Symmetry - Archive - Explain It in 60 Seconds

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Archive: Explain it in 60 Seconds

2010
Shielding
Feb 2010
Shielding refers to layers of material that block radiation. We don't need
shielding from cosmic rays; but this steady background radiation does
bedevil scientists and their experiments because it can drown out the
nearly imperceptible signals of rare subatomic processes...
2009
Scintillators Intensity Frontier

Dec 2009 Jul 2009
Scintillators are transparent materials that allow scientists to detect The Intensity Frontier is one o
particles and other forms of radiation. When radiation hits a scintillator, three broad approaches to
the material absorbs some of its energy and makes it visible by emitting particle physics research, eac
a flash of light... characterized by the tools it
employs...
Cherenkov Light Virtual Particles

Aug 2009 Jul 2009
Cherenkov light appears when a charged particle travels through matter Virtual particles are short-lived
faster than light can. This effect is the optical equivalent of a sonic particles that cannot be direct
boom... detected, but which affect
physical quantities—such as
the mass of a particle or the
electric force between two
charged particles—in
measurable ways...
Charm Quark Neutralino

May 2009 Mar 2009
The charm quark is one of six quarks that, along with leptons, form the Dark matter accounts for abou
basic building blocks of ordinary matter. It is hundreds of times more 83 percent of all matter in the
massive than the up and down quarks that make up protons and universe. Whereas matter on
neutrons... Earth and in stars is made of
atoms and nuclei, scientists
know that dark matter...
2008
Particle Accelerators Magnet Quench

Dec 2008 Nov 2008
Particle accelerators (often referred to as "atom smashers") use strong A magnet quench is a dramat
electric fields to push streams of subatomic particles—usually protons or yet fairly routine event within a
electrons—to tremendous speeds... particle accelerator. In the cas
of a large superconducting
magnet, such a...
Neutrino Masses Z boson

Sep 2008 Aug 2008
Neutrino masses are extremely difficult to measure. Physicists think the The Z boson is a heavy partic
origins of neutrino masses are closely tied to subatomic... that is one of the carriers of th
weak force. Its discovery
completed the Standard Mode
of particle physics...
Rare Decays The W boson

Mar/Apr 2008 Jan/Feb 2008
Rare particle decays could provide a unique glimpse of subatomic The W boson is one of five
processes that elude the direct reach of even the most powerful... particles that transmit the
fundamental forces of nature.
http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000253[28/04/2010 04:27:15 ‫]ﻡ‬

is responsible for two of the

most surprising discoveries of
the 20th century...
2007
Terascale Jets
Dec 2007 Oct/Nov 2007
The Terascale is an energy region named for the tera—or million million Jets are sprays of particles tha
—electronvolts of energy needed to access it. Physicists are standing at fly out from certain high-energy
its threshold, poised to enter this uncharted territory of the subatomic collisions. Physicists hope to
world. use the most energetic jets to
look inside the quarks that
make up protons.
Theory Dark Energy

Sep 2007 Aug 2007
A theory, in everyday language, differs little from a guess or a hunch. But Dark energy is the weirdest an
in science we reserve the word for a well-developed idea based on most abundant stuff in the
experimental evidence. universe. It is causing the
expansion of the universe to
speed up, and the destiny of
our universe rests in its hands
Particle Event String Theory

Jun/Jul 2007 May 2007
A particle event is a particle collision or interaction that is observed by String theory proposes that the
some type of particle detector. fundamental constituents of th
universe are one-dimensional
"strings" rather than point-like
particles.
Positron Dark Matter

Apr 2007 Mar 2007
A positron is the antimatter equivalent of an electron, with the same Dark matter is, mildly speaking
mass but opposite electric charge. When the two meet, they annihilate a very strange form of matter.
into a flash of energy. Although it has mass, it does
not interact with everyday
objects and it passes straight
through our bodies.
Simulations
Jan/Feb 2007
Simulations are used in physics to explore many "What if?" scenarios. In
particle physics, they are used for application from designing new types
of accelerators and detectors to evaluating the final analysis of data.
2006
Postdocs Acceleration of Particles

Dec 2006 Oct/Nov 2006
Postdocs are scientists who have completed their PhD research and Imagine a surfer riding a wave
who continue to develop their scientific skills by working for a few years If the surfer paddles at the righ
at a university or other research institution. speed and gets on a wave at
the right time, the surfer will be
accelerated to the speed of th
wave.
X-ray Lasers The Higgs Boson

Sep 2006 Aug 2006
X-ray lasers will deliver extraordinarily intense beams of X-rays in very A fundamental particle
short bursts ten billion times brighter than those in other light sources. predicted by theorist Peter
Higgs, may be the key to
understanding why elementary
particles have mass.
Elementary Particle Physics The Standard Model

Jun/Jul 2006 May 2006
What rules govern energy, matter, space, and time at the most The Standard Model is the bes

elementary levels? theory that physicists currently

have to describe the building
blocks of the universe.
Light Sources Quarks

Apr 2006 Mar 2006
Light sources are accelerator-based machines that produce Quarks are fundamental
exceptionally intense, tightly focused beams of light... building blocks of matter. They
are most commonly found
inside protons and neutrons...
Luminosity
Feb 2006
Luminosity is a measure of how efficiently a particle accelerator
produces collision events.
2005
B factories The Grid

Dec 2005/Jan 2006 Nov 2005
B factories are scientific machines that explore the conditions of the Like its electrical namesake, a
early universe by creating and analyzing huge numbers of B mesons, computing grid is a mix of
particles that contain a bottom quark. technology, infrastructure, and
standards.
CP Violation Superconductors
Oct 2005 Sep 2005
Are the laws of nature the same for matter and antimatter? Why are all Superconductors are
the stars made of matter and not antimatter? remarkable materials that
conduct electricity without
resistance when cooled to low
temperatures.
International Linear Collider Extra Dimensions

Aug 2005 Jun/Jul 2005
The ILC is a proposed machine for discovering the hidden mechanisms Detecting extra dimensions is
of the microphysical world. hard because they might be
rolled up smaller than what is
accessible to current
experiments.
Neutrino Mixing Large Hadron Collider

May 2005 Apr 2005
Neutrinos are able to change from one "flavor" to another as they travel Protons racing through a 27-
through space because of their wavelike nature. kilometer tunnel will produce
collisions that unveil the secre
of matter, space and time.
Supersymmetry E=mc2
Mar 2005 Feb 2005
Supersymmetry, if it exists, doubles the number of particles in nature, Einstein's famous equation
with each particle having a "superpartner". says that mass is another form
of energy. The convertibility
has far-reaching
consequences.
2004
Gravitational Lenses Antimatter

Dec 2004/Jan 2005 Oct/Nov 2004
A wineglass makes a good model to explain a unique aspect of Antimatter is made up of
Einstein's General Theory of Relativity. particles with equal but
opposite characteristics of
everyday particles of matter.
© 2010 symmetry. A joint Fermilab/SLAC publication. PO Box 500 MS206, Batavia, IL, 60510, USA


symmetry Magazine
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DUSEL: Big Plans for Deep Science Protons not as “strange” as expected
April 27, 2010
Plans are under way to turn the former Homestake mine in South The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of strange
Dakota into the first US national laboratory for underground science quark contributions to the proton has found that there is a lot
and engineering — the largest and deepest facility of its kind in the less strangeness than previous theories and experiments
world. indicated.
Read more
A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
general relativity
Download Full Issue April 26, 2010
In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent its last
signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists have been
Editorial: Commentary: keeping an eye out for it but not had any luck. Now, says a
Science opportunities Lucia Votano press release from the University of California, San Diego, the
deep underground lander has been found, and a simple but important piece of
"Underground physics has a glorious cargo on it is intact.
A US deep underground lab would past at its back. Here at Gran Sasso,
allow this country to be a leader in we see a future just as bright ahead, Superconducting cavities could help reduce
many areas of science. Our magazine with the potential for unique nuclear waste radiotoxicity
tends to focus on particle physics, but we recognize that contributions to the discovery of the laws of nature and the April 22, 2010
geology, geomicrobiology, and other fields also need a understanding of the evolution of the universe." The European MYRRHA is an experimental facility aimed to
deep science facility to progress, and we discuss some of demonstrate the technical feasibility of nuclear waste
those possibilities in this issue. Read more
transmutation in an accelerator-driven system. The main part
of the accelerator will consist in a series of superconducting
Read more cavities.
Department: Department:
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Read more
Feature: Feature: Deep underground, physicists set

traps to catch dark matter, neutrinos,
EXO Takes Clean to an Gran Sasso: A Tale of
rare particle decays, and other exotic
Extreme Physics in the Mountains phenomena. These protected
subterranean lab spaces are highly
Some particle physics experiments In an epic story of fairy-tale beauty
valued by scientists in a number of
require an extraordinary degree of and world-leading science, human
fields for their isolation and their easy
cleanliness and quiet. How far will they courage and determination confront
access to depths where geological
go to achieve this? Try etching tools with acid, setting up adversity and Gran Sasso laboratory comes forth to see
and microbial processes help shape
shop in a deep salt bed, putting equipment on stilts, and the stars once more.
the Earth and the nature of life itself.
choreographing a 2100-kilometer truck ride so not a
moment would be lost. Read more
Illustration: Sandbox Studio.
Read more
View Issue PDF
Feature: Day in the Life:

Bringing Dark Life to Light Soudan Lab
The stunning realization that up to half Just before 7:30 on a bitter cold CMS cosmic challenge
of life on Earth may exist underground morning in northern Minnesota, Dec 2007
has transformed biologists' thinking engineer Jim Beaty begins the last leg Scientists working on the Compact
about the origin and evolution of life of his daily commute. He steps into a Muon Solenoid test the detector using
here and on other planets. They're hoping to take the dark brown metal box with five coworkers. Someone slides particles that rain down from space...
search for "dark life" to new depths at a proposed the door closed. In pitch dark, with its engine thundering,
underground laboratory. the elevator shudders as it travels a half mile below
View Logbook Archive

symmetry Magazine
ground.
Read more
Read more
Accelerator Applications: Logbook: Supersymmetry

Mining Neutrino Oscillation Mar 2005
Supersymmetry, if it exists, doubles
Looking for ways to get more metal out In June 1998, the Super-Kamiokande the number of particles in nature, with
of ore, scientists are turning to a collaboration revealed its eagerly each particle having a
technology born in particle accelerator anticipated results on neutrino "superpartner"...
research — the synchrotron interactions at the Neutrino '98
lightsource. These machines also play a role in analyzing conference in Japan. They presented strong evidence that View 60 Seconds Archive
mine waste and developing safe ways to dispose of it. three known types of neutrinos apparently transform into
each other, a phenomenon known as oscillation.
Read more
Read more

Explain it in 60 Seconds:
Shielding
Shielding refers to layers of material
that block radiation. We don't need
shielding from cosmic rays; but this
steady background radiation does
bedevil scientists and their experiments because it can
drown out the nearly imperceptible signals of rare
subatomic processes.
Read more
© 2010 symmetry. A joint Fermilab/SLAC publication. PO Box 500 MS206, Batavia, IL 60510, USA

symmetry - About symmetry
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About symmetry
ISSN Number: 1931-8367
symmetry is a magazine about particle physics and its connections to other aspects of life and science, from interdisciplinary collaborations to
policy to culture. It is published 6 times per year by Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory and SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, both
national laboratories funded by the Office of Science of the US Department of Energy.
The magazine is published in print and electronic editions, and anybody can subscribe free of charge through our subscription form.
We encourage your feedback and submissions of letters to the editor. See our contact page for details about contributing to the magazine or just letting us know your thoughts.
To read more about the focus of symmetry, see the note from the editor in the first issue of the magazine.
Symmetry staff
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650 926 8580 Judy Jackson, FNAL Chicago, Illinois
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Managing Editor Romeo Bassoli, INFN Designers/Illustrators
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Staff Writers Oakbrook Terrace, Illinois
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symmetry - Past Issues
search
February 2010 View full table of contents

DUSEL: Big Plans for Deep Science
Plans are under way to turn the former Homestake mine in South Dakota into the first US national laboratory for underground science and engineering &nash; the largest
and deepest facility of its kind in the world.
EXO Takes Clean to an Extreme
Some particle physics experiments require an extraordinary degree of cleanliness and quiet. How far will they go to achieve this? Try etching tools with acid, setting up
shop in a deep salt bed, putting equipment on stilts, and choreographing a 2100-kilometer truck ride so not a moment would be lost.
Gran Sasso: A Tale of Physics in the Mountains
In an epic story of fairy-tale beauty and world-leading science, human courage and determination confront adversity and Gran Sasso laboratory comes forth to see the
stars once more.
December 2009 View full table of contents

Fermi’s Excellent Adventure
Since its launch in June 2008, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope has shed light on some of the brightest, most explosive events in the universe and opened
tantalizing windows into dark matter and the nature of space-time.
Preserving the Data Harvest
Canning, pickling, drying, freezing— physicists wish there were an easy way to preserve their hard-won data so future generations of scientists, armed with more powerfu
tools, can put it to good use. They’ve launched an international search for solutions.
Recycle, Reuse, Re-accelerate
Chugging along in the background, old physics machines are the workhorses behind many cutting-edge projects, from the world’s most powerful X-ray laser to the Large
Hadron Collider and a lab that tests microchips bound for Mars.
October 2009 View full table of contents

Grad Students Follow the Data
Worried about getting the experimental data they need to finish their PhDs, about two dozen graduate students have left the long-delayed Large Hadron Collider for
experiments at the Fermilab Tevatron. Most say they won’t be gone for long.
Cleaner Living Through Electrons
Studies show that blasts of electrons from a particle accelerator are an effective way to clean up dirty water, nasty sewage sludge, and polluted gases from smokestacks.
Now researchers need to make the technology more compact and reliable.
Crashing the Size Barrier
Like surfers on a monster wave, electrons can ride waves of plasma to very high energies in a very short distance. Scientists have proven that plasma acceleration works
Now they’re developing it as a way to dramatically shrink the size and cost of particle accelerators for science, medicine, industry, and myriad other uses.
August 2009 View full table of contents

Superconducting Technology, Chicago Style
Fermilab is cooking up a hot technology—and the serving is ultracold. The laboratory is stepping up efforts to develop and test superconducting radio-frequency cavities, a
key technology for the next generation of particle accelerators and the future of particle physics.
Not a Moment to Lose at the LHC
Physicists from the Large Hadron Collider’s experiments turn an unexpected shutdown to their advantage.
Dancing With Physicists
For her latest work, choreographer Liz Lerman took members of her dance troupe to CERN, where they reveled in the fog, danced in the aisles and found inspiration in
wide-ranging conversations with scientists.
July 2009 View full table of contents

Growing a Diverse Workforce
When it comes to training, hiring, and retaining women and members of ethnic minorities, particle physics lags far behind other fields of science. Staffers at three national
labs—Fermilab, SLAC, and Brookhaven—are tackling the problem at every level.
Dark Energy Camera Scans Ancient Skies
Gazing into space, scientists wonder why the universe is expanding ever faster. What mysterious force is at work? By recording the light from hundreds of millions of
galaxies from a mountaintop in Chile, they hope to find out what’s going on.
Helium’s Shrinking Bubble
Helium is the lifeblood of large particle accelerators. As the world’s supply dwindles, the particle physics community must take steps to preserve this precious commodity o
learn to live without it.
May 2009 View full table of contents

A New Leader for CERN
In his first few months on the job, CERN Director-General Rolf-Dieter Heuer opens new lines of communication, oversees repairs to the Large Hadron Collider, and
promotes a worldwide strategy for particle physics based on a strong mix of global, regional, and national projects.
Chasing Charm in China
American scientists are flocking to the Beijing Electron Positron Collider, whose recent upgrades make it the premier place to study charm quarks and their kin.
Credit Where Credit is Due
In the swirling sea of thousands of people who contribute to a major particle physics experiment, how can a young physicist pop to the surface and get noticed? An

international committee offers ideas.
March 2009 View full table of contents

Result of the Week
Behind every big breakthrough is a series of small steps that build on each other to enhance our understanding of the universe. At Fermilab’s Tevatron collider, physicists
have been telling the unfolding story of their experiments in weekly installments for more than five years.
Probing the Heart of the Atom
The familiar elements of the Periodic Table come in a number of forms, or isotopes, some found only fleetingly in the most violent events, such as exploding stars. By
creating those rare isotopes in the lab, physicists are learning how the atomic nucleus works and deciphering the natural history of the elements.
Cosmic Weather Gauges
Particle physics joins forces with other fields to look at two important factors shaping weather: temperatures high in the atmosphere and the dampness of the dirt beneath
our feet.

symmetrybreaking
A summary of recent stories, published weekdays, in symmetrybreaking, www.symmetrymagazine.org/breaking/
Particle physics benefits: Adding it Up
Stories abound about how particle physics benefits education, the economy, and society as a whole. Quantifying those benefits would help particle physics better
demonstrate its value to the country.
A Fearlessly Creative Workforce
Many of the people trained in particle physics move on to industry, where their skills are in high demand. There you can find a theorist exploring for oil or an accelerator
scientist working on cancer treatments.
The Power of Proton Therapy
When it comes to getting rid of cancer, the sharpest scalpel may be a proton beam. Technology conceived and hatched in high-energy physics is now treating thousands
patients per year, with fewer side effects.
November 2008 View full table of contents

BaBar and the Very Tiny Particle
In which the 500 members of the BaBar experiment buy enough time for one last adventure: capturing the bottom-most bottomonium.
The Dark Universe Debate
Who will be the first to prove the existence of dark matter and dark energy? A particle physicist and an astrophysicist go head to head.
Where Old Physics Stuff Goes to Live
The Fermilab boneyard is no burial ground; it’s a place where unwanted parts find new homes and lives. They’re matched with scientists who can put them to good use,
donated to local schools and parks, or sold for recycling.
September 2008 View full table of contents

Life at the LHC Reaches Fever Pitch
As the big collider ramps up, four physicists talk about working late, finding time to play, and staying connected to family and friends.
Mapping the Digital Divide
Physicist Les Cottrell is the meteorologist of Internet weather. His project tests the strength of Internet connections around the world—and finds Africa lagging farther and
farther behind.
JLab's New Director
For Hugh Montgomery, the leap from particle physics to nuclear physics is shorter than you might think.
Gallery: David Kirkby
It’s a snail shell! It's a Koosh ball! It’s physics! A physicist-photographer finds cosmic meaning in everyday things.

New Tools Forge New Frontiers
US particle physics is pushing forward on three frontiers. Each has a unique approach to making discoveries, and only by pursuing all three can scientists address key
questions about the laws of nature and the cosmos.
Bonnie and the ArgoNeuTs
Inspired by heroes of Greek mythology, physicists are on a quest to find a cheaper, more efficient way to capture neutrinos—one of the strangest and most fascinating
particles in the universe. Liquid-argon detectors may hold the key to discovering whether neutrinos are the reason that stars, planets, and people exist.
A Bumper Crop of Physics Plates
In our October/November issue, we asked readers to share stories and photographs of physics-related license plates. Here are the responses.
March/April 2008 View full table of contents

From Atom Smashers to X-ray Movies
When particle accelerators gave birth to the powerful X-ray microscopes known as synchrotrons, they revolutionized the study of virtually every field of science. Now the
Linac Coherent Light Source promises to make an equally big leap, making movies of atoms and molecules in action and changing the way we think about matter.
Secrets of the Pyramids
In a boon for archaeology, particle physicists plan to probe ancient structures for tombs and other hidden chambers. The key to the technology is the muon, a cousin of th
electron that rains harmlessly from the sky.
Outsider Science
Amateur scientists make important contributions in a number of fields, from astronomy to ornithology. But very few have the background needed to succeed in high-energy
physics.
Gallery: Miro Dance Theater
The dancers race around the circle, faster, faster. Wham! They collide, spinning off in various directions. Far from accidental, the choreographed collisions tell the story of
science at Fermilab.

January/February 2008 View full table of contents

Short Cuts for Newcomers at the LHC
It can take weeks to get into the groove of analyzing data from an unfamiliar detector. A new starter kit cuts that time to hours.
From Eye to Sight
A particle physics technology is revolutionizing the study of how we see.
Physicists Rock!
Wherever physics goes, music follows, from the lyrical strains of flute and violin to Blue Wine, Les Horribles Cernettes and Drug Sniffing Dogs.

Across the Ocean, Yet Close to Home
Among the 10,000 people working on the Large Hadron Collider, 1000 hail from universities and national labs in the United States.
Entering Higgs Habitat
The LHC will allow scientists to explore the territory where the long-sought Higgs particle—or maybe even a whole family of them—resides.
Protecting the LHC From Itself
While human safety is always the first concern at the Large Hadron Collider, the machine also needs shielding from its own proton beams, which pack the energy of high-
speed trains.
Gallery: In the Labyrinth
It’s heavy, dusty, dirty work: Deep in the bowels of the LHC detectors, workers are connecting a rat’s nest of cables.
October/November 2007 View full table of contents

Free for All
Forget about paying for journal subscriptions. If a new proposal takes hold, particle physics journals would get their funding from labs, libraries, and agencies that sponsor
research, and readers could peruse them for free.
On the Trail of Cosmic Bullets
Do the most energetic particles in the universe come from super-massive black holes? New results from the Pierre Auger Observatory make that case.
The Wrong Stuff
When bad physics pops up in a movie or TV show, scientists try to set things right.

Fermilab’s Path to the Future
A new report gives top priority to developing the International Linear Collider, while laying out a plan for science that could be done along the way.
The End of the HERA Era
Celebration, anticipation, and a little wistful reflection: The final shift of the HERA accelerator brought more than 1000 people to Hamburg for a last hurrah.
The Art of the Unseen
As technology evolves, posters are easier to produce and pass around. But it still takes skill and imagination to illustrate the most abstract ideas of physics.
Gallery: Amy Lee Segami
With an ancient art that involves floating inks on water, an engineer captures the intricate swirls of nature.

The Particle Physics Life List
symmetry presents a list of not-to-be-missed experiences for fans of particle physics—from the first cyclotron to wild turkeys, Galileo’s lens, and the world’s biggest
detectors.
Donors Dream Big
Drawn by the chance to help answer the most fundamental questions about the universe, philanthropists are starting to make significant investments in physics research.
A Lab Away From Home
One of the most effective ways for physicists to learn new skills is to spend extended times visiting other labs. During those trips, they learn a lot more than just science.
June/July 2007 View full table of contents

Secrets of a Heavyweight
A dozen years after it first appeared on the world stage, the top quark is still one of the hottest topics in particle physics.
Talk and Chalk
Swimming against a cultural tide, physicists–especially theorists–cling to their blackboards.
Industry Eyes the Next Big Collider
Technology developed for the International Linear Collider could help make nuclear waste safer, cargo inspection easier, and drug design more effective.
Gallery: Roshan Houshmand
Tracks left by particles in bubble chambers–spirals, curves, and lines–are the basis for Houshmand’s Event Paintings.

The Search for Dark Energy
What is this stuff that fills the vacuum of space, accelerates the expansion of the universe, and accounts for 70 percent of everything? More than two dozen experiments
aim to find out.
The Great String Debate
When Brian Greene and Lawrence Krauss tangle over string theory, wisecracks fly.
When the New Neighbor’s a Giant
At one potential site for the International Linear Collider, people in the community are getting to know the project years in advance.
Essay: Launched into Science
"Reading about science was not quite enough. I needed to get up close and personal with the scientists and their heroic experiments." –Pierre R. Schwob

April 2007 View full table of contents

Masters of Improv
Like the TV detective Angus MacGyver, physicists make do with materials as ordinary as Coke cans and aspirin
A Quest for Balance in Canada
Canadian subatomic physics needs a shot of new money to take full advantage of new facilities and an influx of brainpower, a report says.
Small Cogs Drive a Big Machine
University scientists are the backbone of particle physics. At Vanderbilt, they’re developing ways to handle massive amounts of data from the Large Hadron Collider.
No-show Neutrino
The first results from the MiniBooNE neutrino experiment show no hints of a fourth neutrino, but contain a puzzling signal that could lead to new physics.

Toward an International Linear Collider
The International Committee for Future Accelerators (ICFA) announced the release of the Reference Design Report for the ILC in Beijing in February.
Universal Accord
The "concordance model" is a cosmic recipe that unifies all astronomical observations to date, and though researchers do not yet understand what the ingredients are rea
made of, they know it tastes right.
Working Outside the Accelerator
A PhD in particle physics can be a stepping stone to a career outside physics research.
Deconstruction: KATRIN
Part of the KATRIN neutrino experiment made a European odyssey of 9000 km even though it started and ended its trip in Germany.
January/February 2007 View full table of contents

BaBar’s Window on the Weak Force
The BaBar B-factory experiment at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center looks to double its data in a mere two years as it hunts for hints of spectacular new physics that wi
guide future experiments.
Evolution of a Collider
As physicists and engineers devise ways to make the International Linear Collider perform better at a lower cost, the design evolves, sometimes with tweaks, but other
times with major reconfigurations.
And They Lived in Physics Bliss Forever After...
When physicists marry physicists, the beginning may be a "big bang," but issues of life, love, and family gravitate toward the universal.
Day in the Life: Stanford Guest House
Guest houses are common among particle physics labs. But in many ways, the Stanford Guest House, situated on the grounds of Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, is
different.

The Tevatron Brings It On
As Fermilab's Tevatron produces more particle collisions than ever before, experimenters are making discoveries, from exotic particles to ultrafast matter-antimatter
oscillations. Will they also find the Higgs particle?
Listening for Whispers of Dark Matter
The Cryogenic Dark Matter Search is seeking the first definite observation of a dark matter particle. Detecting the particle involves listening for a tiny vibration among a
background of noise.
The Many Lives of Fermi's Magnet
The Chicago Cyclotron Magnet, known as Enrico Fermi's magnet, has just been retired from Fermilab after a rich 35-year history. Through its various reincarnations, Ferm
magnet has been a key part of many experiments.
Day in the Life: LCLS Ground Breaking
SLAC's Linac Coherent Light Source will be the world's first hard-X-ray laser. On October 20, local luminaries joined the SLAC staff to celebrate the ground breaking for t
landmark project.

Close Quarters
During their visits at other labs, physicists learn that it's a small world after all, especially when they stay in no-frills dorms. The lab life helps build professional networks
and long-lasting friendships across the planet.
Catching neutrinos in China
The first particle physics experiment with leadership almost equally split between China and the United States would be located deep beneath the mountains of Southern
China, looking for neutrino interactions.
The European Strategy for Particle Physics
The CERN Council Strategy Group has presented its recommendations in particle physics, focusing on a policy for Europe to "maintain and strengthen its central position"
the field.
Deconstruction: ILC Cryogenics
The proposed International Linear Collider will use 16,000 superconducting cavities made of niobium, and scientists around the world are working on the cryogenic system
needed to keep the cavities cool.

New Life for a Linac - How the Stanford Linear Accelerator Center is transforming the world's longest linear accelerator into a novel X-ray laser.
The Rise and Fall of the Pentaquark - The pentaquark search serves as a model for the ways in which particle physics explores the nature of matter—even when
the search is unsuccessful.
Packing It In - Globe-traveling physicists put some of their best thinking into strategies for their bags—all carry-ons, of course.
Deconstruction: Particle Pocket Card - In the early 1950s, Nobel-Laureates-to-be Norman Ramsey and Ed Purcell created cards of physical constants they found
themselves using most frequently.


Introducing the Large Hadron Collider - Physicists are excited by the LHC, with access to physics at an energy scale about ten times higher than has been open
exploration so far.
Into a New World of Physics and Symmetry - CERN theorist John Ellis charts the LHC’s voyage to a New World of discovery, exploring physics at the TeV scale
with the capacity to create new forms of matter.
Extracting Physics from the LHC - LHC experiments will involve physicists by the thousands, working with the most complex and sophisticated particle detectors
ever built.
The United States and the LHC - The US government has contributed more than a half billion dollars to the construction of the LHC particle collider and two relate
experiments in Europe.
The United States and the LHC - LHC Meets Industry Building the parts for the Large Hadron Collider has presented many challenges but taught many lessons for
both particle physics laboratories and their industry partners.

A Report Like No Other - Can the unique EPP2010 panel steer US particle physics away from a looming crisis? Physicists and policy makers are depending on it.
SNS: Neutrons for 'molecular movies' - A new research facility at Oak Ridge National Laboratory has produced its first neutrons, presenting new opportunities for
studying materials from semiconductors to human enzymes.
Battling the Clouds - Electron clouds could reduce the brightness—and discovery potential—of the proposed International Linear Collider. Innovative solutions are on
the way and might reduce the cost of the machine, too.
A (Magnus) Force on the Mound - Professional baseball player Jeff Francis of the Colorado Rockies brings a strong arm and a physics background to the playing
field: "I bet Einstein couldn't throw a curveball."

Asian Committee for Future Accelerators - In 2020, Asia may have the largest GDP among the three regions working on the International Linear Collider. "I
believe that the time is ripe for us to realize the truly global ILC," says ACFA chair Shin-ichi Kurokawa.
KEK’s ambitious future - Japan’s high-energy physics laboratory KEK is undergoing a transition as it expands its science program with upgraded and new facilities.
India’s Drive for Science - Particle accelerator research is a key element in India’s vision of nation-building, from providing health benefits to achieving energy
independence. Low labor costs help in building projects of international acclaim.
The Rise of HEP in Korea - In a country recognized for the production of cars and electronic goods, physicists are making plans to add their efforts in high-energy
physics to the country’s future list of accomplishments.
Bringing Science to Vietnam - You can’t start a high-energy physics program in a remote third-world country overnight. But you might be able to do it in fifteen yea

Voices: Diploma Mills - Criminals offering fake degrees from non-existing institutions are a threat at many levels. They also destroy the credibility of higher education
systems.
24/7: Labs That Never Sleep - When people and machines run 24 hours a day, seven days a week, a lot of the mundane is needed to produce the marvelous.
ILC Industrialization: Getting Down to Business - Laboratories and institutions alone cannot manufacture the many components of the ILC, requiring a major ro
for industry.
HEPAP Redux - The new members of the High Energy Physics Advisory Panel heard from leading government policy-makers, to whom they provide expert advice.
Hunting the Origin of Alzheimer’s - Originally a particle physicist, Christian Habeck now conducts neuroimaging and analysis research that could help change the
future for Alzheimer’s victims.

Voices: CERN Strategy Group - The CERN Council is seeking input on the long-term vision for European particle physics.
Out of the Box: Designing the ILC - Scientists working on the proposed International Linear Collider have made important design decisions.
Breaking for Families - Women physicists find taking a family leave from research is often hazardous to their career.
Slippery Substance - Water continues to reveal mysteries and surprises as researchers investigate its structure.
Day in the Life: Burl Skaggs - SLAC’s Burl Skaggs has a rather unusual commute. Every weekday, he flies 108 miles to work.

Voices: Counting Papers - Is the total number of references to a paper in other literature a measure of its scientific quality?
GLAST into Space - Satellite-based detectors will search for dark matter, the evolution of stars, and cosmic accelerators.
ICFA: The Committee Behind the Future of Particle Colliders - The International Committee for Future Accelerators is at the core of international collaboratio
Quantum Diaries: A Year in the Life - The online diaries of 33 particle physicists provided a glimpse of their lives in 2005.
Brighter Future - Collider luminosity is the key to particle physics discoveries, and labs have made great improvements recently.
December 2005/January 2006 View full table of contents

NOνA: A Neutrino Appearance Experiment - What happened to the universe's antimatter? The NOνA experiment hopes to find out if neutrinos played a role.
Eco-Science - Many of the world's leading physics labs have preserved and restored their sites' unique ecosystems.
The Search for Extra Dimensions - Theorists think that the fabric of space-time might consist of many more dimensions than meets the eye.
Graduate School Gourmet - With little money or spare time, these physicists found unique ways to make it through graduate school.
November 2005 View full table of contents

Meet the Grid - Grid computing is a new way to share resources and computing power across the Internet that will be vital to future scientific collaboration.

Sciences on the Grid - Physicists and biologists were some of the first to use grid computing, but other scientists are kick-starting their own efforts.
GEANT4—The Physics Simulation Toolkit - The software package GEANT4 is an ongoing worldwide collaboration to simulate and design science instruments.
Computing the Quarks - To make predictions and perform calculations involving the strong force, physicists are building custom supercomputers.
October 2005 View full table of contents

Snowmass 2005 - Nearly 700 physicists from around the world met in Snowmass, Colorado, to advance plans to create an International Linear Collider.
Asymmetric Insight - An experiment with polarized electrons probed the strength and asymmetry of the weak force over multiple energy scales.
More of the Universe - With a three-year extension, the Sloan Digital Sky Survey will expand its investigations to include dark matter and dark energy.
War & Peace - A community activist contrasts confrontational Superconducting Super Collider days with the new Fermilab public participation effort.

Super-fast Super-sensitive Detectors - Experimenters around the world are studying various design options for a detector at the proposed International Linear
Collider.
The Secret Lives of Stars - To reveal details of the births and deaths of stars, cosmologists watch their lives through computer simulations.
Niobium - More than 500 tons of niobium would go into building ILC acceleration structures. What's so special about this material?
Science: A Richer Experience of Life - Michael Salamon brings an outward vision to the White House Office of Science and Technology Policy.

Global ILC Efforts - Physicists and accelerator experts from around the world are collaborating on the design of the International Linear Collider.
In Their Hands: The Future of Particle Physics - The members of the EPP2010 panel have realized that the field of particle physics is at an important strategic
moment.
CLIC: The Compact Linear Collider - A small international collaboration of scientists works on the design of CLIC, a higher-energy linear collider concept.
Postcards from the Terascale - By discovering the laws of nature at Terascale energies, we can understand the physical laws that define our chilled-down universe

Spectrum of Discovery - The future of SLAC's research encompasses scales from the subatomic through the biological and material to the cosmological.
City-States of Science - The teams behind the Large Hadron Collider's experiments are of unprecented size. Life in the new collaborations will surely be different.
Two Tribes Become One - A physicist who has devoted his career to developing linear colliders confronts changes in the global physics community.
No Little Plans - Pier Oddone outlines Fermilab's future by invoking architect Daniel Burnham: "Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood."

The Elusive Neutrino - Experiments are beginning to unravel the secrets behind a mind-boggling quantum effect: neutrino oscillations.
Searching for the Neutrino's Identity - Neutrinos are different from other matter particles. Could they even be their own antiparticles?
Virtual Structure - You don't have to relocate to join Barry Barish and his global team that will manage the design of the International Linear Collider.
Springtime at Daresbury - A laboratory in the north-west of England transformed itself into a powerhouse of accelerator physics and technology.

Benvenuto - INFN Frascati offers opportunities for scientists from many disciplines, says its new director Mario Calvetti.
Riding the Plasma Wave of the Future - A creative group of scientists is reinventing particle acceleration as we know it.
The New High-Energy Frontier - US scientists have built critical components for the LHC, and they will play a key role in future discoveries.
Neutrons for Cancer Treatment - Physician Aidnag Diaz and his team have set out to save lives and to explore the future of neutron therapy.

Science from a Hole in the Ground - US scientists from fields as diverse as microbiology and particle physics are proposing to go underground to answer new
questions.
X-ray Blaze on an Invisible World - With laser-precise x-ray vision, the Linac Coherent Light Source will be an unprecedented tool to see how ultra-fast, ultra-smal
things work.
What's in a Name? - Names are important but physicists have done a mixed job in naming their creations and discoveries.
Visions of Particle Physics - Award-winning photographer Peter Ginter has developed one of the most extensive portfolios of particle physics photography in the
world.


Opportunities, Decisions Await Oddone - "We are living in a time of remarkable opportunity for particle physics," says incoming Fermilab director Pier Oddone.
Let It Rain - The most energetic particles in the universe have a message for us. The Pierre Auger Observatory is listening.
Einstein Iconography - Albert Einstein is a cultural icon. His image adorns coffee mugs, action figures and many other novelty items.
Beyond the Standard Model - What is wrong with the Standard Model of particles and interactions? Why are physicists so sure that there is something beyond it?
December 2004/January 2005 View full table of contents

Sold on Cold - Why have particle physicists lowered the temperature on a new accelerator? How cold will the International Linear Collider be?
The Growth of Inflation - For 25 years cosmologists have struggled to adapt one of the greatest inventions: inflation. Is a final solution near?
SESAME: An Oasis of Peace in the Middle East? - With help from Europe and the US, scientists in Jordan are building a lab for collaboration among neighboring
countries.

The Road to Beijing - How an international panel reached a technology recommendation for the proposed International Linear Collider.
Extreme Neutrinos - Searching for the secrets of the universe in the depths of the earth—on the sea bottom and in the Antarctic ice.
Families of the World - How families of scientists cope with the distinctive demands of an increasingly international field.

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symmetry - February 2010 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Shielding
search
explain it in 60 seconds
Protons not as “strange” as expected
April 27, 2010
Shielding refers to layers of material that block radiation: that lead The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
apron we wear during dental X-rays, the thick walls around a nuclear reactor,
of strange quark contributions to the proton has
and even those cool, UV-blocking sunglasses all shield us from biologically
found that there is a lot less strangeness than
damaging forms of radiation.
previous theories and experiments indicated.
We don’t need shielding from cosmic rays—high-energy particles that

A long-lost object on the Moon will help
continually rain in from outer space. But this steady background radiation does
test general relativity
bedevil scientists and their experiments because it can drown out the nearly
April 26, 2010
imperceptible signals of rare subatomic processes. Cosmic rays crashing into
In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1
the atmosphere spawn secondary particles such as muons, which pass through
sent its last signal back to Earth. Since that time,
normal layers of shielding with ease. High-energy muons can penetrate more
scientists have been keeping an eye out for it but
than a kilometer of solid rock.
not had any luck. Now, says a press release from
the University of California, San Diego, the lander
To search for the dark-matter particles thought to fill the universe, explore the has been found, and a simple but important piece
mysterious properties of neutrino interactions, or look for neutrinos from the sun of cargo on it is intact.
or a supernova, scientists need shelter from cosmic rays and the muons they
produce. So they’re taking their experiments underground, to special-purpose
Superconducting cavities could help
laboratories such as SNOLAB in Ontario, Canada, which is under about two
reduce nuclear waste radiotoxicity
kilometers of rock and the deepest lab operating today. Each 300 meters of
April 22, 2010
overlying rock reduces the rate of incoming muons by a factor of ten. In these subterranean refuges, sensitive
The European MYRRHA is an experimental facility
instruments await the first faint whispers of new physics.
aimed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of
nuclear waste transmutation in an accelerator-
Hamish Robertson, University of Washington driven system. The main part of the accelerator will
consist in a series of superconducting cavities.
Click here to download the pdf version of this article.
Click here for the "Explain it in 60 Seconds" archive.

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Deep underground, physicists set

traps to catch dark matter,
neutrinos, rare particle decays,
and other exotic phenomena.
These protected subterranean lab
spaces are highly valued by
scientists in a number of fields for
their isolation and their easy
access to depths where
geological and microbial
processes help shape the Earth and the nature of
life itself.
Illustration: Sandbox Studio.
View Issue PDF

symmetry - February 2010 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Shielding
CMS cosmic challenge

Dec 2007
Scientists working on the
Compact Muon Solenoid test the
detector using particles that rain
down from space...
Supersymmetry
Mar 2005
Supersymmetry, if it exists,
doubles the number of particles in
nature, with each particle having
a "superpartner"...
View 60 Seconds Archive

symmetry - December 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Scintillators
search
April 27, 2010
Scintillators are transparent materials that allow scientists The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
to detect particles and other forms of radiation. When radiation hits a
scintillator, the material absorbs some of its energy and makes it
visible by emitting a flash of light. Even the tiniest amount of
scintillation can trigger a signal in one of the state-of-the-art
photodetectors that are attached to the edges of the scintillator.
Scintillation detectors have a wide array of applications, such as
April 26, 2010
medical imaging, baggage scanning, oil exploration, monitoring of
nuclear power stations, and—of course—particle physics.
Many types of transparent materials serve as scintillators, including not had any luck. Now, says a press release from
plastics, liquids, crystals, and gases. One common, inexpensive the University of California, San Diego, the lander
material used in plastic scintillators is polystyrene, the plastic used in CD and DVD cases and many other has been found, and a simple but important piece
consumer products. of cargo on it is intact.
Pure polystyrene is not an efficient scintillator. To improve its performance, scientists blend polystyrene with two Superconducting cavities could help
fluorescent compounds. The first compound absorbs the radiation energy deposited in the polystyrene. It passes reduce nuclear waste radiotoxicity
that energy along to the second compound, causing it to emit visible flashes of light. The two-step process April 22, 2010
efficiently converts radiation from X-rays and high-energy particles into visible light that can be easily detected. By The European MYRRHA is an experimental facility
adding different compounds, scientists can make the scintillators emit light in various colors. aimed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of
Anna Pla-Dalmau, Fermilab driven system. The main part of the accelerator will

Email Update List
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issues of symmetry:
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Particle collisions are ephemeral,

occurring in the tiniest fractions of
seconds. But they could be useful
for decades if physicists learn
how to store the data from them
in a way that future generations
of physicists can access and
reuse.
Photos: Reidar Hahn, Fermilab.
View Issue PDF
LHC startup
Nov 2008

symmetry - December 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Scintillators
On September 10, 2008,

scientists at the European
laboratory CERN attempted for
the first time to send...
Terascale
Dec 2007
The Terascale is an energy
region named for the tera—or
million million—electronvolts of
energy needed to access it...

symmetry - October 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Intensity Frontier
search
April 27, 2010
The Intensity Frontier is one of three broad The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
approaches to particle physics research, each characterized by the
tools it employs.
At the Energy Frontier, for instance, we use high-energy colliders,
such as the Tevatron and the Large Hadron Collider, to search for
new particles and forces that provide information on the makeup of
matter and space. At the Cosmic Frontier, we scan the heavens with
April 26, 2010
particle detectors and telescopes to learn more about cosmic rays,
dark matter, and dark energy, and to understand the role they have
played in the evolution of the universe.
The strategy of research at the Intensity Frontier is to generate the the University of California, San Diego, the lander
huge numbers of particles needed to study rare subatomic processes, has been found, and a simple but important piece
such as the transformation of one type of neutrino into another or the of cargo on it is intact.
not-yet-observed conversion of a muon into an electron. This requires
extreme machines, multi-megawatt proton accelerators that produce
high-intensity beams of particles.
April 22, 2010
To advance this frontier, particle physicists have proposed Project X, a The European MYRRHA is an experimental facility
high-intensity proton accelerator at Fermilab that would enable a new generation of experiments with neutrinos, aimed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of
muons, and kaons. These experiments ultimately could help explain the origin of the matter–antimatter asymmetry nuclear waste transmutation in an accelerator-
in our universe and point us to a more complete theory of particles and their forces. driven system. The main part of the accelerator will
Mel Shochet, University of Chicago

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issues of symmetry:
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NAME subscribe
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digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com
Meet Ketino Kaadze, Mark

Cooke, and Martina Hurwitz,
three graduate students who
recently left experiments at
CERN's Large Hadron Collider to
work on data-producing
experiments at Fermilab's
Tevatron. See story.
Photos: Reidar Hahn, Fermilab.

Photo-illustration: Sandbox Studio.
View Issue PDF
CMS cosmic challenge

Dec 2007

symmetry - October 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Intensity Frontier
Scientists working on the

Compact Muon Solenoid test the
detector using particles that rain
down from space...
The Higgs Boson

Aug 2006
A fundamental particle predicted
by theorist Peter Higgs, may be
the key to understanding why
elementary particles have mass...

symmetry - August 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Cherenkov Light
search
April 27, 2010
The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount

April 26, 2010
has been found, and a simple but important piece
of cargo on it is intact.

April 22, 2010
driven system. The main part of the accelerator will
Cherenkov light appears when a charged particle travels through matter faster than light can. This
effect is the optical equivalent of a sonic boom, which occurs, for example, when a jet travels faster than the
Email Update List
speed of sound.
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But how can a particle go faster than light without violating the laws of physics? The speed of light in a vacuum is
the ultimate speed limit: 300,000,000 meters per second. It's thought that nothing can travel faster. NAME subscribe
However, light slows down when it goes through water, glass, and other transparent materials—in some cases by EMAIL more options
more than 25 percent. Hence a particle can slip through material faster than light does, while at the same time
staying below the speed of light in a vacuum.
When this happens, a particle emits bluish Cherenkov light, which spreads out behind it in a hollow cone that is
shaped like the cone of a sonic boom. This light gives the water surrounding a nuclear reactor core its distinctive Manga artist Takuya Uruno,
blue glow. whose work is featured in the
gallery, designed this issue’s
Scientists build telescopes to gather Cherenkov light emitted by cosmic-ray and gamma-ray showers in the cover based on an edutainment
Earth's atmosphere. Neutrino physicists embed hundreds of light-sensitive detectors in large volumes of water Web series he created for KEK. It
and ice to record Cherenkov light from muons and electrons, which emerge when neutrinos crash into atoms. The incorporates, from top, a
Cherenkov light recorded with such devices helps scientists identify particles and determine their energies. superconducting radio-frequency
cavity; string theory; and a Van
de Graaff generator, whose static
Michelangelo D'Agostino, University of California, Berkeley
electricity fluffs up the hair of the girl in the middle.
Click here to download the pdf version of this article. View Issue PDF
Z Boson
Share this page with others! Submit to: Aug 2008

symmetry - August 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Cherenkov Light
In May 1983, physicists working

digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com on the UA1 detector for the Super
Proton Synchrotron accelerator at
CERN made the first definitive
observations of the Z boson...
Theory
Sep 2007
A theory, in everyday language,
differs little from a guess or a
hunch. But in science we reserve
the word for a well-developed
idea based on experimental
evidence...

symmetry - July 2009 - 60 seconds: Virtual Particles
search
April 27, 2010
Virtual particles are shortlived The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
particles that cannot be directly detected, but that
affect physical quantities—such as the mass of a
particle or the electric force between two charged
particles—in measurable ways.

The existence of virtual particles is a purely
quantum-mechanical phenomenon. The particles
April 26, 2010
can appear out of nothing—the vacuum—only to
quickly disappear back into the vacuum. Or they
can be emitted by real particles, travel a short
distance, and disappear again as they interact with
other particles. The Heisenberg uncertainty
principle limits the duration of their fleeting
has been found, and a simple but important piece
existence and the distance they can travel.
of cargo on it is intact.
Virtual particles are both a curse and a blessing. A

curse because their presence makes calculations
of seemingly simple phenomena, such as the
April 22, 2010
electric force between an electron and a proton,
vastly more complicated. A blessing because their
indirect contributions to subatomic processes can
reveal new particles and forces that elude direct
production by our highest-energy particle
accelerators.
Scientists have measured, for example, the

contributions of virtual particles to the mass of the
proton and to the attractive force between two Email Update List
metal plates. Experiments also have identified Receive email notifications of the release of future
virtual contributions from the yet-to-be-discovered issues of symmetry:
Higgs particle, which is a key to explaining the
origin of mass. Hence, not only are we quite NAME subscribe
confident that the Higgs particle does indeed exist, but we have a pretty good idea of where to find it.
EMAIL more options
Craig Dukes, University of Virginia
For some reason, Brookhaven

Click here for the "Explain it in 60 Seconds" archive. National Laboratory has always
attracted more than its share of
Send a letter to the editor UFO buffs. So it was that the
crew of UFO Hunters, a weekly
TV show on the History Channel,
Share this page with others! Submit to: went to the lab recently to film an
episode about an alleged 1992
digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com UFO crash nearby. The burning
question: Had the lab shot down a UFO with a
particle beam? The answer: Of course not. There
was no UFO, and particle beams from the lab’s
accelerator can’t be used as weapons.
Illustrations: Sandbox Studio
View Issue PDF

symmetry - July 2009 - 60 seconds: Virtual Particles
Top Quark
May 2005
Fermilab's CDF and DZero
collaborations discovered the top
quark 10 years ago...
Acceleration of
Particles
Oct/Nov 2006
Imagine a surfer riding a wave. If
the surfer paddles at the right
speed and gets on a wave at the
right time, the surfer will be
accelerated to the speed of the wave...

symmetry - August 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Charm Quark
search
April 27, 2010
The charm quark is one of six The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
quarks that, along with leptons, form the basic
building blocks of ordinary matter. It is hundreds of
times more massive than the up and down quarks
that make up protons and neutrons.

Theorists had predicted the existence of the charm
quark to explain the absence of an expected
April 26, 2010
particle interaction. When the charm quark did turn
up, it was as a constituent of the J/psi particle,
whose discovery in 1974 finally convinced
physicists that quarks were real.
Particles containing a charm quark are known as has been found, and a simple but important piece
either “charmed particles” or “charmonia.” They of cargo on it is intact.
have only a fleeting existence before decaying into
more conventional particles. Many experiments
have studied their properties. At facilities known as
“charm factories,” large numbers of charm-
April 22, 2010
containing particles can be produced with little
contamination from other types of particles. An
electron-positron collider in Beijing, for example, is
expected to ultimately produce 10 billion J/psi
decays in one year’s running time. This level of
production allows scientists to observe subatomic
processes with great precision, and may reveal
subtle signs of new physics phenomena predicted
by theorists.
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Frederick A. Harris, University of Hawaii Receive email notifications of the release of future
issues of symmetry:
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Scientists can feel like they are
swimming in a sea of names in
digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com modern collaborations of more
than 1000 physicists, where
you're just one on a very long A-
to-Z list of authors on published
results. So how can individuals
be recognized for their efforts and
distinguished from others when it
comes to promotion and tenure decisions? See
story.
Photo-illustration: Sandbox Studio;
Photos: Reidar Hahn, Fermilab
View Issue PDF

symmetry - August 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Charm Quark
SLAC Bluebook
May 2007
A 1169-page treatise documents
the development and design of
the two-mile-long accelerator
operated by Stanford
University....
Luminosity
Feb 2006
Luminosity is a measure of how
efficiently a particle accelerator
produces collision events....

symmetry - March 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Neutralino
THEME: CDF DZERO Home About Contact Past Issues Subscribe RSS
search
April 27, 2010
Neutralinos are hypothetical The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount
particles that may explain what dark matter is
made of.
Dark matter accounts for about 83 percent of
all matter in the universe. Whereas matter on
Earth and in stars is made of atoms and nuclei,
scientists know that dark matter must be made
April 26, 2010
of something else. Neutralinos are a prime
candidate.
Physicists around the world are working on not had any luck. Now, says a press release from
experiments that look for dark matter particles, the University of California, San Diego, the lander
in laboratories and with satellites. Neutralinos has been found, and a simple but important piece
could emerge from high-energy collisions at the of cargo on it is intact.
Large Hadron Collider in Europe or the
Tevatron collider in the United States.
Supersymmetry theories predict that April 22, 2010
neutralinos are closely related to the well- The European MYRRHA is an experimental facility
known carriers of the electroweak force– aimed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of
photons and W and Z bosons–and to Higgs nuclear waste transmutation in an accelerator-
bosons. Whether the LHC will produce driven system. The main part of the accelerator will
neutralinos, and what the experimental consist in a series of superconducting cavities.
signatures of these particles look like, depends
on how neutralinos interact with ordinary
matter.
Email Update List

If the LHC experiments discover neutralinos, a
main goal will be to measure the relationship
issues of symmetry:
between neutralinos and the electroweak force carriers. This will allow theorists to calculate the amount of
dark matter produced in the big bang and how it relates to the dark matter observed throughout the universe
NAME subscribe
today.
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With luck, people will soon be talking about neutralinos as they read newspaper and magazine reports about
the particle’s discovery.
Gordon Kane, University of Michigan
Click here to download the pdf version of this article. This issue of
symmetry marks
Click here for the "Explain it in 60 Seconds" archive. a first: two
different covers,
Send a letter to the editor each celebrating
a team of
experimenters at
Share this page with others! Submit to: Fermilab’s
Tevatron
digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com collider. The CDF and DZero collaborations
alternate in writing the Result of the Week column
for Fermilab Today. Half the copies of the issue
portray members of the CDF experiment climbing
Fermilab's Wilson Hall, transformed into a giant H in
honor of the Higgs boson. The other half feature
DZero collaborators atop their detector, reaching for
the Higgs.
Photo: Reidar Hahn, Fermilab
View Issue PDF

symmetry - March 2009 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Neutralino
Z Boson
Aug 2008
In May 1983, physicists working
on the UA1 detector for the Super
Proton Synchrotron accelerator at
CERN made the first definitive
observations of the Z boson...
Dark Matter
Mar 2007
Dark matter is, mildly speaking, a
very strange form of matter.
Although it has mass, it does not
interact with everyday objects
and it passes straight through our
bodies...

symmetry - December 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Particle Accelerators
search
explain it in 60 seconds Protons not as “strange” as expected

April 27, 2010
Particle accelerators (often The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of
strange quark contributions to the proton has found that
referred to as “atom smashers”) use strong
there is a lot less strangeness than previous theories
electric fields to push streams of subatomic
and experiments indicated.
particles—usually protons or electrons—to
tremendous speeds.
A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
Accelerators by the thousands are at work general relativity
worldwide. The particle beams they generate are April 26, 2010
used to zap tumors, aid in medical diagnosis, and In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent
study and control manufacturing processes in its last signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists
industry. In specialized accelerators known as have been keeping an eye out for it but not had any
lightsources, the particles race around a ring to luck. Now, says a press release from the University of
generate bright X-rays that illuminate complex California, San Diego, the lander has been found, and a
biological structures and other phenomena. simple but important piece of cargo on it is intact.
The most powerful accelerators are dedicated to

Superconducting cavities could help reduce
basic research, advancing our knowledge of the
nuclear waste radiotoxicity
structure of matter and the nature of our universe.
April 22, 2010
These machines function as super-microscopes
and reveal the smallest constituents of matter.
aimed to demonstrate the technical feasibility of nuclear
They smash particles into stationary targets or
waste transmutation in an accelerator-driven system.
accelerate two beams to almost the speed of light and make the particles collide head-on. The particles instantly
The main part of the accelerator will consist in a series
transform into energy in accordance with Einstein’s famous equation, E=mc 2 . Then all the energy released by of superconducting cavities.
the collision converts back into matter, creating new particles that perhaps have never been seen before.
The higher energy an accelerator achieves, the heavier the particles it can create, and the more detailed are its
studies of the laws of physics at the smallest scales. At the Tevatron accelerator at Fermilab, collisions routinely
take place at an energy corresponding to two trillion volts. In the near future, the Large Hadron Collider in Email Update List
Europe will explore matter with seven times the Tevatron energy. Receive email notifications of the release of future
Leon Lederman, Illinois Institute of Technology issues of symmetry:
Click here to download the pdf version of this article. NAME subscribe

EMAIL more options
What could a radial tire possibly

have in common with particle
physics? Accelerator technology.
In physics, it boosts particles to
nearly the speed of light; in
industry, it’s used in creating the
materials that go into tires. As a
bonus, this avoids the use of
solvents that can pollute the
environment.
View Issue PDF
Particle Data Book

Sep 2006
This year, the Particle Data Group

symmetry - December 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Particle Accelerators
celebrates its 50th anniversary

with a release of a 1230-page
edition of the Review of Particle
Physics...
Rare Decays
Mar/Apr 2008
Rare particle decays could
provide a unique glimpse of
subatomic processes that elude
the direct reach of even the most
powerful...
© 2007 symmetry A joint Fermilab/SLAC publication. PO Box 500 MS206 Batavia, IL 60510 USA

symmetry - November 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Magnet Quench
search

April 27, 2010
A magnet quench is a dramatic The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of
yet fairly routine event within a particle accelerator.
It occurs when one of the superconducting
magnets that steer and focus the particle beams
warms above a critical temperature, bringing
operations to an abrupt halt. A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
general relativity
A quench often starts when stray particles from the April 26, 2010
beam enter a magnet’s coils, producing an initial In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent
burst of heat. Within a fraction of a second, parts its last signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists
of the superconducting wire in the magnet lose have been keeping an eye out for it but not had any
their ability to conduct electricity without luck. Now, says a press release from the University of
resistance, generating more heat that quickly California, San Diego, the lander has been found, and a
spreads throughout the entire magnet. The coolant simple but important piece of cargo on it is intact.
surrounding the magnet begins to boil.
In the case of a large superconducting magnet,
which can be several meters long and carry
April 22, 2010
currents of 10,000 amps or more, the quench
creates a loud roar as the coolant—liquid helium
with a temperature close to absolute zero—turns
into gas and vents through pressure relief valves, like steam escaping a tea kettle.
Such a quench generates as much force as an exploding stick of dynamite. A magnet usually withstands this of superconducting cavities.
force and is operational again in a few hours after cooling back down. If repair is required, it takes valuable time
to warm up, fix, and then cool down the magnet—days or weeks in which no particle beams can be circulated,
and no science can be done.
Tom Peterson, Fermilab Email Update List
issues of symmetry:
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In the last few months of the
BaBar experiment at SLAC
National Accelerator Laboratory,
scientists pulled one last trick out
of their bag and produced a new
particle— the bottom-most
bottomonium. In doing so, the
500-member collaboration proved
as agile as its cartoon namesake.
Photo: Bradley Plummer, SLAC
View Issue PDF
Cosmic Microwave
Background
Oct/Nov 2006
John Mather and George Smoot

symmetry - November 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Magnet Quench
shared the 2006 Nobel Prize for

experiments on board of the
COBE satellite. It took Mather’s
experiment only nine minutes to record enough data
to confirm the big-bang theory...
Dark Energy
Aug 2007
Dark energy is the weirdest and
most abundant stuff in the
universe. It is causing the
speed up, and the destiny of our
universe rests in its hands...

symmetry - September 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Neutrino Masses
search

April 27, 2010
Neutrino masses are extremely difficult to measure. While we know precisely how much an The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of
electron weighs, we have little information on the mass of its neutral partner, the electron neutrino. The same is
true of the muon neutrino and tau neutrino.
For a long time scientists thought neutrinos might be massless. Then experiments revealed that the three types
of neutrinos can transform into each other, a process known as neutrino oscillation. According to quantum A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
theory, this is possible only if neutrinos have mass. Cosmological observations and laboratory-based general relativity
experiments indicate that the masses of the three neutrino types must be extremely small: The electron, the April 26, 2010
lightest charged elementary particle, is at least a million times heavier than any neutrino. In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent
its last signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists
Physicists think the origins of neutrino masses are closely tied to subatomic processes that took place right after have been keeping an eye out for it but not had any
the big bang. Determining which neutrino types are heaviest and lightest—the neutrino mass ordering—is a first luck. Now, says a press release from the University of
step toward revealing these processes. California, San Diego, the lander has been found, and a
simple but important piece of cargo on it is intact.
So far, neutrino oscillation experiments have provided some information on the differences in mass between the
different neutrino types. Future experiments, requiring accelerator-produced, high-intensity neutrino beams
traveling at least 500 miles through the Earth, will tell us what the neutrino mass ordering is. Superconducting cavities could help reduce
Gary Feldman, Harvard University nuclear waste radiotoxicity
April 22, 2010
of superconducting cavities.
Email Update List

issues of symmetry:
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EMAIL more options
Click here for the "Explain it in 60 Seconds" archive. This issue features the work of
physicist and photographer David
Send a letter to the editor Kirkby, whose photographs of
ordinary objects aim to give
people insights into physics. Here,
a Koosh ball—a jiggly, squishy
rubber toy—represents dark
energy, the invisible force that is
accelerating the expansion of the
universe.
View Issue PDF
SLAC Bluebook
May 2007
A 1169-page treatise documents

symmetry - September 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Neutrino Masses
the development and design of

the two-mile-long accelerator
operated by Stanford University...
Quarks
Mar 2006
Quarks are fundamental building
blocks of matter. They are most
commonly found inside protons
and neutrons...

symmetry - August 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Z Boson
search

April 27, 2010
The Z boson is a heavy particle that is The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of
one of the carriers of the ‘weak force’. It is a
partner of the W+ and W- bosons that mediate
radioactive decay processes.
The Z boson was first discovered as an A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
intermediary of a new type of neutrino reaction. general relativity
This so-called ‘neutral current interaction’ was the April 26, 2010
missing piece of a puzzle in which the forces In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent
created by the W bosons fit together neatly with its last signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists
the force of electromagnetism, due to the photon. have been keeping an eye out for it but not had any
Together, these four particles create the forces that luck. Now, says a press release from the University of
form a beautifully unified theory of ‘electroweak’ California, San Diego, the lander has been found, and a
interactions. simple but important piece of cargo on it is intact.
In the 1990s, accelerators at the Stanford Linear

Accelerator Center and CERN produced 12 million
of these Z bosons in a controlled setting and
April 22, 2010
studied the decays of the Z in great detail. The Z
decays to pairs of all types of quarks and leptons,
except for the heavy top quark. These experiments
made high precision tests of the electroweak theory and the properties of quarks and leptons. Quarks produced
from the Z radiate gluons, and so these experiments also give some of the highest-precision information about
the carrier of the ‘strong’ interactions.
Michael Peskin, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

See also:
Logbook: Z Boson Email Update List
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issues of symmetry:
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Battered or shiny, personalized

license plates are a whimsical part
of physics culture. On one level
they're inside jokes, told with a
wink to those in the know; on
another, an invitation to approach
and learn more. In response to a
call from symmetry, readers sent
dozens of their favorites. "It's a
memento from one of the most intense times I've
been through," one wrote. "It's a treasure from that
great time."
View Issue PDF
Cosmic Rays

symmetry - August 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Z Boson
Dec 2005/Jan 2006

Enrico Fermi's notebook of
December 1948 contains the
genesis of his theory of cosmic
rays. ...
Particle Event
Jun/Jul 2007
A particle event is a particle
collision or interaction that is
observed by some type of particle
detector....

symmetry - March/April 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Rare Decays
search

April 27, 2010
Rare particle decays could provide The G-Zero experiment that measures the amount of
a unique glimpse of subatomic processes that elude the
direct reach of even the most powerful particle colliders
on Earth. Their observation could answer questions
about the nature of matter and energy, shine light on
the evolution of the early universe, and explain the A long-lost object on the Moon will help test
subtle differences between matter and antimatter. general relativity
April 26, 2010
When an unstable particle decays to lighter particles, In 1971, a Soviet moon lander called Lunokhod 1 sent
each possible outcome has a certain probability of its last signal back to Earth. Since that time, scientists
occurring, similar to the chance of rolling all sixes in a have been keeping an eye out for it but not had any
dice game. A rare decay corresponds to an outcome in luck. Now, says a press release from the University of
which one die ends up standing, unsupported, on one California, San Diego, the lander has been found, and a
of its edges. simple but important piece of cargo on it is intact.
Scientists must sift through the outcomes of billions or

more particle decays to find rare events that may be
due to the hidden influence of new forces. They look
April 22, 2010
for the die on its edge—the outcome of a process that
seems impossible, such as a muon transforming
directly into an electron. Theories such as
supersymmetry suggest that such a transition can
occur.
The search for rare decays employs high-intensity accelerators that create immense numbers of particles—the
more, the better. Muons and kaons in particular have relatively long lifetimes that more likely allow hidden forces
to dramatically change the outcomes of their decays. Exploring their decays, we can unveil the secrets of the
quantum universe. Email Update List
Robert Tschirhart, Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory issues of symmetry:

NAME subscribe
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You’re not a trained scientist, but

Share this page with others! Submit to: you think you have a great idea
that will turn established physics
digg.com | reddit | del.icio.us | StumbleUpon | Ma.gnolia.com on its head—if only you can get
the right people to listen. What to
do? Researchers who get these
pleas on a regular basis say most
ignore the basic rules needed to
get a proper hearing: Do your
homework. Understand the language of science.
Make sure your theory agrees with the results of
past experiments. Use reasoned arguments. And,
gosh-darn it, get the math right! See story.
View Issue PDF

symmetry - March/April 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Rare Decays
Plutonium
Aug 2007
By March 1941, Glenn Seaborg’s
group had isolated one form of
plutonium and was going after
another—Pu-239...
Dark Energy
Aug 2007
Dark energy is the weirdest and
most abundant stuff in the
universe. It is causing the
speed up...

symmetry - January/February 2008 - Explain it in 60 Seconds
search
The W boson is one of five particles that transmit the fundamental
forces of nature. It is responsible for two of the most surprising discoveries of
the 20th century-that nature has a “handedness” and that the physics of
antimatter is subtly different from the physics of the matter-based world we see
around us.
The W boson comes in positively and negatively charged varieties. They

collaborate with another particle, the electrically neutral Z boson, to cause the
force known as the weak interaction, which is responsible for some forms of
nuclear decay, among other phenomena.
The W is very massive, which means its effects are very short range and very
weak at everyday energies. Hence, the effects of these particles are subtle-but
important! For example, the W can change the very nature of an interacting
particle, turning an electron into a neutrino or a down quark into an up quark.
This is important in the fusion reactions that power the sun, which involve
protons turning into neutrons. Finally, the W provides the only established
mechanism for allowing matter and antimatter to evolve in different ways.
When W bosons are created in particle accelerators, they live for only about 10 -
25 seconds, but they provide important tests of the Standard Model of particle
physics.
Patricia Burchat, Stanford University


symmetry - December 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Terascale
search
The Terascale is an energy region named for the
tera, or million million, electronvolts of energy needed to access
it. Physicists are standing at its threshold, poised to enter this
uncharted territory of the subatomic world.
Today, the Fermilab Tevatron particle collider is cracking open the

door, offering a first teasing glimpse of the Terascale. Soon, the
CERN Large Hadron Collider will fling the door open and begin to
explore this exciting new region. Later, the proposed International
Linear Collider would zoom in to reveal its most important
features.
What do we expect to find at the Terascale? Certainly the Higgs

particle—or whatever takes its place. Its discovery would help
explain the mass of all elementary particles and the fundamental
difference between the electromagnetic force and the weak
nuclear force.
But this would be just the beginning. Siblings of the Higgs particle
might provide the dark matter that fills the universe. Its cousins
might have driven the inflation that powered the big bang. More
distant relatives might even be responsible for the ubiquitous dark
energy that drives the universe apart.
The Terascale is rich with discovery opportunities, and exploring it

is the next big step in understanding the universe in which we live.
Jonathan Bagger, Johns Hopkins University


symmetry - October/November 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Jets
search
Jets are sprays of particles that fly out from certain high-
energy collisions—for instance, from violent collisions of protons
and antiprotons at Fermilab’s Tevatron accelerator, or in the
similar proton-proton collisions that will take place at CERN’s
Large Hadron Collider.
These collisions create very energetic quarks and gluons; as they

travel away from the collision point, they emit more gluons, which
can split into even more gluons. This results in a relatively narrow
cascade, or jet, of particles.
In the last stage of jet creation, quarks and gluons combine to

form particles such as protons, pions, and kaons. By measuring
these end products, physicists can determine the properties of a
jet, and thus the details of the collision that produced it. Scientists
expect to see jets in the signatures of almost every interesting
collision at the Large Hadron Collider.
The most violent collisions will produce jets with the highest
momentum, and these can be used to probe the smallest
distances within the colliding protons, less than one-billionth of a
billionth of a meter. Physicists hope they can use these most
energetic jets to look inside the quarks that make up protons.
Joey Huston, Michigan State University “When you’re a jet, you’re a jet all the way, from
your first gluon split to your last K decay...”


symmetry - September 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Theory
search
A theory, in everyday language, differs little from a guess
or a hunch. But in science we reserve the word for a well-
developed idea based on experimental evidence.
Scientific theories summarize and codify what we know about a

subject. In physics they take the form of a set
of mathematical equations. These describe phenomena that have
already been observed and predict the outcomes of new
experiments.
A theory can be well tested in one area, and still leave open
questions in areas where it has not yet been tested.
In particle physics we call our well-established theory “the

Standard Model.” Particle physicists try to add new features to
this theory that don’t contradict anything that has already been
tested, but at the same time predict the outcomes of future tests.
We call this “model building.” It is guided by mathematical ideas
and by our questions about features of the existing theory that
seem to beg for further explanation. This process provides “straw-
man” options for experiments to probe. As experimental data (Click image for larger version)
confirm or refute those options, theories are extended and made
more precise.
Helen Quinn, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center


symmetry - August 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Dark Energy
search
Dark energy is the weirdest and most abundant stuff in the universe. It is causing the expansion of the universe to speed up,
and the destiny of our universe rests in its hands. However, we don't know much about dark energy.
Dark energy is everywhere and is extremely diffuse–a cubic meter of dark energy contains only as much energy as a hydrogen atom–
and it is not made of particles. Dark energy is like a continuous, extraordinarily elastic medium. Its elasticity leads to its defining and most
spectacular feature: its gravity repels rather than attracts. For the first nine billion years after the big bang, the attractive gravity of matter
caused the expansion of the universe to slow down. Five billion years ago, dark energy's repulsive gravity overcame matter's attractive
gravity, leading to the accelerating universe.
Figuring out dark energy is high on the to-do lists of both astronomers and physicists. During the next 20 years, ground- and space-
based telescopes will shed new light on dark energy and perhaps bring a few surprises too. I, for one, believe that dark energy is the
most profound mystery in all of science and that cracking the dark-energy puzzle will lead to advances elsewhere, from understanding
the birth of the universe to illuminating string theory.
Michael S. Turner, The University of Chicago

symmetry - August 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Dark Energy

symmetry - June/July 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Particle Event
search
A particle event is a particle collision or interaction that is observed by
some type of particle detector. Collected by the hundreds, thousands, or millions,
particle events are the raw material that scientists use to explore the subatomic world.
To capture these precious events, particle physicists build “cameras” that record
signals such as the tracks of particles emerging from a collision. The interesting
features of particle events often occur on submillimeter scales, and the cameras act
as extremely powerful microscopes.
The cameras have a wide variety of shapes and sizes. At particle laboratories around
the world, detectors as large as houses take snapshots of the bursts of matter and
energy that emerge when particles ram into each other. In other places, large arrays
of detectors—sometimes covering thousands of square kilometers—record cosmic-
ray showers created when protons originating from outer space smash into air
molecules high above the ground.
Each experiment archives its particle events and assigns a unique number to each
event. Physicists refer to these event numbers when discussing unusual events that
might hint at particles or phenomena never seen before.
Tobias Haas, Deutsches Elektronen-Synchrotron, Germany

symmetry - May 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: String Theory
search
Explain it in 60 Seconds
String theory proposes that the fundamental constituents of
the universe are one-dimensional “strings” rather than point-like particles.
What we perceive as particles are actually vibrations in loops of string,
each with its own characteristic frequency.
String theory originated as an attempt to describe the interactions of

particles such as protons. It has since developed into something much
more ambitious: an approach to the construction of a complete unified
theory of all fundamental particles and forces.
Previous attempts to unify physics have had trouble incorporating gravity

with the other forces. String theory not only embraces gravity but requires it. String theory also requires six or seven extra dimensions of
space, and it contains ways of relating large extra dimensions to small ones. The study of string theory has also led to the concept of
supersymmetry, which would double the number of elementary particles.
Practitioners are optimistic that string theory will eventually make predictions that can be experimentally tested. String theory has already
had a big impact on pure mathematics, cosmology (the study of the universe), and the way particle physicists interpret experiments, by
suggesting new approaches and possibilities to explore.
John H. Schwarz, California Institute of Technology

symmetry - April 2007 - 60 Seconds: Positron
search
Explain it in 60 Seconds
A positron is the antimatter partner of an electron. It has exactly
the same mass as an electron but has the opposite electric charge. When
kept separate from matter, positrons can exist forever. However, when a
positron meets an electron, the two particles annihilate into a flash of
energy.
Theorist Paul Dirac predicted positrons and other antiparticles in 1928.

Combining the classical description of an electron’s motion with the new
theories of relativity and quantum mechanics, Dirac found a puzzling
solution to his equations: an electron moving with negative energy, which is
impossible in classical physics. He interpreted his result as an antiparticle
moving with positive energy. Four years later, physicist Carl Anderson observed in a cloud chamber experiment the positron predicted by
Dirac. For their discoveries, both Dirac and Anderson received Nobel Prizes.
Today, positrons have numerous applications in particle physics research and medical imaging techniques. Scientists can "reverse" the
annihilation process and create large numbers of positrons by, for example, bombarding a piece of metal with an intense electron beam.
Another source of positrons are radioactive isotopes such as carbon-11. Hospitals use accelerators to produce these short-lived isotopes
and use them as medical markers in Positron Emission Tomography. The PET technique allows for the visualization of biological
processes and systems such as blood flow, metabolism, and neuron receptors.
Youhei Morita, KEK, Japan

symmetry - March 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Dark Matter
search
Dark matter is, mildly speaking, a very strange form of matter.
Although it has mass, it does not interact with everyday objects and it passes
straight through our bodies. Physicists call the matter dark because it is
invisible.
Yet, we know it exists. Because dark matter has mass, it exerts a gravitational
pull. It causes galaxies and clusters of galaxies to develop and hold together.
If it weren’t for dark matter, our galaxy would not exist as we know it, and
human life would not have developed.
Dark matter is more than five times as abundant as all the matter we have
detected so far. As cosmologist Sean Carroll says, “Most of the universe can’t
even be bothered to interact with you.”
Whatever dark matter is, it is not made of any of the particles we have ever
detected in experiments. Dark matter could have—at the subatomic level—
very weak interactions with normal matter, but physicists have not yet been
able to observe those interactions.
Experiments around the world are trying to detect and study dark matter
particles in more direct ways. Facilities like the Large Hadron Collider could
create dark matter particles.
Marusa Bradac, Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and

Cosmology

symmetry - January/February 2007 - Explain it in 60 Seconds: Simulations
search
Simulations are used in physics to explore many "what if?"
scenarios. In particle physics, they are used from designing new types
of accelerators and detectors to evaluating the final analysis of data.
Physicists use simulations to build and test virtual equipment to save

the time and money required to test multiple real prototype machines.
By running the virtual machines many times with various input data,
scientists can better understand how the real machine would work
when built, and then optimize it for best performance. Without these
simulations, particle physics experiments would be harder to construct.
Simulations are also used to understand how signals of new physics

phenomena could be detected with an experiment. Software programs
create a virtual set of particles according to a specific theoretical
model and let them interact with a simulated particle detector. By
analyzing how the virtual detector responds, physicists begin to
understand the different signatures of new types of physics. Vice
versa, if physicists encounter a strange signal in their real experiment,
they can use simulations to explore a variety of possible explanations
by simply varying the theoretical input. Without simulations, physicists
would have trouble interpreting the signals they see in a detector.
Norman Graf, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

symmetry - December 2006 - 60 Seconds: Postdocs
search
Postdocs are scientists who have completed their PhD
research and who continue to develop their scientific skills by
working for a few years at a university or other research institution.
Postdoctoral research positions give these scientists the opportunity
to broaden their knowledge and to gain more research experience,
without taking on any teaching responsibilities. At the same time,
postdocs are often the primary source of manpower—and
womanpower—to advance research projects.
In experimental particle physics, postdocs hired by universities

commonly work at national laboratories, where most of the large-
scale particle experiments take place. There the postdocs work at
the forefront of particle physics research, leading groups that focus
on data analysis or on detector- and hardware-related tasks.
Theorists use their postdoc years to begin new collaborations and

to learn about new areas of research. Experimentalists usually
spend their postdoc years working on experiments different from
their PhD research.
During their time as postdocs, scientists have the chance to develop

leadership skills and to become good science communicators,
describing their work to colleagues and presenting results at conferences. Quite often, postdocs also supervise and mentor students. All
these skills are necessary to reach the next level of a scientific career, such as a faculty position at a university.
Eva Halkiadakis, Rutgers University

symmetry - October/November 2006 - 60 Seconds: Acceleration of Particles
search
Acceleration of particles (electrons,
protons, and other charged particles) is achieved by propelling them
with electromagnetic waves. The energy of the waves is transferred
to the particles as the particles travel through special cavities made
of copper or superconducting material.
To understand how this works, imagine a surfer riding a wave. If the

surfer paddles at the right speed and gets on a wave at the right
time, the surfer will be accelerated to the speed of the wave. If the
initial speed of the surfer is wrong, the wave will just pass the surfer
by; if the timing is wrong, the surfer will lose speed.
An electron traveling through a cavity "filled" with radio-frequency

waves acts very similarly. If the particle enters the cavity at the right
time, it will gain energy from the wave. If it arrives at the wrong time,
it will gain less energy, be decelerated, or be lost.
In a particle accelerator, particles travel through multiple cavities to

go from low speed to almost the speed of light. The trick is to tune
the cavities so that the waves are in sync with the particles and provide maximum acceleration at each point along the accelerator.
Andrew Hutton, Jefferson Lab

symmetry - September 2006 - 60 Seconds: X-ray Lasers
search
X-ray lasers will be the next generation of light source. They will
deliver extraordinarily intense beams of X-rays in very short bursts that are
ten billion times brighter than those in any other light source. They will find
applications in sciences ranging from new material design to astrophysics
research to drug development as scientists use the lasers to reveal
molecular structures never seen before.
X-rays lasers are driven by high-current, high-energy electron beams such

as those produced in linear accelerators. Wiggling back and forth between
rows of magnets called undulators, the electron beams emit coherent
bursts of X-rays. The first generation of X-ray lasers is currently under
construction in Germany (at the DESY laboratory), Japan (at the SPring-8
laboratory), and the United States (at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center).
Applications for X-ray lasers include: making movies of chemical reactions that proceed faster than can be observed in any other way;
determining the structure of single molecules or small clusters of molecules that cannot be examined with less intense sources; and
producing and studying new states of matter called warm dense plasmas, similar to what might exist in the interior of stars and other
astronomical objects.
Herman Winick, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center/ Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Laboratory

symmetry - August 2006 - 60 Seconds: Higgs Boson
search
The Higgs boson, a fundamental particle predicted by
theorist Peter Higgs, may be the key to understanding why elementary
particles have mass. Explaining the connection, I am reminded of the
puzzler, "If sound cannot travel in a vacuum, why are vacuum cleaners so
noisy?" This riddle actually touches on a profound insight of modern
physics: the vacuum—or empty space—is far from empty. It is indeed
"noisy" and full of virtual particles and force fields. The origin of mass
seems to be related to this phenomenon.
In Einstein's theory of relativity, there is a crucial difference between

massless and massive particles: All massless particles must travel at the
speed of light, whereas massive particles can never attain this ultimate speed. But, how do massive particles arise? Higgs proposed that
the vacuum contains an omnipresent field that can slow down some (otherwise massless) elementary particles—like a vat of molasses
slowing down a high-speed bullet. Such particles would behave like massive particles traveling at less than light speed. Other particles—
such as the photons of light—are immune to the field: they do not slow down and remain massless.
Although the Higgs field is not directly measurable, accelerators can excite this field and "shake loose" detectable particles called Higgs
bosons. So far, experiments using the world's most powerful accelerators have not observed any Higgs bosons, but indirect experimental
evidence suggests that particle physicists are poised for a profound discovery.
Howard E. Haber, University of California, Santa Cruz

symmetry - June/July 2006 - Explain it in 60 Seconds
search
What is elementary particle physics?
Physics has demonstrated that the everyday phenomena we

experience are governed by universal principles applying at time and
distance scales far beyond normal human experience. Elementary particle
physics is one avenue of scientific inquiry into these principles. What rules
govern energy, matter, space, and time at the most elementary levels?
How are phenomena at the smallest and largest scales of time and
distance connected?
To address these questions, particle physicists seek to isolate, create, and

identify elementary interactions of the most basic constituents of the
universe. One approach is to create a beam of elementary particles in an
accelerator and to study the behavior of those particles–for instance, when
they impinge upon a piece of material or when they collide with another
beam of particles. Other experiments exploit naturally occurring particles,
including those created in the sun or resulting from cosmic rays striking the
earth's atmosphere. Some experiments involve studying ordinary materials
in large quantities to discern rare phenomena or search for as-yet-unseen
phenomena. All of these experiments rely on sophisticated detectors that
employ a range of advanced technologies to measure and record particle properties.
Particle physicists also use results from ground- and space-based telescopes to study the elementary particles and the forces that
govern their interactions. This latter category of experiments highlights the increasing importance of the intersection of particle physics,
astronomy, astrophysics, and cosmology.
From Revealing the Hidden Nature of Space and Time: Charting the Course for Elementary Particle Physics (2006), Committee on
Elementary Particle Physics in the 21st Century, National Research Council.

symmetry - May 2006 - 60 Seconds: Standard Model
search
The Standard Model is the best theory that physicists
currently have to describe the building blocks of the universe. It is one of the
biggest achievements in twentieth-century science. It says everything around us
is made of particles called quarks and leptons with four kinds of forces that
influence them.
The most familiar forces are electromagnetism and gravity; the other two are
less known. The strong force binds atomic nuclei together, making them stable.
Without it, there would be no atoms other than hydrogen: no carbon, no oxygen,
no life. The weak force causes nuclear reactions that have let the sun shine for
billions of years. As a result, trillions of neutrinos come from the sun and go
through our body every second, but we don't feel them because the weak force
is so weak.
Despite its incredible success, the Standard Model has serious deficiencies. For
example, if forces and matter particles are all there are, it says all particles must
travel at the speed of light–but that is not what is being observed. To slow them
down, theorists proposed a mysterious, universe-filling, not-yet-seen "liquid" called the Higgs field. Also, physicists now understand that
96 percent of the universe is not made of matter as we know it, and thus it does not fit into the Standard Model. How to extend the
Standard Model to account for these mysteries is an open question to be answered by current and future experiments.
Hitoshi Murayama, University of California Berkeley and

Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory

symmetry - April 2006 - 60 Seconds
search
Light sources are accelerator-based machines that produce
exceptionally intense, tightly focused beams of light, in the energy
range from infrared to X-rays. They are used for research in fields
from physics, chemistry, and materials science to biology,
medicine, and forensics.
Like "super microscopes," light sources help resolve the structure

of matter down to the level of atoms and molecules. Today more
than 50 light source facilities around the world serve a steadily
growing number of scientists.
Just as light from a laser is much more concentrated and intense

than light generated by a flashlight, an X-ray beam produced by a
light source is much narrower and a trillion times brighter than the
beam produced by a hospital X-ray machine.
Most light sources are synchrotrons: football-field- or larger-sized accelerators that send electrons around in a loop. Magnetic accelerator
components known as wigglers and undulators make the electrons rapidly oscillate side-to-side. The motion causes the electrons to
radiate photons–light, which travels through dedicated beamlines to experimental stations. A synchrotron can have dozens of beamlines,
each of which provides light of different frequency for numerous types of experiments.
The next generation of light sources, starting to come online now, provides laser-like light at ultraviolet or X-ray energies. These "free
electron lasers" make such short, intense light pulses that experimenters can record time-lapse movies of chemical processes.
Adapted from lightsources.org

symmetry - March 2006 - explain it in 60 Seconds: Quarks
search
Quarks are fundamental building blocks of matter. They are

most commonly found inside protons and neutrons, the particles that
make up the core of each atom in the universe. Based on current
experimental evidence, quarks seem to be truly fundamental
particles; they cannot be further subdivided.
Protons and neutrons mainly contain two types of quarks. These are
called up and down quarks. For reasons still unknown, nature also
designed two copies each of the up and down quarks, identical
except for having larger masses. The heavier copies of the up quark
are called charm and top quarks; the copies of the down quark are
named strange and bottom quarks. Converting energy into mass,
accelerators produce these heavier, short-lived quarks through
particle collisions.
Quark masses span an enormous range. The heaviest quark is the top quark, which is about 100,000 times more massive than the two
lightest types, up and down. The explanation for this hierarchy is a deep mystery, but the top quark’s huge mass could turn out to be a
virtue. Probing the detailed properties of the top may shed light on the origins of mass itself in the universe.
Jay Hubisz, Fermilab

symmetry - February 2006 - 60 Seconds: Luminosity
search
Luminosity is a measure of how efficiently a
particle accelerator produces collision events.
Experimenters seek ever-increasing amounts of collision
data to make new particle physics discoveries, so
accelerator physicists work constantly to increase the
luminosity of a collider.
In a collider, particles are stored in a string of bunches

to make a beam. Each bunch is about the size of a grain
of rice and contains a few billion particles. Bunches are
made to collide head-on at the center of large particle
detectors. Most of the particles bypass each other, but a
few interact and create the desired collision events. The
luminosity of the accelerator determines the rate at
which these collisions take place.
Particles are usually collided with their anti-particles

(electrons with positrons, or protons with antiprotons) so they annihilate, freeing up lots of energy that can create new types of particles.
The beam energy determines the types of subatomic processes that can be studied.
Pushing the limits of technology, accelerator physicists increase luminosity by putting more particles in each bunch, colliding more
bunches per second, and squeezing the bunches to the smallest possible size at the collision point. Due to their ingenuity, the peak
luminosity in colliders has increased by a factor of over one hundred thousand in the past 30 years.
John Seeman,
Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

symmetry - December 2005/January 2006 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
B factories are scientific machines that
explore the conditions of the early universe by creating
and analyzing huge numbers of B mesons, particles that
contain a bottom quark. One role of B factories is to
probe the differences between B mesons and their
antiparticles to help understand why the universe is
dominated by matter with no antimatter present.
A B factory relies on three major parts: a particle collider

to produce huge numbers of B mesons; a detector to
observe the mesons decay; and an international
collaboration of physicists and engineers. Two B
factories are in operation: the PEP-II collider with the
BaBar detector at Stanford Linear Accelerator Center,
and the KEKB collider and its detector, Belle, in Japan.
The rate and intensity of electron-positron collisions in BaBar and Belle generate hundreds of millions of B mesons each year. Each
second of operation, the factories sort through millions of collisions to efficiently identify the few hundred interesting events. Each factory
produces more than 700 CDs worth of data (0.5 terabytes) for analysis per day. By exploring the microscopic world, B factories reveal
the universe as it existed near the time of its birth.
Steve Sekula, MIT

symmetry - November 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
The Grid Having bought a new toaster, we simply
plug it in: the electric power grid removes the need to also
buy and install a new generator. By analogy, information
technologists refer to “the Grid” when talking about on-
demand computing.
Like its electrical namesake, a computing grid is a mix of

technology, infrastructure, and standards. The technology
is software that allows resource providers (whether
individuals or institutions) to contribute computers,
storage, data, networks, and other resources; it allows
consumers to use them when needed. The infrastructure
comprises the physical hardware and services that must
be maintained and operated for the resource-sharing to
occur. Finally, standards codify the messages that must
be exchanged, and the policies that must be followed, to
allow a grid to function.
The Internet, Web, and Grid are related but distinct technologies. The Internet is the worldwide system of networks that connects many
computers and smaller networks, allowing them all to communicate. The Web is a way of accessing information over the Internet. The
Grid is a way of using the Internet to share and manage computing resources that are distributed around the globe.
Ian Foster, Argonne National Laboratory and the University of Chicago

symmetry - October 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
CP violation Are the laws of nature the same for
matter and antimatter? Physicists use the term "CP" (for
"charge parity") to talk about matter-antimatter symmetry. If
nature treated matter and antimatter alike, then, in physics-
speak, nature would be CP-symmetric. If not, CP is violated.
Experiments have shown that nature's weak force—which is

responsible for the decay of particles—does in fact violate
CP. Yet CP violation poses a mystery.
The big bang should have created equal amounts of matter

and antimatter, with subsequent annihilation leaving neither
behind. And yet, the observable universe has about ten
billion galaxies that consist entirely of matter (protons,
neutrons, and electrons) with no antimatter (antiprotons,
antineutrons, and positrons). Very soon after the big bang,
some forces must have caused the CP violation that
skewed the equality in the number of matter and antimatter
particles and left behind excess matter.
The weak force by itself can only explain a small amount of CP violation, not enough to leave matter for even a single galaxy. Some
other hidden force—not accounted for in our Standard Model of particles and forces—must have been responsible for the extra CP
violation that led to the universe we observe. Current and future particle accelerator experiments are designed to search for sources of
CP violation large enough to account for the all-matter universe around us.
Yosef Nir, Weizmann Institute of Science, Israel

symmetry - September 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
Superconductors are remarkable materials
that conduct electricity without resistance. At very low
temperature, their quantum behavior allows electrons to
pair up in such a way as to avoid the normal resistance-
causing impediments to their motion.
In normal conductors, thermal vibrations and impurities

deflect, or scatter, electrons. This process wastes energy by
generating heat—for example, in the steel-reinforced
aluminum cables of power transmission lines of the
electricity grid. Even very good conductors like pure copper
significantly impede the flow of electrons, producing
resistance and heating the wires.
Normally, two negatively-charged electrons repel each

other. But in a superconductor, electrons behave differently. Two electrons can form a temporary pair when one electron is attracted to
the positive core of an atom just as another electron, attracted by the same atom, is whizzing by. Surprisingly, this combination of
influences eliminates the scattering of both electrons. Billions of times a second, this "Cooper pairing" makes resistance disappear:
frictionless electricity!
Superconductors are important in science, medicine, and industry. Superconducting wires are used in magnets for accelerators like the
Large Hadron Collider, and in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machines at hospitals. The first superconducting cables for
underground electricity transmission lines are also now being installed.
David Larbalestier, Applied Superconductivity Center and Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
University of Wisconsin-Madison

symmetry - August 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
The International Linear Collider is a proposed new
electron-positron collider. Together with the Large Hadron
Collider at CERN, it would allow physicists to explore energy
regions beyond the reach of today's accelerators. At these
energies, researchers anticipate significant discoveries that
will lead to a radically new understanding of what the universe
is made of and how it works. The nature of particle collisions
at the ILC would give it the precision to answer compelling
questions that discoveries at the LHC will raise, from the
identity of dark matter to the existence of extra dimensions.
In the ILC's design, two facing linear accelerators, each 20

kilometers long, hurl beams of electrons and positrons toward
each other at 99.9999999998 percent of the speed of light.
Each beam contains ten billion electrons or positrons
compressed down to a minuscule three nanometer thickness. As the particles hurtle down the collider, superconducting accelerating
cavities operating at temperatures near absolute zero pump more and more energy into them. The beams collide 2000 times every
second in a blazing crossfire that creates a firework of new particles.
The ILC would be designed, funded, managed, and operated as a fully international scientific project.
Neil Calder, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

symmetry - June/July 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
Extra dimensions sound like science fiction, but
they could be part of the real world. And if so, they might help
explain mysteries like why the universe is expanding faster than
expected, and why gravity is weaker than the other forces of
nature.
Three dimensions are all we see -- how could there be any

more? Einstein's general theory of relativity tells us that space
can expand, contract, and bend. If one direction were to contract
down to an extremely tiny size, much smaller than an atom, it
would be hidden from our view. If we could see on small enough
scales, that hidden dimension might become visible.
Imagine a balancing act in which a daredevil walks the cable of a

suspension bridge, only able to move backward and forward, not
left and right, nor up and down. The daredevil experiences only one dimension, but things that live on a smaller scale, such as ants, can
move about in an extra dimension -- circularly around the cable, in this analogy.
String theory requires the existence of extra dimensions. Perhaps we will be fortunate enough to detect them directly in upcoming
experiments, or infer their existence from early-universe cosmology. If so, we will have yet another confirmation of how the universe
extends well beyond our everyday experience.
Sean Carroll, University of Chicago

symmetry - May 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
Neutrino Mixing
Waves describe some of the most extraordinary phenomena
in the world. Waves can be simple--the sound of a flute
playing a sustained, single note--or they can be complicated
mixtures--a musical chord, for example, which is a
combination of many sound waves. Combining two waves of
similar tones produces what physicists call beats. Listen to
two flutes playing the same note, one flute slightly mistuned.
You'll hear a "wah-wah-wah" effect as the sound comes and
goes, because the sound that you hear is a mixture of the
slightly different waves from the flutes interfering with each
other.
Waves also govern the character of neutrinos as they fly

through space. Interference between the waves produces
regular beats, much like the combined notes of the flutes. We
detect the resulting "wah-wah-wah" in properties of the neutrino that appear and disappear. For example, when neutrinos interact with
matter they produce specific kinds of other particles. Catch the neutrino at one moment, and it will interact to produce an electron. A
moment later, it might interact to produce a different particle. "Neutrino mixing" describes the original mixture of waves that produces this
oscillation effect.
Janet Conrad, Columbia University

symmetry - April 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
The Large Hadron Collider is currently
being installed in a 27-kilometer ring buried deep below the
countryside on the outskirts of Geneva, Switzerland. When its
operation begins in 2007, the LHC will be the world’s most
powerful particle accelerator. High-energy protons in two counter-
rotating beams will be smashed together in a search for signatures
of supersymmetry, dark matter and the origins of mass.
The beams are made up of bunches containing billions of protons.

Traveling at a whisker below the speed of light they will be injected,
accelerated, and kept circulating for hours, guided by thousands of
powerful superconducting magnets.
For most of the ring, the beams travel in two separate vacuum
pipes, but at four points they collide in the hearts of the main
experiments, known by their acronyms: ALICE, ATLAS, CMS, and
LHCb. The experiments’ detectors will watch carefully as the
energy of colliding protons transforms fleetingly into a plethora of exotic particles.
The detectors could see up to 600 million collision events per second, with the experiments scouring the data for signs of extremely rare
events such as the creation of the much-sought Higgs boson.
Mike Lamont, CERN

symmetry - March 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
Supersymmetry is a proposed property of the universe. Supersymmetry requires every type of particle to have an
associated supersymmetric particle, called its superpartner. The superpartner is a heavy replica of a particle, with one other significant
difference. All particles are classed as either fermions or bosons. A particle belonging to one class has a superpartner in the other,
thereby "balancing the books" and making nature more symmetric. For example, the superpartner of an electron (a fermion) is called a
selectron (a boson).
Supersymmetry describes a grand dance of particles through the universe, but we can currently see only one partner from each pair. The
unseen particles might be the source of the mysterious "dark matter" in galaxies. Although superpartners have not yet been observed in
nature, they might soon be produced in particle accelerators on Earth.
JoAnne Hewett, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center

symmetry - February 2005 - explain it in 60 seconds
search
E=mc2 Einstein’s famous equation says that mass (m) is equivalent to energy (E). The
recognition that the two quantities are related was Einstein’s stroke of genius. The speed of
light squared (c2 ) comes into the equation to tell us exactly how much energy a given amount
of mass represents.
In the world of subatomic processes, the mass of particles can change into energy in the form
of light, heat or motion. Likewise, energy can also transform into mass. Particle accelerators
exploit this idea by smashing together fast-moving particles. The high energy of these collisions
transforms into new particles, which can have much greater mass than the ones that originally
collided.
Converting mass into energy is the goal of scientists pursuing nuclear fusion. Fusing protons and neutrons together results in a nucleus
with a total mass that is less than the mass of its constituents. The missing mass appears as energy, which can be harnessed—in
principle—for useful power: E=mc 2 !
Mass-energy convertibility has far-reaching consequences. Your car’s engine is powered by fossil fuel, which comes from prehistoric
plants. The plants got their energy from sunlight, which was produced by nuclear fusion in the sun. So your car, and virtually all other
activity on Earth, is ultimately powered by E=mc 2 .
Peter Meyers, Princeton University

symmetry - December 2004/January 2005 - Explain it in 60 Seconds
search
Gravitational Lenses are a useful tool in the belt of the
modern cosmologist: massive bodies deflect light, focusing it toward the
observer and causing distant objects to appear magnified and distorted, or
even as multiple images. Einstein's General Theory of Relativity tells us
exactly how light rays are affected by the warped space around a galaxy or
cluster acting as a lens. Interestingly, the lensing effect is stronger than
expected for the amount of mass we can see. This adds weight to the idea
that the main constituent of galaxies and clusters is an unseen "dark
matter."
The density of a galaxy increases towards its center, much like the thickness
of the base of a wineglass. In fact, a wineglass makes a good model
gravitational lens: look into the glass from the top and through its stem
toward a light to discern the effect. By seeing how it distorts the light, it is
possible to work out the glass' shape and thickness. In the same way,
observing distant galaxies through gravitational lenses allows the density
distribution of the clumpy, transparent dark matter to be mapped out.
Gravitational lensing may not yet be able to tell us what the dark matter is,
but it is telling us where to look.
Phil Marshall, Kavli Institute for Particle Astrophysics and
Cosmology

symmetry - October/November 2004 - Explain it in 60 Seconds
search
Antimatter is made up of particles with equal but
opposite characteristics of everyday particles of
matter. Consider this analogy: dig a hole, and
make a hill with the earth you've excavated. Hole
and hill have equal but opposite characteristics—
the volume of the earth in the hill, and that of the
hole where the earth was removed. For particles,
properties like electrical charge are opposite to
their antiparticles—one positive, one negative.
Also, antimatter will annihilate its matter
counterpart in a burst of energy, just like the hill
will fill the hole, leaving neither.
The universe seems to contain no significant

amounts of antimatter, despite expectations that both should have been created equally during the big bang. So where did all the
antimatter go? One possible explanation could be a subtle and unexpected difference in the properties of matter and antimatter, leading
to a slight excess of matter which survived the initial cataclysm of matter-antimatter annihilation.
Experimenters at CERN, Fermilab, SLAC and KEK are producing antimatter in particle accelerators to search for and study this
difference. Antimatter also has real-life medical applications, such as positron emission tomography—PET scans. But because producing
antimatter even in minuscule quantities is very difficult, it will unfortunately never power any future Starship Enterprise.
Michael Doser, CERN

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Archive: Explain it in 60 Seconds

Scintillators Intensity Frontier

Cherenkov Light Virtual Particles

Charm Quark Neutralino

Particle Accelerators Magnet Quench

Neutrino Masses Z boson

Rare Decays The W boson

http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000253[28/04/2010 04:27:15 ‫]ﻡ‬

is responsible for two of the

Theory Dark Energy

Particle Event String Theory

Positron Dark Matter

Postdocs Acceleration of Particles

X-ray Lasers The Higgs Boson

Elementary Particle Physics The Standard Model

http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000253[28/04/2010 04:27:15 ‫]ﻡ‬

elementary levels? theory that physicists currently

Light Sources Quarks

B factories The Grid

International Linear Collider Extra Dimensions

Neutrino Mixing Large Hadron Collider

Gravitational Lenses Antimatter

http://www.symmetrymagazine.org/cms/?pid=1000253[28/04/2010 04:27:15 ‫]ﻡ‬

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