Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 45 55

A finite-element analysis of machining with the tool edge

considered
Kug Weon Kim a,*, Woo Young Lee b, Hyo Chol Sin c
a

LG Electronics, Digital Media Research Laboratory, 16 Woomyeon-Dong, Seocho-Gu, Seoul 137 -40, South Korea
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Korea Uni6ersity of Technology and Education, Chonan-Gun, Chungnam 333 -860, South Korea
c
Department of Mechanical Design and Production Engineering, Seoul National Uni6ersity, San 56 -1, Shinlim-Dong, Gwanak-Gu,
Seoul 151 -742, South Korea
Received 23 June 1997

Abstract
This paper deals with numerical and experimental analyses of the effect of the tool edge on the cutting process. The tool forces
and temperature in the steady-state orthogonal cutting process, taking tool edge radius into consideration, are analyzed using the
finite-element method (FEM). The effects of depth of cut and tool edge radius are investigated. Also, orthogonal cutting
experiments are performed for 0.2% carbon steel with tools having three different edge radii, the tool forces being measured. The
experimental results are discussed in comparison with the results of the FEM analysis. From the study, it is confirmed that a
major cause of the size effect is the tool edge radius and it is noted that an increase in the tool edge radius causes a change in
the temperature distribution in the tool, particularly in the position of maximum temperature. 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All
rights reserved.
Keywords: Orthogonal cutting; Finite-element method; Tool edge radius; Size effect

1. Introduction
Recently, the demand for ultra-precision machining
has been increasing steadily and its field of application
is being expanded in the manufacture of electronic and
optical devices. In most ultra-precision machining, the
effective depth of cut is very small, typically much less
than 1 mm or even down to the order of a few nanometers. Under such conditions, the tool edge radius plays
an essential role in the chip formation process and is
reported to be a major cause of the size effect.
Even with conventional machining in the order of
millimeters, it is very important to know the effect of
the tool edge on the cutting process. This is because the
state of the tool edge influences the properties of the cut
material surface in the form of residual stresses and
surface integrity and alters the tool forces and cutting
temperatures, which can cause a reduction in the life of
the tool.
* Corresponding author.
kkw@wm.Ige.co.kr

Fax:

+ 82

34614414;

No cutting tool is perfectly sharp, as shown in Fig. 1,

but up to now most cutting models have made the
assumption that the tool is perfectly sharp and very
little attention has been paid to the effect of the tool
edge. However, this could can hardly be considered
until the appearance of two cutting models using the
finite-element method. Iwata et al. [1] developed a
rigidplastic finite-element model for orthogonal cut-

e-mail:

0924-0136/99/$ - see front matter 1999 Elsevier Science S.A. All rights reserved.
PII S0924-0136(98)00230-1

Fig. 1. Tool edge radius.

46

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

ing by the finite-element method. In addition, orthogonal cutting experiments are conducted and the tool
forces are measured. In the experiments, the radius of
the tool edge is five to ten times that of the conventional tool in order that such cutting conditions as
depth of cut can be controlled exactly in the test to
observe the effects of the tool edge radius on the cutting
forces. The experimental results are discussed in comparison with the results of the FEM analysis.

2. Finite element model for machining

Fig. 2. Velocity boundary conditions used for the cutting model.

ting under steady-state conditions, wherein the effects

of the ratio of the tool edge radius to the depth of cut
on cutting process were examined. Moriwaki et al. [2]
analyzed the mechanics of the steady-state orthogonal
micro-machining process by applying the rigid plastic
finite-element method and examined the effects of the
ratio of the tool edge radius to the depth of cut on the
process. They analyzed the flow of cutting heat and
temperature distribution [3]. In analyzing temperature
however, they did not consider the variation of the flow
stress with temperature and with the velocities in workpiece and the chip and hence, their studies were only
for very low cutting speeds in ultraprecision machining.
In this paper, the effects of the tool edge on the
cutting process are analyzed for conventional machin-

Fig. 3. Temperature boundary conditions used for the cutting model.

With the advent of digital computers, the finiteelement method became a powerful computational tool,
which could overcome computational difficulties in
modeling the machining process. A thermoviscoplastic cutting model [4] is one among the various cutting
models and is appropriate for investigating the effects
of the tool edge on the machining process. This model
is based on a Eulerian formulation and treats the
workpiece material as rigidviscoplastic. The advantages of the model are that the chip separation criterion, which is the most critical factor in a Lagrangian
formulation, is not required and that the boundaries of
the chip need not be known in advance. In addition, it
is possible to analyze the cutting mechanism for highspeed cutting. Here, the model is briefly introduced.

Fig. 4. Flow chart of the metal-cutting analysis program.

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

47

Fig. 6. Initial chip geometry for a rake angle of 12, a 5 clearance

angle, a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and a 0.2 mm depth of cut.

Equilibrium equation: sij, j = 0

Constitutive equation: o; ij =
Fig. 5. Flow stress results plotted against velocity-modified temperature: (a) the flow stress s1; and (b) the strain-hardening index, n.

2.1. Go6erning equations

The governing equations for the deformation of viscoplastic materials are formally identical to those of
plastic materials, except that the effective stress is a
function of strain, strain rate and temperature.
Table 1
Inputs and outputs of the numerical example
Inputs

Outputs

Cutting speed,
2.16 m s1
Depth of cut,
0.2 mm
Rake angle, 12
Tool edge radius,
0.1 mm
Clearance angle,
5
Width of cut,
1 mm

Principal force (Fc ), 454.04 N

(1)

3 o;
s
2 s ij

(2)

1
Compatibility conditions: o; ij = (ui, j + uj,i )
2

(3)

Energy equation: kcTii rCpT: + Q=0

(4)

In the velocity field, with a weak form of the equilibrium and the incompressibility constraint given by
o; ii = 0, the basic equation for the finite-element discretization is given by

&

s%ij do; ij dV +Ck

&

o; ii do; ii dV

&

f*dV
i
i dS= 0

(5)

Sf

where Ck is a penalty constant.

When discretizing the energy equation, the upwind
scheme [5] is adopted for the weighting functions of the
Galerkin method. The weighting functions can be written as

Thrust force (Ft), 236.26 N

Chip thickness (t2), 0.51 mm
Maximum effective strain rate, 27102.0
Maximum effective strain, 4.46
Maximum shear stress 622.62 MPa
Temperature at chiptool contact (Tint),
694.48C
Maximum temperature (Tmax), 738.21C

Wi = Wi (j)Wi (h)

(6)

3
Wi (j)= Ni (j)+ aij (1 j)(1+ j)
4

(7)

3
Wi (h)= Ni (h)+ bik (1 h)(1+ h)
4

(8)

As a full upwind scheme is used, aij is either 1 or 1

and is determined by the direction of the average
velocity along the element side ij.

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

48

Table 2
Cutting conditions for the experiment
Cutting velocity; rpm (m s1)

Feed rate (mm rev1)

0.1
0.1

250 (2.16)
250 (2.16)

0.07
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3

0.01
0.1
0.05
0.05

250
350
250
350

0.2
0.2

Tool edge radius (mm)

Test no.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10

(2.16)
(3.02)
(2.16)
(3.02)

2.2. Boundary conditions

The geometry and boundary conditions shown in
Fig. 2 are used to model the orthogonal cutting for the
velocity field. The boundary conditions include a cutting velocity (V) and no flow normal to the base of the
control volume of the tool surface (D E). Free surfaces
(A B, CD, EF) and the chip-tool contact region
(D E), which are initially unknown, must be determined iteratively during the simulation.
The free surface of the chip can be calculated by
requiring that the normal component of the surface
velocity be zero. If a fixed point of known coordinate
exists values on the free surface, then from that point
the coordinates of the free surface can be calculated by
integrating as follows.
dy%
as
dx%

or

y%=

&

x%

as dx%

(9)

where x% and y% are the coordinates of the surface and

as represents the direction of the velocity vector.
By using the condition that the normal stress at every
node along the chip-tool interface is negative, the contact length can be calculated. The calculation procedures are as follows.
1. Assume the initial chip configuration and the chiptool contact length.

2. Calculate the velocities and stresses.

3. Calculate the coordinates of free surfaces using Eq.
(9). If some nodes penetrate the tool face, they are
assumed to be in contact with the tool and the free
surfaces are re-calculated. A positive stress at any
node along the interface means that the chip has
separated from the rake face of the tool. Where the
chip separates from the tool is then treated as a free
surface and its position is recalculated.
4. Continue until the normal velocity component on
the free surfaces of the chip is found to be zero and
the normal stress at every node along the chip-tool
interface is negative.
The temperature boundary conditions are shown in
Fig. 3. Most external surfaces that contact the air are
taken to be adiabatic, i.e. heat losses to the surroundings by convention and radiation are assumed to be
zero. At the right-hand side and the lower boundary of
the workpiece, the temperature gradients normal to the
boundary are very small and hence are taken to be
zero. At the left-hand boundary of the workpiece, room
temperature is assumed.

Table 3
Experimental apparatus
Apparatus

Specification

Tool

Material: cemented carbide

Shape: rake angle 12; clearance angle 5; edge
radii 0.01, 0.05 and 0.1 mm
Material: SM20C
Shape: diameter 165 mm; thickness 3.2 mm
Daewoo Heavy Industries
AST TSM-TH 1671
Showa dynamic strain amplifier
IBM 486
Data Translation DT3831-G

Workpiece
Lathe
Dynanometer
Amplifier
Computer
A/D converter

Fig. 7. Variation in principal and thrust forces with depth of cut for
a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

49

2.3. Effecti6e strain calculation

All values of effective strain rate at the center points
of finite elements can be interpolated by those on nodal
points. Take the two neighbouring points Pi and Pi + 1
on a flow line in Fig. 2 as examples. After checking to
see to which element the point Pi belongs, the velocity
component Vi at point Pi can be determined by linear
interpolation. The next point Pi + 1 on the flow line is
calculated by
Pi + 1 = Pi + Vi Dt

Fig. 8. The ratio of thrust force to principal force with depth of cut
for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.

(12)

where Dt denotes the time increment and can be adjusted appropriately. After checking to see to which
element the point Pi + 1 belongs, the effective strain rate
at the point can be calculated by linear interpolation.
The interpolated strain rate is added incrementally to
the value of effective strain at the previous location as
oi + 1 = oi + o; i + 1 Dt

(13)

Infinite elements [6] are introduced to represent the

areas of tool that are much larger in comparison with
the deformation areas of the workpiece. The elements
on the boundaries of QR in Fig. 3 are infinite elements
in the longitudinal direction. The shape function of an
infinite element is given by the following equation to
represent the infinity of the element in the h direction.

By the above procedure, a new grid system is constructed by the points on the selected flow lines. Finally, the effective strain at the center of a finite
element can be obtained through linear interpolation of
the values on the new grid system.

Mi (j, h)=Ni (j, h)gi (j, h)

3. Numerical simulation example

(10)

where i is the nodal number, Ni is the shape function of

the normal element and gi is called the decay function,
given as follows.
gi (j, h)=

hi ho
h ho

(11)

where ho B 1 represents some origin point in the

h-direction and m is set to 1.2.

Fig. 9. Variation in specific energy with depth of cut for a cutting

speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm.

3.1. Numerical simulation procedures

Four iterative cycles are performed during a cutting
process simulation. The first solves the viscoplastic
equations for the velocity and strain rate distributions
in the chip and workpiece. At ambient temperature
conditions and with an assumed strain distribution in
the chip and the workpiece, the nodal velocity and
strain-rate distributions are calculated by direct iteration, using the finite-element method. After each iteration, the strain rate is compared to the initial value. The
iterations are continued until the initial and calculated
strain rates coincide. Once the velocities have been
determined, the temperature is calculated. It is considered that the heat generation in the chip and the
workpiece is due to plastic deformation and frictional
heating and that the chiptool contact length defines
the thermal conduction path between the chip and the
tool. Because the elevated temperatures will significantly alter the material and its thermal properties an
iterative solution is again required until the temperatures converge. Next, the chip geometry is determined.
After the solution of the viscoplastic and temperature
equations, the computed velocities on the surface of the
chip are checked to ensure that they are parallel to the
free surface. If this condition is not satisfied, the coordinates of the chip free surface are updated, the grid is

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

50

Fig. 10. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of effective strain rate for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm: (a)
t1 =0.1 mm; (b) t1 = 0.2 mm.

remeshed and the velocity and temperature distributions are computed again. The final step is to calculate
the strain distributions. Flow lines and strain distributions are determined by linear interpolation. The iterations are continued until the initial and calculated
strains converge. In calculating the temperature and
strain distribution, it was found that the procedure
converged fairly rapidly, usually within four or five
iterations. Fig. 4 shows the flow chart of the cutting
process simulation program.

are given in Fig. 5. These indicate a clear dynamic

strain-ageing (blue brittle) range where flow stress increases with increase in temperature, which is typical
for plain-carbon steel and also show that an increase in
the carbon content increases s1 and decrease n.
In calculating the temperatures, the appropriate temperature-dependent thermal properties have been determined from the relationship
Cp/(J kg 1 K 1)= 420+ 0.504T/C

(16)

and

3.2. Material properties and friction force

kc/(Wm 1 K 1)= 54.170.0298T/C

The method proposed by Oxley [7] was used to

determine the flow stress s. The flow stress of the
workpiece can be represented by the stress s1 and the
strain-hardening index n, which define the stress strain
curve as
s = s1o n

(14)

They are taken to be functions of a velocity-modified

temperature parameter, Tmod defined by

Tmod =T 1n log

 "
o;
o; 0

(17)

For the friction force, the following equation proposed by Usui and Shirakashi [8] is used

tf = k 1 exp l

sn
k

"

(18)

where l is an experimental constant determined by the

tool and the workpiece, sn is the normal stress and k is
the shear stress.

3.3. Numerical example

(15)

where T is the temperature, o; is the uniaxial strain rate

and 6 and o; 0 are the material constants, which are 0.09
and 1 s 1, respectively [7]. The s1 and n curves corresponding to plain-carbon steel of 0.2% carbon content

The machining process of 0.2% carbon steel was

simulated for a tool having 0.1 mm tool edge. Inputs
and outputs are shown in Table 1. Fig. 6 represents the
initially-assumed chip geometry, the latter being adjusted iteratively during the simulation using the free

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

51

Fig. 11. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of temperature for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm: (a) t1 = 0.1
mm; (b) t1 =0.2 mm.

surface condition and the contact condition. From the

machining analysis, the velocity, stress, strain-rate distributions in the chip and the workpiece can be predicted, along with the temperature distribution in the
chip and the tool.

8, 9 and 10). Table 3 shows the experimental apparatus

used.

5. Results and discussion

5.1. Effect of depth of cut

4. Experimental work
The cylindrical workpiece is held by the chuck at the
spindle. The tool is set on the cross slide and fed
linearly along the rotational axis of the spindle. Tool
force signals measured by the tool dynanometer are
amplified by a strain-gauge type amplifier and passed
through a low-pass filter (band width: 25 kHz). These
signals are then sent to an A/D converter and stored in
the computer.
Table 2 shows the cutting conditions employed for
the experiments. Three types of experiments are carried
out. First, as the feed rate increases, the principal forces
and the thrust forces are measured for a constant
cutting speed of 1.26 m s 1 for a tool having a 0.1 mm
edge radius (Test nos. 1 6). Second, the experiments
are conducted for tools having three different edge radii
under constant cutting conditions (Test nos. 4, 7 and 9).
Last, the effect of the cutting speed is investigated for
tools having 0.01 and 0.05 mm edge radii (Test nos. 7,

Measured and simulated principal and thrust forces

for a speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1
mm are shown in Fig. 7 for various depths of cut. Good
correlation is found for the principal and the thrust forces
over the entire range of depths of cut tested. As excepted,
the forces increase with increasing depth of cut. Fig. 8
shows the ratio of thrust force to principal force. As the
depth of cut decreases, the ratio increase. The ratio is 0.61
for 0.3 mm depth of cut and 0.75 for 0.07 mm depth of
cut, which is explained by Lucca and Seo [9] as the
effective negative rake angle resultingt from the tool edge
becoming important in the case where the ratio of the
depth of cut to the tool edge radius is comparatively
small. Fig. 9 shows the specific energies for various
depths of cut. It can be seen that the specific energies increase as the depth of cut decreases, which confirms that
one of the major causes of the size effect is the tool edge
radius. The simulated results also shows the size effect,
providing good agreement with the experimental results.

52

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

Fig. 12. Effect of depth of cut on the contours of maximum shear stress for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm:
(a) t1 = 0.1 mm; (b) t1 = 0.2 mm.

Figs. 1012 show the contours of effective strain

rate, temperature and maximum shear stress for a
depth of cut of 0.1 mm, compared with those for 0.2
mm. As the depth of cut increases, the maximum
effective strain rate decreases, but the deformation region does not change substantially. The maximum temperature increases, while distributions of the maximum
shear stresses change little.

Fig. 13. Variation of principal forces and thrust forces with tool edge
radii for a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1 and a depth of cut of 0.2 mm.

5.2. Effect of tool edge radius

Fig. 13 shows the measured and simulated forces for
a speed of 2.16 m s 1, a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and
various tool edge radii. Although the same cutting
conditions are applied, a tool with a greater edge radius
exhibits greater principal and thrust forces. The simulated results show good agreement with the experimental results over the entire range of the tool edge radii
tested.
Figs. 1416 show the contours of effective strain
rate, temperature and maximum shear stress for an
edge radius of 0.01 mm, compared with those for 0.1
mm. Regarding the effective strain rate, the deformation region extends deeper and more widely in the
workpiece, but the maximum value decreases with increased tool edge radius. The maximum temperature
value increases with increase in the tool edge radius and
in particular, the distribution of temperature in the tool
region changes greatly. It is considered that this results
from the increase of heat transfer along the tool edge
due to the increased size of the contact region. The
distribution of maximum shear stress shows that the
deformation region extends deeper in the workpiece
with increased tool edge radius. The chip thickness for
a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm is nearly equal to that for
a tool edge radius of 0.01 mm, which explains why an

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

53

Fig. 14. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of effective strain rate for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1: (a)
r =0.01 mm; (b) r =0.1 mm.

Fig. 15. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of temperature for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1: (a) r =0.01
mm; (b) r =0.1 mm.

increase in the tool edge radius does not change the

shear angle, i.e. does not contribute directly to chip
production.
Fig. 17 shows the distribution of temperature in tool
in detail. In the case of a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and
0.2 mm depth of cut, the maximum temperature is
located along the tool edge, not on the rake face. It is
reasoned that the ratio of the contact region in the tool
edge to the chip-tool contact region in the rake face
increases compared with the conventional tool edge
radius and cutting condition. In other words, it can be
said that the position of the maximum temperature
depends on the ratio of the depth of cut to tool edge
radius. This phenomenon is also noted in Fig. 18. In

the case of a 0.1 mm tool edge radius and 0.3 a mm

depth of cut, the position of the maximum temperature
is shifted to the chiptool contact region in the rake
face, because of the increase in the contact region in the
rake face.

6. Conclusions
In this paper, the mechanics of the steady-state orthogonal cutting process considering the tool edge radius were analyzed using the finite-element method.
Orthogonal cutting experiments were performed for
0.2% carbon steel with tools having three different edge

54

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

Fig. 16. Effects of tool edge radius on the contours of maximum shear stress for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1:
(a) r =0.01 mm; (b) r= 0.1 mm.

radii, the forces being measured. The following conclusions can be drawn from the results of this study.
(1) The orthogonal cutting experiments confirm
that a major cause of the size effect is the tool
edge radius. The simulated results also show the size
effect and give good agreements with the experimental
results.
(2) As the tool edge radius increase, the principle
forces and the thrust forces increase, the maximum
effective strain rate decreases, but the deformation region extends deeper in the workpiece. In addition, there
is no change in chip thickness change despite the increase of the tool edge radius, which shows that the
increase of the total edge radius does not change the
shear angle, i.e. it does not contribute directly to chip
production.
(3) Increased tool edge radius causes change in the
temperature distribution of the tool, particularly in the
position of maximum temperature; the maximum temperature occurs along the tool edge in the case where

the ratio of the depth of cut to the tool edge radius is

comparatively small.

Fig. 17. Temperature distributions and location of maximum temperature for a depth of cut of 0.2 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16 m s 1:
(a) r= 0.1 mm; (b) r= 0.01 mm.

Fig. 18. Temperature distributions and locations of maximum temperature for a tool edge radius of 0.1 mm and a cutting speed of 2.16
m s 1: (a) t1 =0.2 mm; (b) t1 =0.3.

7. Nomenclature
Ck
Cp
Fc
Ft
k
kc
ln
Mi
n
Ni
Pi
r
T
Tint

penalty constant
specific heat
principal force
thrust force
shear stress
thermal conductivity
chiptool contact length
shape function of infinite element for node i
strain-hardening index
shape function of quadrilateral element for
node i
ith point on a flow line
tool edge radius
temperature, cutting temperature
chiptool contact average temperature

K. Weon Kim et al. / Journal of Materials Processing Technology 86 (1999) 4555

Tmod
t1
t2
V
Vi
Wi

velocity-modified temperature
depth of cut (undeformed chip thickness)
chip thickness
cutting velocity
velocity at point Pi
weighting function for node i

Greek
as
o
o
o;
o;
h, j
l
n, o; 0

letters
direction of velocity vector
uniaxial (effective) strain
effective strain
uniaxial (effective) strain rate
effective strain rate
natural coordinates
friction characteristic constant
constants in the velocity-modified temperature equation
density
uniaxial (effective) flow stress
value of s at o = 1
effective (flow) stress
normal stress
deviatoric stress tensor
frictional stress

r
s
s1
s
sn
s%ij
tf

55

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