Docslide - Us - Large Scale Path Loss 2009 PDF

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications
Subject Outline
EE5401
Cellular Mobile Communications
Dr. Chew Yong Huat

Institute for Infocomm Research (I2R)
(Email : chewyh@i2r.a-star.edu.sg)
1 Fusionopolis Way, #21-01 Connexis
Singapore 138632
(North Tower Room 10-11)
Introduction to Cellular Mobile Communications
Radio Propagation : Large Scale Effects

- Path loss prediction models
- Shadowing
- Multipath models : Rayleigh, Rician

- Doppler effect, power spectra and signal correlation
- Coherence time and bandwidth, flat and selective
fading channel
together with
Prof. Tjhung Tjeng Thiang
Quiz 25%
Final Examination 75%
Institute for Infocomm Research
National University of Singapore
Equalization, Diversity and Coding Techniques

- Linear and non-linear equalization
- Selection, equal-gain and maximal ratio combining
- Interleaving and convolutional coding
Mainly focus on physical layer issues

Requirements: Knowledge on Digital Communications,
Probability and Random Processes are required.
Modulation Techniques
- Constant envelope and phase modulation
- QPSK, /4 QPSK, FSK, GMSK
(Email : tjhungtt@i2r.a-star.edu.sg)
Lecture notes can be downloaded from
http://www1.i2r.a-star.edu.sg/~chewyh/
Radio Propagation : Small Scale Effects
Multiple Access Techniques

- FDMA, TDMA, CDMA, SDMA
- Packet radio and random access
Cellular System Concepts

-
References
Frequency reuse
Channel assignment and control
Cellular traffic
Cellular coverage
System expansion techniques
1.
& Practice, Prentice-Hall, 2nd Edition.

2.
3.
More Advanced Topics (if time allows)
4.
William CY Lee, Mobile Communications Engineering,

McGraw-Hill.
5.
JD Parsons, The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel, Wiley,

2nd Edition.
Speech Coding
Fundamentals of quantization, PCM, Vocoder
Simon R Saunders, Antennas and Propagation for Wireless

Communication Systems, Wiley.
- Orthogonal Frequency Division Mulitplexing (OFDM)

- Multicarrier CDMA System
Jon W Mark, Weihua Zhuang, Wireless Communications

and Networking, Prentice Hall.
CDMA Cellular Systems

- Power Control and Interference
- Multiuser Detection
- Capacity and Enhancement
Theodore S Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles
6.
Engineering, CRC Press. (RBR: TK6570 Mob.Ya)
Brief Overview of System Standards

GSM, IS-95, IMT2000
Michel Daoud Yacoub, Foundations of Mobile Radio
7.
William C Jakes, Microwave Mobile Communications, IEEE

Press.
2. Location and tracking complexities due to mobility.
Introduction
3. Efficient use of scarce resources such as frequency

spectrum cellular structure. The amount of
interference generated is critical.
The target for mobile communications is to provide

communications for anyone, from anywhere, at any
time.
4. Power restrictions due to health issues.
A demanding task. Technological challenges include:
1. Timevarying, hostile communication channel.
The exponential growth of mobile subscribers

worldwide is due to the decreasing service charges and
diminishing hardware costs. The continuous
development of the enabling technologies is the key.
1. RF technologies (such as improved frequency
stability in electronics)
For carrier at 100MHz, at year 1940, the stability of oscillator at the base station is more
than 100kHz, at year 2000 it is only 10Hz. This is less frequency guard band is needed.
2. IC design (size)
3. Battery technology (weight and size)
4. Higher order modulation is made possible due to the

use of more sophisticated advanced digital signal
processing techniques.
Cellular system
Example :
1. Consider a system allocated total bandwidth of 12.5
MHz and each voice channel requires a 10kHz slot. We
can only support 12.5MHz/10kHz or 1250
simultaneous conversations.
2. Supposing the penetration rate in Singapore is 10%,
for a population of 3M+, this is equivalent to 300k
users. What happen if 1% of the users making call at
the same time? Channels need to be in someway reused
or shared?
What can we do?

(overhead on guard frequency band, roll-off factor etc.)
5. Speech coding techniques reduces the required

bandwidth per channel.
Frequency bands are reused at different locations. With

this, higher user capacity in the same frequency
spectrum can be achieved.
Technical challenge: interference issue, location
tracking, etc., needs to be overcome.
Each cell has a base station (BS), providing the radio

interface to the mobile station (MS).
A sophisticated switching technique called a handover

enables a call to proceed uninterrupted across cell
boundaries.
All the BSs are connected to a mobile switching centre

(MSC) which is responsible for connection users to the
public switched telephone network (PSTN).
Communication between the BS and the mobiles is

defined by a standard common air interface that specifies
4 different physical channels
Mobile Radio Propagation :

Large Scale Path Loss
The radio propagation channel exhibits many different

forms of channel impairments, as a result of timevarying signal reflections, blockage and motion.
Forward (Downlink) voice/data channel : BS to MS

Reverse (Uplink) voice/data channel : MS to BS
Forward (Downlink) control channel : BS to MS
Reverse (Uplink) control channel : MS to BS
-
Control channels transmit and receive data messages

that carry call initiation and service requests, and are
monitored by mobiles when they do not have a call in
progress. ~5% of total available channels.
A MS contains a transceiver, an antenna and control

circuitry. A BS consists of several transmitters and
receivers.
10
At a given time t, when MS is at physical spot A, y

from BS, then
a ( y ) = m( y ) ( y )
Continuous measurements made along the radial direction
Short-term and long-term fading
When no short-term fading, (y) is a constant, longterm fading are the major factors.
If severe short-term fading is present in the mobile
radio environment, then
m ( y ) = m( y )
After removing the path loss component, we result in

an instantaneous fading signal
1 y+L
( x)dx - m( y ) : true local mean
2L y L
A proper chosen of L between 40 and 200 will make

1 y+L
m ( y ) m( y ) or
( x)dx 1 .
2L y L
r (t ) = a (t )e j (t ) ,
The fast fading component
( y) =
a( y)
or ( y ) dB = a ( y ) dB m ( y ) dB
m ( y )
Measurements made along the tangential direction
The envelope of the signal is given as

a (t ) = m(t ) (t )
m(t ) and (t ) represent the long-term fading and
short-term fading, respectively.

11
Single path fading the amplitude follows some

distributions, such as Rayleigh distribution, Rician
distribution, etc.
12
Multipath path fading in each path, the amplitude

follows some distributions. Intersymbol Interference
(ISI) is also presence.
Instantaneous received signal

amplitude changes with time
Non-resolvable multipath
resulting in (flat) fading
Antenna Theory
A metallic device for radiating or receiving radio waves
when carrying a time-varying current.
Resolvable multipath
(Frequency selective fading)
Channel impulse response
Large scale propagation model: predict the mean

signal strength for an arbitrary transmitter-receiver
(T-R) separation distance. This is useful in estimating
the radio coverage area of a transmitter.
-
Path loss : attenuation with distance.

Shadowing (long-term fading) : due to the nature of
the terrain, the average received signal is strong when
the MS is at the high spot and weak at the low spot,
even at the same distance from BS. This average
signal is called local mean and is a RV. Its statistics
follow the log-normal distribution.
Coordinate system for antenna analysis
Small scale propagation model : characterize the rapid

fluctuations of the received signal strength over short
travel distances around a few wavelength or short time
duration (short-term fading).
Propagation equation : all terms are in dB scale
LdB = L path loss,dB + Lshadowing ,dB + Lshort term fading ,dB
(what about if all quantities are in linear scale?)

13
14
A dipole antenna carrying a sinusoidal current

I = I 0 cos t . At any point P,
G
E = Er a r + E a + E a
G
H = H r a r + H a + H a
Using Maxwells equations to solve for the radiation

pattern. Solution in free space is given as TEM wave.
A directional antenna, like dipole antenna, radiates

EM waves more effectively in some directions.
A special type of directional antenna is omnidirectional
pattern, in which nondirectional pattern in azimuth
plane [ f ( ), constant] , but directional in the elevation
plane [g ( ), constant] .
An isotropic antenna radiates power uniformly in all

directions. Power density at any r is given as:
Fr (iso ) =
PT
4r 2
W/m2
15
16
Fr =
General directional antenna
PT
4r 2
Gt
As a consequence of reciprocity, the radiation pattern

of any antenna is the same for transmitting and
receiving.
At the receiving antenna, we define an effective area
(or aperture) Ae over which the transmitted power
density is received. By the Reciprocity theorem, i.e. If
G is high (during transmitting), then Ae is also high
(during receiving).
Ae G G =
Ae
Received power density at distance r away

2
Consider an actual antenna such as elementary dipole

radiating the same power PT as an isotropic antenna,
ie. Fr ( , )dS = PT , and define
S
Gt ( , ) =

Pr = Fr Ae =
Gt Gr Pt
4r
Fr ( , )
,
Fr (iso )
From this definition, the power density at a distance r

away from the transmitting antenna having power
gain Gt is
17
18
Free Space Propagation Loss
Power levels :
1. dBw=10 log10 [ P (in W )]
2. dBm=10 log10 [ P (in mW)]
The received power predicts to fall 6dB when the

distance to the transmitter is double (or 20dB per
decade). The loss increases by 6dB if the frequency is
double.
Different from practical observation! Need to improve
the model.
P
3. dB is a power ratio, ie. 10 log10 1
P2
Pr
= (Gt )dB + (Gr )dB 20 log10 r + 20 log10

4
Pt dB
The free-space path loss (show this! take note on the

unit used)

LdB = 20 log10
= 20 log10 ( f MHz ) + 20 log10 (rkm ) + 32.44
4r
(Gt = Gr = 1)
Exercise : An antenna with a gain of 60 dB transmits 2

kW to a satellite at 6 GHz. The satellite is at a distance
of 36000 km and receives 5 nW. Determine the satellite
antenna gain: (Ans : 23 dB)
This result is only valid in the far-field of the antenna.
2
For distances r > d f = 2D , where D is the largest
physical dimension of the antenna and
d f >> D, d f >> .
19
Reflection, diffraction and scattering are the three

major causes which impact propagation in a mobile
communication system.
20
Can show that
Reflection
Reflection coefficient of ground (a) vertical polarization

(v) or E field in the plane of incidence. (b) horizontal
polarization (h) or E field perpendicular to the incident
plane
v =
Er 2 sin t + 1 sin i
=
Ei
2 sin t + 1 sin i
h =
Er 2 sin i 1 sin t
=
Ei 2 sin i + 1 sin t
where i = i i , i , i , i are the permittivity,

permeability and conductance of the media, and
i = 0 ri j i /( 2f ) . Other relationships required in
deriving the results : ni = i i , H E / i .
If medium 1 is free space ( = 0 ) and medium 2 is an
dielectric, then h 1, v 1 regardless of r if
i 0D . Ground may be modeled as a perfect reflector
(reflection coefficient of unit magnitude) when an
incident wave grazes the earth, regardless of
polarization or ground dielectric properties.
E (x)
k (z)
A dielectric material is a
substance that is a poor
conductor of electricity, but an
efficient supporter of
electrostatic fields.
H (y)
Snells law : i = r ,
sin(90 i ) n2
=
sin(90 t ) n1
For earth, at frequency 100MHz
r range from 4 to 25
Boundary conditions :
[E1 ]// = [E2 ]//
[H1 ]// = [H 2 ]//
[1E1 ] = [ 2 E2 ]
[1H1 ] = [ 2 H 2 ]
21
range from 0.001 to 0.02 S-m
i
22
Propagation over smooth plane : the received signal is

the phasor sum of the direct wave and the reflected
wave from the plane (2-ray model).
Assuming horizontal polarization

E
d
E LOS (d , t ) = 0 exp j c (t )
d
c
E g (d , t ) =
E0
d
exp j c (t )
d
c
Can show that d = d d
d >> ht + hr , =
-
2 d
2ht hr E0 E0 E0
,
if
d
d d d
. (Note c = f = c )
2
Hence ETOT = ELOS + E g

2
(d d )
ETOT = E LOS 1 + exp j

= E LOS 1 + exp(+ j )
Power is proportional to square of E field amplitude,

2
PTOT
E
P
= r TOT 1 + exp( j ) 2
PLOS PLOS E LOS
The LOS is itself subject to free space loss

PLOS = Gt Gr Pt
4d
-
Assuming small incidence angle i ( = 1 ), then

2
Pr
2
2
4 sin 2
j
G
G
(
)
= Gt Gr
1
exp
t r
Pt
4d
4d
2
23
24
Thus
Received
power in dB
h 2h 2
Pr
= Gt Gr t 4r or
Pt
d
First Fresnel
Third Fresnel zone
zone
LdB = 40 log10 d [20 log10 (ht hr ) + 10 log10 (Gt Gr )]

-
Problem : Correctly predicted the 40dB path loss but now

path loss is independent of frequency! In actual
measurement Pr f n where 2 < n < 3 .
The phase relationship between the reflected

ground wave and the direct wave changes with
distance and antenna height. Signal nulls appear if
the components are in anti-phase.
40dB/decade
Second Fresnel
zone
- In practice, zero power is not observed because generally

< 1 , especially at the higher Fresnel zone. Hence,
completely destructive will not be observed. Besides,
polarization of wave needs to take into consideration.
1 exp( j ) = 0 (assuming = 1 )

sin 2
= 0 n = 2n
2
4 ht hr
, so nulls appear at spatial
Recall that =
d
distances of d n , where
Distance from BS
Deviate from n = 4
2n =
- Modification to 2-ray model : = 1 is not valid

Received
power in dB
20dB/decade
40dB/decade
4 ht hr
2h h
d n = t r - Fresnel zones
d n
n
The mth Fresnel zones is defined as the distance from

the BS where d = m 2 or = m . The first null
above corresponds to the second Fresnel zone. The first
Fresnel zone distance D f is a useful parameter in
cellular design.
Distance from BS
- More than 1 reflected path
- Other consideration such as scattering.

25
26
Two ray models are only used to understand the path

loss mechanism. In general, multiple reflection paths
present, and have impact on the path loss, shadowing
and short-term fading phenomenon.
Diffraction
In open terrian, actual measured power is normally

much higher, ie, n < 4 , or log-distance path loss model
is generally given as
Pr 1

Pt d
, 3 < n < 4.
Reduce the amount of interference on neighboring cells
27
Diffraction allows radio signals to propagate around

the curved surface of the earth, beyond the horizon,
and to propagate behind obstacles.
The phenomenon of diffraction can be explained by
Huygens Principle.
Each element of a wavefront (a surface of constant
phase) at a point in time may be regarded as the centre
of a secondary disturbance, which gives rise to spherical
wavelets.
The position of the wavefront at any later time is the
envelope of all such wavelets.
28
Ideal Knife-edge Scenario
Estimating the signal attenuation caused by

diffraction of radio waves over hills and buildings is
essential in predicting the field strength in a given
service area. It is mathematically difficult to make
very precise estimates of the diffraction losses over
complex and irregular terrian. Some cases have been
derived, such as propagation over a knife-edge object.
-
Can show that path difference

2 d 2h 2 (d1 + d 2 )
h 2 (d1 + d 2 )
or =
=
d =
2 d1d 2
d1d 2
2
To take care of antenna having same or different
height, consider only and assuming that h << d1, d 2
and h >> , then
d +d
= + tan + tan = h 1 2
d1d 2
29
30
Normalize with the dimensionless Fresnel-Kirchoff

parameter ,
=h
- Constructive/destructive interference.
2(d1 + d 2 )
2d1d 2
=
d1d 2
(d1 + d 2 )
This leads to = 2
2
Diffraction losses can be explained by the concept of

Fresnel zones.
- Successive regions where secondary waves have

excess path lengths of n / 2 . Hence between a
transmitter and receiver pair, the nth Fresnel zone is
ellipsoid in shape over a three-dimension space, with
the location of transmitter and receiver as its focus
points.
Any point on an ellipsoid has the same distance from Tx to Rx. The cross section is a circle
- Can show that the radius of the nth Fresnel zone

circle is denoted by rn , given by d = n / 2 is given
by rn =
nd1d 2
.
d1 + d 2
Diffraction loss determined by the level of obstructed

Fresnel zones.
The electric field strength of a knife-edge diffracted
wave is given by
Ed
(1 + j ) jt 2
= F ( ) =
dt
exp
2
2
E0
where E0 is the free-space field strength.

31
32
1. This integral is known as the complex Fresnel integral

2. The Fresnel integral is a function of the FresnelKirchoff diffraction parameter .
3. The diffraction gain is usually expressed in dB as
Gd (dB) = 20 log( F ( ) )
4. The Fresnel integral is commonly evaluated using
tables or graphs for given values of .
Multiple Knife-edge diffraction : For the presence of

two knife edges, replace it by an equivalent knife edge.
One way is as follow.
Using graphical method,
Scattering
When encountering rough surfaces, reflected energy is

spread out in all directions.
It is therefore expected that the received signal is
stronger than predicted from reflection and diffraction
models alone.
Numerical approximation
Gd = 0
Gd = 20 log10 (0.5 0.62 )
1 0
Gd = 20 log10 (0.5 exp(0.95 ) )
0 1
Gd = 20 log10 0.4 0.1184 (0.38 0.1 ) 2

Gd = 20 log10 (0.225 / )
1 2.4
> 2.4
33
34
Log Distance Path Loss Models
Pt
Beyond this point, the

relationship not
necessary still valid
Need to be careful if you need to extrapolate the curve

beyond d < d 0 . It could follow another relationship.
Pt
Po
Po
P1
P
d
After considering all these effects, log-distance path

loss model is given as
d0
1
Pr
d
where n is the path loss exponent. For Free-space
propagation model, n=2, and for two-ray model n=4.
d

d1
n1
n
2
Urban area cellular radio
2.7 to 3.5
Shadowed urban cellular radio
The path loss from the reference point
The value of n depends on the amount of clutter in the

environment. Usually
Free space
d1
Environment
At a reference point d 0 with received power P0 , can

show that
n
d
Pr d 0
= =
P0 d
d0
n0
Pr
d0
d

d0
3 to 5
In building line-of-sight
1.6 to 1.8
Obstructed in building
4 to 6
Obstructed in factories
2 to 3
Sometime different values are used for n depending on

the distance from the transmitter.
L path (d ) = P0 (in dB) - Pr (in dB)

d
= 10n log10
d0
35
36
37
n does not directly reflect the strength of the received power, for
example,
38
Log-normal Shadowing
Two locations at the same distance from the

transmitter can experience substantial differences in
signal level compared to the expected average value.
This phenomenon is caused by large buildings, foliage,
etc that obstruct the propagation path and is known as
shadowing.
Experimental trails have shown that shadowing effects
can be well modeled by a RV with a log-normal
distribution.
d
L path + shadowing (d ) = 10 n log10 + X
d0
Log-normal distribution
1. X = e Y where Y is normally distributed.
2. A Gaussian distribution on a log-scale, ie. If xs be
the attenuation due to shadowing. Then
X dB = 10 log10 xs , then
X 2
dB
exp
2
2
2 X dB
X dB
The standard deviation X dB is known as the shadow

f ( X dB ) =
Empirical Models
Many empirical models have been suggested in the

literature. Okumuras model has gained widespread
acceptance. This model is based entirely on
measurements.
L path = L free + Amu ( f , d ) G (ht ) G (hr ) G Area
where Amu is the attenuation relative to free space.

G(.) is the antenna height gain factor for the base or
mobile station, and
dB spread.
39
40
ht
)
200
h
G (hr ) = 10 log10 ( r )
3
1000 m < ht < 10 m
G (ht ) = 20 log10 (
G (hr ) = 20 log10 (
hr 3 m
hr
)
3
10 m > hr > 3 m
Summary
Receiver
Source
Transmit
antenna
Path Loss
Shadowing Fast fading
Receive
antenna
AWGN
G Area is the gain due to the type of environment.

Multiplicative
noise
Other corrections may also be applied to Okumuras

model. Some of the important terrain such as slope of
terrain, mixed land-sea parameters,
Hatas model : Empirical formulation of Okumuras
model.
L = 69.55 + 26.16 log( f MHz ) 13.82 log(ht ) a (hr )
+ [44.9 6.55 log(ht )]log(d km )
Additive
noise
Useful Reference Source

Antenna and Propagation for Wireless Communication
Systems by Simon R. Saunders More channel models for
pico, micro and macro-cell can be found in the book
Mobile Communications Engineering, by William CY Lee
More description on the principle behind the channel
characterization, and provide with the relevant references.
For a small/medium city

a (hr ) = [1.1log( f MHz ) 0.7]hr [1.56 log( f MHz ) 0.8]
For a large city where f c < 300MHz

a (hr ) = 8.29[log(1.54hr )]2 1.1
For a large city where f c > 300 MHz

a (hr ) = 3.2[log(11.75hr )]2 4.97
41
42

Docslide - Us - Large Scale Path Loss 2009 PDF

Caricato da

Informazioni sul documento

Titolo originale

Copyright

Formati disponibili

Condividi questo documento

Condividi o incorpora il documento

Opzioni di condivisione

Hai trovato utile questo documento?

Questo contenuto è inappropriato?

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

Docslide - Us - Large Scale Path Loss 2009 PDF

Caricato da

Copyright:

Formati disponibili

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

Dr. Chew Yong Huat

Introduction to Cellular Mobile Communications

Radio Propagation : Large Scale Effects

- Multipath models : Rayleigh, Rician

Prof. Tjhung Tjeng Thiang

Final Examination 75%

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

Equalization, Diversity and Coding Techniques

Mainly focus on physical layer issues

Radio Propagation : Small Scale Effects

Multiple Access Techniques

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

Cellular System Concepts

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

& Practice, Prentice-Hall, 2nd Edition.

More Advanced Topics (if time allows)

William CY Lee, Mobile Communications Engineering,

JD Parsons, The Mobile Radio Propagation Channel, Wiley,

Simon R Saunders, Antennas and Propagation for Wireless

- Orthogonal Frequency Division Mulitplexing (OFDM)

Jon W Mark, Weihua Zhuang, Wireless Communications

CDMA Cellular Systems

Theodore S Rappaport, Wireless Communications: Principles

Engineering, CRC Press. (RBR: TK6570 Mob.Ya)

Brief Overview of System Standards

Michel Daoud Yacoub, Foundations of Mobile Radio

William C Jakes, Microwave Mobile Communications, IEEE

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

2. Location and tracking complexities due to mobility.

3. Efficient use of scarce resources such as frequency

The target for mobile communications is to provide

4. Power restrictions due to health issues.

A demanding task. Technological challenges include:

1. Timevarying, hostile communication channel.

The exponential growth of mobile subscribers

National University of Singapore

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

4. Higher order modulation is made possible due to the

What can we do?

5. Speech coding techniques reduces the required

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

Frequency bands are reused at different locations. With

Institute for Infocomm Research

National University of Singapore

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

EE5401 Cellular Mobile Communications

Each cell has a base station (BS), providing the radio

A sophisticated switching technique called a handover

All the BSs are connected to a mobile switching centre