YVheel

Alignment Principlest

Diagnosis, and Service

ffi ALIGNMENT.RELATED
OBf ECTIVES: After studying Chapter 43, the reader

PROBLEMS

should be able to:

l.

Prepare for ASE Suspension and Steering (A4)

certification test content area "C" (Wheel Alignment

Diagnosis, Adiustment, and Repair).
2. Define camber, caster, toe, SAl, included angle, turning

3.

4.
5.

radius, thrust line, and set back.

Explain how camber, caster, and toe affect the

handling and tire wear of the vehicle.

List the many checks that should be performed
before aligning a vehicle.
Describe the proper alignment setup procedure.

*h""1 alignment

is the adjustment of the suspen-

sion and steering to ensure ProPer vehicle handling

with minimum tire wear. A change in alignment angles
may result from one or more of the following factors:
|

. Wear of the steering and the suspension

comPonents
2. Bent or damaged steering and suspension parts
3. Sagging springs,which can change the ride height
of the vehicle and therefore the alignment angles
By adlusting the suspension and steering comPonents,the proper alignment angles can be restored. An
alignment includes checking and adiusting, if necessary,
both front and rear wheels.

Most alignment diagnosis is symptom based. The following definitions of alignment symptom terms are
used in this book:

Fttll

A pull is generally defined as a definite"tug"

on the steering wheel toward the left or the right
while driving straight on a level road.

or $rift

A lead or drift is a mild pull that

does not cause a force on the steering wheel that the
driver must counteract. When the vehicle moves toward one side or the other, this is called a lead ot
drift. Alead or drift could be caused by the crown of
the road, as shown in Figure 43-1.

Lead

CAUTIONs When test driving a vehicle for a lead or a

drift, make sure that the road is free of traffic and that
your hands remain close to the steering wheel. Your
hands should simply be held away from the steering
wheel for just a second or two-just long enough to
check for a lead or

drift condition.

Wander A wander is a condition in which almost

constant steering wheel corrections by the driver are
necessary to maintain a straight-ahead direction on
a straight, level road.

Camber
Camber is the inward or outwctrd tilt of the wheels
from true uertical as uiewed from the front or rear of
the uehicle. See Figure 43-2.

CHAPTER 43

984

CROWN OF ROAD

Figure
needed

43-l

The crown of the road refers to the angle or slope of the roadway
to drain water offthe pavement. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

POSITTVE

NEOATIVE

Figure 43-2 Positive and negative camber. (Courtesy of

Hunter Engineering Company)

1. If the top of the tire is tilted out, then camber is

positive (+).
2. If the top of the tire is tilted in, then camber is
negative (-).
3. Camber is zero (0') if the tilt of the wheel is truly
vertical, as shown in Figure 43-3.
4. Camber is measured in degrees or fractions of
degrees.

5. Camber can cause tire wear if ruot correct.

a. Excessive positive camber causes scuffing
and wear on the outside edge of the tire
b. Excessive negative camber causes scuffing
and wear on the inside edge of the tire
6. Camber can cause pull if it is unequal side to
side. The uehicle will pull toward the side with
the most positiae (or least negatiae) camber. A
difference of more than half a degree from one
side to the other will cause the vehicle to null.
See Figure 43-4.

Figure 43-3 Zero camber. (Courtesy of Hunter

Engineering Company)

7. Incorrect camber can cause excessive wear on

wheel bearings, as shown in Figure 43-5. Many
vehicle manufacturers specify positive camber so
that the vehicle's weight is applied to the larger
inner wheel bearing and spindle. As the vehicle
is loaded or when the springs sag, camber
usually decreases. If camber is kept positive,
then the running camber is kept rteay zero
degrees for best tire life.
Itwliddlifif-$fiSliilFrrll+i'ili6ild.ili:lridt['riut{ili{Uildlt]il$\illlilli!]Msl$6!16$ie}Jdlddd\1d*Mr1@ffiW}iM-1

{iqirl;1$.}iilil Many front-wheel-drive vehicles that use sealed

wheel bearings often are manufactured to have negative

camber.

8. Camber is ruol adjustable on many vehicles.

9. If camber is adjustable, the change is made by
moving the upper or the lower control arm or

Wheel Alignrnent Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

Figure 43-4 Camber tilts the tire and forms a cone shape that causes the wheel to roll
or pull outward toward the point of the cone. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering

away

Company)

of the same tires, then the toe is called toe-in or positive (+) toe. See Figure 43-7.If the front of the tires

WEIGHT OF VEHICLE

INTERSECTS NEAR
OUTER WHEEL
BEARING

Figure 43-5 Negative camber applies the vehicle weight

to the smaller outer wheel bearing. Excessive negative
camber, therefore, may contribute to outer wheel bearing
failure. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

are farther apart than the rear of the same tires,

then the wheels are toed-ouf or have negative (-)
toe. See Figure 43-8.
The purpose of the correct toe setting is to provide maximum stability with the minimum of tire
wear when the vehicle is being driven.
1. Toe is measured in fractions of degrees or in
fractions of an inch (usually sixteenths),
millimeters (mm), or decimals of an inch (such
as .06").
2. Incorrect toe is the major cause of excessiue tire

wear!
ffi4&Yffi: If the toe is improper by just U8" (3 mm) the resulting tire wear is equivalent to dragging a tire sideways 28 feet (8.5 meters) for everymile traveled (1.6 km).

strut assembly by means of one of the following

methods:

a. Shims

b. Eccentric
c. Slots

cams

10. Camber should be equal on both sides;however,

if camber cannot be adjusted exactly equal,
make certain that there is more camber on the
front of the left side to help compensate for the
road crown (half a degree maximum difference).

Toe
Toe is the dffirence in distance between the front and
rear of the tires. As viewed from the top of the vehicle (bird's-eye view), zero toe means that both wheels
on the same axle are parallel, as shown in Figure
43-6.If the front of the tires is closer than the rear

Toe causes camber-type wear on one side of

the tire if not correct, as shown in Figure 43-9

(p.987).
3. Incorrect

ftont

toe does

not cause a pull

condition. Incorrect toe on the front wheels is

split equally as the vehicle is driven because the
forces acting on the tires are exerted through the
tie rod and steering linkage to both wheels.
4. Incorrect (unequal) rear toe can cduse tire wean
See Figures 43-10 and 43-11 (p. 987). Ifthe toe
of the rear wheels is not equal, the steering
wheel will not be straight and will pull toward
the side with the most toe-in.
5. Front toe adjustment must be made by adjusting
the tie rod sleeves correctly. See Figure 43-12
(p.987).

CHAPTER 43

Figure 43-6 Zero toe. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

t
I

Figure 43-7 Toe-in, also called positive (+) toe. (courtesy of Hunter Engineering
Company)

Figure 43-8 Toe-out, also called negative

Company)

(-)

toe. (courtesy of Hunter Engineering

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

987

Figure 43-9 This tire is just one month old! lt was new
and installed on the front of a vehicle that had about l/4
inch (6 mm.) of toe out. By the time the customer
returned to the tire store for an alignment, the tire was
completely bald on the inside. Note the almost new tread
on the outside.

Figure 43-10 Rear toe-in (+). (Courtesy of Hunter

Engineering Company)

Figure 43-12 Toe on the front of most vehicles is

adjusted by turning the tire rod sleeve as shown.
(Courtesy of John Bean Company)

6. Most vehicle manufacturers specify a slight

amount of toe-in to compensate for the natural
tendency ofthe front wheels to spread apart
(become toed-out) due to the centrifugal force of
the rolling wheels acting on the steering linkage.
ft#4FYffi* Some manufacturers of front-wheel-drive vehicles specify a toe-out setting to compensate for the
toe-in forces created by the engine drive forces on the
front wheels.

7. Normal wear to the tie rod ends and other

steering linkage parts usually causes toe-out.

Caster
I Diagonal wear such as shown here is
usually caused by incorrect toe on the rear of a frontwheel-drive vehicle.
Figure 43-l

Ca.ster is the forward or rearward tilt of the steering

axis in reference to a uertical line as uiewed from the
side of the uehicle. The steering axis is defined as the

CHAPTER 43

line drawn through the upper and lower steering

Why Doesn't Unequal Front Toe on the
Front Wheels Cause the Vehicle to Pull?
Each wheel could have individual toe, but as the vehicle is
being driven, the forces on the tires tend to split the toe,
causing the steering wheel to cock at an angle as the front
wheels both track the same. lf the toe is different on the
rear of the vehicle, the rear will be "steered" similar to a
rudder on a boat because the rear wheels are not tied together as are the front wheels.

pivot points. On an SLA suspension system, the upper pivot is the upper ball joint and the lower pivot
is the lower ball joint. On a MacPherson strut system, the upper pivot is the center of the upper bearing mount and the lower pivot point is the lower ball
joint. "Zero center" means that the steering axis is
straight up and down, also called zero degrees or perfectly uerticol, as shown in Figure 43-t4.
1. Positive

(*)

caster is present when the upper

suspension pivot point is behind the lower pivot

point (ball joint) as viewed from the side. See

Figure 43-15.
2. Negative (*) caster is present when the upper
suspension pivot point is ahead of the lower
pivot point (ball joint) as viewed from the side.
3. Caster is measured in degrees or fractions of
degrees.

Smooth lnrToed-lnSmooth OutrToed-Out

Whenever the toe setting is not zero, a rubbing action on
the tire tread causes a feather-edge-type wear. See Figure
43-13. A quick-and-easy method to determine if incorrect toe could be the cause of excessive tire wear or
other problems is to simply rub your hand across the
tread of the tire. lf it feels smoother when you move your
hand toward the center of the vehicle than when you
move your hand toward the outside,then the cause is excessive toe-in. The opposite effect is caused by toe out.
This method may be used on all types of tires including
radial ply tires, where the wear may not appear as a
feather edge. Just remember this simple saying,"smooth
in,

4. Caster is not a tire wearing angle, but positive

caster does cause changes in camber during a
turn. See Figure 43-16. This condition is called
camber roll. (See the Tech Tip "Caster Angle
Tire Wear.")
5. Caster is a stability angle:
a. Ifcaster is excessively positive, vehicle
steering will be very stable (will tend to be
straight with Iittle steering wheel correction
needed) and help with steering wheel
returnability after a turn.
b. Ifthe caster is positive, the steering effort
will increase with increasing positive caster.

toed-in-smooth out. toed-out:'

0o

Feaffiered or $awtoottl
Tire wear pattern

* * * *

***

Shorp edges poini in the direction

of the toe problem
(lN - Toe In / OUT Toe Out)
Figure 43-13 Feather-edge-type tire wear is usually
caused by an incorrect toe setting. (Courtesy ofJohn Bean
Company)

FRONT

Figure 43-14 Zero caster. (Courtesy of Hunter

Engineering Company)

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

989

FRONT

Figure 43-16 As the spindle rotates, it lifts the weight of

the vehicle due to the angle of the steering axis. (Courtesy
of Hunter Engineering Company)

Figure 43-15 Positive

(*)

caster. (Courtesy of Hunter

Engineering Company)

Greater road shocks will be felt by the driver

when driving over rough road surfaces.
Vehicles with as high as eleven degrees of
positive caster usually use a steering
dampener to control possible shimmy at
high speeds and to dampen the snap-back of
the spindle after a turn.
c. Ifcaster is negative, or excessively unequal,
the vehicle will not be as stable and will
tend to wander. If a vehicle is heavily loaded
in the rear, caster increases, as shown in
Figure 43-77.

6. Caster could cause pull if uneqral. The uehicle

will pull toward the side with the least positiue
caster.

7. Caster is ruol adjustable on many vehicles.

8. If caster is adjustable, the change is made by
moving either the lower or the upper pivot point
forward or backward by means of one of the
following methods:
a. Shims
b. Eccentric cams
c. Slots

d. Strut

rods

Figure 43-17 As the load increases in the rear of a vehicle, the top steering axis pivot
point moves rearward, increasing positive
Company)

(*)

caster. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering

990

CHAPTER 43

$ ftd#:$'#;t Caster is only measured on the front turning

N wheels of the vehicle. Although some caster is built into
{ the rear suspension ofmany vehicles, rear caster is not

i
i

measured as part of a four-wheel alignment.

..

Steering Axis Inclination (SAl)

The steering axis is the angle formed between true
vertical and an imaginary line drawn between the
upper and lower pivot points of the spindle. See Figure 43-19. Steering q,xis inclincltion (SAI) is the inward tilt of the steering orls. SAI is also known as
kingpin incliruation (KPI) and is the imaginary line
drawn through the kingpin as viewed from the front.
$ss*ilEffded dhrag$*

Gaster Angle Tire Wear

The caster angle is generally considered to be a non-tirewearing angle. Even though this statement is true, excessive or unequal caster can indireAly cause tire wear. When
the front wheels on a vehicle with a lot of positive caster
are turned, they become angled, which is called camber
roll. (The caster angle is a measurement of the difference
in camber angle from when the wheel is turned inward
compared to when the wheel is turned outward.) Many
vehicle manufacturers design positive caster into the suspension system. This positive caster has increased the directional stability of these vehicles. However, if the vehicle is used exclusively in city-type driving, the positive
caster can cause tire wear to the outside shoulders of
both front tires, as seen in Figure 43-18.

The included angle is the SAI

added to the camber reading of the front wheels only.

The included arugle is determined by the design of the

steering knuclzle, or strut construction See Figure

43-20. Included angle is an important angle to
measure when diagnosing vehicle handling or tirewear problems.

Turning Radius
(Toe-Out on Turns)
Whenever a vehicle turns a corner, the inside wheel
has to turn at a sharper angle than the outside wheel
because the inside wheel has a shorter distance to
travel, as shown in Figure 43-2I. Turning radius is
also called

toe-out on turns, abbreviated*TOT" or,

more commonly, "TOOTr" and is determined bv the

OUTSIDETURN
SPINDLE MOVES DOWN

INSIDETURN
SPINDLE MOVES UP

Figure 43- | I As the front wheels on a vehicle with a lot of positive caster are turned,
the wheel tilts at an angle. This is called comber rol/ and can cause tire wear to both the
inside and outside edges of the tire.

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

Service

991

angle of the steering knuckle arms. Turning radius

is a nonadjustable angle. The turning radius can and
should be measured as part of an alignment to check
if the steering arms are bent or damaged. Symptoms

STETfrIIIG AXIS

ll{cUiltTt0t{
{AilGLE)

of out-of-specification turning angle include tire

squeal noise during normal cornering even at low
speeds and/or scuffed tires.

This angle is also called the Ackerman Effect,

named for its promoter, the English publisher
Rudolph Ackerman, circa 1898.
sH0nt - [0[B.AR]| SusPEistot
8Tff8m0

Setback
Setbaclz is the angle formed by a line drawn perperldicular (90") to the front axles. See Figure 43-22. Setback is a nonadjustable measurement euen though it
may be corrected. Positive setback means the right
front wheel is set back farther than the left. Negative
setback means the left front wheel is set back farther

AXIS

ncUt{til0}l

than the right.

Thrust Angle

sTRltT

susPlilst0t

Figure 43-19 SAI is an imaginary line through the upper

and lower suspension pivot points.

s.A.l.

Thrust angle is the angle of the rear wheels as determined by the total rear toe.If both rear wheels have
zero toe, then the thrust angle is the same as the
geometric center line of the vehicle. The total of the
rear toe setting determines the thrust line, or the
direction the rear wheels are pointed. See Figure
43-23 (p. 993). On vehicles with an independent
rear suspension, if both wheels do not have equal
toe, the vehicle will pull in the direction of the side
with the most toe-in.

Tracking

CAMBER

S.A.l. + CAMBER

Tlaclzing is the term used to describe the fact that

the rear wheels should "track" directly behind the
front wheels. If the vehicle has been involved in an
accident, it is possible that the frame or rear axle
mounting could cause dog tracking.

INCLUOED ANGLE

ffi PREALIGNMENT CHECKS

Before checking or adjusting the front end alignment, the following items should be checked and corrected ifnecessary:

Figure 43-20 Included angle on a MacPherson strut-type

suspension. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

1. Check all the tires for proper inflation

pressures and approximately the same size and
tread depth and that they are the
recommended size for the vehicle.
2. Check the front wheel bearings for proper
adjustment.

CHAPTER 43

| To provide handling, the inside wheel has to turn at a greater turning

radius than the outside wheel.
Figure 43-2

Figure 43-22 (a) Positive setback. (b) Negative setback. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engin'eering Company)

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

Figure 43-23 (a) Zero thrust angle. (b) Thrust line to the right. (c) Thrust line to the
left. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

3. Check for loose ball joints or torn ball joint boots.

See Figure 43-24.
4. Perform a dry park test to check the:
o Tie rod ends for damage or looseness
o Center link or rack bushings for play
5. Check the pitman arm for any movement.
6. Check for run-out of the wheels and the tires.
7. Check for vehicle ride height (should be level
front-to-back as well as side-to-side). Make sure
that the factory load leveling system is

functioning correctly, if so equipped. Check

height according to manufacturer's
specifications. See Figures 43-25 and 43-26.
$4#Tffix Manufacturers often have replacement springs
or spring spacers that can be installed between the coil
spring and the spring seat to restore proper ride level.
Ride (trim) is also called chassis heieht.

994

CHAPTER 43

Figure 43-24 The owner of this Honda thought that

all
an alignment. Obviously, something more
serious than an alignment caused this left rear wheel to

it needed was

angle inward at the top.

Figure 43-25 Measuring points for ride (trim)

height vary by manufacturer. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

8. Check for steering gear looseness at the frame.

9. Check for improperly operating shock absorbers.
10. Check for worn control arm bushings or ball
joints.
11. Check for loose or missing stabilizer bar
attachments.
t2. Check the trunk for excess loads.
13. Check for dragging brakes.
tr${hT-ffifl Checking for dragging brakes is usually performed when installing alignment heads to the wheels
prior to taking an alignment reading. A dragging brake
can cause the vehicle to pull or lead toward the side
with the dragging brake.

ffiffi

Figure 43-26 Measuring to be sure the left and right

sides of the vehicle are equal heights. lf this measurement
is not equal side-to-side by as little as llB" (3 mm), it can
affect the handling of the vehicle.

READING ATIGNMENT

SPECIFICATIONS
There are several methods used by vehicle manufacturers and alignment equipment manufacturers to
specify alignment angles.

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

Plus
The Five-Wheel Alignment
The steering wheel should always be straight when driving on a straight, level road. lf the steering wheel is not
straight, the customer will often think that the wheel
alignment is not correct. One such customer complained
that the vehicle "pulled to the right" while driving on a
straight road. The service manager test drove the vehicle

and everything was perfect, except that the steering

wheel was not perfectly straight, even though the toe setting was correct. Whenever driving on a straight road,
the customer would "straighten the steering wheel" and,
of course, the vehicle went to one side. After "correctly"
adjusting toe with the steering wheel straight, the customer and the service manager were both satisfied. The
technician learned that regardless of how accurate the
alignment,the steering wheel must be straight because it
is this "fifth wheel" that the customer notices most.

995

or Minus Method

This method indicates the preferred setting with the

lowest and highest allowable value, indicated by a
negative (-) and positive (+) sign as in the specifications. For example, if a camber reading is specified as
+Yr" with a t and - value of rl"o, it could be written
as +7/r" *L/z'.TIte minimum value would be 0' (%'
0") and the maximum value would be *1'
- t/"" : tlr"
(+'/r" +
-- 1'). The range would be from 0o to 1o.
8ei$#T'ffi* The angle is assumed to be positive unless it is
labeled with a negative (*) sign in front of the number.

Specifrcations are often published in fractional

or decimal degrees or in degrees and minutes. There
are sixty minutes (written as 60') in one degree. See
the angle-unit conversion table below.

Angle-Unit Conversions
Units

fr$ffiT8t Many vehicle manufacturers now include the

maximum allowable steering wheel angle variation
from straight. This specification is commonly -+Jo
(plus or minus three degrees) or less.

Service

Fractional degrees

Conversions
tln"

Decimal degrees

0.25'

Degrees and minutes

0'15',

ffi

'/""

0.50'
0'30'

"/n"

0.75'
0"45'

ATIGNMENT SETUP

PROCEDURES

"Set Everything to Tero?tt

Afber confirming that the tires and all steering and

suspension components are serviceable, the vehicie

An apprentice service technician observed that the ex-

is ready for an alignment. The exact setup

perienced alignment technician seldom looked at the

specifications for the vehicle being aligned. When questioned, the technician said that for best tire life, the tires
should rotate perpendicular to the road. After studying
alignment specifications, the technician noticed that almost every camber and toe specification for both front
and rear included zero within the range of the specifications. Caster, of course, varies from one vehicle to an-

other and should be checked and adjusted to specifications. The beginning technician learned that zero camber
and zero toe will be acceptable and "within specifications" on almost all vehicles and is easy to remember!

Maximum/Mlnimum/
Preferred Method
This method indicates the preferred setting for each
alignment angle and the minimum and maximum
allowable value for each. The alignment technician
should always attempt to align the vehicle to the preferred setting. See Figure 43-27.

proce-

dures for the equipment being used must always be

followed. Typical alignment procedures include the

following steps:
#tep $. Drive onto the alignment rack straight and adjust the ramps and/or turn plates so that they are
centered under the tires of the vehicle. Use chocks
(blocks) for the wheels to prevent the vehicle from
accidentally rolling off the alignment rack.
Srer6* ?. Raise the vehicle off the alignment rack. See
Figure 43-28.
Stegr 3" Attach and calibrate the wheel sensors to
each wheel as specified by the alignment equipment manufacturer, as shown in Figure 43-29.
Step 4" Unlock all rack or turn plates.
$*ep 5. Lower the vehicle and "jounce" the vehicle by
pushing down on the center of the front and then
the rear bumper of the vehicle. This motion allows the suspension to become centered.
5*eg* *. Following the procedures for the alignment
equipment, determine all alignment angles.

CHAPTER 43

ALIGNTITENT SPECIFICATIONS

AT CUNB HE|/GHT

ACCEPIABTE ALIG]ITIIEI{I NAilGE

AT CURB HEIGIIT

;ROilT WHSE! ATIG]ITEIIT

-0.6'to

CAMBER. . AII.Side
To Side Differentiql .................

+0.6o
0.Zo or less

PNEFERRED

SET|II{G
+0.0o

0.0"

TOTAL TqE All Vehicles (See Nore)

Specified In Degrees

0.4"

CASTER-

To Side Coster

0.0'

0.2"

ln

REFERENCE ANGLE

AllModels
*Side

In to

+2.0o to +4.0o

+3.0"

Differentiol
'I

Not to Exceed
NEAR WHEET AIIGI{TENT

CAMBER. . AllModels
TOTAL TOE. All Vehicles (See Nore|
Specified In Degrees

.0" or less

0.0'

ACCEPTAITE AIIGilMEI|T NANGE

AT CURB HEIGHT

PREtrERRED

-0.6" to +0.4"

-0.1"

0.2" Out to 0.y'' ln

0.,l " ln

SETTING

-0.,|5" to +0.15"

THRUST ANGLE

.TOE

OUT When Bocked On Aliqnment

Rock ls TOE lN When Drivingl

NOTE: JotSl l* is the,orithmet[c sur;n of the left on{ ;ight wfree[ toe settings. Positive.is Toe-in, neqqtive is Toe-out.
lotol loe.must be,eguolll:pltl""Ylleoch fr6ntwheelto
it""ii;d;[$i:'i"iidii Fight
toe must be equol td withiri 0.02 degrees.
"nrr.JJ."-nt"r"-d

Figure 43'27 Typical alignment specifications for a vehicle at the proper curb height.
Curb height is ride height or trim height as measured at the curb weight. Curb weilht is
the weight of the vehicle with a full tank of fuel and all other flulds filled. (Courtesytf
Chrysler Corporation)

Figure 43-28 Using the alignment rack hydraulic

jacks,

raise the tires off the rack so that they can be rotated as
part ofthe compensating process.

Figure 43-29 This wheel sensor has a safety wheel that

screws to the valve stem to keep the sensor from falling
onto the ground if the clamps slip on the wheel lip.

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

T'm*
Using a Two-Wheel Alignment
Rack lor a Four-Wheel Alignment
Alignment racks designed for total four-wheel alignment
are equipped with movable plates under the rear wheels.
Older racks used for front-end-only alignment do not
move and therefore will not allow the rear suspension to
become settled. This freedom of movement is necessary
to correctly perform a four-wheel alignment, especially
on a vehicle with independent rear suspension. One
commonly used "trick of the trade" is to place a two-layer
plastic garbage bag under each rear wheel before lowering the vehicle onto the rack. As the vehicle is lowered,
the rear wheels will easily slide over the plastic-on-plastic
surface. The rear wheels will resume the normal Position'
the same as if the vehicle were lowered onto movable
turn plates. Another method that is often used is to roll
the vehicle back about 4 feet ( 1.2 m) and then forward to
allow the rear independent suspension to settle.

F{#Yffie Some alignment machines do not have cables

long enough to allow this method to be used.

Toe

Service

997

is determined by measuring the angle of

both front and./or both rear wheels from the straight

ahead (0") position. Most alignment equipment reads
the toe angle for each wheel and tl:'e combined toe angle of both wheels on the same axle. This combined toe
is called total toe. Toe angle is more accurate than
the center-to-center distance, especially if oversize
tires are installed on the vehicle. See Figure 43-30.

Tffi#Y

turns (TOOT) is a diagnostic angle that is normally not measured as part of a regular alignment, but it is recommended that this measurement be made as a part of a total alignment
check. TOOT is measured by recording the angle of
the front wheels as indicated on the front turn
plates. See Figure 43-31. If, for example, the inside
wheel is turned 20', then the outside wheel should
Toe out on

STANPARD
NOTE
DIFFERNCE
OVERSIZE

STANOARD
TIRE

OVRSIZE
TIRF

Measuring Camberr Gasterr SAlt

Toe, and TOOT
Camber is measured with the wheels in
position on a level platform. Since
straight-ahead
the

anrhev

camber

is a vertical reference

Figure 43-30 lf toe for an oversize tire

is set by distance'

the toe angle will be too small. Toe angle is the same
regardless of tire size.

angle, alignment

equipment reads camber directly.

arter Caster is measured by moving the front

wheels through an arc both inward, then outward,
from straight ahead. This necessary movement of the
front wheels to measure caster is called caster

sweep. What the alignment measuring equipment is

actually doing is measuring the camber at one wheel
sweep and measuring the camber again at the other
extreme of the caster sweep. The caster angle itself is
the difference between the two camber readings.

SAa Steering axis inclination (SAI) is also measured by performing a caster sweep of the front
wheels. When measuring SAI separately, the usual
procedure involves raising the front wheels off the
ground and leveling and locking the wheel sensors
before performing a caster sweep. When the suspension is extended, the SAI is more accurately determined because the angle itself is expanded'

Figure 43-3 | The protractor scale on the front turn

plates allows the technician to test the turning radius by
turning one wheel to an angle specified by the manufacturer
and observing the angle of the other front wheel.

998

CHAPTER 43

indicate about 18'on the turn plate. The exact angles are usually specified by the vehicle manufacturer. The turning angle should only be checked after
the toe is correctly set. The turning angle for the
wheel on the outside of the turn should ruot uary more
than 11 l r' from specifications.

Ask Yourself These Three euestions

An older technician told a beginning technician that the
key to success in doing a proper alignment is to ask yourself three questions about the alignment angles:

Checking Frame Alignment

of Front-Wheel-Drive Vehicles

l.

"ls it within specificotions?,, For example, if

the specification reads lo -r I 12",any reading

Question

between

* l/2'and +l

Many front-wheel-drive vehicles mount the drive

train (engine and transaxle) and lower suspension
arms on a subframe or cradle. If the frame is shifted
either left or right, that can cause differences in SAI,

l12'is "within

specifications." All vehicles should be aligned to

within this range.

2. "ls itwithin l12' of the other side of the

vehicle?"Not only should the alignment be within
specifications, it should also be as equal as possible
from one side to the other. The difference between
the camber from one side to the other side is
called cross camber. Cross caster is the
difference between the caster angle from one side

Question

included angle, and camber. See Figures 48-38 and

43-34. Adjust the frame if SAI and camber angles
are different on the left and right, yet the included
angles are equal.
ffi#

to another.

Question 3. "lf

the camber ond coster connot be

front, is there more
camber on the Ieft ond more coster on the right to help
compensote for road "crown"T Seldom, if ever, are the
alignment angles perfectly equal. Sometimes, one

There are three types of alignment: geometric centerline, thrust line, and total four-wheel alignment.

exactly eguol side-to-side in the

#,ruwcdffir#&wftc #*ur*+*rf,frnm This type of alignment is

simply an alignment that uses the geometric centerline of the vehicle as the basis for all measurements
of toe (front or rear). See Figure 4B-Bb.This method
is now considered to be obsolete.

side of the vehicle is more difficult to adjust than

the other side. Regardless of the reasons, if there

hos to be a difference in front camber and/or cascer
angle, follow this advice to avoid a possible lead or

drift problem even if answers to the first two

questions are "yes." See Figure 43-32.

:
I

w
ef&
Left Front

j{

-:.-ry#

w
+

TYPES OF ALIGNMENTS

T"hrans$; ff*$ru,r* A thrust line alignment uses the

thrust angle of the rear wheels and sets the front

wheels parallel to the thrust line. See Fisure 48-86.

HINT: It has often been said that while the front

uffir

wheels steer the vehicle, the rear wheels determine the

direction the vehicle will travel. Just think of the rear
wheels as being like a rudder ofa boat. As the rudder
turns, the front ofthe boat turns.

@m
M,j,

ffili'I

Thrust line alignment is required for any vehicle with

a nonadjustable rear suspension. Ifa vehicle has an
adjustable rear suspension, then a total four-wheel
alignment is necessary to ensure proper tracking.

sdffi
W1
+
Camber

ffitLl
T{s

Figure 43-32 This computer alignment printout is very

useful for determining which angles are OK (in green) and
which angles need to be adjusted (in red).

-S]

+mEsfr ffi w*s tr*WF fti#e$ dhE

s?.d*trr* A total four-wheel
ffi
alignment is the most accurate method and is necessary to ensure maximum tire wear and vehicle han_
dling. The major difference between a thrust line
alignment and a total four-wheel alignment is that
the rear toe is adjusted to bring the thrust line to
zero.In other words, the rear toe on both rear wheels
is adjusted equally so that the actual direction the
rear wheels are pointed is the same as the geometric
centerline ofthe vehicle. See Figure 48-87.
*

fi,$

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and Service

ltFrsAt

RtcHTtAl-

16'

LIFT CAtttBgR

-3o

I'

RIGHTCAMBER

ll'lClu0El) AI{GLE = 13o

10910

5"

gt0
iil,r'rlu,f,,,rl

1,',,1,',,1,,1,1,,,,1,i,4,,,f0

vEHlc$ cEliTtRul,lt

I
I
I

f RAi,lE
CTITTIRLINT

In this example both SAI and camber are way offfrom being equal sideto-side. However, both sides have the same included angle, indicating that the frame may
be out of alignment. An attempt to align this vehicle by adlusting the camber on both

Figure 43-33

sides either with factory or aftermarket kits would result in a totally incorrect alignment.
(Courtesy of General Motors Corporation Service Technology Group)

sAl

- l2'

CIMBER

[{ctu0tD

1o

AIlIGLE

13"

100
\1,!rr

,l,,,io

V$lC|t

CENTEnLIIIE

FRAME CENTERTI}

OII BODY

Figure 43-34 This is the same vehicle as shown in Figure 43-33, excePt now the frame
(cradle) has been shifted over and correctly positioned. Notice how both the SAI and
camber become equal without any other adiustments necessary. (Courtesy of General
Motors Corporation Service Technology Group)

999

IOOO

CHAPTER 43

l1
THRUST LINE

GEOMETRIC
cENTERLTNE

.Figure 43-35 Geometric centerline alignment sets the front

toe readings based on the geometric centerline of the vehicle
and does not consider the thrust line ofthe rear wheel toe
angles. (Courtesy of Hunter Engineering Company)

.*

.{..

THRUST LINE

Figure 43-37 Four-wheel alignment corrects for any

rear-wheel toe to make the thrust line and the geometric
centerline of the vehicle the same. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

Four-Wheel Alignment procedure

The procedure for a total four-wheel alignment in_
cludes these steps:
1. Adjust the rear camber

<.THRUST LINE

(if applicable). See

Figure 43-38.
2. Adjust the rear toe (this should reduce the
thrust angle to near zero). See Fizure 4B_Bg.
3. Adjust the front caster and camber.
4. Adjust the front toe, making sure that the
steering wheel is in the straight-ahead position.

The Gritty Sotution

Many times it is difficult to loosen a TORX bolt, especially
those used to hold the backing plate onto the rear axle on
many GM vehicles. See Figure 4340. A technique that al_
ways seems to work is to place some valve grinding

Figure 43-36 Thrust line alignment sets the front toe

parallel with the rear wheel toe. (Courtesy of Hunter
Engineering Company)

compound on the fastener. The gritty compound keeps

the TORX socket from slipping up and our of the fasrener
and more force can be exerteJto break loose a tight bolt.
Valve grinding compound can also be used on phillips-head
screws as well as other types of bolts, nuts, and sockets.

Wheel Aiignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

Service

100

Locking Pliers to the Rescue

Figure 43-38 The rear camber is adjustable on this

vehicle by rotating the eccentric cam and watching the
alignment machine display.

Many vehicles use a iam nut on the tie rod end. This jam
nut must be loosened to adiust the toe. Because the end
of the tie rod is attached to a tie rod end that is movable,
loosening the nut is often difficult. Every time force is applied to the nut, the tie rod end socket moves and prevents the full force of the wrench from being applied to
the nut. To prevent this movement, simply attach locking
pliers (Vise Grips@) to hold the tie rod. Wedge the pliers
against the control arm to prevent any movement of the
tie rod. By preventing the tie rod from moving,full force
can be put on a wrench to loosen the .iam nut without doing any harm to the tie rod end.

&d$u*metmg Ftrefls #mam$*wrfffi;am*er Most SLAtype suspensions can be adjusted for caster and cam-

ber. Most manufacturers recommend adjusting

caster, then camber before adjusting the toe. As the
caster is changed, the camber and toe also change.
See Figure 43-47.If the camber is then adjusted, the

caster is unaffected. Many technicians adjust caster

and camber at the same time using shims, slots, or
eccentric cams.Always follow the manufacturer's recommended alignment procedure. Regardless of the
methods or procedures used, toe is always adjusted
after all the angles are set because caster and camber both affect the toe.

$*ft*rag Ym* Front toe is the last angle that should

be adjusted and is the most likely to need correction.
Most newer alignment equipment displays in degrees
oftoe instead ofinches oftoe. (See the toe unit conversion table on page 1003.)
Figure 43-39 The rear toe was easily set on this vehicle.
The adjusting nuts were easy to get to and turn. Rear toe
is not this easy on every vehicle.

* toe :
- toe :

toe-in
toe-out

Figure 43-40 Full contact plastic or

metal shims can be placed between the
axle housing and the brake backing
plate to change rear camber or toe or

both. (Courtesy of Northstar

Manufacturing Company, Inc.)

IOO2

CHAPTER 43

METHODS OF ADJUSTMENT
Tools and adjustment devices may be avairabre rrom aftermarket
suppliers to perform
adjustments in cases where manufacturers do not make such'rirovisions.

CASTER & CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

CASTER & CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

CASTER & CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

sLorrEDHoLEs

To increase caster, move shims from

rear to front. Camber: change shim
thickness equally.
CASTEB & CAMBER ADJU$TMENT

To increase caster, move shims from

To increase caster, move shims from

front to rear. Camber: change shim

thickness equally.
CASTER & CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

/ n

Slacken boits. move upper arm shaft

to obtain specified readings. Use

special tool.

CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

To adjust, rotate cam bolts. Sel camber first, check/adjust castel re-check

To adjust camber, loosen lwo nuts on

upper arm and move wheel in or out.

FRONT CASTER OR
REAR TOE ADJUSTMENT

CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

CAMBER ADJUSTMENT

To increase caster to positive, length-

to Increase or decrease camber set_

ting, rotate cam bolt.

Loosen nut on upper control arm and

rolate arm to set camber.

front to rear. Camber: change shim

thickness equaliy.

en strut. Increase or decrease toe-in

by lengthening or shortening rod.

Figure 43-4
Company)

camoer.

Typical methods of adjusting caster and camber. (Courtesy of

John Bean

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

Conversions

Fractionai

*'

3tt16u

tln'

.t25"

.188"

.250"

t/

'lru"

inches

Decimal

.062"

inches

I
I

#gqg; To convert from degrees to decimal inches, simply divide by 2. For example, if the total toe is 0.25',
\_'-,._-- Toe
thetr one-half (divided by 2) is equal to 0.\25" (1/8"t.
is usually specifred in degrees because it more accuratelyreflects the toe angle regardless ofthe size ofthe

i wheels/tires.
t-_..*-

Millimeters

1.60 mm

3.18 mm

4.76mm 6.35 mm

Decimal

0.125"

0.25'

0.375'

0.5'

0'8'

0015'

0'23',

0'30'

degrees
Degrees

and

minutes
1t
.hraCtlOnal -|s-^

tln"

1003

ji:::i g:i:::i#.1#siJ!-:r::aa+:<fE@=

Toe Unit Conversions

Units

Service

" /ro

/ro

degrees

---.

-*-*--*-"

="-

FLAfS FOR

?toLsr(}

(nE noo EilD)

TURN DOWNWARDTO
DECREASE ROD LENGTH

steering. (Courtesy of Ford

Motor Company)

TX' XOT GRIP

THREAD AREA

TURN UPWARP
TO INCREASE
ROD LENGTH

LEFT.HAND SLEEVE

i
i
i

Toe is adjusted by turning the tie rod(s) or tie rod

end sleeve(s). See Figures 43-42 and 43-43'
To make sure the steering wheel is straight after
setting toe, the steering wheel must be locked in the
straight-ahead position while the toe is being adjusted. To lock the steering wheel, always use a steering wheel lock that presses against the seat and the

BALL SOCKET

XUT

Figure 43-42 Adlusting toe bY

rotating the tie rod on a vehicle
equipped with rack-and-pinion
JAI

TURN

DOWI{WARD
TO INCREASE
ROD LENGTH

TURN UPWARD TO
DECREASE ROD LENGTH

RIGHT.HAND SLEEVE

Figure 43-43 Toe is adjusted on a parallelogram-tyPe steering linlcage by turning

adjustable tie rod sleeves. Special tie rod sleeve adjusting tools should be used that griP
the slot in the sleeve and will not crush the sleeve while it is being rotated. (Courtesy of
Ford Motor Company)

IOO4

CHAPTER 43

outer rim of the steering wheel. Do not use the locking feature of the steering column to hold the steering wheel straight. Always "unlock" the steering column, straighten the steering wheel, and install the
steering wheel lock.
Si$i$rtqb!41Hi{'!$I\i4itr$l$iir}.1]4iisPl1l!

I
i
i
j steering wheel

tryittiii{ftfi!iiq}lirfit$S..:S}ti,!ii

If the vehicle is equipped with power steering,

the engine must be started and the steering wheel
straightened with the engine running to make sure the
t,'.'t,,'t'l'ltir

is straight. Lock the steering wheel

with

I the steering lock tool before stopping the engine. See

I Figure 43-44.

After straightening the steering wheel, turn the

tie rod adjustment until the toe for both wheels is
within specifications.
Many alignment machines include a screen that
shows straight-ahead steering. Simply adjust the tie
rod adjusters until the reading shows that the toe is
correct and t}l'e front wheels will result in a straight
steering wheel. This is often called centerline
steering and means that the steering wheel will be
centered when the vehicle is traveling a straight
course. Test drive the vehicle for proper handling
and centerline steering.

Left Thrust Line, But a puil to the Rightt

A new four-door sport sedan had been aligned several
times at the dealership in an attempt to solve a pull to the
right. The car had front-wheel-drive and had four-wheel
independent suspension. The dealer rotated the tires but
it made no difference. The alignment angles of all four
wheels were in the center of specifications. The dealer

even switched all four tires from another car in an at_

tempt to solve the problem.
ln frustration,the owner took the car to an alignment
shop. Almost immediately, the alignment technician dis-

covered the right rear wheel was slightly toed-in. Even

though the right rear being toed-in usually causes a thrust
line to the left, in this particular car, it caused a pull to the
right. See Figure 43-45. The alignment technician adjusted
the toe on the right rear wheel, which was adjustable, and
reset the fronr toe. The car drove beaurifully.
The owner was puzzled why the new car dealer was
unable to correct the problem. lt was later discovered
that the alignment machine at the dealership was out of
calibration by the exact amount that the right rear wheel
was out of specification. The car pulled to the right because the independent suspension created a rear steering force toward the left that caused the front to pull to
the right. Alignment equipment manufacturers recom-

mend that alignment equipment be calibrated regularly.

Figure 43-44 Many procedures for setting toe specify

that the steering wheel be held in the straight-ahead
position using a steering wheel lock, as shown. One
method recommended by Hunter Engineering sets toe
without using a steering wheel lock.

Figure 43-45 The toe-in on the right wheel creates

turning force toward the right.

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

ffi

Service

1005

AFTERMARKET ALIGNMENT

METHODS
Accurate alignments are still possible on vehicles
without factory methods of adjustment by using
alignment kits or parts. Aftermarket alignment kits
are available for most vehicles. Even with factory
alignment methods, sometimes the range of adjustment is not enough to compensate for sagging frame
members or other normal or accident-related faults.
See Figures 43-46 and43-47.

Yry
(a)

(b)

Figure 43-46 (a) Aftermarket camber kit designed to provide some camber
adiustments for a vehicle that does not provide for any adiustment. (b) Installation of
this kit requires that the upper control arm shaft be removed. Note that the upper
control arm was simply rotated out over the wheel pivot on the upper ball ioint.

I006

CHAPTER 43

Figure 43'47 (a) The installation of some aftermarket alignment kits requires the use
of special tools such as this cutter which is being used to drill out spot welds on the
original alignment plate on a strut tower. (b) original plate being removed. (c) Note the
amount of movement the upper strut bearing mount has around the square openings in
the strut tower. An aftermarket plate can now be installed to allow both camber and
caster adiustment.

P37-l Begin the alignment procedure by first driving

the vehicle onto the alignment rack as straight as
possible.

P37-3 Check and adjust tire Pressures and perform

the other prealignment checks necessary to be assured
of a proper alignment.

P37-Z Position the front tires in the center of the turn

plates. These turn plates can be moved inward and
outward to match any width vehicle.

P37-4

Raise the vehicle and perform a dry park test

to

determine whether steering and/or suspension parts

may need replacement before continuing with the
alignment.

P37-5 Position both the front and rear

systems under the suspension system.

rack iacking

P37*6 Move the pads of the lifting unit under the

suspension so that the vehicle can be raised off of the
drive-on surface of the alignment rack.
|

007

P37-7 Lower the alignment rack floor supports before

lowering the alignment rack.

P37-8 When the alignment rack is lowered, the

support arms should contact the floor or the bottom of
the hoist in the case of this scissor-type alignment rack.

P37-9 With the alignment rack firmly supported

P37-l0 With the wheels off of the rack, install the

alignment heads. Position the alignment heads with the
valve core located in the I o'clock position so that the
safety cable can be installed to the valve core.

the support

by

the vehicle off the alignment rack

using the airihydraulic jacks previously placed under the
front and rear suspension.
legs, raise

P37-l I Remove the tire valve cap and either put it in

your pocket or place it in a location where it will not be
lost. Screw the safety cable for the alignment head to
the tire valve.

008

P37-l2

Connect all of the cables and lines necessary.

In this situation, the alignment heads are battery
powered and communicate to the alignment machine
via radio frequency signals. To power up this type of
alignment head, simply turn it on.

P37-13 The bubble leveland three lights in the circle

are used during the compensation process.

P37-14 Compensate all four alignment heads

according to the alignment machine specified
procedures. This compensation process allows for
correct alignment of the wheels even if the alignment
heads are not all installed to exactly the same depth or
if there is a bent wheel.

Lower the vehicle onto the turn plates.

P37-15 Remove the pins from the turn plates (both

front and rear).

F37-

P37-l ? Now is a good time to check for toe-out on

turns (TOOT). The front wheels are turned until the
turn plate under the outside wheel reads 20'.

P37-18 A check on the other side of the vehicle

indicates that the inside turn plate had rotated | 8',
which was within specifications for this vehicle. A bent
or damaged steering arm (knuckle) is the most likely

cause if the TOOT is not within specifications, and a

problem of tire squeal while turning a corner at low

speeds is the usual symptom.

009

P37-19 After lowering the vehicle and making sure the

wheels are turned in the straight-ahead position, jounce
(bounce) the vehicle at both front and rear to center
the suspension.

P37-21 To prevent the wheels from rotating during

the checking procedures, most alignment equipment
manufacturers specify that the brakes should be kept
applied. A brake pedal depressor tool connecrs
between rhe seat and the brake pedal.

P37-23 To measure caster, the front wheels must be

steered first in one direction, rhen the orher direction
as directed by on-screen directions. Most experts
recommend that the front wheels be turned using the
steering wheel because this creates the same forces on
the steering system as is normally exerted during
vehicle operation.

t0l0

P37-20 Some alignment machines such as this Hunter

I I have a built-in ride height gauge. The readout

P2

shows the actual measurement and the specifications so

the technician will know if replacement springs are
necessary before the alignment is begun.

P37-22 Whenever the brake pedal is depressed, the

brake lights will also be on with most vehicles. To
prevent the brake lights from draining the battery, the
brake light fuse could be removed or the connector to
the rear lights disconnected.

P37-24 After the casrer angle has been determined,

raise the front wheels off the rack and allow the wheels
to droop. This allows a more accurate measurement for
SAI than if the vehicle was kept on rhe rack.

{i:|.:::l:

ffii'**lC.t**

::

SM
!w.
**.srt.*.***
| 6*
*-*"
rs'
ra*"

I.F

*u

*t

t rg*t,

*'

1*'
4S'

t *i"
*lt*

qit$1*
qt.
54.t
hE;{
*hr
o &'
i.tu'
as'
kt
+*
'a*. ,i-

P37-25 The front wheels are again rotated to the

right and then to the left following the directions on the
alignment machine display to measure the steering axis

i r**
& ?t"
t8"

&!
Bt
rh-

G rr"

,h1
I i;_

*k

t.Jt'
i,:l'
*5r-

.g#-i

+.ls'

+*'
* *'

+-*"

"

.. -r.l

aL!
f,tl"

...-".,"..,

_1nll;,

P37-25 After all of the angles have been measured, the

alignment results can be printed out and compared to
specifications.

inclination (SAl).
'-'nnt-'-pF*

.*

:LT
.._
- ,-'

tfntre',-.1rt ,mmmf '

A$.rti.

.ri

W[h,1i-

*
**+BW++'-:@

'I

milmtlnm.

%ww
],ts

'

Pl7-27 This printout shows that most angles are out

of specification-not unusual for this training vehicle
that has been used by students Practicing replacing
suspension and steering components.

P37-28 Start correcting the alignment by adiusting

P37-79 After the rear camber has been adlusted,the

rear toe is then brought back into factory specifications
by rotating the rear tie-rod after loosening the iam nut.
Many vehicles require aftermarket shims to adiust the
rear toe and/or camber.

P37-30 After the rear camber and toe have been

adjusted,the front camber is now being adiusted by
loosening and moving the lower strut mount. The
caster on this vehicle was OK and did not require
adjustment. lf lt had required adjustment, the caster
should be adjusted before adjusting the camber.

rear camber. The rear camber is adiusted on this vehicle

by loosening the strut attachments bolts and moving the

bottom portion of the rear strut.

t0l

P37-3 | Before setting the front toe, start the engine if

the vehicle is equipped with power steering.

P37-32 Straighten the steering wheel and use a

steering wheel lock to hold the steering wheel in the
straight-ahead position as shown. Some methods of
adjusting front toe do not require that the steering
wheel be locked. Follow the recommended procedures
as specified by the alignment equipment manufacturer.

P37-33 After centering the steering wheel and locking

it in the srraight-ahead posltion,turn the engine and

?37-34 Loosen the jam nut to allow the tie-rod

lengthened or shortened to adjust the front toe.

ignition off

P37-35 Use a wrench or the flats of the tie-rod (if

to rotate the tie-rod to bring the toe into

equipped)

factory
l0 t2

specifi cations.

P37-35 After the roe

to

be

has been adjusted, hold the tierod with a wrench while tightening the lock (jam) nut to
prevent any change in the toe setting.

ffi.

ffi

P37-37 After the alignment

P37-38 After completing the alignment carefully

within factory

disconnect the alignment heads from the wheels.

Reinstall the valve caps and wheel covers if necessary.

is completed, print out the

results so the customer can see that all angles are
specifi cations.

P37-40 Install the pins in the turn plates before driving

P37-39 Lower the vehicle.

the vehicle off the alignment rack.

Remove any chocks (blocks) used

vehicle from moving on the rack.

P37-4

to keep the

P37-42 Carefully drive the vehicle off the alignment

rack. The vehicle should be driven to check for proper
vehicle handling and double-check that the steering
wheel is straight before returning the vehicle to the
customer.
t0 t3

IOI4

CHAPTER 43

H SUMMARY
1. Toe is the most important alignment angle because
toe is usually the first alignment angle needing correction and when incorrect causes severe tire wear.
2. Caster is the basic stability angle yet does not cause
tire wear (directly) ifnot correct or equal side-to-side.

3. Camber is both a pulling angle if not equal side-to-side

as well as a tire-wearing angle if not set to specifications.

4. SAI and included angle (SAI and camber added together) are important diagnostic measurements.
5. If the toe-out-on-turns (TOOT) reading is not within
specifications, a bent steering spindle (steering knuckle)
is the most likely cause.

6.

four-wheel alignment includes aligning

all

four

wheels of the vehicle, whereas a thrust line alignment

sets the front toe equal to the thrust line (total rear
toe) ofthe rear wheels.

7. Before attempting to align any vehicle, it must be

checked for proper ride height (trim height), tire conditions, and tire pressures as well as thoroughly inspected for the condition of all steering and suspension components.
8. The proper sequence for a complete four-wheel alignment is

a. Rear camber
b. Rear toe
c. Front caster and camber
d. Front toe

x REVTEYV
l.

2. Technician A says that a vehicle will pull (or lead) to the

side with the most camber (or least negative camber).
Technician B says that a vehicle will pull (or lead) to the
side with the most toe. Which technician is correct?
a. TechnicianAonly

b. Technician B only
c. Both Technicians A and B
d. Neither Technician A nor B
3. Technician A says that the vehicle will pull to the side
with the most toe in the rear. Technician B says that the
rear toe angle determines the thrust angle. Which technician is correct?
a. Technician A only
b. Technician B only
c. Both Technicians A and B
d. Neither Technician A nor B

4. Strut rods (ifadjustable) adjust:

a. Toe

b. Camber
c. Caster
d. Toe-out on turns
5. If metal shims are used for alignment adjustment in
the front, they adjust:
a. Camber
b. Caster

c. Toe
d. aandbonly
6. Technician A says that

as wear occurs, camber usually

becomes negative. Technician B says that as steering
linkage wear occurs, toe usually becomes toe-out ilom an
original toe-in specification. Which technician is correct?

a. TechnicianAonly
b. Technician B only
c. Both Technicians A and B
d. Neither Technician A nor B

QUESTIONS

Explain the three basic alignment angles of camber,

caster, and toe.

Use the Following Information to Answer

Question

2. Explain how knowing SAI, TOOT, and included angle

can help in the correct diagnosis of an aligrrment probIem.

Specifications: Minimum Preferred Maximum

3. List ten prealignment

Camber (degree)

1.0

7.4

.8

1.5

2.7

4. List the steps necessary to follow for a four-wheel aliqn-

Caster (degree)
Toe (inch)

-.10

.06

(degree) -.1

checks that should be performed

before the wheel alignment is checked and,/or adjusted.

.15

ment.

Results:

X ASE CERTTFICATION.TYPE
QUESTTONS
1. Technician A says that worn upper control arm bushings can cause play in the steering. Technician B says
that

defective universaljoint between the steering col-

umn and the steering gear box stub shaft can cause excessive steeringwheel play. Which technician is correct?
a. Technician A only
b. Technician B only
c. Both Technicians A and B
d. Neither Technician A nor B

Camber

Caster (degree)
Toe (inch)

1.8

1.6

7.12

+.12

7. The vehicle above will:

a. Pull toward the right and feather

b.
c.
d.

edge both

tires
Pull toward the left
Wear the outside of the left tire and the inside
of the right tire
None of the above

Wheel Alignment Principles, Diagnosis, and

Use the Following Information to Answer

Questions 8 and 9

Specifications: Minimum Preferred Maximum

Camber (degree)
Caster (degree)
Toe (inch)

/n
\J
t16

t/

ru

(degree) -0.3

-0.1

(degree) 3.6
Toe (inch)
-0.1,6
Caster

LA

+2

0
-

Lt
Tt2
'

Results:
Camber

-t

1.8

+0.32

31

t16

Service l0l5

8. The vehicle at the left will:

a. Pull toward the left

Pull toward the right
c. Wander
d. Lead to the left slightly

b.

9. The vehicle at the left will:

a. Wander
b. Wear tires, but not pull
c. Pull, but not wear tires
d. Pull toward the left and cause feather-edee
tire wear
10. Which alignment angle is most likely to need correction
and cause the most tire wear?
a. Toe

b.
c.
d.

Camber
Caster
SAYKPI