

Fermented Beans and Cereals

Tempe
Tempe is a solid fermented soybean product prepared using
nonsalted soybeans. Tempe has an overwhelming advantage
in terms of odor over other nonsalted fermented soybeans
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). It is widely consumed in
Indonesia and there has been considerable interest in the West,
especially in the USA, in developing tempe as an alternative
source of protein. In Indonesia, 750 000 tons of soybeans per
year are consumed as tempe (Ito, 2002). In the USA, Europe,
and Japan, some food companies produce tempe on a large
scale (26 tons week1).
Rhizopus oligosporus (Rhizopus. microsporus variety oligosporus), a fungus, is the major microorganism for the fermentation of tempe, though some bacteria have been isolated from
natural tempe (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). In addition,
Klebsiella pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae subsp. ozaenae, Enterobacter cloacae, and gram-positive bacteria were isolated as
vitamin B12-producing bacteria in tempe (Okada et al., 1985).
LAB is the second most important microorganism in traditionally made tempe in Indonesia. The key role of bacteria is
to lower the pH of soybeans, to prevent pathogenic bacteria
from growing dominantly, and to provide R. oligosporus with a
suitable environment to multiply. Tempe preparation is rapid
and takes only two days at most to complete. It is perishable
and is consumed as a meat substitute. Among the nonsalted
fermented soybeans, only tempe has been accepted worldwide
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010).

Tempe contains not only dietary ber, saponins, and isoavones of soybean origin but also superoxide dismutase, an
enzyme that eliminates active oxygen. Strong thrombolytic
activity (average 450 IU g1 dry weight) was observed in
tempe extract (Sumi and Okamoto, 2003). In laboratory-made
tempe, the content of -aminobutyric acid, which improved
blood ow to the brain and inhibited the elevation of blood
pressure, increased when tempe was placed in an anaerobic
environment after normal aerobic fermentation (Aoki et al.,
2003). It was also reported that a phytoestrogen, equol, derived from soybean isoavone had a suppressive effect on
prostate cancer (Horii, 2008).

Fermented Soybean Paste

Fermented soybean paste is indigenous to the cuisines of east
and southeast Asia. Miso is a traditional Japanese food, and its
consumption dates back to AD 700. Miso is a brown and salty
fermented thick soybean paste. It contains vitamins, microorganisms, salts, minerals, plant proteins, carbohydrates, and
fat. Miso also contains saponin-inhibiting lipids peroxide,
trypsin inhibitor, isoavon, lecithin, colin, prostaglandin E,
and others. It is used on a daily basis as a avor in soups and
solid foods in Japan and some parts of Asia. In addition, miso
adds a unique burst of avor to salad dressings, vegetable
dishes, baked tofu, sauces, and marinades. According to
Hesseltine (1965); Shibasaki and Hesseltine (1962) there are
three basic types of miso. There is kome miso, made from
beans and rice; mugi miso, made from beans and barley; and
mame miso (sold as hatcho miso in the UK) made from soybeans alone. For the production of kome and mugi misos, the
koji is produced by soaking polished rice overnight in water,
steaming it for approximately an hour, then inoculating
with mould spores. Incubation is for 50 h at 35 with thorough
stirring at least twice. The Aspergillus oryzae strains used for these
fermentations should be higher in amylolytic activity.
Saccharomyces rouxii and Torulopsis are the yeasts and Pediococcus
halophilus and Streptococcus faecalis are the bacteria, principally
involved in misos spontaneous fermentation.
Miso is considered as a food with health-promoting
benets, such as effectiveness in relieving fatigue, regulation
of the intestinal function, digestive supplement, protection
against gastric ulcer, decrease of cholesterol, decrease of blood
pressure, whitening ability, prevention of diseases associated
with adult lifestyle habits, apoplexia cerebri, accumulation
of brain metabolism, protection of aging, healing radiation damage, and prevention of cancers for biological effects
(Watanabe).
Bibliographically, Korea developed and used its own traditional fermented foods 2000 years ago (Kwon et al., 2011).
Korean soy foods are increasingly present on the worldwide
market, and because kochujang (fermented red pepper paste
with soybean our) and fermented soybean pastes (doenjang
and chungkukjang; both chungkukjang and chungkookjang
are used in the reports) were registered in CODEX in July,
2009, they are now internationally accepted foods (Kwon
et al., 2010). Most fermented soybean pastes are salty
and savory and some are spicy. They are often used as condiments to avor foods such as stir-fries, stews, and soups.
Fermentation changes the physicochemical and organoleptic

Fermentation: Food Products

properties of soy products such as color, avor, and active
components. Differences in their color, avor, and active
components are due to different production methods such
as the conditions of fermentation; the addition of wheat
our, pulverized meju, rice; and the presence of different
microora such as bacteria or yeasts used in their production,
as well as whether the soybeans are roasted (as in chunjang) or
aged (as in tauchu) before being ground. In addition to physicochemical properties, the fermentation of these soybean
products changes the bioactive components, such as isoavonoids and peptides, in ways that may alter their physiological properties in terms of healthy health functions and
efcacies.

Fermented Cereal
Cereal-fermented foods involve a lactic acid fermentation step
in most cases, which can be associated with an alcoholic fermentation step depending on the process used (e.g., brewing).
It is now commonly known that lactic acid fermentation contributes to human welfare through the preservation of foods, the development of organoleptic characteristics
and nutritional improvement of foods, and the healthpromoting effects of lactic acid bacteria (probiotics) (Nout and
Motarjemi, 1997; Charalampopoulos et al., 2002; Kohajdova
and Karovicova, 2007).
Lactic acid cereal-fermented foods and beverages are made
from a great variety of cereals involving different processing
methods. Maize, millet, and sorghum grains in Africa are used
to produce such lactic acid-fermented foods like ogi (Benin,
Nigeria), togwa (Tanzania), bushera (Uganda), ben-saalga/koko
(Burkina Faso, Ghana), gowe (Benin), mawe (Benin), kenkey
(Ghana), hussuwa (Sudan), mahewu (Zimbabwe), poto poto
(Peoples Republic of Congo). In many African countries, the
same cereals can be germinated to produce malt for their use
in brewing of cereal slurries to make traditional beers of thick
consistency, called under different vernacular names such as
dolo in Burkina Faso; bili bili in Tchad; burukutu in Nigeria; pito
in Ghana; and kafr, a Bantu beer, in South Africa. In Mexico
and Guatemala, maize is used to produce pozol whereas rice is
used to produce selroti, bhaati jaanr, idli, dosa in India, and
burong isda in the Philippines. In the Himalayas, various cereals
like nger millet, wheat, maize, and barley are used to produce
different kinds of fermented beverages like kodo ko jaanr and
gahun to jaanr, and if we consider the particular case of the
Balkan Peninsula, rye, wheat, millet, maize, rice, barley, and
oat are used alone or in mixtures to produce boza.

115

fermentation of milk by Streptococcus. thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus (formerly Lactobacillus bulgaricus). Among the factors contributing to the great success of
this fermented milk product, the image of a natural product,
attractive organoleptic characteristics (fresh, acidulated taste,
and pleasant avor), nutritional value, prophylactic and therapeutic properties, and moderate cost (due to the high productivity of the production lines) can all be mentioned
(Tamime and Robinson, 2007). Varieties of yogurt available
include plain (set), fruit-avored, whipped, drinking type
(stirred), smoked, dried, strained, and frozen (Tamime and
Robinson, 2007).
The desirable typical avor of yogurt comes from a mixture
of lactic acid, carbonyl compounds (acetaldehyde, acetone,
diacetyl, acetoin), nonvolatile acids (pyruvic, oxalic, succinic),
volatile acids (formic, acetic, propionic), and a large series of
degradation products from the catabolism of proteins, fats,
and lactose. In general, yogurt has less lactose and more lactic
acid, galactose, peptides, free amino acids, and free fatty acid
than milk (Tamime and Robinson, 2007). Apart from its high
nutritional value, yogurt has a lot of health benets. Benecial
health effects are presumed to depend on the ability of
S. thermophilus and L. delbrueckii to reach the gastrointestinal
tract alive, where they persist and/or multiply. However, there
have been conicting studies concerning the culture recovery
of L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and S. thermophilus from fecal
samples after yogurt ingest; whereas some authors reported
recovery of both bacterial types (Mater et al., 2005; Elli et al.,
2006), some others have failed to do so (del Campo et al.,
2005).

Cheese
Cheese in Europe has traditionally been considered the preferred outlet for milk after local fresh milk requirements have
been met. The EU cheese market is the largest in the world.
Cheese has therefore provided much better export opportunities than any other dairy product as the willingness to pay for
high quality European cheese has always been high.
Most cheeses in Europe are produced on a commercial
scale using the appropriate LAB starter culture. Thermophilic
strains are generally used in cheeses with a high cooking
temperature such as Swiss and Italian types (Caplice and
Fitzgerald, 1999). Secondary microora are added in some
processes to improve texture (e.g., the production of CO2 by
Propionibacterium in Swiss cheese) and avor (e.g., by the
production of diacetyl). Moulds, yeasts and bacteria other than
lactic acid bacteria are used as secondary microora in some
varieties of cheese.

Fermented Milk
Yogurt
Yogurt is the most popular and successful fermented milk
product all over the world and is manufactured by scientically sound technologies in modern dairy factories. It is similar
to some traditionally made yogurt manufactured thousands of
years ago. Yogurt is a widely consumed highly nutritious fermented milk, dened by the Codex Alimentarius (FAO/WHO,
2003) as a coagulated milk product resulting from the

Fermented Fish
There are many varieties of fermented sh products available
at present. Fermented sh products include liquid products
such as sh sauce also known as nampla in Thailand, kecap ikan
or bakasang in Indonesia, patis in the Philippines, nouc-mam in
Vietnam, oyster sauce, hoi-sin sauce, and paste products such as
sh and shrimp pastes also known as belacan or terasi in
Indonesia and Malaysia, and dry and semidry fermented sh.

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Fermentation: Food Products

Lightly salted fermented sh are mostly produced in southeast

Asia (Adams et al., 1985; Ishige, 1993; Phithakpol et al., 1995)
and their traditional culinary use is widespread throughout the
region. Plaa-som is a popular Thai fermented sh produced
according to family or local geographical preferences, especially in the central, northeastern, and northern parts of
Thailand (Saithong et al., 2010). According to Saithong et al.
(2010), differences exist in production methods of plaa-som
and the use and proportions of raw materials, which typically
consist of freshwater sh, salt, a carbohydrate source (cooked
or raw rice), and garlic. All ingredients are mixed and left to
ferment at ambient temperature (2530 C) for 35 days in
either a covered-lid cooking pot, a wrapped package using a
thin plastic sheet, or a plastic bag. The traditional production
of plaa-som is based on spontaneous fermentation due to the
development of the microora naturally present in the raw
materials. The quality of the end-product is dependent on the
microbial load and on the spectrum of the raw materials. At
present, the production of plaa-som on a large scale has become an important branch of the fermented food industry in
Thailand and efforts are being made to develop effective starter
cultures for use in plaa-som production to help improve the
fermentation process.
Fermented sh products are also found in other parts of the
world including the Scandinavian region in Europe, Africa,
and the Middle East. In Scandinavia, whole herring or trout
eviscerated but retaining the roe, are immersed in low concentration brine for 3040 h, during which vigorous fermentation takes place (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). These
products are known as surstromming for herring and rakorret
for trout (Beddows, 1985). Surstromming is regarded as a great
delicacy in Sweden. In France and Spain, fermented anchovy
products are common. Anchovy is used in the preparation of
nouc-mam, nampla, and jeotkuk. The sh is beheaded and gutted
(or ungutted in Spain), then layered with salt in barrels,
weighed down to extract the pickle as it forms, and fermented
for 67 months. The fermented sh retains its form. Lactic acid
bacteria are found as the dominant microorganisms in many
fermented sh products (Orillo and Pedersson, 1968; Saisithi
et al., 1986; Olympia et al., 1992; stergaard et al., 1998). A
combination of low pH and organic acids (especially lactic
acid) is the main preservation factor in fermented sh products. Generally, pH should be below 54.5 in order to inhibit
pathogenic and spoilage bacteria (Owens and Mendoza,
1985). The enzymes for the fermentation process come partly
from the digestive system of the sh and partly from the
bacteria that are naturally present in the sh and salt. The
accumulation of lactic acid prevents the decomposition of
protein into its basic components such as CO2 and H2O
(Olympia, 1992).

Fermented Meat
Fermented meats originated independently in a number of
regions around the world, although European-style products
now predominate in terms of their scale of production and the
degree to which they have been subjected to scientic scrutiny
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). These sausages are produced by fermenting with LAB a mixture of minced meat mixed

with fat, salt, curing agents (nitrate/nitrite), sugar, and spices.

Fermentation temperatures are usually less than 22 C for
dry and mould-ripened sausages and 2226 C for semidry
varieties (Lucke, 1998). Traditional sausages are usually
manufactured in small-scale plants following spontaneous
fermentation. Sausages produced with and without added
starter culture have nal pH of 4.65.0 and 4.04.5, respectively. European fermented sausages formulated with nitrite
are produced with added starter culture, generally consisting
of lactic acid bacteria (lactobacilli and pediococci) and catalasepositive cocci (S. carnosus, Micrococcus varians). The use of
starter cultures ensures a good quality, standardized, and safe
product.
The production and consumption of fermented meats
expanded throughout Europe in the middle ages and were
adapted to climatic conditions (e.g., smoked in northern
Europe and dried in Mediterranean countries). A wide variety
of fermented sausages is being produced in Europe and
the variations depend on raw materials, microbial populations, and processing conditions. For example, northern-type
sausages, which contain beef and pork as raw meats, are
ripened for short periods (up to 3 weeks), and are usually
subjected to smoking. In these sausages, shelf life is mainly
due to acid pH and smoking rather than drying. However, Mediterranean sausages mostly use only pork. These
sausages are ripened for longer periods (several weeks or even
months), and are not typically smoked. Undry and semidry
sausages are fermented to reach low pH values, and are usually
smoked and cooked before consumption. Shelf life and sausage safety are mostly determined by pH drop and reduced
water activity, as a consequence of fermentation and drying,
respectively. The product may be considered stable at room
temperature when pHo5.0, and the moisture:protein ratio
is below 3.1:1 (Sebranek, 2004). Moisture:protein ratios are
dened for the different dry and semidry fermented sausages
in the USA, whereas water activity values are preferred in
Europe.
Typical fermented products were initially based on the
development and growth of desirable indigenous ora,
sometimes reinforced with backslopping, which is the addition of a previously ripened fermented sausage with adequate
sensory properties. However, this practice usually yielded
a high heterogeneity in product quality. The use of microbial
starters, as a way to standardize processing as well as quality
and safety, is relatively new. At present, most fermented
sausages are produced with a combination of lactic acid
bacteria to achieve adequate acidulation, and two or more
cultures to develop avor and facilitate other reactions
such as nitrate reduction. The most important microorganisms
used as starters belong to one of the following groups: lactic
acid bacteria, Micrococacceae, yeasts, and molds (Leistner,
1992).
One of the few studies reporting the effects of the consumption of probiotic meat products on human health was
carried out by Jahreis et al. (2002). These authors evaluated the
effect of daily consumption of 50 g of probiotic salami containing Lactobacillus paracasei LTH 2579 on the immunity system and blood triglycerides and cholesterol levels of healthy
volunteers for a few-weeks period, and obtained moderately
satisfactory results.

Fermentation: Food Products

Fermented Alcohols
Rice Wine
Rice wine is a generic name referring to alcoholic beverages
made from cereals, mainly rice, in east Asia. The beverage is
known as rice wine in the West because its alcohol content is
approximates that of a wine. Rice wine is called sake in Japan,
cheongju in Korea, and shaosingjiu in China. Sake is the national and traditional drink of Japan and is one of the most
popular traditional nondistilled alcoholic drinks in the world.
Most Japanese elderly people, 61% of aged men and 18%
women, prefer sake and beer according to a questionnaire
survey (Jin et al., 2005). It is prepared from rice using koji and
is a clear, pale yellow liquid containing 1520% alcohol
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). Unique strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae have evolved to conduct these fermentations,
generating products with high ethanol content (1220%), attractive avor, aroma, and odor (Kodama, 1993). The rst
organisms that develop in the mash under traditional fermentation conditions are nitrate-reducing bacteria such as
Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, or Micrococcus spp.
(Murakami, 1972). These are followed by L. mesenteroides var
sake and Lactobacillus sake, and yeasts (Kodama and Yoshizawa,
1977). The presence of lactic acid bacteria in controlled
amounts is essential for satisfactory sake fermentation because
the pH of the basic mash is too high for good yeast growth or a
satisfactory avor in the nished product (Wood, 1977). The
highly rened sake brewed by the most skillful brewers using
very highly polished rice at low temperatures of 911 C for
2530 days is known as gonjoshu (Kodama and Yoshizawa,
1977). Most LAB that spoil sake are homofermentative rods
and are more tolerant to ethanol and acid than nonspoilers
(Inoue et al., 1992). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains with disrupted ubiquitin-related genes produced more ethanol than
the parental strain during sake brewing (Wu et al., 2009).
Several researchers have reported on improved strains for sake
production on an industrial scale (Hirooka et al., 2005; Kotaka
et al., 2008; Hirasawa et al., 2009).

Wine
Wine is dened as the alcoholic fermentation of grape juice or
other fruits without distillation. Red wine is produced from
red grapes and other dark-colored grapes. White wine is made
by fermenting mashed white grapes or from dark-colored
grapes with the skin, pulp, and seeds removed. Red wines and
white wines have markedly different avors, and individual
wines within the white or red classication may have noticeably different tastes as well (Robinson, 1994). Consumption
of red wine is common in the traditional Mediterranean diet
(Trichopoulou et al., 2003). Traditional winemaking has been
illustrated by Walker (1998). Grapes are collected from the
vineyard, destemmed, crushed, pressed, and macerated, and
fermented by naturally present yeasts or by adding starters.
After the desired fermentation, the mass is ltered to remove
sediments and is stored in wooden casks for maturation for
several months, and then bottled, matured, stabilized, and
ltered into clear red or white wines (depending on the color
of grapes).

117

Until 75100 years ago, most wines were produced by

spontaneous or natural alcoholic fermentation of grape juice
by indigenous yeast ora (Pretorius, 2000). Muller-Thurgau in
1890 introduced the concept of inoculating wine fermentations
with pure yeast cultures. As a result, the quality and quantity of
wine production have improved (Pretorius, 2000). The source
of yeasts is from the surface of the grape berry; the surface of
winery equipment that come in contact with the juice during
crushing, pressing, pumping, and fermentation; and air (Raspor et al., 2006). Various strains of S. cerevisiae and Saccharomyces bayanus act as the principal yeasts in the fermentation of
wine. At present, many wine makers purchase commercial
dried preparation of these yeasts for inoculation into grape
juice and for initiation of the alcoholic fermentation (Fleet,
1998). Wine fermentation is initiated the by growth of various
species of non-Saccharomyces yeasts (e.g., Hanseniaspora uvarum,
Kloeckera apiculata, Candida stellata, Candida colliculosa, Metschnikowia pulcherrima, Kluyveromyces thermotolerans) as well as
Saccharomyces yeasts, which are generally limited to the rst 24
days of fermentation, after which they die (Fleet, 1993; Moreira
et al., 2005). They achieve maximum populations of 106
107 cfu ml1 before death, thereby inuencing the metabolic
behavior of the fermentation and the products released into the
wine, and their death is attributed to an inability to tolerate the
increasing concentrations of ethanol, which is largely produced
by the Saccharomyces species (Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010).
After 4 days or so, the fermentation is continued and completed by Saccharomyces species, especially strains of S. cerevisiae, S. bayanus, and in some cases Saccharomyces paradoxus
(Moreira et al., 2005).

Others
Vinegar
Vinegar is a highly acceptable condiment used in pickling and
preservation of cucumber and other vegetables. Vinegar has
long been used as a seasoning and preserving agent and is
produced by a fermentation process from wine, apple juice,
honey, rice, malted barley, etc. (Giordano et al., 2003). In
northeastern regions of Asia, such as China and Japan, vinegar is
traditionally produced from cereals, primarily rice (Haruta et al.,
2006). Vinegar is not just a solution of acetic acid, but a complex matrix composed of alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and ketones (Wang and Jin, 2000; Suomalainen and Kangasperko
1963). The production of vinegar depends on mixed fermentation, which involves both yeasts and bacteria. Acetic acid
bacteria, particularly those belonging to the genera Acetobacter
and Gluconacetobacter (De Ley et al., 1984; Yamada et al., 1997)
are used for industrial vinegar production because of their
remarkable ability to oxidize ethanol to acetic acid and high
resistance to acetic acid. The fermentation is initiated by yeasts,
which break down glucose into ethyl alcohol with the liberation
of carbon dioxide gas. Following on from the yeasts, acetobacter
oxidize the alcohol to acetic acid and water. The yeasts and
bacteria exist together in a form known as commensalism. The
acetobacter are dependent on the yeasts to produce an easily
oxidizable substance (ethyl alcohol). It is not possible to produce vinegar by the action of one type of microorganism alone.

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Fermentation: Food Products

For a good fermentation, it is essential to have an alcohol

concentration of 1013%. If the alcohol content is much
higher, the alcohol is incompletely oxidized to acetic acid. If it
is lower than 13%, there is a loss of vinegar because the esters
and acetic acid are oxidized. In addition to acetic acid, other
organic acids are formed during the fermentation, which become esteried and contribute to the characteristic odor,
avor, and color of the vinegar. Acetaldehyde is an intermediate product in the transformation of the reducing sugar
in fruit juice to acetic acid or vinegar. Oxygen is required for
the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetic acid. In general, the
yield of acetic acid from glucose is approximately 60%.
A combination of microorganisms such as moulds, yeasts,
lactobacilli, and acetic acid bacteria is employed in traditional
Chinese solid state fermentation, resulting in vinegars with
better avor (Jiang et al., 2010). The principal bacteria are
Acetobacter acetic, Acetobacter xylinum, and Acetobacter ascendens.
The main yeasts are Saccharomyces ellipsoideus and S. cerevisiae.
It is important to maintain an acidic environment to suppress
the growth of undesirable organisms and to encourage the
presence of desirable acetic acid-producing bacteria. It is
common practice to add 1025% by volume of strong vinegar
to the alcoholic substrate to attain a desirable fermentation.

Microorganisms in Fermented Foods

Fermented foods are those foods that have been subjected to
the action of microorganisms or enzymes so that desirable
biochemical changes cause signicant modication to the
food (Chacko et al., 2010). Filamentous moulds, yeasts, and
bacteria constitute the microbiota in indigenous fermented
foods and beverages, which are present in or on the ingredients, utensils, or environment, and are selected through
adaptation to the substrate (Tamang, 1998). At present, all
human cultures rely on fermented food products and the
microbes that produce them (Scott and Sullivan, 2008). Different types of microorganisms are used in the production of
different types of foods. Table 1 shows selected species that
may be used to produce various fermented food products.
Worldwide, lactic acid bacteria by tradition are the most
commonly used microorganisms in the preservation of foods.
Their importance is mainly associated with their safe metabolic
activity while growing in foods utilizing available sugar for the
production of organic acids and other metabolites (Balasubramanyam and Varadaraj, 1995). Their common occurrence
in foods and feeds coupled with their long-lived use contributes
to their natural acceptance as GRAS (generally recognised as
safe) for human consumption (Aguuire and Collins, 1993). In
Asia, mainly moulds of the genera Aspergillus, Rhizopus, Mucor,
Actinomucoe, Amylomyces, Neurospora, and Monascus are used in
the manufacture of fermented foods (Chacko et al., 2010). In
Europe, mould-ripened foods are primarily cheeses and meats.

Healthy Functions of Fermented Foods

Fermented foods have immense functional and therapeutic
values possessing antioxidant, antimicrobial, probiotic, lowcholesterol, essential amino acid, bionutrient, and some

important bioactive or health-benet compounds; some of

these are considered as potential sources of medical therapy for
humans (Tamang, 2007).

Fermented Vegetables (Kimchi)

Kimchi was selected as one of the worlds healthiest foods in
2006 by Health magazine due to its many benecial properties (Nam et al., 2009). Among the best functional components are -carotene, chlorophyll, vitamin C, and dietary
ber (Park, 1995). Treatment of lactic acid from kimchi was
found by Park et al. (2008) to play a role in the prevention of
fat accumulation and to improve obesity-induced cardiovascular disease, particularly atherosclerosis, by attenuating the
TNF -induced changes of adipokines. Glycoprotein antimutagenic substances were isolated from a culture supernatant
of L. plantarum isolated from kimchi (Rhee and Park, 2001),
and antioxidants were isolated from kimchi (Sim and Han,
2008; Sun et al., 2009). It has been reported that the consumption of kimchi causes weight loss; prevents constipation
and colon cancer; reduces serum cholesterol (Park et al., 2006);
exerts antistress principles (Lee and Lee, 2009); is benecial
because kimchi contains S-adenosyl-L-methionine, a bioactive
material used in the treatment of depression, osteoarthritis,
and liver disease; has antiobesity effects (Kong et al., 2008);
and inhibits atherosclerosis (Kim et al., 2008). A potential
probiotic strain of L. plantarum isolated from kimchi inhibited
the growth and adherence of Helicobacter pylori in an MKN-45
cell line, with small peptides as the possible inhibitors (Lee
and Lee, 2006).

Fermented Soybean Products

Soybeans are well-known for their health-promoting benets,
which include antioxidation, antiobesity, antidiabetes properties, and prevention of osteoporosis and cancers such as
breast and prostate cancer (Anderson et al., 1998; Anderson
and Pasupuleti, 2008; Messina, 1999). Many studies, which
are insufcient and inconclusive, suggest that these kinds of
health functions are primarily due to esterogenic properties of
isoavones but the results are still controversial (Kwon et al.,
2010). There are hundreds of in vitro studies showing that
genistein has antioxidant properties, inhibits the growth of a
wide range of both hormone-dependent and hormoneindependent cancer cells, including breast (Pagliacci et al.,
1994; Peterson and Barnes, 1996; Zava and Duwe, 1997),
prostate (Kyle et al., 1997), colon, and skin cells (Adlercreutz
and Mazur, 1997; Akiyama and Ogawara, 1991; Constantinou
and Huberman, 1995) and that genistein also inhibits the
metastatic activity of both breast (Peterson and Barnes, 1996;
Scholar and Toewa, 1994) and prostate (Santibez et al.,
1997) cancer cells independent of the effects on cell growth.
Daidzein, one of the two primary isoavones in soybeans,
exhibits anticancer effects (Jing et al., 1993). Recently, genistein
was also demonstrated to have antiinammatory properties
(Hernandez-Montes et al., 2006; Verdrengh et al., 2003), and it
was found that genistein decreased cisplatin-induced apoptosis by regulation of p53 production in kidney, and reactive
oxygen species production in cisplatin-treated normal kidney

Fermentation: Food Products

Table 1

119

Selected species for various fermented foods

Food

Microorganisms of fermented products in the world

References

Fermented vegetables
Sauerkraut

Leuconostoc mesenteroides, Lactobacillus brevis, Lactobacillus plantarum, and

Wiander and Ryhanen (2005)

Pedicoccus pentosaceus, Coliform spp.

L. mesenteroides, Leuconostoc pseudomesenteroides, Leuconostoc lactis,
L. brevis, L. plantarum, Streptococcus faecalis, and Pfediococcus pentosaceus

Kim and Chun (2005)

Rhizopus oligosporus, Klebsiella pneumoniae, K. pneumoniae subsp. ozaenae,

Hesseltine (1965)

Kimchi
Fermented soybean
and cereals
Tempe

Cereals

and Enterobacter cloacae

Aspergillus oryzae, Saccharomyce rouxii, Torulopsis etchellsii, and Lactobacillus
sp.
Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus sciuri, Enterococcus faecalis, and Citrobacter
or Enterobacter
LAB

Fermented milk
Yogurt

Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus

Tamime and Robinson (2007)

(formerly Lactobacillus bulgaricus)

Lactococcus spp., Pediococcus spp., Streptococcus spp., Leuconostoc spp.,
Propionibacter spp., Cheese moulds, and yeasts

Caplice and Fitzgerald (1999)

LAB
Pseudomonas, Enterobacter, Moraxella, Micrococcus, Streptococcus,

Beddows (1985)
Adams et al. (1985)

Miso
Doenjang

Cheese
Fermented sh
Surstromming
Fish sauce
(Indonesian)
Korean sh products
from anchovy

Shibasaki and Hesseltine (1962),

Hesseltine (1965)
Chang et al. (1977)
Kohajdova and Karovicova (2007)

Lactobacillus, Staphylococcus, and Pediococcus

Bacillus cereus, Clostridium setiens, Pseudomonas halophillus, and Serratia

Adams et al. (1985)

marcescens

Lactobacilli spp., Pediococci spp., S. carnosus, and Micrococcus varians

Lactobacillus sake, Lactobacillus curvatus, and L. plantarum

Leistner (1992), Sebranek (2004)

Leistner (1992), Sebranek (2004)

Fermented alcohols
Rice wine

Pseudomonas, Achromobacter, Flavobacterium, or Micrococcus spp.,

Wine

L. mesenteroides var sake and L. sake, and A. oryzae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae, S. bayanus, and S. paradoxus

Kodama and Yoshizawa (1977),

Wood (1977)
Fleet (1993), Moreira et al. (2005)

Others
Vinegar

Saccharomyces ellipsoideus, S. cerevisiae, Acetobacter spp., Gluconobacter

Fermented meat

spp., Xylinum, and A. ascendens

De Ley et al. (1984), Haruta et al.

(2006), Yamada et al. (1997)

Abbreviation: LAB, lactic acid bacteria.

HK-2 cells (Sung et al., 2008). The previous review of the

authors (Kwon et al., 2010) described in detail the antiobesity
effects of soybean for type 2 diabetes. Some studies of the
effects of soybeans, including isoavonoids and soy proteins,
on glucose metabolism are inconsistent, and the mechanisms
have not been extensively studied. However, other studies
showed positive effects on hypocholesterolemia, for example,
46 postmenopausal women taking isolated isoavone extracts had signicantly increased high-density lipoprotein
cholesterol and a decrease in apolipoprotein B, the primary
apolipoprotein in low-density lipoprotein particles (CliftonBligh et al., 2001; Goodman-Gruen and Kritz-Silverstein,
2001).
In soy protein nutrition, the sulfur amino acids, methionine and cysteine, are the limiting amino acids. However, the
relatively low sulfur amino acid content of soybeans may
actually provide an advantage in terms of calcium retention,
ironically. The reported hypercalciuric effect of protein is

likely to be at least partially due to the metabolism of sulfur

amino acids. The skeletal system serves as one of the main
buffering systems in the body; as a result, the hydrogen ions
produced from the metabolism of sulfur amino acids cause
demineralization of bone and excretion of calcium in the
urine. Thus, bean protein may improve calcium retention
relative to animal and grain proteins. Soy protein also has a
cholesterol-lowering effect in monkeys (Terpstra et al., 1984)
and in men (Wong et al., 1998), and protein hydrolyzate or
hydrolyzed peptides of soybeans decrease blood cholesterol
and glucose levels (Yoshikawa et al., 1999). Lunasin, a 43
amino acid peptide from soy, has been shown to have
numerous biological properties including anticancer and
antiinammatory activities (Mejia and Dia, 2009; Park et al.,
2001). In fact, the authors identied hypocholesterolemic, a
peptide from fermented soy products, including doenjang
and soy protein isolates, are known to activate peroxisome
proliferatoractivated receptors (PPARs) and liver X receptor

120

Fermentation: Food Products

signaling and to inhibit sterol regulatory element-binding

protein-1c signaling, contributing to insulin sensitization
(Jhala et al., 2003; Ronis et al., 2009). In addition, soy-fed
CD-1 mice exhibited enhanced insulin sensitivity, especially
in white adipose tissue, due to the potentiation of phosphorylation of AMP-activated protein kinase and acetyl-CoA
carboxylase and upregulation of the expression of genes involved in peroxisomal fatty acid oxidation and mitochondrial biogenesis and in skeletal muscles by increasing glucose
uptake (Cederroth et al., 2008).
It is also well-known that substituting vegetable oils, such
as soybean oil, for animal fat reduces the risk of high
blood pressure, thrombosis, platelet generation, and cholesterol accumulation (Meydani et al., 1991). Soybean oils
contain health-promoting linoleic, linolenic acids, and phytochemicals. Both short- and long-term fermented soybeans
contain more benecial components to ameliorate metabolic
disorders than unfermented soybeans. The changes in nutritive
and nonnutritive biofactors during fermentation and their
capacity for ameliorating metabolic disorders were reported in
Asian countries, especially Korea. Fermentation of soybeans
increased isoavonoid aglycones, modied isoavonoids such
as equol and small peptides, and these changes enhanced the
prevention of metabolic disorders.

2006). Historically, wine has been used as an antiseptic, a

painkiller, and to treat dermatological conditions and digestive disorders (Feher et al., 2005; Robinson, 2006). Epidemiological studies from diverse populations have revealed that
individuals who habitually consume moderate amounts of
wine experience a 2030% reduction in all-cause mortality,
particularly cardiovascular mortality, when compared with
individuals who abstain or who drink alcohol to excess
(German and Walzem, 2000; Ruf, 2003). It has been well
documented that a moderate intake of alcoholic beverages
produces positive effects on antioxidants, lipids, and platelets
(reviewed in Lindberg and Amsterdamk, 2008). There is ample
evidence supporting the health benets associated with regular
and moderate consumption of wine, particularly polyphenolrich red wine (Guilford and Pezzuto, 2011). Phenolic compounds in red wine may prevent the oxidation of LDL and is
linked with the reduction of certain cancers (Mannist et al.,
1997). Clinical studies and work performed with animal
models indicate that wine may protect against cardiovascular
disease, atherosclerosis, hypertension, certain types of cancer,
type 2 diabetes, neurological disorders, and metabolic syndrome (Guilford and Pezzuto, 2011).

Vinegar
Fermented Dairy Products (Yogurt)
Probiotic foods are a group of health-promoting products
called functional foods, with large commercial interest and
growing market shares (Arvanitoyannis and van HouwelingenKoukaliaroglou, 2005). Their health benets are based on the
presence of selected strains of lactic acid bacteria, and when
taken up in adequate amounts, confer a health benet on the
host. They are administered mostly through the consumption
of fermented milks or yoghurts (Mercenier et al., 2003).
Among the health benets, improvement of lactose intolerance symptoms among lactose maldigestors has been
clearly demonstrated (Rizkalla et al., 2000; Labayen et al.,
2001; Pelletier et al., 2001). This physiological effect is thought
to be not only due to the lowering of the lactose content in
yogurt by 2030% as compared to milk, but also due to the
contribution of bacterial -galactosidases to increase enzymatic activity in human intestines. Yogurt has also been used in
the management of acute diarrhea disorders as recommended
by the FAO/WHO (2003). Yogurt feeding in children with
acute watery diarrhea decreased stool frequency and shortened
the duration of diarrheal episodes (Boudraa et al., 2001). A
further benet may accrue from its recognized immunomodulation capacity (Meydani and Ha, 2000). Yogurt consumption seems to enhance the immune response, particularly
in immunocompromised populations such as the elderly
(Tamang and Kailasapathy, 2010). Yogurt consumption has
also been associated with decreased risk of progression and
promotion of colon cancer by modulating cell proliferation
and increasing cellular apoptosis (Rachid et al., 2002).

Fermented Alcohols
It has been estimated that the medicinal use of wine dates back
to 2200 BC, making it the oldest known medicine (Robinson,

Vinegar's antiseptic properties make it a powerful defense

against bacteria, virus, and fungus. Because of its antifungal
abilities, vinegar is commonly used to treat a number of
scalp problems including itching and dandruff. Vinegar is also
used as a pain reliever and is believed to help lower
bad cholesterol, reduce high blood pressure, heal respiratory
infections, relieve constipation, and prevent diarrhea. Vinegar
is also believed to help the body balance its blood glucose
levels. This can help people suffering from diabetes, as well
as individuals who want to keep their glucose and energy
levels stable throughout the day. Consuming vinegar is believed to ush toxins from the body, improve immune system
function, eliminate yeast in the digestive tract, and cleanse the
urinary tract.

Conclusion
Modern consumers worldwide are increasingly becoming
interested in their personal health and expect the food they
consume to be not only safe but also healthy or even capable
of preventing illnesses. Fermented products have a very
important role to play in human diet not only in terms of
nutrition but also in the promotion of good health. One
possible reason for the lower incidence of diseases such as
obesity, diabetes, or even breast cancer among Asians is that
they consume a lot of fermented foods including soybean
products, which are unique to the Asian traditional diet. Fermentation makes it possible to provide and preserve large
quantities of nutritious food in a wide variety of avors, aromas, and textures to feed the increasing population of the
world. However, careful selection of specic strains combined
with proper production and handling procedures are necessary
to ensure that desired benets are provided to consumers.

Fermentation: Food Products

See also: Fermented Beverages

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Relevant Websites
http://www.habitat.org/habitat
Habitat for Humanitys International.
http://soyinfocenter.com/index.php
SoyInfo Center.