A Confirmatory Factor-Analytic Model of Alienation

Author(s): Bruce R. Roberts

Source: Social Psychology Quarterly, Vol. 50, No. 4 (Dec., 1987), pp. 346-351
Published by: American Sociological Association
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Social Psychology
Quarterly
1987,Vol. 50, No. 4, 346-351

A Confirmatory
Factor-Analytic
Model of Alienation
BRUCE R. ROBERTS

NationalInstitute
ofMentalHealth
Thispaper presentsa longitudinal
second-order
modelof alienationin
confirmatory
factor-analytic
employed
U.S. men,basedon Seeman'soriginalfive-facet
Alienation
conceptualization.
appearsinthis
modelas a second-order
factorthatis significantly
relatedtoallfiveofthesefacets.Powerlessness
and
are shownto be thetwocentralfacets.Meaninglessness,
self-estrangement
normlessness
and cultural
showprogressively
smallerrelationships
to theunderlying
estrangement
alienationcotistruct.
Although
culturalestrangement
is significantly
relatedto theunderlying
ittesultsina model
construct,
removing
thatfitsthedata slightly
better.Cross-national
comparisons
datafromPoland
usingcross-sectional
and Japanconfirm
thegeneralizability
ofthismodel.However,themagnitudes
oftherelationships
of
bothnormlessness
and culturalestrangement
to thesecond-order
factorare somewhatdifferent
for
Japanthanfor theUnitedStatesand Poland.

The study of alienation or alienationlike in Marx, who saw it as a consequenceof "the

conditionshas a long historyin the social loss of intrinsicmeaningor pridein work." In
sciences. Yet, thereis a continuinglack of an addition, Seeman's conceptualizationof selfagreed-uponmeaningforthe concept. Some of estrangement
emphasizesdetachmentfromself
the confusionreflectsthe diversityof intellec- and failureto be aware of one's trueinterests
tual traditionsand associations that the term and purpose. (Seeman, 1983, uses the terms
bringsto mind,but anotherkey elementis that "disguised" self and "detached" self.) Seeman
"alienation" is used to referbothto a personal clearly relates self-estrangement
to Marx's
psychological state and to a type of social "false consciousness."Althoutgh
Seeman traces
relationship.This ambiguityhas led some to self-estrangement
to Marxianroots,powerlessquestion the utilityof the term in even a ness is the psychologicalaspect of alienation
descriptivesense (Kon, 1967; Horton, 1964; which most clearly relatesto objective condiIsrael, 1972). Nevertheless, alienation has tionsin the workplaceand society.
continuedto be used as a concept in both
Seeman's operationalizationof the dimentheoreticaldiscussion and empiricalresearch. sions of alienationhas been criticizedfor its
Numerousauthorshave attemptedto develop emphasison reinforcement
theoryand reliance
analyses unifyingtheoretical and empirical on measuressuch as Rotter's(1966) I-E Scale'
approaches to alienation. Perhaps the most and Srole's (1956) Anomie Scale-measures
influential
amongthosewho have attempted
this thatwereoriginallydevelopedwithoutconsidertaskhas been Seeman. His initialanalysisof the ation forthedistinctions
Seeman makes among
concept (Seeman, 1959) distinguishesfive the several aspects of alienation(Israel, 1972;
psychological facets: powerlessness, self- Gordon, 1979). In addition, Israel (1972)
estrangement,normlessness,cultural-estrange-suggeststhatSeeman's analysisfails to specify
ment(or value isolation)and meaninglessness. the logical relationsamong the dimensionsof
six alienation,and thereforequestionsthe overall
A slightlydifferent
analysis,whichidentifies
dimensionsof alienation,appears in his subse- cohesiveness of the concept. The overall
cohesivenessof the facetsof alienationcan be
quentwork(Seeman, 1972).
Seeman (1959; 1983) identifies
powerlessness addressedas an empiricalquestion.A numberof
and self-estrangement
withMarxiannotionsof studieshave reportedintercorrelations
of alienalienation.From Seeman's perspective,power- ation dimensionsthat are consistentwith the
lessness reflectsthe Marxian view that the possibilityof a comnmon
factor(Neal
underlying
workerin capitalistsociety has lost his tradiand decision-making
tionalprerogatives
powers.
' A sizeableliterature
As for self-estrangement,
Seeman traces the
has beendevotedtothestructure
locus of controlscale and its
conceptthroughFrommand Mills to its origin of the Internal-External

interpretation
in various subgroups.Factor analyses
generallysupport the existence of two or more
I would like to thankMelvin L. Kohn and Carmi dimensions
whichmaydiffer
amongsubgroups(Mirels,
and advicethroughout 1970, Sanger and Alker, 1972). Tyler et al. (1979)
Schoolerfortheirencouragement
forhis methodolog- combined structuraland exploratoryfactor analysis
thisresearch
andRonaldSchoenberg
ical assistance.MurielCantor,CarrieSchoenbachand techniques
to distinguish
fourdimensions
relatedto locus
KazimiriezSlomczynskiprovidedmanyhelpfulcom- of control. Rotter's I-E scale appears to measure
morecomplexthana generalizedexpectancy
ments on earlier draftsof this paper, which have something
itspresentform.
derivedfromsocial learningtheory.
influenced

346
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ALIENATION

347

and Rettig,1967; Simmons,1966). Less strong pp. 235-64) presents informationabout the
correlationswere reportedby Kohn (1976), originalsample and interviewschedule. Kohn
usingGuttmanscalingto constructmeasuresof and Schooler (1978) compare the followup
fouralienationdimensionsthatsatisfysome of subsample with the original sample and conin
the objections noted above. None of these cluded thattheydid not differsignificantly
respects.
studieshave providedconclusiveevidenceabout any important
of alienation.
the structure
factoranalysisis
In thispaper, confirmatory
METHODS
of
used to empiricallytestthe interrelationships
Maximum-likelihood
confirmatory
factoranalof alienationidentifiedin
the five constituents
Seeman's original theoreticalanalysis. The ysis (Joreskog,1969; 1970) has several imporfactoranalysis
indicatorsof the facetsof alienationare based tantadvantagesover exploratory
to as an analytic technique for evaluating the
on Kohn (1976). Powerlessnessis interpreted
factor
reflecta lack of a sense of personalefficacy, structureof alienation. In confirmatory
rather than the fact of being powerless. analysis, an item pool is used to constructa
Althoughstill subjective,these itemsare more structuralequations model in which the indinarrowlyfocused than Rotter's I-E scale on vidual items are assumed to be caused by (or
issues of power,controland theabilityto plan. indicatorsof) one or more underlyingunmeawerechosen suredconcepts.This underlyingconceptrepreThe indicatorsof self-estrangement
to measurea sense of detachmentfromself, of sents the shared variance of the indicators.
driftingor purposelessnessin life, as well as Idiosyncratic variance is considered to be
error."The relationship
between
negative self-evaluation. The indicators of "measurement
normlessness reflect a belief in achieving the indicatorsand the conceptsis specifiedon
personalgoals by any means thatwill not be a priorigrounds.Such a model is essentiallya
punished, without restraintfrom feelings of hypothesisabout the relationshipof concepts
The indicatorsfor cul- and indicators which is to be tested by
personalresponsibility.
reflectthe failureto share examiningits fit to data. Alternativemodels
tural estrangement
common values and opinions with various maybe comparedor themodelmaybe modified
groups, ratherthan Seeman's (1959) emphasis to improve the goodness of fit, and the
on sharedrewardvalues. The single itemused chi-squarestatisticcan be used to estimatehow
to measure meaninglessness,which was not well a particularmodel is able to replicatethe
used by Kohn, reflectsone's sense that the observed variance-covariancematrix of the
world is not understandable.This differsfrom indicators.
whichemphasizes
One of themorecommonapproachesused to
Seeman's operationalization,
"a low expectancythatsatisfactory
predictions improvethefitof a structural
equationsmodelis
about future outcomes of behavior can be the explicitinclusionof the covariance of the
set of residuals of some of the indicators. The
made," but does reflectan insufficient
sharedbeliefs about societyfor decision mak- combinationof multipleindicatorsand longitudinal data allows the user of this techniqueto
ing, whichis also emphasizedby Seeman.
If the dimensions Seeman identifies are estimate measurementerror both within and
thatreflect across measurementperiods, obtainingfactor
aspectsof psychologicalfunctioning
a common underlyingrealm of psychological loadings and intercorrelations
thatmore nearly
functioning,
then,given appropriateindicators, reflectthe true relationshipsamong concepts,
it should be possible to constructa model of bothwithinand across time. Anothercommon
alienation using second order confirmatory modification
is theremovalof indicatorsthatdo
factor analysis. Furthermore,such a model not share significantly
in the commonvariance
should tell us somethingabout the structure
of of a concept. Confirmatory
factoranalysis can
therelationship
betweenthislarger,overarching also be extendedto develop a model in which
thesharedvarianceof two or moreconceptscan
conceptof alienationand thesefive subtypes.
be seen as representingyet a higher-level
underlyingconcept, a situationanalogous in
DATA
some respectsto a factoranalysisin whichthe
Data forthisstudywere initiallycollectedby indicatorsto be analyzedare themselvesscores
Kohn and Schooler in 1964 as partof a larger on multi-item
scales.
studyof work and psychologicalfunctioning,
national sample of
involvinga representative
ANALYSIS
3101 male civilianworkers.A randomsubsamwho were
ple of 687 of theoriginalinterviewees
We have constructeda model in which
less than 55 years old in 1964 were reinter- Seeman's original dimensions of alienation
viewed in 1974, providingtheten-yearlongitu- reflecta commonunderlying(or second-order)
dinal sample used in this study. Kohn (1969, alienationfactor.Four of the first-order
factors

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348

SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY QUARTERLY

/~~~~~~~
/

1974

Alienation
/

/59-AROUND
08

POWERLESS

- -1
27
1 --CONTROL
PLANS

Selfestrangement

56- BORED
481- NO GOOD
-21 *- GOAL
- 460*- PURPOSE
LAW
ALLOWS

Normlessness

-625*-LAW
6NormAessness- 6
Y30 TN-WORKS

Cultural
Estrangement
,
/

62*

Powerlessness

58_-64-30- 51

dI
f
f
e

\
Meaninglessness

Powerlessness
\
\
/-506*
IS

Allenatlon
0-

Selfestrangement

I
NormlessnessN
ormessnes
4O44*-WORKS

Cultural
Estrangement
x2=45721 with 423df
dr
X2/dfratio = 1 08\
Meaninglessness

BACKGROUND
FRIENDS
COUNTRY
RELATIVES

- UNDERSTAND

-1.0

968- POWERLESS
- 23-CONTROL
- 26-PLANS
BORED
-51
NO GOOD
*
- 20-GOAL
- 5353
PURPOSE
58
56-AROUND LAW
-3232 _ LAW ALLOWS
L59ANYTHING

- 60_
-77_
-.57*- 56-

-10

I
f
f
e

BACKGROUND
FRIENDS
COUNTRY
RELATIVES

Intercorrelationsof residuals of firstorder concepts

1964-1974
Powerlessness
Self-Estrangement

Normlessness
Cultural
Estrangement
Meaninglessness

00695

ns

0.3226
0

5435
03546

00393

ns

Across time intercorrelationsof residuals (common to a priori

and final models).
1964-1974
CONTROL
0.2913
"
"
PLANS
0.2234
"
"
NO GOOD
01265
"
"
GOAL
0 3267
PURPOSE
0 0980
-- AROUNDLAW
01190
LAW ALLOWS
01757
"
ANYTHING
01214
"
"
DIFFER BACKGROUND
01021
"
DIFFER COUNTRY
01359
DIFFER RELATIVES
01321
Within time Intercorrelationsof residuals

a
(not In priori
model)
1964
POWERLESSNESS-BORED
POWERLESSNESS-DIFFER
BACKGROUND
POWERLESSNESS-DIFFER
RELATIVES
"
CONTROL-DIFFER COUNTRY
"
CONTROL-DIFFER RELATIVES
"
PLANS-BORED
PLANS-GOAL
"
PLANS-DIFFER COUNTRY
GOAL-DIFFER BACKGROUND
"
DIFFER RELATIVES-DIFFER COUNTRY
-"
1974
CONTROL-GOAL
PLANS-PURPOSE
"
PURPOSE-WORKS
PURPOSE-NO GOOD
"
GOAL-DIFFER COUNTRY

01062
00796
0 0648
0 0875
0 0939
-00889
-0 0745
-00738
-00861
0.1491
-00917
- 0 0661
0 0655
01016
-00634

-UNDERSTAND

Fig. 1. Final Model of AlienationDerived fromSeeman's ConceptualAnalysis.StandardizedParameters.All

Coefficients
at .05 Level UnlessNoted.
Significant

used in thismodelof alienation(powerlessness,

normlessness,self-estrangement
and cultural
are measuredby multipleindicaestrangement)
tors, while the fifth(meaninglessness)is measured by a single indicator.With two exceptions,the indicators(see Table 1) are the same
as those used by Kohn (1976). The item in

Kohn's powerlessnessscale referring

to "influence on nationalpolicy" was droppedbecause it
was nota significant
indicatorof powerlessness
(at the .05 level) when it was includedin the
model. Also, a single indicator is used to
measure meaninglessness,which was not includedby Kohn. The modelis longitudinal.
The

Table 1. AspectsofAlienation
Powerlessness:
(a) Do you feel thatmostof the thingsthathappento you are the resultof yourown decisionsor of things
overwhichyouhaveno CONTROL?
(b) I generally
haveconfidence
thatwhenI makePLANS I willbe able to carrythemout(agree-disagree)
(c) How oftendo youfeelPOWERLESS to getwhatyouwantoutoflife?
Self-estrangement:
(a) How oftendo youfeelthatthereisn'tmuchPURPOSE in beingalive?
(b) How oftendo youfeelBORED witheverything?
(c) AttimesI thinkI am NO GOOD at all. (agree-disagree)
towardsomedefinite
GOAL?
(d) Areyouthesortofpersonwhotakeslifeas itcomesor areyouworking
Normlessness:
(a) It's all rightto do ANYTHING youwantas longas youstayoutoftrouble.(agree-disagree)
(b) It's all rightto getAROUND theLAW as longas youdon'tactuallybreakit. (agree-disagree)
whether
it's rightorwrong.(agree-disagree)
(c) If something
WORKS, itdoesn'tmatter
theLAW ALLOWS, or are theresomethingsthatare wrong
(d) Do you believethatit's all rightto do whatever
eveniftheyarelegal?
Culturalestrangement:
how oftendo yourideas and opinionsaboutimportant
matters
differ
(a) Accordingto yourgeneralimpression,
fromthoseofyourRELATIVES?
fromthoseof yourFRIENDS?
(b) How oftendo yourideas andopinionsdiffer
(c) How aboutfromthoseof otherpeoplewithyourreligiousBACKGROUND?
(d) Thoseofmostpeoplein theCOUNTRY
Meaninglessness:
(a) How oftendo youfeelthattheworldjustisn'tveryUNDERSTANDable?

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ALIENATION

349

Table 2. Intercorrelations
ofFirstand SecondOrderConcepts
1974 1974 1974 1974 1974 1964 1964 1964 1964 1964 1974 1964
power norm self cultur-mean-power- norm- self- cultur-mean-alien-alien1974powerlessness
1.000
1974normlessness
0.442
1974self-estrangement
0.834
1974cultural0.146
estrangement
1974meaninglessness 0.538
1964powerlessness
0.469
0.146
1964normlessness
0.427
1964self-estrangement
1964cultural0.098
estrangement
1964meaninglessness 0.250
1974alienation
0.926
0.482
1964alienation

1.00
0.430 1.000
0.075
0.277
0.206
0.619
0.220

0.142
0.523
0.389
0.142
0.738

1.000
0.091
0.068
0.025
0.073

1.000
0.251 1.000
0.092 0.251 1.000
0.268 0.733 0.268 1.000

0.050
0.129
0.477
0.249

0.095
0.244
0.900
0.469

0.371
0.042
0.158
0.082

0.061
0.196
0.581
0.302

0.168
0.430
0.432
0.828

0.061
0.157
0.158
0.303

0.179
0.459
0.461
0.884

1.000
0.105 1.000
0.105 0.271 1.000
0.202 0.519 0.521 1.000

Clearly the facets of alienationwhich most

underlyingconcept, alienation in 1964, is
assumed to be correlated with the parallel stronglyreflect the underlyingconcept are
These are
underlyingconcept, alienation in 1974. The powerlessnessand self-estrangement.
residual of each of Seeman's five aspects of followed in order of magnitudeby those for
alienationis individuallyallowed to correlate meaninglessness,normlessnessand culturalesAll of thesecoefficients
are statistiover time withthe parallel residual. Similarly, trangement.
the residualof each indicatorof thoseconcepts cally significant.This supportsthe conclusion
forwhichthereare multipleindicatorsin 1964 is that all five types of alienation identifiedby
modeledas beingcorrelatedwiththeresidualof Seeman are partof a commondomain.
As noted above, Seeman (1959) originally
thesame indicatorin 1974. (Since meaninglessness is measuredby a singleindicator,it has no identifiedpowerlessnessand self-estrangement
with Marx's theoryof alienation.3The strong
residualvariance).
Several minor modificationswere made to paths from alienation to powerlessness and
withtheconcluthisa priorimodel in orderto improveits fitto self-estrangement
are congruent
the data. Four over-timecorrelationsof residu- sion thatthe aspects of alienationidentifiedas
at the Marxianformthe core of Seeman's concept.4
als forindicatorsthatwere not significant
.05 level were fixed at zero. In addition, a
Culturalestrangement
(or value isolation) is
correlationsof residual the facet showing the weakest relationto the
numberof within-time
pairs were tested on the basis of first-order underlying
conceptof alienation.Followingour
partial derivatives(Sorbom, 1975) and those
statisticallysignificantat the .05 level were
retained(Figure1). All of thesemodifications
to fromtheone reported
herein severalsignificant
respects:
the a priori model improve the chi-square (1) Theirsampleconsistedof new mothersratherthan
measure of goodness of fit from554.33 with workingage males;(2) thereare important
differences
in
435 df to 457.21 with 423 df. The path the semanticrealmsof the indicators,includingtheir
to nationalor
coefficientsfromthe conceptsto the indicators greateremphasisof questionsreferring
in the final model, as well as the intercorrela- worldimpacts;(3) theirmethodwas basedon traditional
factoranalysis.
tions among first-orderconcepts, are very exploratory
3Israel (1972) relates meaninglessness
to Marx's
similarto those generatedby the initialmodel,
concernabouttheeffectsof thedivisionof labor,which
i.e., a model withno correlationsof residuals, limitsthe individual'sunderstanding
of his place in
and by separatecross-sectionalmodelsfor 1964 production
process(andin socialrelations
ofproduction).
and 1974 (Table 2). The across-timeintercor- 4 Alternatively,
itmightbe thought
thathavingat least
relationsof thosefirst-order
conceptswhichare twohighlycorrelated
Marxianfirst-order
factorsweights
measuredusingmultipleindicatorsare similarto the second-orderconcepttowardMarxiannotionsof
the uncorrectedintercorrelations
reportedby alienation.This possibilitywas testedby comparingthe
ofresidualsamongthe
Zeller et al. (1980). Any attemptat a detailed initialmodel(withoutcorrelations
comparisonis confoundedby differencesbe- indicators)with two similarmodels thatalternatively
In both
tween the indicators, the samples and the droppedpowerlessnessand self-estrangement.
cases, thecoefficients
fortheremaining
Marxianconcept
methodsof analysis.2
continuedto dominatethe model (Table 3). This lends
2 Zeller, et al.'s (1980) longitudinal study also used
measures based on Seeman's conceptualization. It differs

weightto the argument

thatthe underlying
conceptof
alienationis mostcloselyidentified
withMarxiannotions
andis notjusta statistical
artifact
oftherebeingtwosuch
first-order
dimensions
in themodel.

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350

SOCIAL

PSYCHOLOGY

QUARTERLY

Table 3. Comparison
of Coefficients
of Effectsof SecondOrderAlienationon FirstOrderFactorsComparing
U.S.,
JapaneseandPolishModels

Powerlessness
Self-Est.
Normlessness
Meaninglessness
Cultural-

U.S. (1974)

U.S. (1964)

0.9259
0.9009
0.4772
0.5805
0.1575

0.8287
0.8845
0.3030
0.5191
0.2021

Japanese
Powerlessness
0.8076
0.8543
0.1631
0.4382
0.4775

Polish
Self-Est.
0.7680
0.9762
0.2440
0.4024
0.2490

line of reasoning about powerlessness and three countries, powerlessness and selfit appears that culturales- estrangementare the most central aspects of
self-estrangement,
trangementis the least central aspect of alienation. In Japan, the standardizedcoeffialienation,at least as we have indexed it. One cients of the effects of the second-order
possibilityis that our indicatorsof cultural alienationfactoron normlessnessand cultural
do- estrangement
are 0.16 and 0.48, respectively.
somehow reflecta different
estrangement
main fromthat intendedby Seeman. Seeman This is a reversalof theirrelativemagnitudesin
(1972) defined culturalestrangementas "the the U.S. model. This suggests that there are
of alienation
in the structure
individual'srejectionof commonlyheld values greaterdifferences
in thesociety;in thelanguageof social learning betweenthe UnitedStates and Japanthanthere
theory,the assignmentof low rewardvalues to are betweentheUnitedStatesand Poland.
goals or behaviorsthatare highlyvalued in the
given society." The itemsused as indicatorsof
CONCLUSIONS
in thisanalysishave been
culturalestrangement
the belief thatone's
describedas representing
These results are entirelyconsistentwith
"ideas and opinions about importantmatters
Seeman's
conceptualizationof alienation.Furdifferfromthose of his friends,his relatives,
otherpeople of his religiousbackground,and thermore,several lines of evidence are prohis compatriotsgenerally"(Kohn, 1976). Per- vided, suggesting the possibility that those
haps people see their friends, relatives, or facetsclosestto theoriginalMarxianconceptualreligiousgroupsas somehownonrepresentativeization of alienation (powerlessness and selfof thelargersociety,so thatsharingvalues with estrangement)predominatein the models we
them would not be the same as sharingthe have constructed.Despite differencesin the
dominantvalues of thesociety.If thisweretrue, relative magnitudesof some coefficients,the
fitto data fromthe
we mightexpect that differingin ideas and modelprovidesa satisfactory
opinions from "those of most people in the UnitedStates,Poland and Japan.
country"would differin its coefficientsfrom
the otherindicators.This appears truefor 1974
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ALIENATION

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