Logic and Proofs

Proposition(): a sentence that is either true or false, but not both.

Compound propositions: propositions that result from combining
propositions
Conjunction proposition (/): p and q, p q
Disjunction proposition (/): p or q, p q
Exclusive-or: p exor q, p q === ( pq)(pq)
Negation: not p,
Order of the operation: , , , , ,

Conditional proposition (/): if p then q, hypothesis p,

conclusion q
Hypothesis p expresses a sufficient condition (): p q
Conclusion q expresses a necessary condition (): p q
Biconditional proposition (): p if and only if q, p iff q,
pq
Converse: for p q, qp
Truth
P
T
T
F
F

Table
q
T
F
T
F

p q p q p q p
T
T
F
F
F
T
T
F
F
T
T
T
F
F
F
T

pq
T
F
T
T

pq
T
T
F
T

pq
T
F
F
T

A true conditional proposition is different from a conditional proposition

with a true conclusion.
A conditional proposition can be true while its converse is false.
If the compound propositions P and Q are made up of the propositions
p1, p2, , pn, P and Q are logically equivalent ()provided that given
any truth values of p1, p2, , pn, either P and Q are both true or P and Q
are both false.
De Morgans Laws for Logic
(p q) p q
(p q) p q

The contrapositive () (or transposition ()) of the conditional

proposition pq is qp. An important fact is that a conditional
proposition and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
The contrapositive (q p) and the converse (qp) are different.
Let P(x) be a statement involving the variable x (free variable) and let
D be a set. We call P a propositional function ()(with respect of
D) if for each x in D, P(x) is a proposition.
A domain of discourse for a propositional function P is a set D such that
P(x) is a proposition.
A counterexample to the statement x P(x) is a value of x for which
P(x) is false.
Universally quantified statement: x P(x)
variable
True if P(x) is true for every x in D
False if P(x) is false for at least one x in D
Existentially quantified statement: x P(x)
variable
True if P(x) is true for at least one x in D
False if P(x) is false for every x in D

x is bound

x is bound

Generalized De Morgans Laws for Logic

1. ( x P(x)) === x P(x)
2. ( x P(x)) === x P(x)
Rules for proving or disproving universally or existentially quantified
statements:
To prove that the universally quantified statement x P(x) is true, show
that for every x in the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is true.
To prove that the existentially quantified statement x P(x) is true, find
one value of x in the domain of discourse for which the proposition P(x)
is true.
To prove that the universally quantified statement x P(x) is false, find
one value of x (a counterexample) in the domain of discourse for which
the proposition P(x) is false.

To prove that the existentially quantified statement x P(x) is false,

show that for every x in the domain of discourse, the proposition P(x) is
false.
A mathematical system consists of axioms, definitions, and undefined
terms.
An axiom () is a proposition that is assumed to be true.
Definitions are used to create new concepts in terms of existing ones.
An undefined term is a term that is not explicitly defined but rather is
implicitly defined by the axioms.
A theorem () is a proposition that has been proved to be true.
A lemma () is a theorem that is usually not too interesting in its
own right but is useful in proving another theorem.
A corollary() is a theorem that follows quickly from another
theorem.
An argument that establishes the truth of a theorem is called a proof.
A direct proof assumes that the hypotheses are true and then using the
hypotheses as well as other axioms, definitions, and previously derived
theorems, shows directly that the conclusion is true.
A proof by contradiction or indirect proof assumes that the hypotheses
are true and that the conclusion is false and then, using the
hypotheses and the negated conclusion as well as other axioms,
definitions, and previously derived theorems, derives a contradiction.
To prove p q, proof by contrapositive proves the equivalent
statement q p.
Deductive reasoning refers to the process of drawing a conclusion from
a sequence of propositions.
In the argument p1, p2, , pn/q, the hypotheses or premise are p1, p2,
, pn, the conclusion is q.
The argument p1, p2, , pn/q is valid provided that if p1 and p2 and
and pn all true, the q must also be true.
An invalid argument is an argument that is not valid.
Rule of Inference for Propositions
Modus ponens
Modus tollens

p q, p /q
p q, q / p

law of detachment

Additions
Simplification
Conjunction
Hypothetical syllogism
Disjunctive syllogism

p / p q
p q / p
p, q / p q
p q, q r / p r
p q, p /q

Rule of Inference for Quantified Statements

Universal instantiation x D P(x) / P(d) if d D
Universal generalization
P(d) for any d D/x P(x)
Existential instantiation x D P(x) / P(d) for some of d D
Existential generalization
P(d) for some of d D /x P(x)
p q p q
Resolution is a proof technique that depends on a single rule:
If p q and p r are both true, then q r is true.
In a proof by resolution, the hypotheses and the conclusion are written
as clauses. A clause consists of terms separated by ors where each
term is a variable or the negation of a variable.
A proof by resolution proceeds by repeatedly applying its basic rule to
pairs of statements to derive new statement until the conclusion is
derived.
Boolean Algebras and Combinatorial Circuits
A combinatorial circuit is a circuit in which the output is uniquely
defined for every combination of inputs.
A sequential circuit is a circuit in which the output is a function of the
input and state of the system.
An AND gate receives input x1 and x2, where x1 and x2 are bits, and
produces output 1 if x1 and x2 are both 1, and 0 otherwise.
An OR gate receives input x1 and x2, where x1 and x2 are bits, and
produces output 0 if x1 and x2 are false, and 1 otherwise.
An NOT gate (inverter) receives input x, where x is bit, and produces
output 1 if x is 0 and 0 if x is 1.

A logic table of a combinatorial circuit lists all possible inputs together

with the resulting output.
Boolean expressions in the symbols , are defined recursively as follows,
0, 1, x1, , xn, are Boolean expressions. If X1 and X2 are Boolean
expressions, then (X1), X1, X1 X2 and X1 X2 are Boolean
expressions.
( a b ) v c a (b c)
ab=ba

( a b ) c a (b c)
ab=ba