K Ekkkjfffffffffffffnergy and Work

9
Kinetic Energy and Work

In the weight-lifting competition of the 1996 Olympics,
Andrey Chemerkin lifted a
record-breaking 260.0 kg from
the floor to over his head
(about 2 m). In 1957, Paul
Anderson stooped beneath a
reinforced wood platform,
placed his hands on a short
stool to brace himself, and then
pushed upward on the
platform with his back, lifting
the platform and its load about
a centimeter. On the platform
were auto parts and a safe
filled with lead. The composite
weight of the load was
27 900 N (6270 lb)!
Who did more work

on the objects he
lifted Chemerkin or
Anderson?
The answer is in this
chapter.
226
Introduction
9-1 Introduction
A ski jumper who wants to understand her motion along a curved track is presented
with a special challenge. If she tries to use Newtons laws of motion to predict her
speed at each location along that track, she has to account for the fact that the net
force and her acceleration keep changing as the slope of the track changes. The goal
of this chapter is to devise a way to simplify the analysis of motions like those of our
ski jumper shown in Fig. 9-1.
We can begin by drawing on ideas presented in Chapter 7. There we introduce
two new concepts momentum and impulse and use them to derive an alternate
form of Newtons Second Law known as the impulse momentum theorem. This theo:
rem, expressed in Eq. 7-10, tells us that the impulse J of a moving particle is equal to
its momentum change.
:
J
t2
:
:
F net(t) dt mv
2 mv1
(impulsemomentum theorem).
(7-10)
t1
One of the most useful aspects of the impulse momentum theorem is that we can use
it without having to keep track of the particles position.
Can we derive another alternate form of Newtons law to relate a particles velocity and position changes without keeping track of time? In this chapter we simplify
the analysis of complex motions like that of the skier by proving an analogous theorem called the net work kinetic energy theorem. But, in order to derive our new
theorem we introduce two additional concepts work and kinetic energy.
We will start our development of the new theorem by introducing the concept of
work, W, in analogy to the impulse represented by the integral in Eq. 7-10. Initially we
consider a very simple situation in which a net force acts along the line of motion of a
particle. In this case the concept of work as a one-dimensional analogy to impulse involving position changes rather than time changes would be
W
x2
Fxnet dx
(one-dimensional position analogy to impulse).
(9-1)
x1
Here Fxnet and dx are components of force and infinitesimal position change vectors
along an x axis, and x1 is the initial position of the particle and x2 is its position at a
later time. In order for the integral to be unique and well defined we will also add the
requirement that the component of the force is either constant or only varies with x.
That is, we will consider the integral
x2
Fxnet (x) dx
x1
where the x in parentheses signifies the force on the particle varies with location
along the x axis. After developing the concept of work we introduce the concept of
kinetic energy and then derive the net work kinetic energy theorem for one-dimensional motions. Next we apply the concept of work and the new theorem to the
analysis of some motions that result from the actions of common one-dimensional
forces.
Although we begin with one-dimensional situations, we will extend the equations
we derive to two (and three) dimensions. As part of this process we will also introduce
a method for finding a scalar product of two vectors. Then in Section 9-9 toward the
end of the chapter, we demonstrate how the two-dimensional form of our new net
work kinetic energy theorem enables us to determine the speed of the skier as a
function of her location along a frictionless ramp in a very simple manner.
FIGURE 9-1 It is difficult to use Newtons Second Law to analyze the motion of
a ski jumper traveling down a curved ramp
and predict her velocity at the bottom of
the ramp.
227
228 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

v1
Bead
Wire
9-2 Introduction to Work and Kinetic Energy
v2
Fxnet i
x1
x
x2
r = x = (x 2 x 1) i
FIGURE 9-2 A simple situation showing

a bead on a wire that experiences a net
force that is directed along the wire. The
bead moves in the same direction as the
force.
One-Dimensional Relationship for a Net Force

In order to find an alternative form of Newtons Second Law that relates position and
velocity, suppose our particle is a bead moving along a wire, as in Fig. 9-2. Suppose the
net force on the bead is a combination of an applied force and a friction force that
acts as the bead slides along. We know that if a net force acts on the bead along its direction of motion, its position will change in the direction of the force and its speed
will increase. If the direction of the net force is opposite to that of the beads motion,
the beads speed will decrease.
:
In our example, the force, F net Fxnet i, is directed along the wire as shown in
Fig. 9-2. This force causes the bead to accelerate in the same direction as the force. We
can use Newtons Second Law to relate the force and acceleration components as
Fxnet (x) max,
(9-2)
where m is the beads mass. As the bead moves through a displacement

:
x (x2 x1) i, the force changes the beads velocity from an initial value :
v1 to another value we will call :
v2. Using the definition of acceleration as the rate of velocity
change over a short time interval dt, this gives us
Fxnet (x) max m
dvx
.
dt
In order to relate the velocity and position, we perform two mathematical operations:
First we multiply each term in the equation above by the x-component of velocity, vx.
Second, we use the definition of vx as dx/dt to substitute for vx on the left side of our
new equation. This gives us
Fxnet (x)
dx
dv
mvx x .
dt
dt
(9-3)
Since the beads mass m is constant, we can use the chain rule of differentiation to see
that the term on the right can be rewritten as
mvx
d( 12 mv 2x)
dvx

.
dt
dt
(9-4)
If we substitute the expression on the right side of Eq. 9-4 for the term mvx dvx /dt in
Eq. 9-3, we get
Fxnet (x)
dx
d(1 mv 2x)
2
.
dt
dt
Now we can eliminate dt from Eq. 9-3 by realizing that during the same infinitesimal
time interval dt the x-component of force times the infinitesimal change in x is equal
to the change in the expression 12 mv 2x. This gives us the following equality between
differentials
Fxnet (x) dx d(12 mv 2x).
(9-5)
Because the net force on the bead and its velocity are not necessarily constant over the
full displacement shown in Fig. 9-2, we must integrate both sides of Eq. 9-5 to determine the relationship between position change and velocity change due to our variable
force, so that
Introduction to Work and Kinetic Energy
x2
Fxnet(x) dx
x1
v2 x
v1 x
d(12 mv 2x) 12 mv 22 x 12 mv 21 x.
(9-6)
In summary, by using Newtons Second Law, the definitions of velocity and acceleration, and the rules of calculus, we have derived a new form of the second law that relates how a variable force acting over a distance will change the speed of a particle of
mass m.
Note that the expression on the left side of this equation,
x2
Fxnet (x) dx,
x1
is identical to the expression we developed (in Eq. 9-1) as the one-dimensional (1D)
integral of force over position that is analogous to the integral of force over time used
in the impulse-momentum theorem.
Initial Definitions of Work and Kinetic Energy

The left and right sides of Eq. 9-6 are the basis for two new and very important definitions. We define the integral as the net work, W net, done on a particle it moves from an
initial to a final position, so that
W net
x2
Fxnet (x) dx
(net work definition 1D net force and displacement). (9-7)
x1
If the net force component Fxnet (x) along a line is made up of the sum of several force
components FA x(x) FB x(x) FC x(x) , we see that the contribution of each
force to the net work is
W net
x2
Fxnet (x) dx
x1

x2
(FA x(x) FB x(x) FC x(x) ) dx
x1
x2
FA x(x) dx
x1
x2
FB x(x) dx
x1
x2
FC x(x) dx .
x1
If we define the work associated with a single force Fx (x) as

WA
x2
FA x (x) dx
(definition of work1D single force and displacement),
(9-8)
x1
we see that the net work is given by

W net WA WB WC .
(9-9)
So there are two ways to calculate the net work. One is to sum the force components
before the net work is calculated. The other is to calculate the work associated with
each of the components separately. The net work is then determined by adding up the
work done by each force component.
The right side of Eq. 9-6 tells us how the speed of a particle of mass m is changed
by the net work done on it. This 12 mv2x is the factor that is changed by the work done
on the bead. Because we are talking about translational motion (as distinct from rotational motion), we call this factor translational kinetic energy (or sometimes just
kinetic energy). In the most general sense, kinetic energy is a quantity associated
with motion. However, in this chapter, we limit our discussion to the motion of a
229

single particle, or the center of mass of systems of particles and extended objects.
When we turn our attention to the study of thermodynamics later in the book, we will
have to revisit the concept of kinetic energy to take into account the fact that particles
within objects may well be moving, even if the center of mass is not. So we define the
translational kinetic energy, K, of a particle-like object in terms of its mass and the
square of the speed of its center of mass as
K 12 mv 2x
(definition of kinetic energy for 1D motion).
(9-10)
According to this definition the term on the left side of Eq. 9-6 given by
represents the change in the objects translational kinetic energy.
Using our new definitions for net work and translational kinetic energy, Eq. 9-6
can be rewritten in streamlined form as
1
1
2
2
2 mv 2 x 2 mv 1 x
W net K2 K1 K
(the net work-energy theorem).
(9-11)
Equation 9-11 is known as the net work-kinetic energy theorem. This theorem tells us
that when a net force acts along the direction of motion of a particle that moves from
one position to another, the particles kinetic energy changes by 21 mv22 x 12mv21 x.
Equation 9-11 is known as a theorem because Eqs. 9-6 and 9-9 were derived mathematically from Newtons Second Law. It is analogous in many ways to the impulsemomentum theorem (also derived from Newtons Second Law) that relates the action
of a net force over time to the change in momentum of a particle.
Units of Work and Energy

The SI unit for both work and kinetic energy (and every other type of energy) is the
joule (J). It is defined directly from K 12 mv2 (Eq. 9-10) in terms of the units for mass
and velocity as 1 kg m2/s2. It is easy to show that the units for work, which is the
product of a force in newtons (N) and a distance in meters (m), are N m, which also
reduce to 1 kg m2/s2. In summary,
1 joule = 1 J = 1 kg m2/s2 = 1 N m
(SI unit for energy).
Other units of energy which you may encounter are the erg (or g cm2/s2) and the
foot-pound.
Generalizing Work and Kinetic Energy Concepts

So far we have only related position and velocity for the very special case of a net
force acting along a line of motion. What if the forces on a particle that make up the
net force have components that do not lie along the direction of motion of our body
of interest? If forces do not act parallel to a particles displacement, how can we multiply and then integrate two vectors such as force and displacement to calculate work?
The remainder of this chapter is devoted to understanding how to calculate the
work done by single forces in some common situations. This will enable us to apply
the net work-kinetic energy theorem to relate how changes in a particles position due
to a net force are related to changes in its speed.
R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 1 : A particle moves along an x axis. Does the kinetic energy
of the particle increase, decrease, or remain the same if the particles velocity changes (a) from
3 m/s to 2 m/s and (b) from 2 m/s to 2 m/s? (c) In each situation, is the net work done on
the particle positive, negative, or zero?
The Concept of Physical Work
9-3 The Concept of Physical Work

So far we have only discussed the work done on small particles with no internal
structure. Now we would like to apply the concept of work to changes in motion of
familiar extended objects. If we push on an object that deforms and changes its
shape as it moves, then its impossible to describe its motion in terms of a single displacement. For this reason, when we apply the concept of work to extended objects,
we are assuming that these objects are particle-like as defined in Section 2-1. Thus,
when we refer to doing work on an object, we assume the object is rigid enough that
the work done distorting it is negligible compared to the work that displaces its center of mass.
Now lets get back to work. In casual conversation, most of us think of work as an
expenditure of effort. It takes effort to push a rigid box down the hallway or to lift it.
But you also expend effort to hold a heavy object steady in midair or to shove against
a massive object that wont budge. If we examine our expression for work (Eq. 9-8), we
see that at least for one-dimensional motion, work is given by the product of the components of a force along the line of motion of a particle and the particles displacement
along that line. This means that even though shoving really hard on a massive object
that is at rest takes a lot of effort, no physical work is done on it unless it starts to move
in the direction of the force. As we examine ways to define work in more general situations, we will find that the definition of work in physics requires that
W Fx x
(amount of work done by a steady force along a line of motion).
AP
AJAX
INTRODUCTION
TO PHYSICS
AP
AJAX
INTRODUCTION
TO PHYSICS
AP
INTRODUCTION
TO PHYSICS
AJAX
(a)
FIFTH
FIFTH
EDITION EDITION
We have defined work in such a way that it requires a force and a displacement.
How do we know how much work is done? Lets consider how much effort it takes to
push a heavy, very rigid box down a hallway with a steady force. In this special case
the force and the displacement of the box are in the same direction. In the next section we will consider what happens when the force acting on an object is in the opposite direction as its displacement.
Suppose you push the box to the right so the x-component of its displacement is
x x2 x1. Now imagine that you use the same steady force to push the same box
through twice the distance so its displacement component is 2x. How much more effort did this take? How much effort would it take to just watch the box? The answers
to these questions give us important insights into the nature of work. Namely, for a
given force the magnitude of physical work should be proportional to the distance
that an object is moved. This is consistent with the way, we have defined work so
that it is proportional to the distance an object moves under the influence of forces.
Imagine pushing another larger box through a rightward displacement of x using twice the force. How much more effort would you guess it takes to push the larger
box than it takes to push the smaller box? You can get a feel for this by pushing one
and then two larger textbooks of identical mass across a tabletop as shown in Fig. 9-3.
If you took a moment to do this experiment, you found that it takes about twice
:
the effort to push two books through a displacement of x using a force of 2 Fx as it
:
did to push one book through the same displacement with a force of Fx. We can conclude that the amount (that is, the absolute value) of work done is not just proportional to the distance an object is moved it is also proportional to the magnitude of
the force acting on the object. The concepts of proportionality between displacement
force and the amount of physical work done can be summarized by the equation
FIFTH
EDITION
No work is done on a rigid object by a force unless there is a component of the force along
the objects line of motion.
(b)
FIGURE 9-3 Pushing one and then two

textbooks across a tabletop with a small
but steady force.
231

In the next section we will use the mathematical definition of work to consider
how much work is done under the influence of a steady force and also the circumstances under which work is positive or negative.
R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 2 : The figure shows four situations in which a force acts on
x or doesnt budge as india box while the box either slides to the right with a displacement :
cated. The force on each box is shown. Rank the situations according to the amount of the work
done by the force on the box during its displacement from greatest to least.
Fy = (2 N) j
Fx = (1 N) i
Fx = (2 N) i
Fx = (3 N) i
x = (1 m) i
x = (0 m) i
x = (1 m) i
x = (2 m) i
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
9-4 Calculating Work for Constant Forces

One-Dimensional Forces and Motions Along the Same Line
Lets start by reconsidering the formal definition of the work associated with onedimensional motion (presented in Eq. 9-8),
W
x2
Fx(x) dx
(definition of work for a 1D motion and force).
(9-12)
x1
As we established in Section 9-1, Fx (x) denotes the x-component of a force that can
vary with x. However, if the force does not vary with x, then we can simply denote
Fx (x) as Fx and take it out of the integral. This allows us to write
W
x2
Fx dx Fx (x2 x1) Fx x,
x1
Origin
so that
Fx = +50 N
x1 = 0 m
(a)
v1x
0m
W Fx x
(work done by a constant force along a line of motion).
(9-13)
v1x = (0 m/s) i
Fx = 50 N
x1 = +1.0 m
Origin
(b)
FIGURE 9-4 (a) A puck is pushed from

rest with a positive force component. (b) A
puck that is already moving in a positive
direction is pushed with a force that has a
negative force component along a chosen
x axis.
Positive vs. Negative Work At the end of the last section we presented the equation
W Fx x to represent the amount of work done on a rigid object. This is an informal expression we developed by imagining the effort needed to slide rigid objects
on a table or down a hall. Equation 9-13 that we just derived is very similar except it
has no absolute value signs. Since both Fx and x represent components of vectors
along an axis, either component can be positive or negative. If this is the case, then the
sign of the work, W, calculated as the products of these components can also be positive and negative. This raises some questions. How can we tell when the work done by
a force will be positive? Negative? Does this mean that work is a vector component?
To answer these questions lets consider the work done on a puck that is free to move
along a line on a sheet of ice with no friction forces on it.
Imagine that the puck is initially at rest at your chosen origin. When you push it
to the right with a steady horizontal force component of Fx 50 N, it speeds up
until its x-position is 1 m (Fig. 9-4a). The work you do on the puck is positive since it
is given by
W Fx x Fx (x2 x1) (50 N)(1 m 0 m) 50 J
(speeding up).
Calculating Work for Constant Forces
Suppose that now as the puck is moving away from the origin along your chosen
positive x axis, you suddenly take your other hand and push on it in the opposite direction with a steady horizontal force component of Fx 50 N. Since you are pushing the puck in a direction opposite to its motion, it starts slowing down and reaches a
zero velocity at a distance of 2.0 m from the origin (Fig. 9-4b). In this case the work
you do on the puck while slowing it down is negative since it is given by
W Fx x Fx(x2 x1) (50 N)(2 m 1 m) 50 J
(slowing down).
If we consider many similar situations with different types of forces acting, we can
make the following general statement about the sign of the work done by a single
force or net force acting on the center of mass of a rigid object:
POSITIVE
VS. N EGATIVE WORK: If a single (or net) force has a component that acts in the
direction of the objects displacement, the work that the force does is positive. If a single (or
net) force has a component that acts in a direction opposite to the objects displacement,
the work it does is negative.
Work Is a Scalar Quantity Recall that in Section 2-2 we defined a scalar (unlike the
component of a vector) to be a quantity that is independent of coordinate systems.
Based on this definition, we can see that work is a scalar quantity even though it can
be positive or negative. If we rotate our x axis by 180 so that all the components of
force and displacement in our puck example above change sign, the sign of the work
(which is the product of components) would not change sign. So even though there
are directions associated with both force and displacement, there is no direction associated with the positive or negative work done by a force on an object. Therefore,
work is a scalar quantity.
Work Done by a Gravitational Force

We next examine the work done on an object by a particular type of constant force
namely, the gravitational force. Suppose a particle-like object of mass m, such as
a tomato, is thrown upward with initial speed of v1 y as in Fig. 95a. As it rises, it is
:
slowed by a gravitational force F grav that acts downward in the direction opposite the
:
tomatos motion. We expect that F grav does negative work on the tomato as it rises
because the force is in the direction opposite the motion.
To verify this, lets choose our y axis to be positive in the upward direction, so that
the y-component of the gravitational force (acts downward) is given by Fygrav mg.
We calculate the work done on the tomato as W grav Fygravy where the y-component
of displacement is given by y y2 y1.
Since during the rise y2 is greater than y1, y is positive. The gravitational force
component is negative and so we can write
W grav mg(y2 y1) mg y
(rising object).
(9-14)
After the object has reached its maximum height it begins falling back down. We
expect the work done by the gravitational force to be positive in this case because the
force and motion are in the same direction. Here y2 is less than y1 (Fig. 9-5b). Hence
both the y-component of the gravitational force Fygrav and displacement y y2 y1
are negative. This gives us an expression for positive work of
W grav mg y
(falling object).
(9-15)
Thus, as we saw for the puck on the ice, the work done by the gravitational force
is positive when the force and the displacement of the tomato are in the same direction and the work done by the force is negative when the force and displacement are
in opposite directions.
y
Tomato
F grav
Tomato
F grav
(a)
y
(b)
FIGURE 9-5 If the only force acting on a

tomato is gravitational: (a) As the tomato
rises, the gravitational force does negative
work on the object. (b) As the tomato falls
downward, the gravitational force does
positive work on it.
233
TO U C H STO N E EX A M PLE 9-1:
Crepe Crate
y
During a storm, a crate of crepe is sliding across a slick, oily parking

x (3.0 m)i while a steady wind
lot through a displacement :
:
pushes against the crate with a force F (2.0 N)i . The situation
and coordinate axes are shown in Fig. 9-6.
(a) How much work does this force from the wind do on the crate
during the displacement?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is that, because we can treat
the crate as a particle and because the wind force is constant
(steady) in both magnitude and direction during the displacement, we can use Eq. 9-13 (W Fx x) to calculate the work,
W Fx x
(2.0 N)(3.0 m)
(Answer)
6.0 J.
FIGURE 9-6 A constant

:
F
x
x
net force F net slows a crate

down as it undergoes a displacement :
x.
(b) If the crate has a kinetic energy of 10 J at the beginning of

displacement :
x?
x , what is its kinetic energy at the end of :
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is that, because the force
does negative work on the crate, it reduces the crates kinetic energy.
Using the work-kinetic energy theorem in the form of Eq. 9-11,
we have
K2 K1 W 10 J (6.0 J) 4.0 J.
(Answer)
Because the kinetic energy is decreased to 4.0 J, the crate has been
slowed.
So, the winds force does negative 6.0 J of work on the crate.
x=0
Fxspring = 0
Block
attached
to spring
9-5 Work Done by a Spring Force

x
0
(a)
x positive
x positive
F negative
Fxspring (x)
(b)
x negative
x negative
F positive
Fxspring (x)
x
x
0
(c )
FIGURE 9-7 One end of a spring is attached to a fixed wall and the other end to
a block that is free to slide. (a) The origin
of an x axis is located at the point where
the relaxed spring is connected to the
block. (b) The block and spring are given a
positive displacement. Note the direction
:
of the restoring force F xspring(x) exerted by
the spring. (c) The spring is compressed by
a negative amount x. Again, note the direction of the restoring force.
So far, we have limited our discussion to the work done by constant forces that do not
change with position or time. Our goal in this section and the next is to explore how
to calculate the work done by variable forces. A very common one-dimensional variable force is the spring force. The spring force is of great interest because many forces
in our natural and man-made surroundings have the same mathematical form as the
spring force. Examples include the interaction between atoms bound in a solid, the
flexing of a bridge under the weight of vehicles, and the sway of a building during an
earthquake as long as displacements remain small. Thus, by examining this one idealized force, you can gain an understanding of many phenomena.
As you may have experienced, the magnitude of the force exerted by a spring
increases when it is stretched or compressed more. Figure 9-7a shows a spring in its
relaxed state that is, neither compressed nor extended. One end is fixed, and a rigid
block is attached to the other, free end. If we stretch the spring by pulling the block to
the right, as in Fig. 9-7b, the spring pulls back on the block toward the left. (Because a
springs force acts to restore the relaxed state, it is sometimes said to be a restoring
force.) If we compress the spring by pushing the block to the left, as in Fig. 9-7c, the
spring now pushes on the block back toward the right.
:
To a good approximation for many springs, the force F xspring exerted by it is
:
proportional to the displacement x of the free end from its relaxed position. As
:
usual, the fact that F xspring depends on x is symbolized by writing it as a function of x,
: spring
Fx
(x). If its displacement is not too large, many spring-like objects have a spring
force given by
:
F xspring (x) k :
x
(Hookes law for a 1D ideal spring).
(9-16)
This law is named after Robert Hooke, an English scientist of the late 1600s. Since
Hookes law is based on the measured behavior of specific objects, it does not have
the same status as Newtons laws.
Work Done by a Spring Force

:
x (Eq. 9-16) indicates that the spring force is

The minus sign in F xspring (x) k :
always opposite in direction from the displacement of the free end so the force is
restoring. The constant of proportionality k is called the spring constant. It is always
positive and is a measure of the stiffness of the spring. The larger k is, the stiffer the
spring that is, the stronger will be its pull or push for a given displacement. The SI
unit for k is the N/m.
In Fig. 9-7, an x axis has been placed parallel to the length of a spring, with the
origin (x 0) at the position of the free end when the spring is in its relaxed state. For
:
x in compothis coordinate system and arrangement, we can write F xspring (x) k :
nent form as
Fxspring (x) kx
(Hookes law for x 0 in the relaxed state).
(9-17)
The equation correctly describes ideal spring behavior. It tells us that if x is positive
(the spring is stretched toward the right on the x axis), then the component
Fxspring (x) is negative (it is a pull toward the left). If x is negative (the spring is compressed toward the left), then the component Fxspring (x) is positive (it is a push
toward the right). Also note that Hookes law gives us a linear relationship between
Fx and x.
Work Done by a Spring Force

In the situation shown in Fig. 9-7, the spring force components and displacements lie
along the same line, so we can substitute the spring force in the more general
expression presented in Eq. 9-8 to determine the work done by a one-dimensional
variable force. We get
W spring
x2
Fxspring (x) dx.
(Eq. 9-8)
x1
To apply this equation to the work done by the spring force as the block in Fig. 9-7a
moves, let us make two simplifying assumptions about the spring and block. (1) The
spring is massless; that is, its mass is negligible compared to the blocks mass. (2) The
spring is ideal so it obeys Hookes law exactly. Making these simplifying assumptions
might seem to make the results unreal. But for many interesting cases, these simplifications give us results that agree fairly well with experimental findings.
Back to the integral. We use Hookes law (Eq. 9-16) to substitute kx for
the component Fxspring (x).We also pull k out of the integral since it is constant. Thus,
we get
W spring
x2
(kx)dx k
x1
(12 k)[x 2] xx21
x2
x dx
x1
12 k(x 22
(9-18)
x 21),
so the work done on the block by the spring force as the block moves is
W spring 12 kx 21 12 kx 22
(work by a spring force).
(9-19)
This work W spring, done by the spring force, can have a positive or negative value,
depending on whether the block is moving toward or away from its zero position. This
is quite similar to the way the gravitational work done on the tomato in the previous
section changes as the tomato rises and falls.
Note that the final position x2 appears in the second term on the right side of
Eq. 9-19. Therefore,
235

The work done by the spring force on the block W spring is positive if the block moves closer
to the relaxed position (x 0). The work done by the spring force on the block is negative
if the block moves farther away from x 0. It is zero if the block ends up at the same distance from x 0.
R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 3 : For three situations, the initial and final positions, along

the x axis for the block in Fig. 9-7 are, respectively, (a) 3 cm, 2 cm; (b) 2 cm, 3 cm; and (c)
2 cm, 2 cm. In each situation, is the work done by the spring force on the block positive, negative, or zero?
Pralines and a Spring
A package of spicy Cajun pralines lies on a frictionless floor, attached to the free end of a spring in the arrangement of Fig. 9-7a.
An applied force of magnitude F app 4.9 N would be needed to
hold the package stationary at x2 12 mm (Fig. 9-7b).
Now, with the package at x3 17 mm, Eq. 9-19 yields
(a) How much work does the spring force do on the package if the
package is pulled rightward from x1 0 to x3 17 mm?
(b) Next, the package is moved leftward from x3 17 mm to

x4 12 mm. How much work does the spring force do on the
package during this displacement? Explain the sign of this work.
S O L U T I O N A K e y I d e a here is that as the package moves

from one position to another, the spring force does work on it as
given by Eq. 9-19. We know that the initial position x1 is 0 and
the final position x3 is 17 mm, but we do not know the spring constant k.
We can probably find k with Eq. 9-16 (Hookes law), but we
need a second K e y I d e a to use it: if the package were held stationary at x2 12 mm, the spring force would have to balance the
applied force (by Newtons Second Law). Thus, the x-component of
the spring force Fx spring would have to be 4.9 N (toward the left in
Fig. 9-7b), so Eq. 9-16 gives us
k
F xspring
x2

4.9 N
12 103 m
408 N/m.
W spring 12 k x 23 12 (408 N/m)(17 103 m)2

0.059 J 59 mJ
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is the first one we noted in

part (a). Now x3 17 mm and x4 12 mm where x3 and x4 are
two positions of the spring relative to its equilibrium position. They
do not represent displacements. Eq. 9-19 yields
Ws 12 kx 23 12 kx 42 12 k(x 23 x 24)
12 (408 N/m)[(17 103 m)2 (12 103 m)2]

0.030 J 30 mJ.
(Answer)
This work done on the block by the spring force is positive because
the block ends up closer to the springs relaxed position.
Cumin Canister
In Fig. 9-8, a cumin canister of mass m 0.40 kg slides across a horizontal frictionless counter with velocity :
v (0.50 m/s)i . It then
runs into and compresses a spring of spring constant k 750 N/m.
When the canister is momentarily stopped by the spring, by what
amount x is the spring compressed?
SOLUTION
(Answer)
There are three K e y I d e a s here:
1.
The work W spring done on the canister by the spring force is related to the requested displacement x x2 x1 by Eq. 9-19
(W spring 12 kx 21 12 kx 22).
2.
The work W spring is also related to the kinetic energy of the

canister by Eq. 9-11 (W net K2 K1).
k
Frictionless
FIGURE 9-8 A canister of mass m moves at velocity :

v toward a
spring with spring constant k.
3.
The canisters kinetic energy has an initial value of K1 12 mv 2x

and a value of zero when the canister is momentarily at rest.
Work for a One-Dimensional Variable forceGeneral Considerations
Putting the first two of these ideas together, and noting that
x1 0 here since the spring is initially uncompressed, we write the
work-kinetic energy theorem for the canister as
K2 K1 12 kx 22.
Substituting according to the third idea makes this
0 12 mv 2x 12 kx 22.
x2
mv2x

k
1.2 10
2
(0.40 kg)(0.50 m/s)2

750 N/m
1.2 cm.
We reject x2 1.2 cm as a solution, since clearly the mass moves
to the left as it compresses the spring. So
Simplifying, solving for x, and substituting known data then give us
x x2 x1
1.2 cm 0 cm
1.2 cm.
9-6 Work for a One-Dimensional Variable

Force General Considerations
Calculating Work for Well-Behaved Forces
In the previous section, we were able to find the work done by our spring force using
calculus to perform the integration called for in Eq. 9-8. This is because the spring
force is a well-behaved, continuous mathematical function that can be integrated. If
:
you know the function F x (x), you can substitute it into Eq. 9-8, introduce the proper
limits of integration, carry out the integration, and thus find the work. (Appendix E
contains a list of common integrals.) In summary, whenever a one-dimensional variable force is a function that can be integrated using the rules of calculus, the use of
Eq. 9-8 is the preferred way to find the work done by the force on an object that
moves along that same line.
Calculating Work Using Numerical Integration

Suppose that instead of a spring force, our variable force on an object is caused by
someone pushing and pulling erratically on the bead sliding along a wire depicted in
Fig. 9-2. In that case, the force will probably not vary with x the way a familiar mathematical function does, so we cannot use the rules of calculus to perform our integration. Whenever this is the case, we can use numerical methods to examine the variable
force during small displacements where the force is approximately constant. We can
then calculate the work done during each small displacement, and we can add each
contribution to the work together to determine the total work. In this situation we are
doing a numerical integration.
Lets start our exploration of numerical integration by considering the x-component
of a one-dimensional force that varies as a particle moves. A general plot of such a onedimensional variable force is shown in Fig. 9-9a. One method for finding the work done
on the particle is to divide the distance between the initial location of a particle, x1,
and its final location, xN, into N small steps of width x. We can choose a large N so that
:
the values of x are small enough so the force component along the x axis Fx (x) is reasonably constant over that interval. Let Fx n(x) be the component representing the average value of Fx (x) within the nth interval. As shown in Fig. 9-9b or c, Fx n(x) is the
height of the nth strip. The value of x for the nth strip is given by xn (n 12) x, where
x (xN x 1)/N.
(Answer)
237

Fx(x)
< >
Wj = Fx n x
Fx(x)
n
1
0 x0
FIGURE 9-9 A particle only moves in

one dimension. (a) A one-dimensional
force component Fx(x) is plotted against
the displacement xN x1 of the particle.
(b) Same as (a) but with the area under
the curve divided into narrow strips. (c)
Same as (b) but with the area divided into
narrower strips. (d) The limiting case. The
work done by the force is given in Eq. 9-8
and is represented by the shaded area
between the curve and the x axis and
between x1 and x N .
xN
< Fx n >
0 x0
x
(b)
(a)
Fx(x)
xN
xN
Fx(x)
N
n
12
0 x0
xN
x
(c)
0 x0
(d)
With Fx n taken to be constant, the small increment of work Wn done by the
force in the nth interval is approximately given by Eq. 9-13 as
Wn
Fx n x.
(9-20)
Referring to the most darkly shaded region in Fig. 9-9b or c, we see that Wn is then
equal to the area of the nth rectangular strip.
To approximate the total work W done by the force as the particle moves from x 0
to xN, we add the areas of all the strips between x 1 and xN in Fig. 9-9c,
W
Wn n1
Fx n(x) x.
n1
(9-21)
This is not an exact calculation of the actual work done because the broken skyline
formed by the tops of the rectangular strips in Fig. 9-9b (representing the Fx n s as
:
constants) only approximates the actual curve of F x(x).
If needed in a particular situation we can make the approximation better by reducing the strip width x and using more strips, as in Fig. 9-9c. Once the strip width is sufficiently small, Eq. 9-21 can be used to compute the total work done by the variable force.
Defining the Integral

It is interesting to note that in the limit where the strip width approaches zero, the
number of strips then becomes infinitely large and we approach an exact result,
N
Fn x(x) x.

x : 0 n1
W lim
(9-22)
This limit is precisely what we mean by the integral of the function Fx (x) between
the limits x0 and xN. Thus, Eq. 9-22 becomes
W
xN
Fx (x) dx
(work done by a variable force in one dimension).
(Eq. 9-8)
x1
:
Geometrically, the work is equal to the area between the Fx (x) curve and the x axis,
taken between the limits x 0 and xN (shaded in Fig. 9-9d). Remember that whenever Fx
is negative, the area between the graph of Fx and the x axis is also negative.
Force and Displacement in More Than One Dimension
239
Work on a Stone
A 2.0 kg stone moves along an x axis on a horizontal frictionless

surface, accelerated by a force Fx (x) that varies with the stones position as shown in Fig. 9-10.
Recall that the area of a triangle is 12 (base)(height). The work

W0:5 that was done on the stone from x1 0 and x2 5 m is then
W0:5 12(2 m)(5 N) (2 m)(5 N) 12(1 m)(5 N)
17.5 J.
Fx (N)
5
(b) The stone starts from rest at x 0. What is its speed at x 8 m?
Fx (x)
3
1
6
1
4 5
8 x (m)
FIGURE 9-10 A graph

showing the variation of a
one-dimensional force
component with a stones
position.
2
4
(a) How much work is done on the stone by the force as the stone
moves from its initial point at x1 0 to x 2 5 m?
S O L U T I O N A K e y I d e a is that the work done by a single
one-dimensional force is given by Eq. 9-8:
W
(Answer)
x2
Fx (x) dx.
x1
Here the limits are x1 0 and x2 5 m, and Fx (x) is given by

Fig. 9-10. A second K e y I d e a is that we can easily evaluate the
integral graphically from Fig. 9-10. To do so, we find the area between the plot of Fx (x) and the x axis, between the limits x1 0 and
x2 5 m. Note that we can split that area into three parts: a right
triangle at the left (from x 0 to x 2 m), a central rectangle
(from x 2 m to x 4 m), and a triangle at the right (from
x 4 m to x 5 m).
S O L U T I O N A K e y I d e a here is that the stones speed is related to its kinetic energy, and its kinetic energy is changed because
of the work done on the stone by the force. Because the stone is
initially at rest, its initial kinetic energy K1 is 0. If we write its final
kinetic energy at x 8 m as K3 12 mv 23, then we can write the
work-kinetic energy theorem of Eq. 9-11 (K3 K1 W) as
1
2
2 mv 3
0 W0:8,
(9-23)
where W0:8 is the work done on the stone from x1 0 to x3 8 m.

A second K e y I d e a is that, as in part (a), we can find the
work graphically from Fig. 9-10 by finding the area between the
plotted curve and the x axis. However, we must be careful about
signs. We must take an area to be positive when the plotted curve is
above the x axis and negative when it is below the x axis. We already know that work W0:5 17.5 J, so completing the calculation
of the area gives us
W0:8 W0:5 W5:8
17.5 J 12 (1 m)(4 N) (1 m)(4 N) 12 (1 m)(4 N)
9.5 J.
Substituting this and m 2.0 kg into Eq. 9-23 and solving for v3, we
find
9-7 Force and Displacement in More

Than One Dimension
In this section we will explore a quite general situation in which a particle moves in a
curved three-dimensional path while acted upon by a three-dimensional force that
could vary with the position of the particle and might not act in the same direction as
the particles displacement. How can we calculate the work done on the particle by
the force in this much more complex situation?
Before undertaking this more general treatment of work, we will actually start our
exploration with a simple example of the work done by a constant two-dimensional
force acting on a sled that is moving in only one dimension. Our simple example will
lead us to conclude that we need to devise a general method for finding work as the
product of two vectors.
v3 3.1 m/s.
(Answer)

Work Done by a Force Applied at an Angle
(a)
+y
(Fy) j = F sin j
(Fx) i = F cos i
(b)
FIGURE 9-11 (a) A sled is pulled by a

rope that makes an angle with the
ground as it moves toward the left. (b) The
:
components of the pulling force F along a
positive x axis and perpendicular to it.
Imagine that you are pulling a loaded sled with no friction present Fig. 9-11a. You
hold the rope handle of the sled at some angle relative to the ground. You pull as
hard as you can and the sled starts to move. However, you find that you are getting
tired quickly and still have a significant distance to go. What would you do? Is the situation hopeless? One thing that you could try is to change the angle at which you pull
on the handle of the sled. Should you make the angle larger or smaller?
As you probably know from your everyday experiences, you must pull more or
less horizontally on a heavy object to pull it along. If you make the angle smaller,
then you will pull the sled more efficiently. As discussed in Chapter 6, is because the
perpendicular force component can only change the direction of the motion (and in
this situation we assume the sled glides on top of packed snow that prevents it from
moving down). Only the component of a force along the line of motion is effective in
changing an objects speed. So, by the work-kinetic energy theorem, it must be that
only the component of a force along the line of motion contributes to the work done
by the force. Saying this more formally:
To calculate the work done on an object by a force during a displacement, we use only the
component of force along the line of the objects displacement. The component of force
perpendicular to the displacement does zero work.
From Fig. 9-11b, we see that we can write the x-component of the force Fx in terms of
the magnitude of the force and the angle between the force and the positive x axis.
That is,
:
Fx F cos .
(9-24)
To find the work done, we can use Eq. 9-13 (W Fxx) for a constant force to get
90
FA
'
r
180
W Fx x ( F cos ) x
0
r axis
90
'
0
r axis
(9-25)
where x is the sleds displacement. Since the sled is moving to the left in the direction of the pull, both Fx and x are positive in our coordinate system and so the work
done by the force is positive.
We can derive a similar but more general expression for the work done by a twodimensional force along any line of displacement r: (that does not necessarily lie
along a chosen axis). To do this we must always take the angle between the force and
the direction of the displacement (rather than the direction of a positive axis). In this
case the expression for the work becomes
FA'
270
(a)
FB
(work for displacement parallel to an x axis),
180
W F r: cos
(work in terms of angle between r: and F ).
(9-26)
270
FB'
(b)
FIGURE 9-12 (a) If force F A or FA has
As shown in Fig. 9-12, using the angle between the force and displacement and
absolute values for both, the sign of the work comes out correctly.
an angle 90
or 270
with respect
to the displacement vector r: of an object, its component relative to the displace:
ment will be positive. (b) If a force FB or
:
F B has an angle 90
270
with respect to the displacement r: of an object,
its components relative to the displacement will be negative.
Why the Sign of the Work Is Correct in Eq. 9-26 As shown in Fig. 9-12, if we set the
:
angle in W F r: cos (Eq. 9-26) to any value less than 90, then cos is positive and so is the work. If is greater than 90 (up to 180), then cos is negative and
so is the work. Referring to Fig. 9-11, we see that this way of determining the sign of
the work done by an applied force is equivalent to determining the sign based on
whether there is a component of force in the same or opposite direction as the motion. (Can you see why the work is zero when 90?)
Force and Displacement in More Than One Dimension

You can use similar consideration to determine the sign of work for 180
270
and for 270

360
. Notice that once again it is the relative directions of the force
and displacement vectors that determine the work done. As we already stated, no matter which way you choose to have the coordinate system pointing, the work for a particular process (including its sign) stays the same. Thus, work is indeed a scalar quantity.
Cautions: There are two restrictions to using the equations above to calculate
work done on an object by a force. First, the force must be a constant force; that is, it
must not change in magnitude or direction as the object moves through its displacement r: . Second, the object must be particle-like. This means that the object must be
rigid and not change shape as its center of mass moves.
Net Work Done by Several Forces Suppose the net force on a rigid object is given by
:
:
:
:
F net FA FB FC , and we want to calculate the net work done by these
forces. As we discussed earlier, it is simple to prove mathematically that the net work
done on the object is the sum of the work done by the individual forces. We can calcu:
late the net work in two ways: (1) We can use WA F A :
r cos (Eq. 9-26) where
:
is the angle between the direction of FA and the objects displacement to find the
work done by each force and then sum those works. Work is a scalar quantity, so summing the work done by the forces is as simple as adding up positive and negative
:
numbers. (2) Alternatively, we can first find the net force F net by finding the vector
:
:
sum of the individual forces. Then we can use W F r cos (Eq. 9-26), substi:
:
tuting the magnitude of F net for the magnitude of F , and the angle between the directions of the net force and the displacement for .
Work Done by a Three-Dimensional Variable Force

In general, even if a force varies with position, a particle can move through an infini:
tesimal displacement dr: while being acted on by a three-dimensional force F ( :
r ).
The displacement can be expressed in rectangular coordinates as
dr: dxi dyj dzk .
(9-27)
If we restrict ourselves to considering forces with rectangular components that depend only on the position component of the particle along a given axis, then
:
F(:
r ) Fx (x)i Fy (y)j Fz(z)k .
(9-28)
Given the fact that no work is done unless there is a force component along the line
of displacement, we can write the infinitesimal amount of work dW done on the parti:
cle by the force F ( :
r ) as
dW Fx(x) dx Fy(y) dy Fz(z) dz.
(9-29)
The work W done by F while the particle moves from an initial position :
r 1 with coordinates (x1, y1, z1) to a final position :
r 2 with coordinates (x2, y2, z2) is then
W
:
r2
:
r1
dW
x2
Fx (x) dx
x1
y2
Fy (y) dy
y1
z2
Fz (z) dz.
(9-30)
z1
Note that if F ( :
r ) has only an x-component, then the y and z terms in the equation above are zero, so this equation reduces to
W
x2
x1
which is known as a line integral.
Fx(x) dx.
(Eq. 9-8)
241
R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 4 : The figure shows four situations in which a force acts on a

box while the box slides rightward a distance :
x across a frictionless floor. The magnitudes
of the forces are identical; their orientations are as shown. Rank the situations according
to the work done on the box by the force during the displacement, from most positive to most
negative.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Sliding a Safe
Figure 9-13a shows two industrial spies sliding an initially stationary

225 kg floor safe a displacement r: of magnitude 8.50 m, along
:
a straight line toward their truck. The push F 1 of Spy 001 is 12.0 N, di:
rected at an angle of 30 downward from the horizontal; the pull F 2
of Spy 002 is 10.0 N, directed at 40 above the horizontal. The magnitudes and directions of these forces do not change as the safe moves,
and the floor and safe make frictionless contact.
W1 F 1 r: cos 1 (12.0 N)(8.50 m)(cos 30

)
88.33 J,
:
and the work done by F 2 is

:
W2 F2 r: cos 2 (10.0 N)(8.50 m)(cos 40

)
65.11 J.
Spy 002
Spy 001
Thus, the work done by both forces is

N
Safe
r
W W1 W2 88.33 J 65.11 J
F2
153.4 J 153 J.
40
30
During the 8.50 m displacement, therefore, the spies transfer 153 J

of energy to the kinetic energy of the safe.
F grav F1
(b)
(a)
FIGURE 9-13 (a) Two spies move a floor safe through displacement r . (b) A free-body diagram showing the forces on the safe.
:
(a) What is the work done on the safe by forces F1 and F 2 during
the displacement r: ?
S O L U T I O N We use two K e y I d e a s here. First, the work W
done on the safe by the two forces is the sum of the works they do
individually. Second, because we can treat the safe as a particle and
the forces are constant in both magnitude and direction, we can use
Eq. 9-26,
:
(Answer)
(b) During the displacement, what is the work W grav done on the
:
safe by the gravitational force F grav and what is the work W Normal
:
done on the safe by the normal force N from the floor?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a is that, because these forces are
constant in both magnitude and direction, we can find the work
they do with Eq. 9-26. Thus, with mg as the magnitude of the gravitational force, we write
and
(W F r cos ),
:
to calculate those works. Note: cos( ) cos( ) From this and the
:
free-body diagram for the safe in Fig. 9-13b, the work done by F1 is
W grav mg r: cos 90

mg r: (0) 0,
(Answer)
W Normal N r: cos 90

N r: (0) 0.
(Answer)
We should have known this result. Because these forces are perpendicular to the displacement of the safe, they do zero work on the
safe and do not transfer any energy to or from it.
Multplying a Vector by a Vector: The Dot Product
9-8 Multiplying a Vector by a Vector: The Dot Product

In the previous section, we discussed how to calculate the work done by a force that
acts at some angle to the direction of an objects motion. We saw that in one dimension work is defined as the scalar product of two vector components (force and displacement). This may seem strange, but it is because only the component of the force
along a line relative to the direction of displacement contributes to the work done by
the force. This type of relationship between two vector quantities is so common that
mathematicians have defined an operation to represent it. That operation is called the
dot (or scalar) product. Learning about how to represent and calculate this product
will lead us to a more general mathematical definition of work for three-dimensional
situations. Application of the dot product will make the key equations we derived in
the previous section easier to represent.
The Dot Product of Two Vectors

:
The scalar or dot product of the vectors :

a and b in Fig. 9-14a is written as :
a b and
defined to be
:
(definition of scalar product),
(9-31)
where :
a is the magnitude of :
a , b is the magnitude of b , and is the angle between
:
:
:
a and b (or, more properly, between the directions of :
a and b ). There are actu:
: :
ally two such angles, and 360 . Either can be used in a b :
a b cos , because their cosines are the same.
:
:
Note that there are only scalars on the right side of :
a b :
a b cos (includ: :
ing the value of cos ). Thus a b on the left side represents a scalar quantity. Being
scalars, the values of these quantities do not change, no matter how we choose to define our coordinate system. Because of the dot placed between the two vectors to
:
denote this product, the name usually used for it is dot product and :
a b is spoken
as a dot b.
As in the case of work, the dot product can be regarded as the product of two
quantities: (1) the magnitude of one of the vectors and (2) the component of the second vector along the direction of the first vector. For example, in Fig. 9-14b, :
a has a
:
component ( :
a cos ) along the direction of b . Note that a perpendicular dropped
:
:
from the head of :
a to b determines that component. Alternatively, b has a compo:
:
nent b cos along the direction of a .
If the angle between two vectors is 0, the component of one vector along the other is
maximum, and so also is the dot product of the vectors. If the angle between two vectors
is 180
, the component of one vector along the other is a minimum. If, instead, is 90or
270, the component of one vector along the other is zero, and so is the dot product.
:
Equation 9-31 ( :
a b :
a b cos ) is sometimes rewritten as follows to emphasize the components:
:
a b :
a ( b cos ) ( :
a cos ) b .
(9-32)
Here, ( b cos ) is the component of b along :

a , and ( :
a cos ) is the component of
:
:
a along b . The commutative law applies to a scalar product, so we can write
:
a bb :
a.
(a )
Component of a
along direction of
b is a cos
(b )
Component of b
along direction of
a is b cos
a
a b:
a b cos
(c)
:
FIGURE 9-14 (a) Two vectors :

a and b
with an angle between them.

Since each vector has a component along
the direction of the other vector, the same
dot product results from: (b) multiplying
:
:
the component of :
a on b by b or (c)
:
multiplying the component of b on :
a by
:
a .
243

When two vectors are in unit-vector notation in one, two, or three dimensions, it can
be shown mathematically that we will get the same result shown in Eq. 9-32 by writing
the dot product as
:
a b (ax i ay j az k ) (bx i by j bz k ),
(9-33)
which we can expand according to the distributive law: Each component of the first
vector is to be dotted with each component of the second vector. For example, the
first step is
ax i (bx i by j bz k ) ax bx (i i) ax by (i j) ax bz (i k ).
Since i is perpendicular to both j and k , there is no component of i along the other
two unit vectors, the angle between them is 90o, and so i j i k 0. On the
other hand, i is completely along i, the angle here is 0o, and so i i 1. Therefore,
ax i (bx i by j bz k ) axbx.
If we continue along these lines, we find that
:
a b ax bx ay by az bz.
(9-34)
Defining the Work Done as a Dot Product

r , we can use the definition of a dot
If the force is constant over a displacement :
:
r cos in Eq. 9-26 to produce an alproduct above and the relationship W F :
ternative mathematical definition for work,
:
W F r:
(definition of work done by a constant force).
(9-35)
If the force is variable we can still use the definition of a dot product above along with
the relationship presented in Eq. 9-30, where we integrated over infinitesimal displacements:
W
r:2
r:1
dW
x2
x1
Fx (x) dx
y2
y1
Fy (y) dy
z2
Fz (z) dz,
z1
to produce a more general alternative mathematical definition for work:

W
r:2
:
r1
F (:
r ) dr:
(definition of work done by a variable force).
(9-36)
This dot product representation of work has some advantages. For one, the notation
:
is more compact. It is also especially useful for calculating work when F and dr:
or r: are given in unit-vector notation because we can exploit the fact that
: :
a b ax bx ay by az bz (Eq. 9-34).
9-9 Net Work and Translational Kinetic Energy

Generalizing the Net Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
We know from Newtons laws that if you apply a force to an object in the same direction as the objects motion, the objects speed will increase. From our discussion of
Net Work andTranslational Kinetic Energy
work, we also know that the force does positive work on the object. If you apply the
force in the direction opposite the direction of the objects motion, the objects speed
will decrease, and we know that in that case the force will do negative work on the object. This suggests that work done by forces correlates with changes in speed. We used
these considerations to relate work and kinetic energy for the special case of a bead
on a wire that experiences a single force in the direction of the wire. In doing so, we
developed a net work-kinetic energy theorem for one-dimensional forces and motions given by
W net K2 K1
x2
W net
where
(the 1D net work-kinetic energy theorem),
Fxnet(x) dx (Eq. 9-7)
K 12 mv 2x.
and
x1
(Eq. 9-11)
(Eq. 9-10)
Can we extend this to our more general three-dimensional situation? Fortunately

we can combine
x2
x1
Fxnet(x) dx 12 mv 22 x 12 mv 21 x,
(Eq. 9-6)
and our general expression for work in three dimensions (Eq. 9-30) and rearrange
terms to get
W net
x2
Fxnet(x) dx
x1
y2
Fynet(y) dy
y1
z2
Fznet(z) dz
z1
12 m(v 22 x v 22 y v 22 z) 12 m(v 21 x v 21 y v 21 z).
(9-37)
Since the speed of a particle moving in three dimensions is given by v2 vx2 v 2y v 2z

and
W
r:2
r:1
F (:
r )dr:
x2
Fx (x) dx
x1
y2
Fy (y) dy
y1
z2
Fz (z) dz,
z1
this reduces to
W net K2 K1
(3D net work-kinetic energy theorem for variable force),
(9-38)
where K 12 mv 2 represents a more general definition of the kinetic energy of a particle of mass m with its center of mass moving with speed v. In words, Eq. 9-38 tells
us that
Net work done on the particle Change in its translational kinetic energy.
This relationship is valid in one, two, or three dimensions.
Experimental Verification of the Net

Work-Kinetic Energy Theorem
Experimental verification of the one-dimensional net work-kinetic energy theorem is
shown in Figs. 9-15 and 9-16. A low-friction cart with a force sensor attached to it is
pulled along a smooth track from x1 0.6 m to x2 1.2 m with a variable applied
force. The applied force is measured with a force sensor. The distance along the track
is measured with a motion detector. Both measurements are fed to a computer for
245

FIGURE 9-15 A variable force is applied
to a force sensor attached to a cart on a
horizontal track. The carts position and
velocity are recorded using a motion sensor. The friction force is negligible.
display. If we ignore friction, then W net W app. The net work is given by the area under the curve obtained when data for the net force vs. distance is graphed. This area
(determined by numerical integration as in Fig. 9-9) gives us
W net
x2
Fxnet (x) dx 1.3 J.
x1
The distance and time data are used to determine the velocity of the cart at each location. The cart mass (m 1.5 kg) and velocity are then used to determine the translational kinetic energy of the cart as a function of its location along the track. The
change in kinetic energy between x1 0.6 m and x2 1.6 m is
K K2 K1 1.4 J 0.1 J 1.3 J,
2.0
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.6
1.2 m
F net
0.6 m x
1.6
(x)dx = 1.3 J
K (J)
Fxnet (N)
as expected according to the net work-kinetic energy theorem.
0.7
0.8
0.9
x (m)
1.0
1.1
1.2
K2 = 1.4 J
1.2
0.8
0.4
0.0
0.6
K1 = 0.1 J
0.7
0.8
0.9
x (m)
1.0
1.1
1.2
FIGURE 9-16 Experimental verification of the net work-kinetic energy theorem for a cart
undergoing one-dimensional horizontal motion under the influence of a variable applied force
and a kinetic friction force.
Lifting and Lowering Net Work and Kinetic Energy

:
Suppose we lift a particle-like object by applying a vertical force Fy to it as shown in

Fig. 9-17. During the upward displacement, our applied force does positive work W app
on the object while the gravitational force does negative work W grav on it. Our force
adds energy to (or transfers energy to) the object while the gravitational force removes energy from (or transfers energy from) it. By K K2 K1 (Eq. 9-38), the
change K in the translational kinetic energy of the object due to these two energy
transfers is
F
Object
F grav
F
Object
y
F grav
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9-17 An upward force is applied to an object in the presence of a

downward gravitational force: (a) As the
object rises, the applied force does positive
work while the gravitational force does
negative work. (b) As the object is lowered
the applied force does negative work on
the object while the gravitational force
does negative work.
K K2 K1 W net W app W grav.
(9-39)
This equation also applies if we lower the object. However, then the gravitational
force tends to transfer energy to the object whereas our force tends to transfer energy
from it.
A common situation involves an object that is stationary before and after being
lifted. For example, suppose you lift a book from the floor to a shelf. Then K2 and K1
are both zero, and K K2 K1 W net W app W grav reduces to
W net W app W grav 0 N,
or
W app W grav
(if object starts are ends at rest).
(9-40)
Net Work andTranslational Kinetic Energy
Note that we get the same result if K2 and K1 are not zero but are still equal. This result means that the work done by the applied force is the negative of the work done
by the gravitational force. That is, the applied force transfers the same amount of energy to the object as the gravitational force takes away from it (whenever the initial
and final speeds of an object are the same).
y1
y2
(a)
N
Falling on an Incline The Skier on a Curved Ramp

Finally, we are ready to return to the question of how to find the speed of a skier
(shown in Fig. 9-1) as a function of how far she has descended on a frictionless ramp.
Suppose we would like to know the speed of the skier shown in Fig. 9-1 as she leaves
the end of a long curved ramp in order to predict how far she can jump. Let us revisit
our initial claim that the net work-kinetic energy theorem is much more useful than
Newtons Second Law for this calculation. Actually the net work-kinetic energy theorem is only useful in this particular case if we make the simplifying assumptions that:
(1) we can neglect frictional forces; (2) the skier doesnt push with her poles as she
slides down the ramp; and (3) she holds her body rigid.
Given these assumptions, we can determine the net force on the skiers center of
mass when she is at an arbitrary location on the ramp (Fig. 9-18a). This net force is the
sum of forces shown in the free-body diagram in Fig. 9-18b. Figure 9-18c shows the
components of the normal force and the gravitational force parallel and perpendicular to the ramp. Since there is no motion perpendicular to the ramp at a given location, the force components perpendicular to the ramp cancel out, so the net force acts
parallel to the ramp, and its component down the ramp is given by F net mg sin
where is the angle between the horizontal and the ramp.
Our problem now is to take into account the fact that keeps changing along the
curved ramp. To do this we can divide the ramp into a whole series of tiny ramps having sides dx, dy, and a length dr as shown in Fig. 9-19a. A greatly enlarged picture of
one of these infinitesimal ramps is shown in Fig. 9-19b. The infinitesimal work done in
traveling a distance dr down any one of the tiny ramps is given by
dW Fdr (mg sin dr),

:
r2
F net ( :
r ) dr:
:
r1
F grav
(b)
N
F grav = mg cos
Fgrav = mg sin
F grav
(c)
FIGURE 9-18 (a) A curved ramp makes

an angle with respect to the horizontal at
the location of a skier. (b) A free-body diagram showing the forces on the skier. (c) A
:
diagram showing the resolution of F grav
into the components parallel and perpendicular to the ramp.
(9-41)
but since sin dy/dr, we see that dW becomes simply (mg) dy. This is a very profound result because it tells us that the work done by a rigid object as it falls down a
frictionless ramp does not depend on the angle of the ramp but only on the constant
factor mg and the vertical distance through which the objects center of mass falls.
We will return to this idea in Chapter 10.
If we integrate the net force over the collection of tiny ramps we get
net
drA
drB
r2
r1
F dr
drn
(9-42)
y2
(a)
(mg) dy mg(y2 y1) mg y Fygrav y,
y1
where y is a negative quantity because y2 y1.

Now that we have obtained a simple expression for the net work done by the
gravitational force as the skier goes down the ramp, we can use the net work-kinetic
energy theorem (Eq. 9-38) to find the skiers speed at the bottom of the ramp. If the
skier starts from rest so that her initial speed is v1 0 m/s, then
W net K2 K1 so that W net mgy 12 m(v2).
(9-43)
Solving for the final speed gives us

v2 2g y.
(9-44)
com
dy
F = mg sin
dr
dx
(b)
FIGURE 9-19 (a) The ramp can be divided into many smaller ramps, each possibly having a different . (b) A ramp of infinitesimal length dr with a vertical component
dy and a horizontal component dx.
247

Note that using Newtons Second Law to find this speed would be extremely difficult because it requires us to keep track of the angle of the ramp at each location. We
will further explore the advantages of the net work-kinetic energy theorem for other
situations in the next chapter.
Weight Lifting
Let us return to the lifting feats of Andrey Chemerkin shown on

the opening page of this chapter.
(a) Chemerkin made his record-breaking lift with rigidly connected
objects (a barbell and disk weights) having a total mass m 260.0 kg.
He lifted them a distance of 2.0 m. During the lift, how much work
:
was done on the objects by the gravitational force F grav acting on
them?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is that we can treat the
rigidly connected objects as a single particle and thus use Eq. 9-14,
W grav mgy,
:
to find the work W grav done on them by F grav. The total weight mg
was 2548 N, and y 2.0 m. Thus,
W grav mgy (2548 N)(2.0 m)
(Answer)
5100 J.
(b) How much work was done on the objects by Chemerkins force
during the lift?
S O L U T I O N We do not have an expression for Chemerkins
force on the object, and even if we did, his force was certainly
not constant. Thus, one K e y I d e a here is that we cannot just substitute his force into Eq. 9-12 to find his work. However, we know
that the objects were stationary at the start and end of the lift, so
that K2 K1 0. Therefore, as a second K e y I d e a , we know by

the net work-kinetic energy theorem that the work W app done by
Chemerkins applied force was the negative of the work W grav done
:
by the gravitational force F grav. Equation 9-40 expresses this fact
and gives us
W app W grav 5100 J.
(Answer)
(c) While Chemerkin held the objects stationary above his head,
how much work was done on them by his force?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a is that when he supported the
objects, they were stationary. Thus, their displacement :r 0 and,
by Eq. 9-36, the work done on them was zero (even though supporting them was a very tiring task).
(d) How much work was done by the force Paul Anderson applied
to lift objects with a total weight of 27 900 N a distance of 1.0 cm?
S O L U T I O N Following the argument of parts (a) and (b) but
now with mg 27 900 N and y 1.0 cm, we find
W app W grav (mg y) mg y
(27 900 N)(0.010 m) 280 J.
(Answer)
Andersons lift required a tremendous upward force but only a

small energy transfer of 280 J because of the short displacement involved.
Crate on a Ramp
An initially stationary 15.0 kg crate of cheese wheels is pulled, via a

cable, a distance d 5.70 m up a frictionless ramp to a height h of
2.50 m, where it stops (Fig. 9-20a).
(a) How much work W grav is done on the crate by the gravitational
:
force F grav during the lift?
where we have used a trigonometric identity to simplify the expression. The result seems to be useless because is unknown. But
(continuing with physics courage) we see from Fig. 9-20a that
sin h/d, where h is a known quantity. With this substitution,
Eq. 9-45 becomes
W grav mgh
S O L U T I O N A K e y I d e a is that we can treat the crate as a

:
particle and thus use Eq. 9-26 (W F r: cos ) to find the
:
work W grav done by F grav. However, we do not know the angle
:
between the directions of F grav and displacement r: . From the
crates free-body diagram in Fig. 9-20b, we find that is 90,
where is the (unknown) angle of the ramp. Equation 9-26 then
gives us
W grav mgd cos( 90
) mgd sin ,
(9-45)
(15.0 kg)(9.8 N/kg)(2.50 m)

368 J.
(9-46)
(Answers)
Note that Eq. 9-46 tells us that the work W grav done by the gravitational force depends on the vertical displacement but (perhaps surprisingly) not on the horizontal displacement. (Again, we return to
this point in Chapter 10.)
Power
Cable
r
N
d
Frictionless
T
Crate
F grav
(a)
(b)
:
FIGURE 9-20 (a) A crate is pulled up a frictionless ramp by a force T parallel to the ramp.
(b) A free-body diagram for the crate, showing all the forces on it. Its displacement r: is also
shown.
:
(b) How much work W rope is done on the crate by the force T from
the cable during the lift?
S O L U T I O N We cannot just substitute the force magnitude
:
:
T for F in Eq. 9-26 (W F r: cos ) because we do not know
the value of T. However, a K e y I d e a to get us going is that we
can treat the crate as a particle and then apply the work-kinetic energy theorem (W net K) to it. Because the crate is stationary before and after the lift, the change K in its kinetic energy is zero.
For the net work W net done on the crate, we must sum the works
done by all three forces acting on the crate. From (a), the work
W grav done by the gravitational force F grav is 368 J. The work

:
W Normal done by the normal force N on the crate from the ramp
:
is zero because N is perpendicular to the displacement. We want
:
the work W rope done by T . Thus, the work-kinetic energy theorem
gives us
K W rope W grav W Normal,
0 W rope 368 J 0,
or
W rope 368 J.
and so
9-10 Power
A contractor wishes to lift a load of bricks from the sidewalk to the top of a building
using a winch. We can now calculate how much work the force applied by the winch
must do on the load to make the lift. The contractor, however, is much more interested in the rate at which that work is done. Will the job take 5 minutes (acceptable)
or a week (unacceptable)?
The rate at which work is done by a force is called the power. If an amount of
work W is done in an amount of time t by a force, we define the average power due
to the work done by a force during that time interval as
P
W
t
(definition of average power).
(9-47)
We define the instantaneous power P as the instantaneous rate of doing work, so that
P
dW
dt
(definition of instantaneous power),
(9-48)
where dW is the infinitesimal amount of work done in an infinitesimal time interval

dt. Suppose we know the work W(t) done by a force as a continuous well-behaved
(Answer)
249

function of time. Then to get the instantaneous power P at, say, time t 3.0 s during
the work, we would first take the time derivative of W(t), and then evaluate the result
for t 3.0 s.
The SI unit of power is the joule per second. This unit is used so often that it has a
special name, the watt (W), after James Watt (who greatly improved the rate at which
steam engines could do work). In the British system, the unit of power is the footpound per second. Often the horsepower is used. Some relations among these units
are
and
1 watt 1 W 1 J/s 0.738 ft lb/s
(9-49)
1 horsepower 1 hp 550 ftlb/s 746 W.
(9-50)
Inspection of Eq. 9-47 shows that we can express work as power multiplied by
time, W P t. When we do this, we commonly use the unit of kilowatt-hour. Thus,
1 kilowatt-hour 1 kW h (103 W)(3600 s)
3.6 106 J 3.6 MJ.
(9-51)
Perhaps because the unit of kilowatt-hour appears on our utility bills, it has become identified as an electrical unit. However, the kilowatt-hour can be used
equally well as a unit for other examples of work (or energy). Thus, if you pick up
this book from the floor and put it on a tabletop, you are free to report the work
that you have done as 4 106 kW h (or alternatively converting to milliwatts to
get as 4 mW h).
We can also express the rate at which a force does work on a particle (or particlelike object) in terms of that force and the bodys velocity. For a particle that is moving
:
along a straight line (say, the x axis) and acted on by a constant force F directed at
some angle to that line, P dW/dt (Eq. 9-48) becomes
:
P
dW
( F cos ) dx
dx
:

F cos
,
dt
dt
dt
but since vx dx/dt, we get

:
P F vx cos .
(9-52)
:
v we may rewrite
Reorganizing the right side of this equation as the dot product F :
Eq. 9-52 as
:
P F:
v
(instantaneous power).
(9-53)
For example, the truck in Fig. 9-21 exerts a force F on the trailing load, which has ve:
:
v at some instant. The instantaneous power due to F is the rate at which F
locity :
:
v
does work on the load at that instant and is given by Eq. 9-52 and P F :
(Eq. 9-53). Saying that this power is the power of the truck is often acceptable, but
we should keep in mind what is meant: Power is the rate at which the applied force
does work.
FIGURE 9-21 The power due to the
trucks applied force on the trailing load is
the rate at which that force does work on
the load.
R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 5 : A block moves with uniform circular motion because a

cord tied to the block is anchored at the center of a circle. Is the power due to the force on the
block from the cord positive, negative, or zero?
Problems
Average and Instantaneous Power
A horizontal cable accelerates a suspicious package across a frictionless horizontal floor. The amount of work that has been done by
the cables force on the package is given by W(t) (0.20 J/s2)t2.
(a) What is the average power P due to the cables force in the
time interval t 1 0 to t 2 10 s?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is that the average power P
is the ratio of the amount of work W done in the given time interval
to that time interval (Eq. 9-47). To find the work W, we evaluate the
amount of work that has been done, W(t), at t 0 and t 10 s. At
those times, the cable has done work W1 and W2, respectively:
W1 (0.20 J/s2)(0 s)2 0 J and
W2 (0.20 J/s2)(10 s)2 20 J.
Therefore, in the 10 s interval, the work done is W2 W1 20 J.

Equation 9-47 then gives us
P
251
W
20 J

2.0 W.
t
10 s
(Answer)
Thus, during the 10 s interval, the cable does work at the average
rate of 2.0 joules per second.
(b) What is the instantaneous power P due to the cables force at
t 3.0 s, and is P then increasing or decreasing?
S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is that the instantaneous
power P at t 3.0 s is the time derivative of the work dW/dt evaluated at t 3.0 s (Eq. 9-48). Taking the derivative of W(t) gives us
P
d
dW

[(0.20 J/s2)t2] (0.40 J/s2)t.
dt
dt
This result tells us that as time t increases, so does P. Evaluating P

for t 3.0 s, we find
P (0.40 J/s2)(3.0 s) 1.20 W.
(Answer)
Thus, at t 3.0 s, the cable is doing work at the rate of 1.20 joules
per second, and that rate is increasing.
Problems
S EC. 9-2 I NTRODUCTION TO WORK AND
KINETIC ENERGY
1. Electron in Copper If an electron (mass m 9.11 l031 kg) in
copper near the lowest possible temperature has a kinetic energy of
6.7 l019 J, what is the speed of the electron?
2. Large Meteorite vs. TNT
On August 10, l972, a large
meteorite skipped across
the atmosphere above western United States and
Canada, much like a stone
skipped across water. The
accompanying fireball was
so bright that it could be
seen in the daytime sky (see FIGURE 9-22 Problem 2. A large
Fig. 9-22 for a similar meteorite skips across the atmoevent). The meteorites sphere in the sky above the Ottawa
mass was about 4 106 kg; region.
its speed was about 15 km/s.
Had it entered the atmosphere vertically, it would have hit Earths
surface with about the same speed. (a) Calculate the meteorites
loss of kinetic energy (in joules) that would have been associated
with the vertical impact. (b) Express the energy as a multiple of the
explosive energy of 1 megaton of TNT, which is 4.2 1015 J. (c) The
energy associated with the atomic bomb explosion over Hiroshima
was equivalent to 13 kilotons of TNT. To how many Hiroshima
bombs would the meteorite impact have been equivalent?
3. Calculate Kinetic Energy Calculate the kinetic energies of the

following objects moving at the given speeds: (a) a 110 kg football
linebacker running at 8.1 m/s; (b) a 4.2 g bullet at 950 m/s; (c) the
aircraft carrier Nimitz, 40.2 108 kg at 32 knots.
4. Father Racing Son A father racing his son has half the kinetic
energy of the son, who has half the mass of the father. The father
speeds up by 1.0 m/s and then has the same kinetic energy as the
son. What are the original speeds of (a) the father and (b) the son?
5. A Proton is Accelerated A proton (mass m 1.67 1027 kg) is
being accelerated along a straight line at 3.6 1013 m/s2 in a machine.
If the proton has an initial speed of 2.4 107 m/s and travels 3.5 cm,
what then is (a) its speed and (b) the increase in its kinetic energy?
6. Vehicles Kinetic Energy If a vehicle with a mass of 1200 kg has
a speed of 120 km/h, what is the vehicles kinetic energy as determined by someone at rest alongside the vehicles road?
7. Truck Traveling North A 2100 kg truck traveling north at 41 km/h
turns east and accelerates to 51 km/h. (a) What is the change in the
kinetic energy of the truck? What are the (b) magnitude and (c) direction of the change in the translational momentum of the truck?
8. Two Pieces from One An object, with mass m and speed v relative to an observer, explodes into two pieces, one three times as massive as the other; the explosion takes place in deep space. The less
massive piece stops relative to the observer. How much kinetic energy
is added to the system in the explosion, as measured in the observers
reference frame? Hint: Translational momentum is conserved.
9. Freight Car A railroad freight car of mass 3.18 l04 kg collides
with a stationary caboose car. They couple together, and 27.0% of
11. Kinetic Energy and Impulse A ball having a mass of 150 g

strikes a wall with a speed of 5.2 m/s and rebounds with only 50%
of its initial kinetic energy. (a) What is the speed of the ball immediately after rebounding? (b) What is the magnitude of the impulse
on the wall from the ball? (c) If the ball was in contact with the wall
for 7.6 ms, what was the magnitude of the average force on the ball
from the wall during this time interval?
12. Unmanned Space Probe A 2500 kg unmanned space probe is
moving in a straight line at a constant speed of 300 m/s. Control rockets on the space probe execute a burn in which a thrust of 3000 N
acts for 65.0 s. (a) What is the change in the magnitude of the probes
translational momentum if the thrust is backward, forward, or directly sideways? (b) What is the change in kinetic energy under the
same three conditions? Assume that the mass of the ejected burn
products is negligible compared to the mass of the space probe.
S EC. 9-6 WORK FOR A ONE-DIMENSIONAL

VARIABLE FORCE
14. Can of Nuts and Bolts A can

of nuts and bolts is pushed 2.00 m
along an x axis by a broom along
the greasy (frictionless) floor of a
car repair shop in a version of shuffleboard. Figure 9-24 gives the
work W done on the can by the
constant horizontal force from the
broom, versus the cans position x.
(a) What is the magnitude of that
force? (b) If the can had an initial
kinetic energy of 3.00 J, moving in
the positive direction of the x axis,
what is its kinetic energy at the end
of the 2.00 m displacement?
15. Single Force A single force
acts on a body that moves along an
a (m/s2)
6
0
x (m)
6
4
2
1
x (m)
FIGURE 9-24 Problem 14.
vx
B
+
A
t
E
17. Luge Rider A luge and its rider, with a total mass of 85 kg,
emerges from a downhill track onto a horizontal straight track with
an initial speed of 37 m/s. If they slow at a constant rate of 2.0 m/s2,
(a) what magnitude F is required for the slowing force, (b) what
distance d do they travel while slowing, and (c) what work W is
done on them by the slowing force? What are (d) F, (e) d, and (f) W
if the luge and the rider slow at a rate of 4.0 m/s2?
18. Work from Graph A 5.0
kg block moves in a straight
line on a horizontal frictionless
surface under the influence of a
force that varies with position
as shown in Fig. 9-26. How
much work is done by the force
as the block moves from the
origin to x 8.0 m?
19. A 10 kg brick moves along
an x axis. Its acceleration as a
function of its position is
shown in Fig. 9-27. What is the
net work done on the brick by
the force causing the acceleration as the brick moves from x
0 to x 8.0 m?
W (J)
13. Graph of Acceleration Figure

9-23 gives the acceleration of a
2.00 kg particle as it moves from
rest along an x axis while a con:
stant applied force F app acts on it
x 0 to x 9 m. How much work
has the force done on the particle
when the particle reaches (a) x 4
m, (b) x 7 m, and (c) x 9 m?
What is the particles speed and
direction of travel when it reaches
(d) x 4 m, (e) x 7 m, and
(f) x 9 m?
16. Block Attached to a Spring The block in Fig. 9-7 lies on a horizontal frictionless surface and is attached to the free end of the
spring, with a spring constant of 50 N/m. Initially, the spring is at
its relaxed length and the block is stationary at position x 0.
Then an applied force with a constant magnitude of 3.0 N pulls
the block in the positive direction of the x axis, stretching the
spring until the block stops. When that stopping point is reached,
what are (a) the position of the block, (b) the work that has been
done on the block by the applied force, and (c) the work that has
been done on the block by the spring force? During the blocks
displacement, what are (d) the blocks position when its kinetic
energy is maximum and (e) the value of that maximum kinetic
energy?
10
Force (N)
10. Two Chunks An 8.0 kg body is traveling at 2.0 m/s with no external force acting on it. At a certain instant an internal explosion
occurs, splitting the body into two chunks of 4.0 kg mass each. The
explosion gives the chunks an additional 16 J of kinetic energy.
Neither chunk leaves the line of original motion. Determine the
speed and direction of motion of each of the chunks after the explosion. Hint: Translational momentum is conserved.
x axis. Figure 9-25 shows the velocity component vx versus time t for
the body. For each of the intervals AB, BC, CD, and DE, give the
sign (plus or minus) of the work done by the force on the body or
state that the work is zero.
5
0
5
10
4
6
8
Position (m)
20
a (m/s2)
the initial kinetic energy is transferred to thermal energy, sound,

vibrations, and so on. Find the mass of the caboose. Hint: Translational momentum is conserved.
15
10
20. Velodrome (a) In 1975 the
roof of Montreals Velodrome,
5
with a weight of 360 kN, was
lifted by 10 cm so that it could
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
be centered. How much work
x (m)
was done on the roof by the
forces making the lift? (b) In FIGURE 9-27 Problem 19.
1960, Mrs. Maxwell Rogers of
Tampa, Florida, reportedly raised one end of a car that had fallen
onto her son when a jack failed. If her panic lift effectively raised
4000 N (about 41 of the cars weight) by 5.0 cm, how much work did
her force do on the car?
21. Two Pulleys and a Canister In Fig. 9-28, a cord runs around two
massless, frictionless pulleys; a canister with mass m 20 kg hangs
:
from one pulley; and you exert a force F on the free end of the
:
cord. (a) What must be the magnitude of F if you are to lift the
canister at a constant speed? (b) To lift the canister by 2.0 cm, how
far must you pull the free end of the cord? During that lift, what is
253
Problems
the work done on the canister by (c)

your force (via the cord) and (d) the
gravitational force on the canister?
(Hint: When a cord loops around a
pulley as shown, it pulls on the pulley with a net force that is twice the
tension in the cord.)
rection as it acts on a 2.0 kg object moving in the xy plane. How

much work is done on the object by the force as the object moves
from the origin to the point with position vector (2.0 m)i (4.0 m) j?
:
27. Force on a Particle A force F (4.0 N)i (c N) j acts on a
:
particle as the particle goes through displacement d (3.0 m)i
(2.0 m)j. (Other forces also act on the particle.) What is the value of c
:
22. Spring at MIT During spring

semester at MIT, residents of the
parallel buildings of the East Campus dorms battle one another with
large catapults that are made with
m
F
surgical hose mounted on a window
frame. A balloon filled with dyed
water is placed in a pouch attached FIGURE 9-28 Problem 21.
to the hose, which is then stretched
through the width of the room. Assume that the stretching of the
hose obeys Hookes law with a spring constant of 100 N/m. If the
hose is stretched by 5.00 m and then released, how much work does
the force from the hose do on the balloon in the pouch by the time
the hose reaches its relaxed length?
23. Plot F(x) The force on a particle is directed along an x axis and
:
given by F F0(x/x0 1). Find the work done by the force in mov:
ing the particle from x 0 to x 2x0 by (a) plotting F (x) and mea:
suring the work from the graph and (b) integrating F (x).
24. Block Dropped on a Spring A 250 g
block is dropped onto a relaxed vertical
spring that has a spring constant of k
2.5 N/cm (Fig. 9-29). The block becomes
attached to the spring and compresses
the spring 12 cm before momentarily
stopping. While the spring is being compressed, what work is done on the block
by (a) the gravitational force on it and
(b) the spring force? (c) What is the
speed of the block just before it hits the
spring? (Assume that friction is negligible.) (d) If the speed at impact is doubled, what is the maximum compression
of the spring?
if the work done on the particle by force F is (a) zero, (b) 17 J, and
(c) 18 J?
28. Crate on an Incline To push a 25.0 kg crate up a frictionless incline, angled at 25.0 to the horizontal, a worker exerts a force of 209
N, parallel to the incline. As the crate slides 1.50 m, how much work
is done on the crate by (a) the workers applied force, (b) the gravitational force on the crate, and (c) the normal force exerted by the
incline on the crate? (d) What is the total work done on the crate?
29. Cargo Canister Figure 9-31
shows an overhead view of three
horizontal forces acting on a cargo
canister that was initially stationary
but that now moves across a frictionless floor. The force magnitudes
are FA 3.00 N, FB 4.00 N, and
FC 10.0 N. What is the net work
done on the canister by the three
forces during the first 4.00 m of displacement?
y
FC
35
FA
x
50
FB
30. A Particle Moves A particle moves along a straight path

:
:
through displacement d (8 m)i (cm) j while force F
(2 N)i (4 N) j acts on it. (Other forces also act on the particle.)
:
What is the value of c if the work done by F on the particle is
(a) zero, (b) positive, and (c) negative?
31. Worker Pulling Crate To pull a 50 kg crate across a horizontal
frictionless floor, a worker applies a force of 210 N, directed 20
above the horizontal. As the crate moves 3.0 m, what work is done
on the crate by (a) the workers force, (b) the gravitational force on
the crate, and (c) the normal force on the crate from the floor? (d)
What is the total work done on the crate?
FIGURE 9-29
Problem 24.
25. Bird Cage A spring with a spring
constant of 15 N/cm has a cage attached
to one end (Fig. 9-30). (a) How much work does the spring force do
on the cage when the spring is stretched from its relaxed length by
7.6 mm? (b) How much additional work is done by the spring force
when the spring is stretched by an additional 7.6 mm?
32. Floating Ice Blocks A floating ice block is pushed through a

:
displacement d (15 m)i (12 m) j along a straight embankment
:
by rushing water, which exerts a force F (210 N)i (150 N) j on
the block. How much work does the force do on the block during
the displacement?
33. Coin on a Frictionless Plane A coin slides over a frictionless
plane and across an xy coordinate system from the origin to a point
with xy coordinates (3.0 m, 4.0 m) while a constant force acts on it.
The force has magnitude 2.0 N and is directed at a counterclockwise
angle of l00 from the positive direction of the x axis. How much
work is done by the force on the coin during the displacement?
:
34. Work Done by 2-D Force What work is done by a force F

((2 N/m)x) i (3 N) j, with x in meters, that moves a particle from a
position :
r 1 (2 m)i (3 m) j to a position :
r 2 (4 m)i (3 m) j?
7.6 mm
7.6 mm
S EC. 9-7 FORCE AND DISPLACEMENT IN MORE THAN

ONE DIMENSION
26. Constant Force A constant force of magnitude 10 N makes an
angle of 150 (measured counterclockwise) with the positive x di-
S EC. 9-9 N ET WORK AND TRANSLATIONAL

KINETIC ENERGY
35. Cold Hot Dogs Figure 9-32 shows a cold package of hot dogs
sliding rightward across a frictionless floor through a distance d
20.0 cm while three forces are applied to it. Two of the forces are
horizontal and have the magnitudes FA 5.00 N and FB 1.00 N;

the third force is angled down by 60.0 and has the magnitude
FC 4.00 N. (a) For the 20.0 cm displacement, what is the net work
done on the package by the three applied forces, the gravitational
force on the package, and the normal force on the package? (b) If
the package has a mass of 2.0 kg and an initial kinetic energy of 0,
what is its speed at the end of the displacement?
d
FB
FA
FC

36. Air Track A 1.0 kg standard body is at rest on a frictionless
:
horizontal air track when a constant horizontal force F acting in
the positive direction of an x axis along the track is applied to the
body. A stroboscopic graph of the position of the body as it slides to
:
the right is shown in Fig. 9-33. The force F is applied to the body at
t1 0, and the graph records the position of the body at 0.50 s in:
tervals. How much work is done on the body by the applied force F
between t1 0 and t2 2.0 s?
t=0
0
0.5 s
1.0 s
0.2
1.5 s
0.4
x (m)
42. Force Applied Downward In Fig. 9-36a, 2.0 N force is applied

to a 4.0 kg block at a downward angle as the block moves rightward through 1.0 m across a frictionless floor. Find an expression
for the speed v2 of the block at the end of that distance if the
blocks initial velocity is (a) 0 and (b) 1.0 m/s to the right. (c) The
situation in Fig. 9-36b is similar in that the block is initially moving
at 1.0 m/s to the right, but now the 2.0 N force is directed downward
to the left. Find an expression for the speed v2 of the block at the
end of the 1.0 m distance. (d) Graph all three expressions for v2 versus downward angle , for 0 to 90. Interpret the graphs.
0.6
0.8
(a)
(b)

FB
60
FA
FC

Fr
38. Block of Ice In Fig. 9-35, a

block of ice slides down a frictionless ramp at angle 50, while an
ice worker pulls up the ramp (via a
rope) with a force of magnitude Fr
50 N. As the block slides through
distance d 0.50 m along the ramp,
its kinetic energy increases by 80 J.
How much greater would its kinetic
energy have been if the rope had
not been attached to the block?
41. Lowering a Block A cord is used to vertically lower an initially

stationary block of mass M at a constant downward acceleration of
g/4. When the block has fallen a distance d, find (a) the work done
by the cords force on the block, (b) the work done by the gravitational force on the block, (c) the kinetic energy of the block, and
(d) the speed of the block.
2.0 s

37. Three
Forces Figure
9-34
shows three forces applied to a
trunk that moves leftward by 3.00 m
over a frictionless floor. The force
magnitudes are FA 5.00 N, FB
9.00 N, and FC 3.00 N. During the
displacement, (a) what is the net
work done on the trunk by the
three forces and (b) does the kinetic energy of the trunk increase
or decrease?
x (3 m/s)t (4 m/s2)t2 (1 m/s3)t3 with x in meters and t in seconds. Find the work done on the object by the force from t1 0 to
t2 4.0 s. (Hint: What are the speeds at those times?)
39. Helicopter A helicopter hoists a 72 kg astronaut 15 m vertically from the ocean by means of a cable. The acceleration of the
astronaut is g/10. How much work is done on the astronaut by
(a) the force from the helicopter and (b) the gravitational force on
her? What are the (c) kinetic energy and (d) speed of the astronaut
just before she reaches the helicopter?
40. Given x(t) A force acts on a 3.0 kg particle-like object in such a
way that the position of the object as a function of time is given by
43. Canister and One Force The only force acting on a 2.0 kg canister that is moving in an xy plane has a magnitude of 5.0 N. The
canister initially has a velocity of 4.0 m/s in the positive x direction,
and some time later has a velocity of 6.0 m/s in the positive y direction. How much work is done on the canister by the 5.0 N force
during this time?
44. Block of Ice Slides A 45 kg block of ice slides down a frictionless incline 1.5 m long and 0.91 m high. A worker pushes up against
the ice, parallel to the incline, so that the block slides down at constant speed. (a) Find the magnitude of the workers force. How
much work is done on the block by (b) the workers force, (c) the
gravitational force on the block, (d) the normal force on the block
from the surface of the incline, and (e) the net force on the block?
45. Cave Rescue A cave rescue team lifts an injured spelunker directly upward and out of a sinkhole by means of a motor-driven cable. The lift is performed in three stages, each requiring a vertical
distance of 10.0 m: (a) the initially stationary spelunker is accelerated to a speed of 5.00 m/s; (b) he is then lifted at the constant
speed of 5.00 m/s; (c) finally he is slowed to zero speed. How much
work is done on the 80.0 kg rescuee Fx (N)
by the force lifting him during each
stage?
46. Work-Kinetic Energy The only
force acting on a 2.0 kg body as the
body moves along the x axis varies
as shown in Fig. 9-37. The velocity of
the body at x 0 is 4.0 m/s. (a)
What is the kinetic energy of the
body at x 3.0 m? (b) At what
value of x will the body have a ki-
4
1
0
5
x (m)
Additional Problems
netic energy of 8.0 J? (c) What is the maximum kinetic energy attained by the body between x 0 and x 5.0 m?
47. Block at Rest A 1.5 kg block is initially at rest on a horizontal
frictionless surface when a horizontal force in the positive direction
:
of an x axis is applied to the block. The force is given by F (x)
(2.5 N x2 N/m2)i, where x is in meters and the initial position of
the block is x 0. (a) What is the kinetic energy of the block as it
passes through x 2.0 m? (b) What is the maximum kinetic energy
of the block between x 0 and x 2.0 m?
S EC. 9-10 POWER

48. Average Rate of Work The loaded cab of an elevator has a
mass of 3.0 103 kg and moves 210 m up the shaft in 23 s at constant speed. At what average rate does the force from the cable do
work on the cab?
49. Block Pulled at Constant Speed A 100 kg block is pulled at a
constant speed of 5.0 m/s across a horizontal floor by an applied
force of 122 N directed 37 above the horizontal. What is the rate at
which the force does work on the block?
50. Resistance to Motion Resistance to the motion of an automobile consists of road friction, which is almost independent of speed,
and air drag, which is proportional to speed-squared. For a certain
:
car with a weight of 12,000 N, the total resistant force F is given by
:
:
2
2 2
F 300 N (1.8 N s /m )v , where F is in newtons and v is in
meters per second. Calculate the power (in horsepower) required
to accelerate the car at 0.92 m/s2 when the speed is 80 km/h.
51. A Force Acts on a Body A force of 5.0 N acts on a 15 kg body
initially at rest. Compute the work done by the force in (a) the first,
(b) the second, and (c) the third seconds and (d) the instantaneous
power due to the force at the end of the third second.
52. Rope Tow A skier is pulled by a tow rope up a frictionless ski
slope that makes an angle of 12 with the horizontal. The rope
moves parallel to the slope with a constant speed of 1.0 m/s. The
force of the rope does 900 J of work on the skier as the skier
moves a distance of 8.0 m up the incline. (a) If the rope moved
with a constant speed of 2.0 m/s, how much work would the force
of the rope do on the skier as the skier moved a distance of 8.0 m
up the incline? At what rate is the force of the rope doing work on
the skier when the rope moves with a speed of (b) 1.0 m/s and (c)
2.0 m/s?
53. Freight Elevator A fully loaded, slow-moving freight elevator
has a cab with a total mass of 1200 kg, which is required to travel
upward 54 m in 3.0 min, starting and ending at rest. The elevators
counterweight has a mass of only 950 kg, so the elevator motor
must help pull the cab upward. What average power is required of
the force the motor exerts on the cab via the cable?
54. Ladle Attached to Spring A 0.30 kg ladle sliding on a horizontal frictionless surface is attached to one end of a horizontal spring
(with k 500 N/m) whose other end is fixed. The ladle has a kinetic
energy of 10 J as it passes through its equilibrium position (the
point at which the spring force is zero). (a) At what rate is the
255
spring doing work on the ladle as the ladle passes through its equilibrium position? (b) At what rate is the spring doing work on the
ladle when the spring is compressed 0.10 m and the ladle is moving
away from the equilibrium position?
55. Towing a Boat The force (but not the power) required to tow a
boat at constant velocity is proportional to the speed. If a speed of
4.0 km/h requires 7.5 kW, how much power does a speed of 12 km/h
require?
56. Transporting Boxes Boxes are transported from one location
to another in a warehouse by means of a conveyor belt that moves
with a constant speed of 0.50 m/s. At a certain location the conveyor belt moves for 2.0 m up an incline that makes an angle of 10
with the horizontal, then for 2.0 m horizontally, and finally for 2.0 m
down an incline that makes an angle of 10 with the horizontal. Assume that a 2.0 kg box rides on the belt without slipping. At what
rate is the force of the conveyor belt doing work on the box (a) as
the box moves up the 10 incline, (b) as the box moves horizontally,
and (c) as the box moves down the 10 incline?
57. Horse Pulls Cart A horse pulls a cart with a force of 40 lb at
an angle of 30 above the horizontal and moves along at a speed of
6.0 mi/h. (a) How much work does the force do in 10 min? (b) What
is the average power (in horsepower) of the force?
58. Object Accelerates Horizontally An initially stationary 2.0 kg
object accelerates horizontally and uniformly to a speed of 10 m/s
in 3.0 s. (a) In that 3.0 s interval, how much work is done on the object by the force accelerating it? What is the instantaneous power
due to that force (b) at the end of the interval and (c) at the end of
the first half of the interval?
59. A Sprinter A sprinter who weighs 670 N runs the first 7.0 m of
a race in 1.6 s, starting from rest and accelerating uniformly. What
are the sprinters (a) speed and (b) kinetic energy at the end of the
1.6 s? (c) What average power does the sprinter generate during the
1.6 s interval?
60. The Queen Elizabeth 2 The luxury liner Queen Elizabeth 2 has
a diesel-electric powerplant with a maximum power of 92 MW at a
cruising speed of 32.5 knots. What forward force is exerted on the
ship at this speed? (1 knot 1.852 km/h.)
61. Swimmer A swimmer moves through the water at an average
speed of 0.22 m/s. The average drag force opposing this motion is
110 N. What average power is required of the swimmer?
62. Auto Starts from Rest A 1500 kg automobile starts from rest
on a horizontal road and gains a speed of 72 km/h in 30 s. (a) What
is the kinetic energy of the auto at the end of the 30 s? (b) What is
the average power required of the car during the 30 s interval? (c)
What is the instantaneous power at the end of the 30 s interval, assuming that the acceleration is constant?
63. A Locomotive A locomotive with a power capability of 1.5 MW
can accelerate a train from a speed of 10 m/s to 25 m/s in 6.0 min. (a)
Calculate the mass of the train. Find (b) the speed of the train and (c)
the force accelerating the train as functions of time (in seconds) during the 6.0 min interval. (d) Find the distance moved by the train during the interval.
Additional Problems
64. Estimate, Then Integrate (a) Estimate the work done by the
force represented by the graph of Fig. 9-38 in displacing a particle
from x 1 m to x 3 m. (b) The curve is given by Fx a/x2, with
a 9 N m2. Calculate the work using integration.
12
Fx (N)
10
8
6
4
2
0
2
x (m)

65. Explosion at Ground Level An explosion at ground level
leaves a crater with a diameter that is proportional to the energy of
the explosion raised to the 13 power; an explosion of 1 megaton of
TNT leaves a crater with a 1 km diameter. Below Lake Huron in
Michigan there appears to be an ancient impact crater with a 50 km
diameter. What was the kinetic energy associated with that impact,
in terms of (a) megatons of TNT (1 megaton yields 4.2 1015 J)
and (b) Hiroshima bomb equivalents (13 kilotons of TNT each)?
(Ancient meteorite or comet impacts may have significantly altered
Earths climate and contributed to the extinction of the dinosaurs
and other life-forms.)
66. Pushing a Block A hand pushes a 3 kg block along a table
from point A to point C as shown in Fig. 9-39. The table has been
prepared so that the left half of the table (from A to B) is frictionless. The right half (from B to C) has a nonzero coefficient of friction equal to kin. The hand pushes the block from A to C using a
constant force of 5 N. The block starts off at rest at point A and
comes to a stop when it reaches point C. The distance from A to B
is 12 meter and the distance from B to C is also 12 meter.
Initial position
of block
Final position
of block
reduce art to 95%

P
No friction
A
Friction
B
1/2 m
C
1/2 m

(a) Describe in words the motion of the block as it moves from A
to C.
(b) Draw a free-body diagram for the block when it is at point P.
(c) What is the direction of the acceleration of the block at point
P? If it is 0, state that explicitly. Explain your reasoning.
(d) Does the magnitude of the acceleration increase, decrease, or
remain the same as the block moves from B to C? Explain your
reasoning.
(e) What is the net work done on the object as it moves from A to
B? From B to C?
(f) Calculate the coefficient of friction kin.
67. Continental Drift According to some recent highly accurate

measurements made from satellites, the continent of North America is drifting at a rate of about 1 cm per year. Assuming a continent
is about 50 km thick, estimate the kinetic energy the continental
United States has as a result of this motion.
68. Fan Carts P&E Two
fan carts labeled A and B
B
are placed on opposite
A
sides of a table with their
fans pointed in the same
direction as shown in Fig.
9-40. Cart A is weighted
with iron bars so it is
twice as massive as cart
B. When each fan is
turned on, it provides the
same constant force on the cart independent of its mass. Assume
that friction is small enough to be neglected. The fans are set with a
timer so that after they are switched on, they stay on for a fixed
length of time, t, and then turn off.
(a) Just after the fans turn off, which of the following statements are
true about the magnitude of the momenta of the two carts?
(i) pA pB
(ii) pA pB
(iii) pA pB
(b) Just after the fans turn off, which of the following statements are
true about the kinetic energies of the two carts?
(i) KA KB
(ii) KA KB
(iii) KA KB
(c) Which of the following statements are true? You may choose as
many as you like, or none. If you choose none, write N.
(i) After the fans are is turned on, each cart moves at a constant velocity, but the two velocities are different from
each other.
(ii) The kinetic energy of each cart is conserved.
(iii) The momentum of each cart is conserved.
69. Sticky Carts Two identical carts labeled A and B are initially
resting on an air track. The coordinate system is shown in Fig. 9-41a.
The cart on the right, cart B, is given a push to the left and is released. The clock is then started. At t 0, cart B moves in the direction shown with a speed v1. The carts hit and stick to each other.
The graphs in Fig. 9-41b describe some of the variables associated
with the motion as a function of time, but without labels on the vertical axis. For the experiment described and for each item in the list
below, identify which graph (or graphs) is a possible display of that
variable as a function of time, assuming a proper scale and units.
The system refers to carts A and B together. Friction is so small
that it can be ignored. If none apply, write N.
+x
v1
initially at rest
Cart A
Cart B
FIGURE 9-41a Problem 69.
Additional Problems
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0.5
1.5
Time
0
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
0.5
0.5
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
0.5
1 1.5
Time
2.5
#2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
0.5
1 1.5
Time
2.5
#4
#1
1.5
Time
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0
2.5
2.5
#3
1 1.5
Time
2.5
#5
2
1.5
0
0.5
0
0
0
9-41b
W-0363b
0.5
0.5
1 1.5
Time
1
1.5
2.5
#6
2.5
257
The momentum of cart A

The total momentum of the two carts
The kinetic energy of cart A
The force on cart A
The force on cart B
71. Rebound to the Left A 5.0 kg block travels to the right on a

rough, horizontal surface and collides with a spring. The speed of
the block just before the collision is 3.0 m/s. The block continues to
move to the right, compressing the spring to some maximum extent.
The spring then forces the block to begin moving to the left. As the
block rebounds to the left, it leaves the now uncompressed spring
at 2.2 m/s. If the coefficient of kinetic friction between the block
and surface is 0.30, determine (a) the work done by friction while
the block is in contact with the spring and (b) the maximum distance the spring is compressed.
72. Rescue A helicopter lifts a stretcher with a 74 kg accident victim in it out of a canyon by applying a vertical force on the stretcher.
The stretcher is attached to a guide rope, which is 50 meters
long and makes an angle of 37 with respect to the horizontal. See
Fig. 9-43. What is the work done by the helicopter on the injured
person and stretcher?
F
0.5
1
1.5
Time
2.5
#7
Time
#8
Accident
victim
None of the
graphs shown
Guide rope
#9
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
The x-component of momentum of cart B

The x-component of force on cart A
The x-component of total momentum of the system
The kinetic energy of cart B
The total kinetic energy of the system
70. Graphs and Carts Two identical carts are riding on an air track.
Cart A is given a quick push in the positive x direction toward cart
B. When the carts hit, they stick to each other. The graphs shown in
Fig. 9-42 describe some of the variables associated with the motion
as a function of time beginning just after the push is completed. For
the experiment described and for each item in the list below, identify which graph (or graphs) is a possible display of that variable as
a function of time.
+ A
0
+
t
+ D
0
+ E
t
+ G
0
+ C
+ F
+ H
t
37
FIGURE 9-41b Problem 69.
None of the
graphs shown
73. A Spring Idealized data for a springs

displacement :
x from its equilibrium position as a function of an external force,
:
F ext, are shown in Fig. 9-44.
x [cm]
0
5
10
15
20
F ext [N]
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
(a) Draw a properly scaled and carefully

:
x for these
labeled graph of F ext vs. :
data.
FIGURE 9-44
(b) Does this spring obey Hookes law?
Problem 73.
Why or why not?
(c) What is the value of its spring constant k?
(d) Shade the area on your graph that represents the amount of
work done in stretching the spring from a displacement or extension of 0 cm to one of 5 cm. Also shade the area on the graph that
represents the amount of work done in stretching the spring from a
displacement or extension of 15 cm to one of 20 cm. Are the shaded
areas approximately the same size? What does the size of the
shaded area indicate about the work done in these two cases?
(e) Explain why the amount of work done in the second case is different from the amount done in the first case, even though the
change in length of the spring is the same in both cases.
74. Variable Force The center of mass of a cart having a mass of
0.62 kg starts with a velocity of 2.5 m/s along an x axis. The cart
starts from a position of 5.0 m and moves without any noticeable
friction acting on it to a position of 0.0 meters. During this motion, a
fan assembly exerts a force on the cart in a positive x direction.

0.6
Fx [N]
The Breaker
0.3
Karate Board
0.2
This board will be

deformed and
broken by
the weight
placed on the
mass platform.
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
x [m]
4.0
This metal bar acts like a knife

and bends the karate board as
more weights are placed on the
platform. A gauge allows
students to determine the
amount of board deformation.
The bar will ultimately break the board
as the critical weight limit is exceeded.
5.0

However, instead of being powered by batteries,
the fan is driven by a voltage source that is programmed to change with its distance from a motion detector. This program leads to a variable
force as shown in Fig. 9-45.
(a) What is the work done on the cart by the
fan as the cart moves from 5.0 m to 0.0 m? (b)
What is the change in kinetic energy of the cart
between 5.0 m and 0.0 m? (c) What is the final
velocity of the cart when it is at 0.0 m?
Mass Platform
75. Given a Shove An ice skater of mass m is

given a shove on a frozen pond. After the shove
she has a speed of v1 2 m/s. Assume that the
only horizontal force that acts on her is a slight
frictional force between the blades of the skates and the ice.
Bricks are placed on this

platform to provide the
downward force needed to
bend and ultimately break
the karate board.
FIGURE 9-46a Problem 76.
(a) Draw a free-body diagram showing the horizontal force and

the two vertical forces that act on the skater. Identify these forces.
(b) Use the work-energy theorem to find the distance the skater
moves before coming to rest. Assume that the coefficient of kinetic
friction between the blades of the skates and the ice is kin 0.12.
76. Karate Board Tester The karate board tester shown in
Fig. 9-46a is a destructive testing device that allows one to determine the deformation of the center of a pine karate board as a
function of the forces applied to it.
The displacement component, x, of the center of a pine board from
its equilibrium position increases as a function of the x-component
of an external force, Fxext, applied to it as shown in the data table of
Fig. 9-46b.
ext
F x [N]
Deformation, x
Board
Deformation force
x[cm]
0.000
167
0.156
326
0.312
461
0.446
567
0.602
FIGURE 9-46b Problem 76.

(a) Draw a properly scaled and carefully la:
x for these data.
beled graph of F ext vs. :
(b) Does this pine board obey Hookes law? Why or why not?
(c) What is the value of the effective spring constant k for the
board?
(d) Shade the area on the graph that represents the amount of
work done in stretching the center of the board from a displacement or extension of 0.000 cm to one of 0.156 cm. Also shade the
area on the graph that represents the amount of work done in
stretching the board from a displacement or extension of 0.446 cm
to one of 0.602 cm. Are the shaded areas approximately the same
size? What does the size of the shaded area indicate about the work
done in these two cases?
(e) Explain why the amount of work done in the second case is different from the amount done in the first case, even though the
change in displacement of the board is the same in both cases.
77. Karate Chop Movie In the movie DSON012 (available in
VideoPoint or from your instructor) a physics student breaks a
stack of eight pine boards. The thickness of the stack of boards with
spacers is 0.34 m. In answering the following questions, treat any
work done by gravitational forces on the students hand as negligible.
(a) Use video analysis software to analyze the motion of the students hand in the vertical or y direction. By using data from frames
35, find the velocity of the students hand just before he hits the
boards. By using data from frames 79, find the velocity of the students hand just after he breaks all the boards.
(b) Assume that the effective mass of the students hand is 1.0 kg.
Use the work-energy theorem to find the work done on the students hand by the boards.

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9

Kinetic Energy and Work

Who did more work

(one-dimensional position analogy to impulse).

228 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

9-2 Introduction to Work and Kinetic Energy

FIGURE 9-2 A simple situation showing

One-Dimensional Relationship for a Net Force

where m is the beads mass. As the bead moves through a displacement

Introduction to Work and Kinetic Energy

Fxnet (x) dx,

Initial Definitions of Work and Kinetic Energy

(net work definition 1D net force and displacement). (9-7)

(FA x(x)  FB x(x)  FC x(x) ) dx

If we define the work associated with a single force Fx (x) as

(definition of work1D single force and displacement),

we see that the net work is given by

230 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

(definition of kinetic energy for 1D motion).

(the net work-energy theorem).

Units of Work and Energy

(SI unit for energy).

Generalizing Work and Kinetic Energy Concepts

The Concept of Physical Work

9-3 The Concept of Physical Work

(amount of work done by a steady force along a line of motion).

FIGURE 9-3 Pushing one and then two

232 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

9-4 Calculating Work for Constant Forces

(definition of work for a 1D motion and force).

Fx dx Fx (x2 x1) Fx x,

(work done by a constant force along a line of motion).

FIGURE 9-4 (a) A puck is pushed from

Calculating Work for Constant Forces

Work Done by a Gravitational Force

FIGURE 9-5 If the only force acting on a

234 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

TO U C H STO N E EX A M PLE 9-1:

During a storm, a crate of crepe is sliding across a slick, oily parking

FIGURE 9-6 A constant

net force F net slows a crate

(b) If the crate has a kinetic energy of 10 J at the beginning of

9-5 Work Done by a Spring Force

(Hookes law for a 1D ideal spring).

Work Done by a Spring Force

x (Eq. 9-16) indicates that the spring force is

(Hookes law for x 0 in the relaxed state).

Work Done by a Spring Force

Fxspring (x) dx.

(12 k)[x 2] xx21

(work by a spring force).

236 CHAPTER 9 Kinetic Energy and Work

R E A D I N G E X E R C I S E 9 - 3 : For three situations, the initial and final positions, along

TO U C H STO N E EX A M PLE 9-2:

Pralines and a Spring

Now, with the package at x3 17 mm, Eq. 9-19 yields

(b) Next, the package is moved leftward from x3 17 mm to

S O L U T I O N A K e y I d e a here is that as the package moves

TO U C H STO N E EX A M PLE 9-3:

W spring 12 k x 23 12 (408 N/m)(17  103 m)2

S O L U T I O N The K e y I d e a here is the first one we noted in

12 (408 N/m)[(17  103 m)2 (12  103 m)2]

There are three K e y I d e a s here:

The work W spring is also related to the kinetic energy of the

(FA x(x) FB x(x) FC x(x) ) dx

W spring 12 k x 23 12 (408 N/m)(17 103 m)2

12 (408 N/m)[(17 103 m)2 (12 103 m)2]

Fn x(x) x.

12 m(v 22 x v 22 y v 22 z) 12 m(v 21 x v 21 y v 21 z).

Since the speed of a particle moving in three dimensions is given by v2 vx2 v 2y v 2z

K K2 K1 W net W app W grav.