Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW

Literature Review
Derek A. Watson
Ball State University

Literature Review
Introduction
In defining behavior, behaviorist learning theories emphasize changes in behavior that
result from stimulus-response associations made by the learner. The behaviorist perspectives of
learning was discovered in the early 1900s, and became prominent in early 20th century
(Boghossian, 2006). Behaviorism is primarily concerned with observable and measurable aspects
of human behavior. Behaviorists are interested in measurable changes in behavior. It is important
to note that behaviorist theory does not explain abnormal behavior in terms of the brain or its
inner workings. Instead, it suggests that all behavior is learned habits, and attempts to account for
how these habits are formed. Behaviorists emphasize that the only behaviors worthy of study are
those that can be directly observed. Only actions, rather than thoughts or emotions, are the
legitimate object of study.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Behavior is directed by stimuli. An individual selects one response instead of another

because of prior conditioning and psychological drives existing at the moment of the action
(Rottschaefer, 1991). Thorndike, one major behaviorist theorist, put forward that (1) a response
to a stimulus is reinforced when followed by a positive rewarding effect, and (2) a response to a
stimulus becomes stronger by exercise and repetition (Malone, 2003). This view of learning is
similar to the drill-and-practice programs. Skinner, another influential behaviorist, proposed his
variant of behaviorism called operant conditioning. In his view, rewarding the right parts of the
more complex behavior reinforces it, and encourages its recurrence (Strand, P., Barnes-Holmes,
Y., & Barnes-Holmes, 2003).
Learning is understood as the step-by-step or successive approximation of the intended
partial behaviors through the use of reward and punishment (Livengood, Lewallen, Leatherman,
& Maxwell, 2012). The best known application of Skinners theory is programmed instruction
whereby the right sequence of the partial behaviors to be learned is specified by elaborated task
analysis (Nikolaevich, 2015). In assuming that human behavior is learned, behaviorists also hold
that all behaviors can also be unlearned, and replaced by new behaviors; that is, when a behavior
becomes unacceptable, it can be replaced by an acceptable one. A key element to this theory of
learning is the rewarded response. The desired response must be rewarded in order for learning
to take place (Alias, Lashari, Akasah, & Kesot, 2014).
In education, advocates of behaviorism have effectively adopted this system of rewards
and punishments in their classrooms by rewarding desired behaviors and punishing inappropriate
ones. Rewards vary, but must be important to the learner in some way. For example, if a teacher
wishes to teach the behavior of remaining seated during the class period, the successful student's
reward might be checking the teacher's mailbox, running an errand, or being allowed to go to the

LITERATURE REVIEW

library to do homework at the end of the class period. As with all teaching methods, success
depends on each student's stimulus and response, and on associations made by each learner.
General Themes
View of Knowledge
Behaviorists such as Watson and Skinner construe knowledge as a repertoire of
behaviors. Skinner argues that it is not the case that we use knowledge to guide our action; rather
knowledge is action, or at least rules for action (Beckers, Voordt, Theo, & Dewulf, 2015). It is a
set of passive, largely mechanical responses to environmental stimuli. So, for instance, the
behaviorist would argue that to say that that someone knows Shakespeare is to say that they have
a certain behavioral repertoire with respect to Shakespeare (Beckers, Voordt, Theo, & Dewulf,
2015). Knowledge that is not actively expressed in behavior can be explained as behavioral
capacities. For example, I know a bluebird when I see one can be seen as effectively
equivalent to I have the capacity to identify a bluebird although I am not now doing so
(McGee, & Johnson, p.17, 2015). If knowledge is construed as a repertoire of behaviors,
someone can be said to understand something if they possess the appropriate repertoire. No
mention of cognitive processes is necessary (McGee, & Johnson, 2015).
View of Learning
From a behaviorist perspective, the transmission of information from teacher to learner is
essentially the transmission of the response appropriate to a certain stimulus. Thus, the point of
education is to present the student with the appropriate repertoire of behavioral responses to
specific stimuli and to reinforce those responses through an effective reinforcement schedule
(Ari, Tuner, & Demr, 2016). An effective reinforcement schedule requires consistent repetition
of the material; small, progressive sequences of tasks; and continuous positive reinforcement.
Without positive reinforcement, learned responses will quickly become extinct. This is because

LITERATURE REVIEW

learners will continue to modify their behavior until they receive some positive reinforcement.
This is achieved through: instructional cues to elicit correct response, practice paired with target
stimuli, reinforcement for correct responses, building fluency, multiple opportunities/trials,
discrimination, generalization, associations, and chaining (Sandvik, Eriksson, & Hilli, 2014.)
View of Motivation
Behaviorists explain motivation in terms of schedules of positive and negative
reinforcement. Just as receiving food pellets each time it pecks at a button teaches a pigeon to
peck the button, pleasant experiences cause human learners to make the desired connections
between specific stimuli and the appropriate responses (Laville, 2016). For example, a student
who receives verbal praise and good grades for correct answers (positive reinforcement) is likely
to learn those answers effectively; one who receives little or no positive feedback for the same
answers (negative reinforcement) is less likely to learn them as effectively. Likewise, human
learners tend to avoid responses that are associated with punishment or unpleasant consequences
such as poor grades or adverse feedback (Laville, 2016).
Implications in Teaching
Behaviorist teaching methods tend to rely on so-called skill and drill exercises to
provide the consistent repetition necessary for effective reinforcement of response patterns.
Other methods include question (stimulus) and answer (response) frameworks in which
questions are of gradually increasing difficulty; guided practice; and regular reviews of material
(Kay & Kibble, 2016). Behaviorist methods also typically rely heavily on the use of positive
reinforcements such as verbal praise, good grades, and prizes. Behaviorists assess the degree of
learning using methods that measure observable behavior such as exam performance (Kay &
Kibble, 2016). Behaviorist teaching methods have proven most successful in areas where there is
a correct response or easily memorized material. For example, while behaviorist methods have

LITERATURE REVIEW

proven to be successful in teaching structured material such as facts and formulae, scientific
concepts, and foreign language vocabulary, their efficacy in teaching comprehension,
composition, and analytical abilities is questionable (Cabaroglu, 2014). Instructors: design the
learning environment, shape childrens behavior by positive/negative reinforcement, present the
information and then students demonstrate that they understand the material. Students are then
assessed primarily through exams (Cabaroglu, 2014).
Contracts, Consequences, Reinforcement, and Extinction
Simple contracts can be effective in helping children focus on behavior change. The relevant
behavior should be identified, and the child and counselor should decide the terms of the contract
(Kay & Kibble, 2016). Behavioral contracts can be used in school as well as at home. It is
helpful if teachers and parents work together with the student to ensure that the contract is being
fulfilled. An example of a behavior contact is: A student is not completing homework
assignments. The teacher and the student design a contract providing that the student will stay for
extra help, ask parents for help, and complete assigned work on time. Teacher will be available
after school, and during free periods for additional assistance.
Consequences occur immediately after a behavior. Consequences may be positive or
negative, expected or unexpected, immediate or long-term, extrinsic or intrinsic, material or
symbolic (a failing grade), emotional/interpersonal or even unconscious (Kay & Kibble, 2016).
Consequences occur after the "target" behavior occurs, when either positive or negative
reinforcement may be given. Positive reinforcement is presentation of a stimulus that increases
the probability of a response. This type of reinforcement occurs frequently in the classroom.
Teachers may provide positive reinforcement by: smiling at students after a correct response,

LITERATURE REVIEW

commending students for their work, selecting them for a special project, praising students'
ability to parents.
Negative reinforcement increases the probability of a response that removes or prevents an
adverse condition (Prestridge, 2014). Many classroom teachers mistakenly believe that negative
reinforcement is punishment administered to suppress behavior; however, negative
reinforcement increases the likelihood of a behavior, as does positive reinforcement. Negative
implies removing a consequence that a student finds unpleasant. Negative reinforcement might
include: obtaining a score of 80% or higher makes the final exam optional, submitting all
assignments on time results in the lowest grade being dropped, perfect attendance is rewarded
with a "homework pass."
Punishment involves presenting a strong stimulus that decreases the frequency of a particular
response. Punishment is effective in quickly eliminating undesirable behaviors. Examples of
punishment include: students who fight are immediately referred to the principal, late
assignments are given a grade of zero, three tardies to class results in a call to the parents, or
failure to do homework results in after-school detention; the privilege of going home is removed.
Extinction decreases the probability of a response by contingent withdrawal of a previously
reinforced stimulus (Barney, Pleban, Wilkinson, & Prusak, 2015). Examples of extinction are: a
student has developed the habit of saying the punctuation marks when reading aloud. Classmates
reinforce the behavior by laughing when he does so. The teacher tells the students not to laugh,
thus extinguishing the behavior; a teacher gives partial credit for late assignments; other teachers
think this is unfair; the teacher decides to then give zeros for the late work; Students are
frequently late for class, and the teacher does not require a late pass, contrary to school policy.
The rule is subsequently enforced, and the students arrive on time.
Modeling, Shaping, and Cueing

LITERATURE REVIEW

Modeling is also known as observational learning. Albert Bandura has suggested that
modeling is the basis for a variety of child behavior (Malone, 2003). Children acquire many
favorable and unfavorable responses by observing those around them. A child who kicks another
child after seeing this on the playground, or a student who is always late for class because his
friends are late is displaying the results of observational learning.
Shaping is the process of gradually changing the quality of a response. The desired
behavior is broken down into discrete, concrete units, or positive movements, each of which is
reinforced as it progresses towards the overall behavioral goal. In the following scenario, the
classroom teacher employs shaping to change student behavior: the class enters the room and sits
down, but continue to talk after the bell rings (Malone, 2003). The teacher gives the class one
point for improvement, in that all students are seated. Subsequently, the students must be seated
and quiet to earn points, which may be accumulated and redeemed for rewards.
Cueing may be as simple as providing a child with a verbal or non-verbal cue as to the
appropriateness of a behavior (Malone, 2003). For example, to teach a child to remember to
perform an action at a specific time, the teacher might arrange for him to receive a cue
immediately before the action is expected rather than after it has been performed incorrectly. For
example, if the teacher is working with a student that habitually answers aloud instead of raising
his hand, the teacher should discuss a cue such as hand-raising at the end of a question posed to
the class.
Behavior Modification
Behavior modification is a method of eliciting better classroom performance from
reluctant students. It has six basic components: Specification of the desired outcome, what must
be changed and how it will be evaluated? One example of a desired outcome is increased student
participation in class discussions. Development of a positive, nurturing environment by

LITERATURE REVIEW

removing negative stimuli from the learning environment. In the above example, this would
involve a student-teacher conference with a review of the relevant material, and calling on the
student when it is evident that she knows the answer to the question posed. Identification and use
of appropriate reinforcers, intrinsic and extrinsic rewards. A student receives an intrinsic
reinforcer by correctly answering in the presence of peers, thus increasing self-esteem and
confidence. Reinforcement of behavior patterns develop until the student has established a
pattern of success in engaging in class discussions. Reduction in the frequency of rewards, a
gradual decrease the amount of one-on-one review with the student before class discussion.
Evaluation and assessment of the effectiveness of the approach based on teacher expectations
and student results. Compare the frequency of student responses in class discussions to the
amount of support provided, and determine whether the student is independently engaging in
class discussions (Beckers, Voordt, Theo, & Dewulf, 2015).
. Reflection
Using behaviorist theory in the classroom can be rewarding for both students and
teachers. Behavioral change occurs for a reason; students work for things that bring them
positive feelings, and for approval from people they admire. They change behaviors to satisfy the
desires they have learned to value. They generally avoid behaviors they associate with
unpleasantness and develop habitual behaviors from those that are repeated often (Cabaroglu,
2014). The entire rationale of behavior modification is that most behavior is learned. If behaviors
can be learned, then they can also be unlearned or relearned.
In my own teaching, I have found that a behavior that goes unrewarded will be
extinguished. Consistently ignoring an undesirable behavior will go far toward eliminating it.
When the teacher does not respond angrily, the problem is forced back to its source, the student.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Other classroom strategies I have found successful are contracts, consequences, punishment and
others that have been described in detail earlier in this chapter. Behaviorist learning theory is not
only important in achieving desired behavior in mainstream education; special education
teachers have classroom behavior modification plans to implement for their students. These plans
assure success for these students in and out of school.

References
Alias, M., Lashari, T. A., Akasah, Z. A., & Kesot, M. J. (2014). Translating theory into practice:
Integrating the affective and cognitive learning dimensions for effective instruction in
engineering education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 39(2), 212-232.
doi:10.1080/03043797.2013.838543
Ari, E., Tuner, B. K., & Demr, M. K. (2016). Primary school teachers' views on constructive
classroom management. International Electronic Journal of Elementary Education, 8(3),
363-378.
Barney, D., Pleban, F. T., Wilkinson, C., & Prusak, K. A. (2015). Identifying high school
physical education physical activity patterns after high school. The Physical Educator,
72(2), 278.
Beckers, R., Voordt, V. D., Theo, & Dewulf, G. (2015). A conceptual framework to identify
spatial implications of new ways of learning in higher education. Facilities, 33, 2-19.

LITERATURE REVIEW

10

Boghossian, P. (2006). Behaviorism, constructivism, and socratic pedagogy. Educational

Philosophy and Theory, 38(6), 713-722. doi:10.1111/j.1469-5812.2006.00226.x
Cabaroglu, N. (2014). Re-visiting the theory and practice gap through the lens of student teacher
dilemmas. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 39(2), 136-156.
Kay, D., & Kibble, J. (2016). Learning theories 101: Application to everyday teaching and
scholarship. Advances in Physiology Education, 40(1), 17.
Laville, C. (2016). Learning from the intersection of education and technology. Configurations,
24(1), 109.
Livengood, K., Lewallen, D. W., Leatherman, J., & Maxwell, J. L. (2012). The use and
evaluation of scaffolding, student centered-learning, behaviorism, and constructivism to
teach nuclear magnetic resonance and IR spectroscopy in a two-semester organic
chemistry course. Journal of Chemical Education, 89(8), 1001.
Malone, J.C. (2003). Advances in behaviorism: Its not what it used to be. Journal of Behavioral
Education (12)3. doi: 10.1023/A:1023823318424.
McGee, H. M., & Johnson, D. A. (2015). Performance motivation as the behaviorist views it.
Performance Improvement, 54(4), 15-21. doi:10.1002/pfi.21472
Nikolaevich, N. V. (2015). Management and self-organization in the field of education. Modern
Management Technology (2015),
Prestridge, S. J. (2014). Reflective blogging as part of ICT professional development to support
pedagogical change. Australian Journal of Teacher Education (Online), 39(2), 70-86.
Rottschaefer, W. (1991). Social learning theories of moral agency. Behavior and Philosophy,
19(1), 61-76. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org.proxy.bsu.edu/stable/27759240
Sandvik, A., Eriksson, K., & Hilli, Y. (2014). Becoming a caring nurse--a nordic study on
students' learning and development in clinical education. Nurse Education in Practice,
14(3), 286-292. doi:10.1016/j.nepr.2013.11.001
Strand, P., Barnes-Holmes, Y., & Barnes-Holmes, D. (2003). Educating the whole child:
Implications of behaviorism as a science of meaning. Journal of Behavioral Education
(12)2. doi: 10.1023/A:1023833619332