The Project Gutenberg EBook of The Rights of War and Peace, by Hugo Grotius

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Title: The Rights of War and Peace
Author: Hugo Grotius
Translator: A. C. Campbell
Release Date: August 11, 2014 [EBook #46564]
Language: English
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GENERAL PREFACE
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Of the Library of Universal Classics and Rare Manuscripts, twenty
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to the celebrated "Memoirs of the Duc de Saint-Simon." The scholarly
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more complete than any we read of in English history; and in that of
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monastery while yet there was "daylight in life," as he expressed it,
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toward the end of his ill-judged and unfortunate reign. Of this
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Peers who compelled King John to accede to their demands for civil and

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Runnymede (the Council Meadow) a spot between Windsor and Staines,
on the 15th of June, 1215, about a year before the death of John.
It practically guaranteed to the Commons of England all the civil
and religious rights they enjoy to-day. It dealt with testamentary
law as well, securing to widows all the legal rights which they
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The Second Section of the Library (ten volumes) is devoted to the
presentation of Government, Philosophy, Law and Ethics. This section
embraces such names as Grotius, Plato, Sir George Cornewall Lewis, Adam
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Machiavelli, as well as those builders of Ideal Governments, More,
Bacon, Campanella and Rousseau.
Of all benefactors in Literature of the human race, Grotius may
perhaps rank as first among his equals. Centuries have borne witness
to the justness of his premises and the wisdom of his conclusions. The
principles of national law laid down by him are to-day accepted as the
axioms of the Science. Among the nations, perhaps the United States is
most deeply interested in the right administration of the principles
affirmed by Grotius in his gigantic work on the "Rights of War and
Peace," and it was therefore most fitting, when the recent peace
conference at The Hague completed the great structure of international
comity, the foundations of which were laid by Grotius in 1625, that a
silver wreath was laid by the representative of the United States upon
the grave of the man to whom the Conference owed its initial impulse,
although at a distance in time of nearly three centuries.
When the Publisher determined, under the advice of his Editorial
Council, to publish Grotius, he found that only two volumes of the
first edition were available in the Library of Congress. At much
expense and trouble, he instituted a search in Europe and finally
obtained the missing volume, which he presented to the Congressional
Library, where it now is.
Sir George Cornewall Lewis's "Government of Dependencies" is
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text book for the guidance of any nation in the treatment of its
dependencies and colonies. It is a Classic that will survive as long
as colonization remains to be done, and it is remarkable that although
it was published for the first time sixty years ago, the illustrations
afforded by the last two generations support the justice of its
principles and the exactness of its deductions.
Adam Smith's "Essay on Colonies" presents an introductory view of
the principles governing colonial policy. It is a fitting work to go
hand in hand with the greater one of Sir George Cornewall Lewis. It
is of practical use to American Statesmen, since the United States
seems at present to be entering upon a world-wide colonial policy. Its
practical wisdom, which has made it a Classic for all times, finds a
special applicability in the conditions of to-day, for Adam Smith was
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whose breadth of view, instead of unfitting him for practical details,
enabled him to deduce from the lessons of history and experience the
right solutions for the problems of Colonial policy.

Plato's "Republic" and "Statesman" must be regarded to-day not merely

as historical records of a by-gone philosophy, but as living, teaching
dissertations upon theories which cannot fail to awaken in studious
minds the highest ideals of life and government. Modern problems
stated in the light of Plato's philosophy, as it is expressed in
these books, will find readier solutions when examined in the light
of its principles. No student of sociology, of politics, national and
municipal, or of government in all its many-sided aspects, can afford
to be without a knowledge of these immortal discourses.
Goldwin Smith has declared that of all expositions of constitutional
Government, "The Federalist" ranks the highest. When Hamilton, Madison,
and Jay first conceived the idea of printing in the common tongue their
ideas upon the principles of free government, they unwittingly laid
the foundations of the best commentary on the principles of popular
government ever written. Political science owes to them the most
important contribution to its literature made since its birth. The
Essays are equally admirable for sagacity, simplicity, and patriotism,
and while The Federalist will never be read for pleasure, it contains a
mine of wisdom for the student and the constitutional lawyer, and as a
text book of political science is without a parallel.
When Bagehot issued his work on the English Constitution, it was hailed
by the critics as the most wonderful and philosophical dissertation on
the subject in any language or from any pen. John Stuart Mill used to
say that of all great subjects much remained to be written, and that
especially was this true of the English Constitution. Bagehot's work,
although affording the conclusion that monarchy in England exists as a
logical necessity, is so unbiased in its premises, so logical and clear
in its deductions, that this manifest fairness, although leading one to
conclusions distasteful to a republican mind, must endear him to his
readers. Dealing with a subject somewhat dry in its details, he invests
inanimate objects with so much light that they become realities. In the
highest sense he combines popularity and scholarship.
Spinoza's philosophy may be traced both to the influence of Bacon, his
predecessor, and to Descartes, his contemporary. Its combination of
positivism with the enthusiasm of piety characterizes his philosophy
as unique in itself, for while treating man from a purely mechanical
standpoint, it asserts that the mechanism itself is entirely divine.
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nature and the God of nature. His religion naturally made him a Monist,
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God in Nature cannot avoid. While he renounced his Judaism and entered
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his whole attitude and the character of his philosophy better than any
lengthy dissertation.
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of Kant, but he modifies and adapts Kant's "Critique of Pure Reason"
to such an extent that he reaches the attitude of opposition. This
attitude he manifests throughout all his writings. He is truly an
Apostle of Protest, but in spite of his positivist contradictions
and his materialistic pantheism, he opens up a mine of suggestions
to the literary and philosophical student. In spite of the apparent

tragedy due to the conflict within him, we cannot help gathering from
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excellent. One thing especially noticeable about his writings is that
while German philosophers are often ponderous and in fact nebulous,
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ideal biography of a State. His clear, straightforward, concise
statement of conditions and characters as he saw then is a model for
all writers of record. He was the first great Italian historian, and
no man has ever been more ardent in his patriotism or a more earnest
supporter of government for and by the people. The greatest tribute to
his inflexible honesty of character is the fact that while no man had
greater opportunities to enrich himself at the cost of the State, he
died leaving his family in the greatest poverty. His varied political
experience, and his assiduous study of classic writers, gave him the
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State. Time has pronounced this History to be a classic worthy of
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juster and greater estimate of its author.
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estimate to the fantasies and airy castles of men like Rousseau, More,
and Campanella. The four Ideal Republics or Governments described in
this volume are perhaps the most famous of all, since they rank not
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highest class; and their writers have a further claim upon posterity
from the fact that they helped to make history.
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Persian and Chinese Letters. Lord Chesterfield gives us the irony and
hard-headed criticism combined with worldly common sense contained in
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and English Belles Lettres yield what is greatest in them. Ottoman
Literature, comprising Arabian, Persian, and Hebraic Poems, affords
the reader an insight into the romantic and dramatic character of the
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written in the East, finds itself at home in this section, while the
Literature of the Hebrews is ideally represented in that most wonderful
of all monuments of human wisdom, and perhaps folly, the "Talmud,"
together with the basis of modern metaphysics, the "Kabbala."
The Sufistic Quatrains of Omar Khayyam are here for the first time
presented complete in a collection of this order. The various editions
of Fitzgerald are reprinted, collated, and to them is added the
valuable Heron-Allen analysis of Fitzgerald's sources of inspiration.
The very rare Whinfield version is found here complete; and for the
first time in English appears M. Nicolas' French transcription of the
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add to his collection the versions here quoted would be compelled to

disburse more than one hundred times the amount this book will cost him.
While the Library of Universal Classics does not claim to be the
final condensation of the treasure houses of human philosophy and
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its right to be called the most useful, most attractive, and most
representative selection, within the limits assigned to it, of those
world-masterpieces of literature which men, for lack of a more luminous
name, call Classics.
Robert Arnot
[Illustration: _HUGO GROTIUS_
_From an Original Painting._]

[Illustration]
THE RIGHTS OF
WAR AND PEACE
INCLUDING THE
LAW OF NATURE
AND OF NATIONS
TRANSLATED FROM THE ORIGINAL LATIN OF
GROTIUS
WITH NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS FROM
POLITICAL AND LEGAL WRITERS
BY
A. C. CAMPBELL, A. M.
WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY
DAVID J. Hill,
Assistant Secretary of State of the United States
M. WALTER DUNNE, PUBLISHER
NEW YORK & LONDON

COPYRIGHT, 1901,
BY
M. WALTER DUNNE,
PUBLISHER

ILLUSTRATIONS

HUGO GROTIUS
From an original painting.

_Frontispiece_

WAR

109
By Gari Melchers,
From a panel painting in Library of Congress.

PEACE
By Gari Melchers,
From a panel painting in Library of Congress.

213

WAR AND PEACE

Frontispiece to a rare edition of Grotius.

307

CONTENTS
_BOOK I._
CHAPTER

PAGE
Introduction

I. On War and Right

17

II. Inquiry into the Lawfulness of War

III. The Division of War into Public and Private, and the
Nature of Sovereign Power

31
55

_BOOK II._
I. Defense of Person and Property
II. The General Rights of Things
III. On the Original Acquisition of Things, and the Right of
Property in Seas and Rivers

73
85
103

IV. Title to Desert Lands by Occupancy, Possession, and

Prescription

109

IX. In What Cases Jurisdiction and Property Cease

117

X. The Obligation Arising from Property

123

XI. On Promises

131

XII. On Contracts

144

XIII. On Oaths
XV. On Treaties and on Engagements Made by Delegates
Exceeding Their Powers

160
166

XVI. The Interpretation of Treaties

XVII. On Damages Occasioned by Injury, and the Obligation to
Repair Them
XVIII. On the Rights of Embassies
XIX. On the Right of Burial
XX. On Punishments
XXI. On the Communication of Punishment
XXII. On the Unjust Causes of War
XXIII. On Doubtful Causes
XXIV. Precautions against Rashly Engaging in War, Even upon
Just Grounds

176
195
202
213
220
256
267
274
280

_BOOK III._
I. What Is Lawful in War
II. In What Manner the Law of Nations Renders the Property of
Subjects Answerable for the Debts of Sovereigns. The
Nature of Reprisals
III. On Just or Solemn War According to the Law of Nations on
Declarations of War
IV. On the Right of Killing an Enemy in Lawful War and
Committing Other Acts of Hostility

290

307
314
323

V. On the Right to Lay Waste an Enemy's Country and Carry Off

His Effects
332
VI. On the Acquisition of Territory and Property by Right of
Conquest
VII. On the Right over Prisoners of War

334
345

VIII. On Empire over the Conquered

348

IX. Of the Right of Postliminium

351

XI. The Right of Killing Enemies, in Just War, to be Tempered

with Moderation and Humanity

359

XII. On Moderation in Despoiling an Enemy's Country

XIII. On Moderation in Making Captures in War
XV. On Moderation in Acquiring Dominion
XVI. On Moderation with Respect to Things Excluded from the
Right of Postliminium by the Law of Nations
XVII. Respecting Those Who Are Neutral in War

365
369
372
375
377

XIX. On Good Faith between Enemies

XX. On the Public Faith by Which War Is Concluded; Comprising
Treaties of Peace, and the Nature of Arbitration,
Surrender, Hostages, Pledges

379

XXI. On Faith During the Continuance of War, on Truces,

Safe-Conducts, and the Redemption of Prisoners

385
403

XXII. On the Faith of Those Invested with Subordinate Powers

in War

411

XXIV. On Tacit Faith

415

XXV. Conclusion

417

INDEX

419

INTRODUCTION
THE WORK AND INFLUENCE OF HUGO GROTIUS.
The claims of the great work of Grotius, "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_,"
to be included in a list of Universal Classics, do not rest upon
the felicity of style usually expected in a classic composition.
His work is marked by frequent rhetorical deformities, tedious and
involved forms of reasoning, and perplexing obscurities of phraseology
which prevent its acceptance as an example of elegant writing.
Notwithstanding these external defects, it is, nevertheless, one of the
few notable works of genius which, among the labors of centuries, stand
forth as illustrations of human progress and constitute the precious
heritage of the human race.
If it is not literature in the technical sense, the masterpiece of
Grotius is something higher and nobler,--a triumph of intelligence
over irrational impulses and barbarous propensities. Its publication
marks an era in the history of nations, for out of the chaos of lawless
and unreasoning strife it created a system of illuminating principles
to light the way of sovereigns and peoples in the paths of peace and
general concord.
I. THE REIGN OF WAR.
The idea of peaceful equity among nations, now accepted as a human
ideal, though still far from realization, was for ages a difficult, if
not an impossible, conception. All experience spoke against it, for war
was the most familiar phenomenon of history.
Among the Greek city-states, a few temporary leagues and federations
were attempted, but so feeble were the bonds of peace, so explosive
were the passions which led to war, that even among the highly
civilized Hellenic peoples, community of race, language, and religion
was powerless to create a Greek nation. It was reserved for the

military genius of Alexander the Great, at last, by irresistible

conquest, to bring the Greek Empire into being, to be destroyed in turn
by superior force.
The Roman Empire almost achieved the complete political unity of
Europe, and bound parts of three continents under one rule, but the
corruption of the military power which held it together led to its
inevitable dismemberment.
After the conflicts of the barbaric kingdoms which followed the
dissolution of the Western Empire were ended by the predominance of the
Frankish monarchy, the world believed that the _Pax Romana_ was to be
restored in Europe by the hand of Charles the Great; but the disruptive
forces were destined to prevail once more, and the Holy Roman Empire
never succeeded in reviving the power of ancient Rome. And thus the
dream of a universal monarchy, of a central authority able to preside
over kings and princes, adjusting their difficulties, and preserving
the peace between them, was at last proved futile.
In each of the great national monarchies that had already risen or were
still rising on the ruins of imperial dominion, particularly in France,
England, Holland, and the States of Germany, a continuous internal
conflict over questions of religion complicated the bitterness and
destructiveness of foreign wars until Europe was reorganized by the
Peace of Westphalia, in 1648.
It was in the midst of these wars that Grotius was born. He saw his own
country rising from a baptism of blood and all Europe rent and torn by
the awful struggle of the Thirty Years' War, in the midst of which his
great work was written and to whose conclusion it served as a guide
and inspiration. The Empire, dismembered, had been reduced to almost
complete impotence, the Church had been disrupted, and no international
authority was anywhere visible. Amid the general wreck of institutions
Grotius sought for light and guidance in great principles. Looking
about him at the general havoc which war had made, the nations hostile,
the faith of ages shattered, the passions of men destroying the
commonwealths which nourished them, he saw that Europe possessed but
one common bond, one vestige of its former unity,--_the human mind_. To
this he made appeal and upon its deepest convictions he sought to plant
the Law of Nations.
II. THE PREDECESSORS OF GROTIUS.
It is historically accurate to say, that, until formulated by Grotius,
Europe possessed no system of international law. Others had preceded
him in touching upon certain aspects of the rights and duties of
nations, but none had produced a system comparable to his.
The earliest attempt to formulate recognized international customs
was the formation of the early maritime codes, rendered necessary by
the expansion of medival commerce from the end of the eleventh to
the end of the sixteenth century, such as the "_Jugemens d' Olron_,"
adopted by the merchants of France, England, and Spain, and reissued
under other names for the merchants of The Netherlands and the Baltic.
"_The Consolato del Mare_," a more elaborate compilation, was made,
apparently at Barcelona, about the middle of the fourteenth century,
and accepted generally by the traders of the chief maritime powers. It
was in the cradle of commerce, therefore, that international law awoke
to consciousness.

As the Church was often intrusted with the task of pacification, it

is but natural to look among her representatives for the earliest
writers on the laws of international relations. It is, in fact, among
the theological moralists that we find the first students of this
subject. As early as 1564, a Spanish theologian, Vasquez, conceived
of a group of free states with reciprocal rights regulated by _jus
naturale et gentium_, without regard to a world-power, either imperial
or ecclesiastical. In 1612, Saurez pointed out that a kind of customary
law had arisen from the usages of nations, and distinctly described a
society of interdependent states bound by fundamental principles of
justice.
At the close of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth
centuries, a series of circumstances arose necessitating the extension
of jurisprudence beyond its ancient boundaries, and thus tending to
produce a group of international jurists. Among the juristic writers
of this time are Balthazar Ayala, a Spanish jurisconsult, who died in
1584, having written in a historico-judicial spirit on the subject
of war in his "_De Jure et Officiis Belli_"; Conrad Brunus, a German
jurist, who wrote of the rights and duties of ambassadors in his
"_De Legationibus_," published in 1548; and pre-eminent above all,
Albericus Gentilis, an Italian professor of jurisprudence and lecturer
at Oxford, a writer of force and originality, who published his "_De
Legationibus_" in 1583 and his "_De Jure Belli_" in 1589.
III. THE LIFE AND PERSONALITY OF GROTIUS.
HUGO GROTIUS, to use the Latin form of his name by which he is best
known, or Hugo de Groot as he is called in Holland, descended from a
race of scholars and magistrates, was born at Delft, on April 10th,
1583. His family history has been related with much detail by De
Burigny, in his "_Vie de Grotius_," published in French at Amsterdam
in 1754; and by Vorsterman van Oyen, in his "_Hugo de Groot en Zijn
Gesclacht_," a complete genealogy in Dutch, published at Amsterdam
in 1883, which gives the descendants of Grotius down to the present
generation. His origin is traced from a French gentleman, Jean Cornets,
who took up his residence in The Netherlands in 1402. His descendant,
Cornelius Cornets, married the daughter of a burgomaster of Delft on
condition that the future children of this marriage should bear the
name of their mother's family, in order to perpetuate the distinction
which it had achieved. The maternal name imposed by Cornelius Cornets's
Dutch father-in-law, Dirk van Kraayenburg de Groot, was de Groot,
meaning the Great, and is said to have been bestowed for signal
services rendered to his country by the first who had borne it four
hundred years before. From this marriage sprung a Hugo de Groot,
distinguished for his learning in Greek, Latin, and Hebrew and five
times burgomaster of his native city. His eldest son, Cornelius, was a
noted linguist and mathematician who studied law in France and received
high office in his own country, afterward becoming a professor of law
and many times rector of the University of Leyden. Another son, John
de Groot, the father of Hugo Grotius, studied there under the famous
Lipsius, who speaks of him with the highest commendation. Four times
burgomaster of Delft, John de Groot became curator of the University of
Leyden, a position which he filled with great dignity and honor.
In his earliest years the young Hugo gave evidence of marked and varied
ability. At eight he wrote Latin verses which betrayed poetic talent;
at twelve he entered the University where he became a pupil of that

prince of scholars, Joseph Scaliger, who directed his studies; and

at fifteen he defended "with the greatest applause" Latin theses in
philosophy and jurisprudence. His fame as a prodigy of diversified
learning spread far and wide, and great scholars declared they had
never seen his equal.
Grotius had won celebrity even in foreign lands when, in 1600, at the
age of seventeen, he was admitted to the bar. The youthful prodigy
had already accompanied the Grand Pensionary, John of Oldenbarneveld
on a special embassy to France, where he was presented to Henry IV,
who bestowed upon him his portrait together with a gold chain, and
graciously called him "The Miracle of Holland." At Orleans he was made
a Doctor of Laws.
Married in 1609 to Marie van Reigersberg, whose devotion was worthy of
his deep affection, and loaded with public honors, having been named
the official historian of the United Provinces and the advocate-general
of two provinces, Holland and Zeeland, Grotius set his hand to a work
entitled "_Mare Librum_," in which he defended the freedom of the sea
and the maritime rights of his country against the arrogant pretensions
of the Portuguese in suppressing the commerce of other nations in
Eastern waters,--a treatise destined to become still more celebrated in
the history of international law by Selden's reply, "_Mare Clausum_,"
written in 1635. Next, turning his attention to the history of The
Netherlands, he devoted himself for a time to his "Annals of the War of
Independence."
In 1613, Grotius added to his laurels as poet, jurist, and historian
by entering the field of politics, and he was appointed Pensionary of
Rotterdam upon the condition that he should continue in office during
his own pleasure. It was during a visit to England upon a diplomatic
mission in this same year that he met the great scholar Isaac Casaubon,
who said in a letter to Daniel Heinsius: "I cannot say how happy I
esteem myself in having seen so much of one so truly great as Grotius.
A wonderful man! This I knew him to be before I had seen him; but the
rare excellence of that divine genius no one can sufficiently feel who
does not see his face and hear him speak. Probity is stamped on all his
features."
Closely related by personal friendship as well as by his official
duties to the Grand Pensionary, John of Oldenbarneveld, Grotius was
destined to share with that unfortunate patriot the proscription and
punishment which Maurice of Orange visited upon the two confederates
in the defense of religious tolerance. Risking all as the apostles of
peace, they were soon condemned to be its martyrs. Oldenbarneveld,
having incurred the bitter hatred of the Stadtholder, was condemned
to death by decapitation on May 12th, 1619. Grotius, less offensive
to Maurice on account of his youth and his gracious personality, was
sentenced six days later to perpetual imprisonment. On the 6th of June,
1619, he was incarcerated in the fortress of Loevestein.
Rigorously treated at first, his docility and resignation soon won the
respect and affection of his keepers. Writing materials and books were
in time accorded him, and finally, on condition that she would continue
to share his captivity, he was granted the presence of his wife. The
studious prisoner and his devoted companion completely disarmed all
suspicion of an intention to escape, and the ponderous chest in which
books came and went continued to bring periodic consolation to the
mind of the busy scholar. A treatise on the truth of the Christian
religion, a catechism for the use of his children, a digest of Dutch

law, and other compositions served to occupy and alleviate the weary
months of confinement, until one day when the time seemed opportune
Madame Grotius secretly inclosed her husband in the great chest and
it was borne away by two soldiers. Descending the stone steps of the
prison the bearers remarked that the trunk was heavy enough to contain
an Arminian, but Madame Grotius's jest on the heaviness of Arminian
books smoothed over the suspicion, if one was really entertained, and
the great jurist was sent in the chest safe to Gorcum, attended by a
faithful domestic, where in the house of a friend the prisoner emerged
without injury and in the guise of a stone mason hastened to Antwerp.
From Antwerp he took refuge in France, where he arrived in April, 1621,
and was joined by his faithful wife at Paris in the following October.
The bitterness of exile was now to be added to the miseries of
imprisonment, for Grotius was not only excluded from The Netherlands,
but in extreme poverty. His letters reveal his anguish of spirit at
this period, but a generous Frenchman, Henri de Mme, placed his
country house at Balagni at his disposition, and there, supported by
a small pension, which Louis XIII had graciously accorded him, though
irregularly and tardily paid, Grotius commenced his great work, "_De
Jure Belli ac Pacis_," in the summer of 1623.
Much speculation has been indulged in regarding the causes which led
to the composition of this masterpiece, but a recent discovery has
rendered all this superfluous, as well as the ascription of special
merit to the Counselor Peyresc for suggesting the idea of the work. It
is, indeed, to the pacific genius of Grotius more than to all other
causes that the world owes the origin of his great work; for it sprang
from his dominant thought, ever brooding on the horrors of war and
the ways of peace, during more than twenty years, and never wholly
satisfied till its full expression was completed.
In the winter of 1604, there had sprung out of his legal practice the
idea of a treatise entitled "_De Jure Praedae_," fully written out,
but never printed by its author. The manuscript remained unknown by
all his biographers until it was brought to light and printed under
the auspices of Professor Fruin at The Hague in 1868. This interesting
document proves that not only the general conception but the entire
plan and even the arrangement of the "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_" were
in the mind of Grotius when he was only twenty-one years of age. The
difference between the earlier work and the later is chiefly one of
detail and amplification, the difference which twenty years of reading,
experience, meditation and maturity of faculty would inevitably create.
The curious may find in his letters the almost daily chronicle of his
progress with his book to the time of its publication after excessive
labors lasting more than a year. In March, 1625, the printing of the
first edition, which had occupied four months, was completed and copies
were sent to the fair at Frankfort. His honorarium as author consisted
of two hundred copies, many of which he presented to his friends. From
the sale of the remainder at a crown each, he was not able to reimburse
his outlay. In the following August he wrote to his father and brother
that if he had their approbation and that of a few friends, he would
have no cause for complaint but would be satisfied. Louis XIII, to
whom the work was dedicated, accepted the homage of the author and
a handsomely bound copy, but failed to exercise the grace customary
with monarchs by according a gratification. At Rome, the treatise was
proscribed in the index in 1627. Almost penniless and suffering from
his protracted toil, Grotius seemed destined to neglect and oblivion,
yet from his exile he wrote to his brother: "It is not necessary to ask

anything for me. If my country can do without me, I can do without her.
The world is large enough...."
Invited to enter the service of France by Richelieu, Grotius would not
accept the conditions which the Cardinal wished to impose,--such at
least is the inevitable inference from his letters. His pension was not
paid and his circumstances became so serious that one of his children
had but a single coat. At length, pushed to the utmost extremity
of want and instigated by his energetic wife, Grotius resolved to
return to Holland. Driven from Rotterdam to Amsterdam, where he
hoped to settle down as a lawyer, the States General twice ordered
his arrest and named a price for his delivery to the authorities.
The new Stadtholder, Frederick Henry, who, before succeeding his
brother Maurice, had written kindly to Grotius after his escape from
imprisonment, now approved his proscription. Abandoned by his prince
as well as by his countrymen, Grotius once more turned his face toward
exile and set out for Hamburg.
IV. THE WORK OF GROTIUS.
It may be of interest at this point in the career of Grotius to
describe briefly the character of the great work which was soon to win
for him a new celebrity, and materially change his prospects in life.
The inspiration of his "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_" was the love of
peace, yet he was far from being one of those visionaries who totally
condemn the use of armed force and proscribe all war as wrong and
unnecessary. On the contrary, he seeks to discover when, how, and by
whom war may be justly conducted.
His plan of treatment is as follows:-In the First Book, he considers whether any war is just, which leads
to the distinction between public and private war, and this in turn
to a discussion of the nature and embodiment of sovereignty.
In the Second Book, the causes from which wars arise, the nature
of property and personal rights which furnish their occasions, the
obligations that pertain to ownership, the rule of royal succession,
the rights secured by compacts, the force and interpretation of
treaties, and kindred subjects are examined.
In the Third Book, the question is asked, "What is lawful war?"
which prepares for the consideration of military conventions and the
methods by which peace is to be secured.
From the authority of the Empire and the Church, no longer effectual as
an international agency, Grotius appeals to Humanity as furnishing the
true law of nations. Beginning with the idea that there is a kinship
among men established by nature, he sees in this bond a community
of rights. The society of nations, including as it does the whole
human race, needs the recognition of rights as much as mere local
communities. As nations are but larger aggregations of individuals,
each with its own corporate coherence, the accidents of geographic
boundary do not obliterate that human demand for justice which springs
from the nature of man as a moral being. There is, therefore, as a
fundamental bond of human societies a Natural Law, which, when properly
apprehended, is perceived to be the expression and dictate of right
reason. It is thus upon the nature of man as a rational intelligence

that Grotius founds his system of universal law.

As this law of human nature is universally binding wherever men exist,
it cannot be set aside by the mere circumstances of time and place,
whence it results that there is a law of war as well as a law of peace.
As this law applies to the commencement of armed conflicts, war is
never to be undertaken except to assert rights, and when undertaken
is never to be carried on except within the limits of rights. It is
true that in the conflict of arms laws must be silent, but only CIVIL
laws, which govern in times of peace. Those laws which are PERPETUAL,
which spring from the nature of man as man, and not from his particular
civil relations, continue even during strife and constitute the laws of
war. To deny these, or to disobey them, implies a repudiation of human
nature itself and of the divine authority which has invested it with
rights and obligations. To disavow the imperative character of these
perpetual laws, is to revert to barbarism.
It is necessary, however to distinguish between Natural Law, that
principle of justice which springs from man's rational nature, and
Conventional Law, which results from his agreements and compacts.
Natural Law remains ever the same, but institutions change. While the
study of abstract justice, apart from all that has its origin in the
will or consent of men, would enable us to create a complete system of
jurisprudence, there is another source which must not be neglected,
since men have established the sanctity of certain rules of conduct by
solemn convention.
The Law of Nations does not consist, therefore, of a mere body of
deductions derived from general principles of justice, for there is
also a body of doctrine based upon CONSENT; and it is this system of
voluntarily recognized obligations which distinguishes international
jurisprudence from mere ethical speculation or moral theory. There are
CUSTOMS of nations as well as a universally accepted law of nature, and
it is in this growth of practically recognized rules of procedure that
we trace the evolution of law international--_jus inter gentes_--as a
body of positive jurisprudence.
It is evident that the mind of Grotius is continually struggling to
establish a science upon this positive basis, and it is this which
gives a distinctive character to his effort. The great writers of all
ages are cited with a superfluous lavishness, not so much to support
his claims by an aggregation of individual opinions--still less to
display his erudition, as his critics have sometimes complained--as to
give a historic catholicity to his doctrine by showing that the laws
he is endeavoring to formulate have, in fact, been accepted in all
times and by all men. For this purpose also, he makes abundant use of
the great authorities on Roman Law, whose doctrines and formulas were
certain to carry conviction to the minds of those whom he desired to
convince.
It is needless, perhaps, to point out that the work of Grotius is
not and could not be a work of permanent authority as a digest of
international law. His own wise appreciation of the positive and
historical element--the authority derived from custom--should exempt
him from the pretense of absolute finality. It is the Book of Genesis
only that he has given us, but it is his indefeasible distinction to
have recorded the creation of order out of chaos in the great sphere of
international relationship, justly entitling him to the honor accorded
to him by the spontaneous consent of future times as the Father of
International Jurisprudence.

It is not difficult after more than three centuries of thought and

experience to point out the defects in his doctrine. If he justifies
slavery, it is not without ingenuity; for, he argues, if a man may sell
his labor, why not his liberty? and if the conqueror may impose his
will upon the property of the vanquished, why not also upon his person?
If he identifies sovereignty with supreme power without any adequate
conception of its ethical basis, he is at least as advanced in his
thinking as the conceptions of his time, which had not yet grasped the
idea of the state as a moral organism. If he has no adequate notion
of neutrality, believing it to be the duty of a nation to enlist its
energies for what it deems the right side, rather than to disavow all
responsibility for actions foreign to its own interests, he is at least
supported in this by the opinion of the multitude even at the present
time; and even among jurists the modern conception of neutrality is
hardly a century old. If the new schools of jurisprudence make light
of Natural Law as a foundation of public and private rights, it is
not certain that Grotius may not yet be vindicated as representing a
doctrine at least as clear as any other which has been substituted for
it. But, finally, to all these criticisms it may be answered, that
no great thinker can be justly estimated except in relation to his
predecessors and contemporaries. Measured by these, Grotius stands
alone among the jurists of his century for originality of thought and
power of exposition.
V. THE INFLUENCE OF GROTIUS'S WORK.
It was during his sojourn in Hamburg in 1633, eight years after the
publication of his "_De Jure_," and while he was still suffering from
painful pecuniary embarrassment, that Europe suddenly awoke to a sense
of his importance; and, almost at one time, Poland, Denmark, Spain,
England, and Sweden all extended friendly invitations urging him to
enter into their public service. His fame as a jurist had become
international and, rudely repelled by his native Holland, he became
the center of European interest. Gustavus Adolphus had placed the work
of Grotius along side his Bible under his soldier's pillow, as he
prosecuted his campaigns in the Thirty Years' War. The first edition
of that work, written in Latin, the cosmopolitan language of learned
Europe, had been quickly exhausted and widely scattered. Another had
soon been called for at Paris, but the death of Buon, the publisher,
created obstacles to its appearance. A second edition had appeared at
Frankfort in 1626, another at Amsterdam in 1631, and still another
with notes by the author in 1632. The book had aroused the thought of
kings as well as of scholars, and in the circles of high influence
everywhere in Europe the name of Grotius had become well known. His
book had excited the most opposite sentiments and awakened the most
contradictory judgments, but among lawyers and statesmen its reception
was from the first generally marked by admiration. In spite of exile,
poverty, and misfortune, Grotius had become a European celebrity and
was about to enter into the reward of his labors. He had created a code
for war and a programme of peace, and henceforth no statesman could
afford to neglect him.
Gustavus Adolphus, the king of Sweden, before his death on the
battlefield of Ltzen, had commended Grotius to his great Chancellor,
Oxenstiern. By the death of Gustavus the Chancellor had, in 1633,
recently come into the regency of the kingdom at a critical moment
when a retreat from the bitter contest with the Empire seemed to be
foredoomed unless prevented by the support and friendship of France.

Recalling the commendation of the late king, Oxenstiern sought

and found in Grotius an ambassador of Sweden to negotiate a new
Franco-Swedish alliance. Accepting this appointment in 1634, Grotius
arrived at Paris on his diplomatic mission on March 2d, 1635.
Richelieu, having failed to draw the great jurist into the orbit of his
influence as a satellite, resented his appearance in a character so
influential and honorable as that of ambassador of Sweden, and Grotius
made little progress in his negotiation. Preoccupied with literature,
he took more interest in the composition of a sacred tragedy on "The
Flight into Egypt" than in reminding France of the existing treaty
of Heilbronn or consolidating the new Franco-Swedish alliance. Where
Grotius the theorist failed, Oxenstiern, the practical statesman, by
a few dexterous strokes of diplomacy during a brief visit to Paris,
easily succeeded; and the ambassador's mission was simplified to the
rle of a mere observer and reporter of occurrences.
By taste, nature, and training, Grotius was a jurist and not a
diplomatist, and he soon realized that the two vocations, if not
diametrically opposed, are at least separated from each other by a vast
interval. His diplomatic correspondence betrays the keen observer and
the conscientious moralist rather than the accomplished negotiator.
Among the observations recorded in his dispatches, one may be quoted as
an example of his penetration and his humor. Speaking of the Dauphin,
the future Louis XIV, he says: "His frightful and precocious avidity is
a bad omen for neighboring peoples; for he is at present on his ninth
nurse, whom he is rending and murdering as he has the others!"
It is painful to behold the great father of international jurisprudence
descending in his dispatches to petty details of precedence and
alienating from himself the sympathies of his colleagues by ridiculous
ceremonial pretensions. He would no longer visit Mazarin, because
the Cardinal insisted on calling him EMINENCE instead of EXCELLENCE;
Grotius considering this distinction of terms a slight upon his rank as
ambassador. So persistent was he in these follies and so rancorous were
the feuds that the apostle of peace elicited that, in December, 1636,
less than two years after his arrival at Paris, he advised Sweden to
send to France a simple _Charg d'Affaires_, instead of an ambassador,
in order to restore diplomatic relations.
His quarrels concerning precedence, which rendered him an object
of ridicule at the French Court, were not the only griefs of the
ambassador of Sweden. Inadequately recompensed, he was obliged to wait
two years for his salary and finally, being reduced to a condition
in which he could no longer maintain existence otherwise, he was
compelled to demand of the royal treasury of France a part of the
subsidies promised to the army of his adopted country. Weary of his
importunities, the French government repeatedly requested his recall.
Disgusted with his mission, Grotius at last abandoned the duties of his
office to the intriguing adventurer, Cerisante, who was sent to aid
him, and buried himself in his books until his return to Sweden at his
own request in 1645.
Queen Christina of Sweden, a patroness of scholars, desirous of aiding
Grotius and of retaining him in the service of her kingdom, made many
offers and promises, but their execution being deferred, he became
impatient of his lot, refused a position as counselor of state, and
resolved to leave the country. His plan to abandon Stockholm secretly
was prevented by a messenger of the queen who followed him to the port
where he intended to embark and induced him to return for a farewell

audience. With a handsome present of money and silver plate he took

passage on a vessel placed at his disposition to convey him to Lbeck.
Off the coast near Dantzic a violent tempest arose. On the 17th of
August, 1645, the vessel was driven ashore and Grotius, overcome by his
trying experiences, was taken ill at Rostock, where a few days later he
passed away.
The later years of his life had been chiefly devoted to plans for the
establishment of peace in the religious world, whose dissensions gave
him great distress of mind.
The country of his birth, which had so long denied him citizenship,
received him at last to the silent hospitality of the tomb. His body
was taken to Delft, his native town, where his name is now held in
grateful reverence.
At the time when Grotius left Stockholm, the last of the
plenipotentiaries had arrived at Mnster and Osnabrck to attend the
great European congress convoked to terminate the hostilities of the
Thirty Years' War. It is a tradition, but incapable of satisfactory
proof, that it was with the purpose of being present at the councils
of this congress that the author of "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_" left
Sweden for Germany. However this may be, it is certain that the
mediation of the king of Denmark at Osnabrck and of the papal legate
at Mnster, though unsuccessful, was in accordance with the idea of
Grotius expressed in the words: "It would be useful, and indeed it
is almost necessary, that certain congresses of Christian powers
should be held, in which controversies that have arisen among some of
them may be decided by others who are not interested." The immediate
establishment of an international tribunal, evidently contemplated in
this suggestion, was not in harmony with the temper of those times;
but it cannot be doubted that the Peace of Westphalia, whose treaties
were to form a code of public law for Europe, was to a great degree an
embodiment of the principles which Grotius was the first to enunciate.
His "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_" had already become a classic even before
the author's death, and special professorships were soon founded in
the universities to expound its principles. It would be tedious to
name the numerous editions, translations, and commentaries which have
given it an exceptional place in the literature of Europe. This task
has been in part performed, however, by Dr. Rogge in his "_Bibliotheca
Grotiana_," published at The Hague in 1883, and intended to be a full
bibliography of Grotius's works. The whole number of titles included
is 462, but they do not comprise the writings of the generations of
jurists who have been inspired by the great master or of the critics
and biographers who have discussed his life and work.
Tardily, but with full contrition for the bitter wrong done to one of
her greatest and noblest sons, the memory of Grotius has received from
his native land abundant recognition and commemoration. The appropriate
tomb that marks his resting place in the Nieuwe Kerk at Delft,
symbolical of his learning, genius, and renown, was erected in 1781.
On the 17th of September, 1886, a noble statue of the great jurist was
unveiled in the public square of his native town in front of the church
which contains his tomb. Thus, more than a century after his death,
and again still another century later, Holland has paid her tribute of
respect to her illustrious citizen.
The later years have also brought new honors to Grotius's feet. At
the recent Peace Conference at The Hague was completed the great

structure of international comity whose corner stone was laid by him

in 1625. It was most fitting that an international congress called in
the interest of peace should blend with the negotiation of conventions
for the pacific settlement of disputes between nations by a permanent
tribunal, and for the amelioration of the laws of war, a celebration
of the distinguished writer whose great thought had at last borne
such precious fruits. In pursuance of instructions received from
the Secretary of State, the United States Commission invited their
colleagues in the congress, the heads of the Dutch universities, and
the high civic authorities to join with them in observing the 4th of
July by celebrating the memory of the great jurist. With appropriate
exercises in the apse of the old church, near the monument of Grotius
and mausoleum of William the Silent, the representatives of twenty-six
nations gathered to do him honor. A beautiful commemorative wreath of
silver was laid upon Grotius's tomb bearing the inscription:
TO
THE MEMORY OF HUGO GROTIUS
IN
REVERENCE AND GRATITUDE
FROM THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
ON THE
OCCASION OF THE INTERNATIONAL PEACE CONFERENCE
AT
THE HAGUE JULY 4TH, 1899.
An eloquent oration by the Honorable Andrew D. White, Ambassador of the
United States to Germany, and the head of the Commission, followed by
other appropriate addresses, recalled the debt of mankind to the author
of "_De Jure Belli ac Pacis_"; and thus the plenipotentiaries of the
nineteenth century did homage to the exile of the sixteenth who had
taught the world that even in the shock and storm of battle humanity
cannot escape the dominion of its own essential laws, and that even
independent states are answerable before the bar of human nature for
obedience to principles imposed by a Power higher than the prerogatives
of princes or the will of nations.
David J. Hill

THE RIGHTS OF WAR AND PEACE, INCLUDING THE LAW OF NATURE AND OF NATIONS.

BOOK I.

CHAPTER I.
Of War--Definition of War--Right, of Governors and of the governed,
and of equals--Right as a Quality divided into Faculty and
Fitness--Faculty denoting Power, Property, and Credit--Divided into
Private and Superior--Right as a Rule, natural and voluntary--Law
of Nature divided--Proofs of the Law of Nature--Division of Rights
into human and divine--Human explained--Divine stated--Mosaic Law

not binding upon Christians.

I. The disputes arising among those who are held together by no
common bond of civil laws to decide their dissensions, like the
ancient Patriarchs, who formed no national community, or the numerous,
unconnected communities, whether under the direction of individuals, or
kings, or persons invested with Sovereign power, as the leading men in
an aristocracy, and the body of the people in a republican government;
the disputes, arising among any of these, all bear a relation to the
circumstances of war or peace. But because war is undertaken for the
sake of peace, and there is no dispute, which may not give rise to
war, it will be proper to treat all such quarrels, as commonly happen,
between nations, as an article in the rights of war: and then war
itself will lead us to peace, as to its proper end.
II. In treating of the rights of war, the first point, that we have
to consider, is, what is war, which is the subject of our inquiry,
and what is the right, which we seek to establish. Cicero styled war a
contention by force. But the practice has prevailed to indicate by that
name, not an immediate action, but a state of affairs; so that war is
the state of contending parties, considered as such. This definition,
by its general extent, comprises those wars of every description,
that will form the subject of the present treatise. Nor are single
combats excluded from this definition. For, as they are in reality more
ancient than public wars, and undoubtedly, of the same nature, they may
therefore properly be comprehended under one and the same name. This
agrees very well with the true derivation of the word. For the Latin
word, _Bellum_, WAR, comes from the old word, _Duellum_, a DUEL, as
_Bonus_ from _Duonus_, and _Bis_ from _Duis_. Now _Duellum_ was derived
from _Duo_; and thereby implied a difference between two persons, in
the same sense as we term peace, UNITY, from _Unitas_, for a contrary
reason. So the Greek word, {
m
s} c
mm
ny usd t
signify
war, x rsss in its
rigina, an ida
f mutitud. Th ancint
Grks ikwis cad it {ly}, wic imports a DISUNION of
minds; jst as by te term {y}, tey meant te DISSOLUTION of te
parts of te boy. Nor oes te se of te wor, WAR, contraict tis
larger acceptation of it. For tog some times it is only applie to
te qarrels of states, yet tat is no objection, as it is evient tat
a general name is often applie to some particlar object, entitle to
pecliar istinction. Jstice is not incle in te efinition of war,
becase te very point to be ecie is, weter any war is jst, an
wat war may be so calle. Terefore we mst make a istinction between
war itself, an te jstice of it.
III. As te Rigts of War is te title, by wic tis treatise is
istingise, te first inqiry, as it as been alreay observe, is
weter any war be jst, an, in te next place, wat constittes te
jstice of tat war. For, in tis place, rigt signifies noting more
tan wat is jst, an tat, more in a negative tan a positive sense;
so tat RIGHT is tat, wic is not njst. Now any ting is njst,
wic is repgnant to te natre of society, establise among rational
creatres. Ts for instance, to eprive anoter of wat belongs to
im, merely for one's own avantage, is repgnant to te law of natre,
as Cicero observes in te fift Capter of is tir book of offices;
an, by way of proof, e says tat, if te practice were general, all
society an intercorse among men mst be overtrne. Florentins, te
Lawyer, maintains tat is impios for one man to form esigns against
anoter, as natre as establise a egree of kinre amongst s. On
tis sbject, Seneca remarks tat, as all te members of te man boy

agree among temselves, becase te preservation of eac conces to

te welfare of te wole, so men sol forbear from mtal injries,
as tey were born for society, wic cannot sbsist nless all te
parts of it are efene by mtal forbearance an goo will. Bt as
tere is one kin of social tie fone pon an eqality, for instance,
among broters, citizens, friens, allies, an anoter on pre-eminence
as Aristotle styles it, sbsisting between parents an cilren,
masters an servants, sovereigns an sbjects, Go an men. So jstice
takes place eiter amongst eqals, or between te governing an te
governe parties, notwitstaning teir ifference of rank. Te former
of tese, if I am not mistaken, may be calle te rigt of eqality,
an te latter te rigt of speriority.
IV. Tere is anoter signification of te wor RIGHT, ifferent from
tis, bt yet arising from it, wic relates irectly to te person.
In wic sense, RIGHT is a moral qality annexe to te person, jstly
entitling im to possess some particlar privilege, or to perform
some particlar act. Tis rigt is annexe to te person, altog
it sometimes follows te tings, as te services of lans, wic are
calle REAL RIGHTS, in opposition to tose merely PERSONAL. Not becase
tese rigts are not annexe to persons, bt te istinction is mae,
becase tey belong to te persons only wo possess some particlar
tings. Tis moral qality, wen perfect is calle a FACULTY; wen
imperfect, an APTITUDE. Te former answers to te ACT, an te latter
to te POWER, wen we speak of natral tings.
V. Civilians call a faclty tat Rigt, wic every man as to is
own; bt we sall ereafter, taking it in its strict an proper sense,
call it a rigt. Tis rigt compreens te power, tat we ave over
orselves, wic is calle liberty, an te power, tat we ave over
oters, as tat of a fater over is cilren, an of a master over
is slaves. It likewise compreens property, wic is eiter complete
or imperfect; of te latter kin is te se or possession of any ting
witot te property, or power of alienating it, or pleges etaine
by te creitors till payment be mae. Tere is a tir signification,
wic implies te power of emaning wat is e, to wic te
obligation pon te party inebte, to iscarge wat is owing,
correspons.
VI. Rigt, strictly taken, is again twofol, te one, PRIVATE,
establise for te avantage of eac inivial, te oter, SUPERIOR,
as involving te claims, wic te state as pon inivials, an
teir property, for te pblic goo. Ts te Regal atority is above
tat of a fater an a master, an te Sovereign as a greater rigt
over te property of is sbjects, were te pblic goo is concerne,
tan te owners temselves ave. An wen te exigencies of te state
reqire a spply, every man is more oblige to contribte towars it,
tan to satisfy is creitors.
VII. Aristotle istingises aptite or capacity, by te name of wort
or merit, an Micael of Epess, gives te epitet of SUITABLE or
BECOMING to te eqality establise by tis rle of merit.
IX.[1] Tere is also a tir signification of te wor Rigt, wic
as te same meaning as Law taken in its most extensive sense, to
enote a rle of moral action, obliging s to o wat is proper. We
say OBLIGING s. For te best consels or precepts, if tey lay s
ner no obligation to obey tem, cannot come ner te enomination
of law or rigt. Now as to permission,[2] it is no act of te law,
bt only te silence of te law, it owever proibits any one from

impeing anoter in oing wat te law permits. Bt we ave sai, te
law obliges s to o wat is proper, not simply wat is jst; becase,
ner tis notion, rigt belongs to te sbstance not only of jstice,
as we ave explaine it, bt of all oter virtes. Yet from giving te
name of a RIGHT to tat, wic is PROPER, a more general acceptation
of te wor jstice as been erive. Te best ivision of rigt, in
tis general meaning, is to be fon in Aristotle, wo, efining one
kin to be natral, an te oter volntary, calls it a LAWFUL RIGHT
in te strictest sense of te wor law; an some times an institte
rigt. Te same ifference is fon among te Hebrews, wo, by way of
istinction, in speaking, call tat natral rigt, PRECEPTS, an te
volntary rigt, STATUTES: te former of wic te Septagint call
{d m
}, nd
he l

er {e

 s}.
X. N
ur  righ
is
he dic

e
f righ
re s
, shewig
he m
r 

urpi
ude,
r m
r  ecessi
y,[3]
f y c
fr
m i
s greeme

r
dis greeme
wi
h r
i
  
ure, d c
seque
y
h
such 
c
is ei
her f
rbidde
r c
mm ded by G
d,
he u
h
r
f 
ure.
The c
i
s, up
 which such dic

e is give, re ei
her bidig

r u wfu i
hemseves, d
heref
re ecess riy uders


d

be
c
mm ded
r f
rbidde by G
d. This m rk dis
iguishes 
ur  righ
,



y fr
m hum   w, bu
fr
m
he  w, which G
d himsef h s bee
pe sed

reve , c ed, by s
me,
he v
u
ry divie righ
, which
d
es 

c
mm d
r f
rbid
higs i
hemseves ei
her bidig
r
u wfu, bu
m kes
hem u wfu by i
s pr
hibi
i
, d bidig by
i
s c
mm d. Bu
,

uders
d 
ur  righ
, we mus

bserve
h

s
me
higs re s id

be
g


h
righ
, 

pr
pery, bu
, s

he sch

me s y, by w y
f cc
mm
d
i
. These re 

repug 




ur  righ
, s we h ve re dy
bserved
h

h
se
higs re c ed
JUST, i which
here is 
ijus
ice. S
me
imes s
, by wr
g use

f
he w
rd,
h
se
higs which re s
 shews

be pr
per,
r be

er

h 
higs
f 
pp
si
e kid, 
h
ugh 

bidig, re s id


be
g


ur  righ
.
We mus
f r
her rem rk,
h

ur  righ
re
es 


y


h
se

higs
h
exis
idepede

f
he hum  wi, bu


m y
higs
which ecess riy f

w
he exercise
f
h
wi. Thus pr
per
y,
s 
w i use, w s
firs
cre
ure
f
he hum  wi. Bu
, f
er
i
w s es
bished,
e m  w s pr
hibi
ed by
he  w
f 
ure fr
m
seizig
he pr
per
y
f 

her g is
his wi. Wheref
re, P uus
he
L wyer s id,
h

hef
is expressy f
rbidde by
he  w
f 
ure.
Upi  c
dems i
s if m
us i i
s
w 
ure;

wh
se u
h
ri
y

h

f Euripides m y be dded, s m y be see i
he verses
f Hee :
"F
r G
d himsef h
es vi
ece, d wi 

h ve us

gr
w rich by
r pie, bu
by  wfu g is. Th
bud ce, which is
he frui

f
urigh
e
usess, is  b
mi
i
. The ir is c
mm


me,
he e r
h
s
, where every m , i
he mpe ej
yme

f his p
ssessi
, mus

refr i fr
m d
ig vi
ece
r ijury

h

f 

her."
N
w
he L w
f N
ure is s
u 
er be,
h
i
c 

be ch ged eve
by G
d himsef. F
r 
h
ugh
he p
wer
f G
d is ifii
e, ye

here
re s
me
higs,

which i
d
es 

ex
ed. Bec use
he
higs s

expressed w
ud h ve 

rue me ig, bu
impy c

r dic
i
. Thus

w
d
w
mus
m ke f
ur, 
r is i
p
ssibe

be

herwise; 
r,
g i, c  wh
is re y evi 

be evi. Ad
his is Aris


e's
me ig, whe he s ys,
h
s
me
higs re 
s

er  med,
h  we
disc
ver
heir evi 
ure. F
r s
he subs
ce
f
higs i
heir

ure d exis
ece depeds up
 

hig bu

hemseves; s

here
re qu i
ies isep r by c
ec
ed wi
h
heir beig d essece. Of


his kid is
he evi
f cer
i c
i
s, c
mp red wi
h
he 
ure
f
re s
 be beig. Theref
re G
d himsef suffers his c
i
s

be
judged by
his rue, s m y be see i
he xviii
h ch p.
f Ge. 25.
Is . v. 3. Ezek. xviii. 25. Jer. ii. 9. Mich. vi. 2. R
m. ii. 6., iii.
6. Ye
i
s
me
imes h ppes
h
, i
h
se c ses, which re decided by

he  w
f 
ure,
he udiscerig re imp
sed up
 by  ppe r ce

f ch ge. Where s i re i
y
here is 
ch ge i
he u 
er be
 w
f 
ure, bu

y i
he
higs pp
i
ed by i
, d which re
i be

v ri
i
. F
r ex mpe, if credi

r f
rgive me
he deb
,
which I
we him, I m 

ger b
ud

p y i
, 

bec use
he  w
f

ure h s ce sed

c
mm d
he p yme

f jus
deb
, bu
bec use my
deb
, by ree se, h s ce sed

be deb
. O
his

pic, Arri  i
Epic
e
us rgues righ
y,
h

he b
rr
wig
f m
ey is 


he
y
requisi
e

m ke deb
, bu

here mus
be
he ddi
i
  circums
ce

f
he 
 rem iig udisch rged. Thus if G
d sh
ud c
mm d
he
ife,
r pr
per
y
f y
e

be
ke w y,
he c
w
ud 

u
h
rise murder
r r
bbery, w
rds which w ys icude crime. Bu

h
c 

be murder
r r
bbery, which is d
e by
he express c
mm d

f Him, wh
is
he s
vereig L
rd
f
ur ives d
f 
higs. There
re s
s
me
higs 
wed by
he  w
f 
ure, 

bs
u
ey, bu

cc
rdig

cer
i s

e
f ff irs. Thus, by
he  w
f 
ure,
bef
re pr
per
y w s i
r
duced, every
e h d righ



he use
f
wh
ever he f
ud u
ccupied; d, bef
re  ws were e c
ed,

vege
his pers
  ijuries by f
rce.
XI. The dis
ic
i
 f
ud i
he b

ks
f
he R
m  L w, ssigig

e uch ge be righ


bru
es i c
mm
 wi
h m , which i m
re
imi
ed sese
hey c 
he  w
f 
ure, d ppr
pri
ig 

her


me, which
hey freque
y c 
he L w
f N
i
s, is sc rcey
f y
re  use. F
r 
beigs, excep

h
se
h
c  f
rm geer  m xims, re
c p be
f p
ssessig righ
, which Hesi
d h s p ced i ce r p
i

f view,
bservig "

h

he supreme Beig h s pp
i
ed  ws f
r me;
bu
permi

ed wid be s
s, fishes, d birds

dev
ur e ch

her f
r
f

d." F
r
hey h ve 

hig ike jus
ice,
he bes
gif
, bes

wed up

me.
Cicer
, i his firs
b

k
f
ffices, s ys we d



k
f
he
jus
ice
f h
rses
r i
s. I c
f
rmi
y

which, Pu
rch, i
he
ife
f C


he eder,
bserves,
h
we re f
rmed by 
ure

use
 w d jus
ice

w rds me
y. I ddi
i



he b
ve, L c

ius
m y be ci
ed, wh
, i his fif
h b

k, s ys
h
i  im s dev
id

f re s
 we see 
ur  bi s
f sef-
ve. F
r
hey hur


hers

beefi

hemseves; bec use
hey d


k
w
he evi
f d
ig
wifu hur
. Bu
i
is 

s
wi
h m , wh
, p
ssessig
he k
wedge

f g

d d evi, refr is, eve wi
h ic
veiece

himsef,
fr
m d
ig hur
. P
ybius, re
ig
he m er i which me firs

e
ered i

s
cie
y, c
cudes,
h

he ijuries d
e

p re
s
r
beef c

rs ievi
by pr
v
ke
he idig
i

f m kid, givig 
ddi
i
  re s
,
h
s uders
dig d refec
i
 f
rm
he gre

differece be
wee me d

her im s, i
is evide

hey c 

r sgress
he b
uds
f
h
differece ike

her im s, wi
h
u

exci
ig uivers  bh
rrece
f
heir c
duc
. Bu
if ever jus
ice is

ribu
ed

bru
es, i
is d
e impr
pery, fr
m s
me sh d
w d
r ce

f re s

hey m y p
ssess. Bu
i
is 

m
eri 


he 
ure
f
righ
, whe
her
he c
i
s pp
i
ed by
he  w
f 
ure, such s
he
c re
f
ur
ffsprig, re c
mm


us wi
h

her im s
r 

,
r,
ike
he w
rship
f G
d, re pecui r

m .
XII. The exis
ece
f
he L w
f N
ure is pr
ved by
w
kids
f
rgume
, _ pri
ri_, d _ p
s
eri
ri_,
he f
rmer m
re bs
ruse,

 d
he 

er m
re p
pu r me
h
d
f pr

f. We re s id

re s
 _
pri
ri_, whe we sh
w
he greeme

r dis greeme

f y
hig wi
h
re s
 be d s
ci  
ure; bu
_ p
s
eri
ri_, whe wi
h
u
bs
u
e
pr

f, bu

y up
 pr
b bii
y, y
hig is iferred

cc
rd wi
h

he  w
f 
ure, bec use i
is received s such m
g ,
r

e s

he m
re civiized 
i
s. F
r geer  effec
c 
y rise
fr
m geer  c use. N
w sc rce y

her c use c  be ssiged f
r s

geer  
pii
, bu

he c
mm
 sese, s i
is c ed,
f m kid.
There is se
ece
f Hesi
d
h
h s bee much pr ised,
h

pii
s
which h ve prev ied m
gs
m y 
i
s, mus
h ve s
me f
ud
i
.
Her ci
us, es
bishig c
mm
 re s
 s
he bes
cri
eri

f
ru
h,
s ys,
h
se
higs re cer
i which geer y ppe r s
. Am
g

her
u
h
ri
ies, we m y qu

e Aris


e, wh
s ys i
is s
r
g pr

f
i
ur f v
ur, whe  ppe r

gree wi
h wh
we s y, d Cicer

m i
is
h

he c
se

f  
i
s i y c se is

be dmi

ed
f
r
he  w
f 
ure. Seec is
f
he s me
pii
, y
hig, s ys
he, ppe rig
he s me

 me is pr

f
f i
s
ru
h. Qui
ii 
s ys, we h
d
h
se
higs

be
rue, i which  me gree. We h ve
c ed
hem
he m
re civiized 
i
s, d 

wi
h
u
re s
. F
r,
s P
rphyry we
bserves, s
me 
i
s re s
s
r ge
h

f ir
judgme

f hum  
ure c  be f
rmed fr
m
hem, f
r i
w
ud be
err
e
us. Adr
icus,
he Rh
di  s ys,
h
wi
h me
f righ
d
s
ud uders
dig, 
ur  jus
ice is uch ge be. N
r d
es i

er

he c se,
h
ugh me
f dis
rdered d perver
ed mids
hik

herwise.
F
r he wh
sh
ud dey
h
h
ey is swee
, bec use i
ppe rs 

s

me
f dis
empered
s
e, w
ud be wr
g. Pu
rch


grees
e
irey wi
h wh
h s bee s id, s ppe rs fr
m p ss ge i his ife

f P
mpey, ffirmig
h
m  ei
her w s, 
r is, by 
ure, wid
us
ci be cre
ure. Bu
i
is
he c
rrup
i

f his 
ure which m kes
him s
: ye
by cquirig ew h bi
s, by ch gig his p ce, d w y

f ivig, he m y be rec imed

his
rigi  ge
eess. Aris


e,

kig descrip
i

f m  fr
m his pecui r qu i
ies, m kes him
 im 
f ge
e 
ure, d i 

her p r

f his w
rks, he

bserves,
h
i c
siderig
he 
ure
f m , we re


ke
ur
ikeess fr
m 
ure i i
s pure, d 

i i
s c
rrup
s

e.
XIII. I
h s bee re dy rem rked,
h

here is 

her kid
f
righ
, which is
he v
u
ry righ
, derivig i
s
rigi fr
m
he wi,
d is ei
her hum 
r divie.
XI. We wi begi wi
h
he hum  s m
re geer y k
w. N
w
his
is ei
her civi righ
,
r righ
m
re
r ess ex
esive
h 
he
civi righ
. The civi righ
is
h
which is derived fr
m
he civi
p
wer. The civi p
wer is
he s
vereig p
wer
f
he s

e. A s

e is
perfec
b
dy
f free me, ui
ed

ge
her i
rder

ej
y c
mm

righ
s d dv 
ges. The ess ex
esive righ
, d 

derived
fr
m
he civi p
wer i
sef, 
h
ugh subjec


i
, is v ri
us,
c
mprehedig
he u
h
ri
y
f p re
s
ver chidre, m s
ers
ver
serv 
s, d
he ike. Bu

he  w
f 
i
s is m
re ex
esive
righ
, derivig i
s u
h
ri
y fr
m
he c
se

f ,
r
e s

f
m y 
i
s.
I
w s pr
per

dd MANY, bec use sc rce y righ
c  be f
ud c
mm


 
i
s, excep

he  w
f 
ure, which i
sef


is geer y
c ed
he  w
f 
i
s. N y, freque
y i
e p r

f
he w
rd,

h
is hed f
r
he  w
f 
i
s, which is 

s
i 

her. N
w

his  w
f 
i
s is pr
ved i
he s me m er s
he uwri

e civi
 w, d
h
is by
he c

iu  experiece d
es
im
y
f
he S ges

f
he L w. F
r
his  w, s Di
Chrys
s

m we
bserves, is
he
disc
veries m de by experiece d
ime. Ad i
his we derive gre

 dv 
ge fr
m
he wri
igs
f emie
his

ri s.
X. The very me ig
f
he w
rds divie v
u
ry righ
, sh
ws
h
i

sprigs fr
m
he divie wi, by which i
is dis
iguished fr
m 
ur 
 w, which, i
h s re dy bee
bserved, is c ed divie s
. This
 w dmi
s
f wh
A x rchus s id, s Pu
rch re
es i
he ife
f
Aex der,
h
ugh wi
h
u
sufficie
ccur cy,
h
G
d d
es 

wi

hig, bec use i
is jus
, bu

h
i
is jus
,
r bidig, bec use
G
d wis i
. N
w
his  w w s give ei
her

m kid i geer ,
r

e p r
icu r pe
pe. We fid
hree peri
ds,
which i
w s give
by G
d


he hum  r ce,
he firs

f which w s immedi
ey f
er
he
cre
i

f m ,
he sec
d up

he res

r
i

f m kid f
er
he
f

d, d
he
hird up

h
m
re g
ri
us res

r
i

hr
ugh Jesus
Chris
. These
hree  ws ud
ub
edy bid  me, s s

 s
hey c
me

sufficie
k
wedge
f
hem.
XI. Of  
i
s
here is bu

e,

which G
d p r
icu ry
v
uchs fed

give  ws; d
h
w s
he pe
pe
f Isr e, wh
m M
ses

hus ddresses i
he f
ur
h Ch p.
f Deu
er

my, ver. 7. "Wh


i
 is
here s
gre
wh
h
h G
d s
igh u


hem, s
he L
rd

ur G
d is i 
higs
h
we c  up
 him f
r? Ad wh

i

is
here s
gre
, wh
h ve s

u
es d judgme
s s
righ
e
us, s

his  w, which I se
bef
re y
u
his d y!" Ad
he Ps mis
i

he cxvii. Ps m, "G
d shewed his w
rd u

J c
b, his s

u
es d

rdi ces u

Isr e. He h
h 

de 
s
wi
h y 
i
, d s
f
r his judgme
s
hey h ve 

k
w
hem." N
r c  we d
ub
bu

h

h
se Jews, wi
h wh
m we m y c ss Tryph
 i his dispu
e wi
h Jus
i,
re mis
ke, wh
supp
se
h
eve s
r gers, if
hey wish

be
s ved, mus
submi



he y
ke
f
he M
s ic L w. F
r  w d
es 

bid
h
se,

wh
m i
h s 

bee give. Bu
i
spe ks pers
 y

h
se, wh
re immedi
ey uder i
. He r O Isr e, d we re d
everywhere
f
he c
ve 
m de wi
h
hem, by which
hey bec me
he
pecui r pe
pe
f G
d. M im
ides ck
wedges d pr
ves
he
ru
h
f

his fr
m
he xxxiii. Ch p
er d f
ur
h verse
f Deu
er

my.
Bu
m
g
he Hebrews
hemseves
here were w ys ivig s
me
s
r gers, pers
s dev
u
d fe rig G
d, such w s
he Syr
ph
eici 
w
m , me
i
ed i
he G
spe
f S
. M

hew, xv. 22. C
reius

he
Ce
uri
. Ac
s. x.
he dev
u
Greeks, Ac
s xviii. 6. S
j
urers,
r
s
r gers, s
re me
i
ed. Levi
. xxv. 47. These, s
he Hebrew
R bbis
hemseves if
rm us, were
biged


bserve
he  ws give

Ad m d N
h,

bs
i fr
m id
s d b

d, d

her
higs,

h
were pr
hibi
ed; bu


i
he s me m er


bserve
he  ws
pecui r


he pe
pe
f Isr e. Theref
re
h
ugh
he Isr ei
es
were 


wed

e

he fesh
f be s
,
h
h d died 
ur 
de
h; ye

he s
r gers ivig m
g
hem were permi

ed. Deu
. xiv.
21. Excep
i s
me p r
icu r  ws, where i
w s expressy s id,

h
s
r gers 
ess
h 
he 
ive ih bi

s were
biged



bserve
hem. S
r gers s
, wh
c me fr
m

her c
u
ries, d were


subjec



he Jewish  ws, migh
w
rship G
d i
he
empe
f
Jerus em, bu
s
dig i p ce sep r
e d dis
ic
fr
m
he
Isr ei
es. I. Kigs viii. 41. 2 M c. iii. 35. J
h xii. 20. Ac
s viii.
27. N
r did Eish ever sigify

N m 
he Syri , 
r J
 s


he
Nievi
es, 
r D ie

Nebuch dezz r, 
r
he

her Pr
phe
s


he
Tyri s,
he M
bi
es,
he Egyp
i s,

wh
m
hey wr

e,
h
i
w s
ecess ry f
r
hem

d
p

he M
s ic L w.
Wh
h s bee s id
f
he wh
e  w
f M
ses ppies

circumcisi
,
which w s kid
f i
r
duc
i



he  w. Ye
wi
h
his differece

h

he Isr ei
es 
e were b
ud by
he M
s ic L w, bu

he

wh
e p
s
eri
y
f Abr h m by
he  w
f circumcisi
. Fr
m hece
we re if
rmed by Jewish d Greek His

ri s,
h

he Idum e s,

r Ed
mi
es were c
mpeed by
he Jews

be circumcised. Wheref
re

here is re s


beieve
h

he umer
us 
i
s, wh
, besides
he
Isr ei
es, pr c
ised circumcisi
, d wh
re me
i
ed by Her
d

us,
S
r b
, Phi
, Jus
i, Orige, Cemes, Aex drius, Epiph ius,
d Jer
m, were desceded fr
m Ishm e, Es u,
r
he p
s
eri
y
f
Ke
ur h. Bu
wh
S
. P u s ys, R
m. ii. 14. h
ds g

d
f 

her

i
s;
h

he Ge
ies, 

h vig
he  w, ye
d
ig by 
ure

he
higs c

ied i
he  w, bec
me  w


hemseves. Here
he
w
rd 
ure m y be
ke f
r
he primi
ive s
urce
f m
r 
big
i
;

r, referrig i



he precedig p r
s
f
he Epis
e, i
m y sigify

he k
wedge, which
he Ge
ies cquired
f
hemseves wi
h
u

is
ruc
i
, i
pp
si
i



he k
wedge derived


he Jews fr
m

he  w, which w s is
ied i


hem fr
m
heir cr de, d m
s

fr
m
heir bir
h. "S

he Ge
ies sh
w
he w
rk,
r
he m
r  precep
s

f
he  w, wri

e i
heir he r
s,
heir c
scieces s
be rig
wi
ess, d
heir
h
ugh
s
he me  whie ccusig
r ese excusig

e 

her." Ad g i i
he 26
h ver.; "If
he ucircumcisi

keep
he righ
e
usess
f
he  w, sh  

his ucircumcisi
 be
c
u
ed f
r circumcisi
?" Theref
re A i s,
he Jew, s we fid i

he his

ry
f J
sephus, very pr
pery
ugh
Tz
es,
r s T ci
us
c s him, Ez
es,
he Adi bei ,
h
eve wi
h
u
circumcisi
,
G
d migh
be righ
y w
rshipped d redered pr
pi
i
us. F
r
h
ugh
m y s
r gers were circumcised, m
g
he Jews, d by circumcisi

b
ud
hemseves


bserve
he  w, s S
. P u exp is i
i G .
v. 3.;
hey did i
p r
y


b
i
he freed
m
f
he c
u
ry; f
r
pr
sey
es c ed by
he Hebrews, pr
sey
es
f righ
e
usess, ej
yed
equ  privieges wi
h
he Isr ei
es. Num. xv.: d p r
y


b
i
sh re i
h
se pr
mises, which were 

c
mm


m kid, bu
pecui r

he Jewish pe
pe, 
h
ugh i
c 

be deied,
h
i 
er
ges  err
e
us
pii
 prev ied,
h

here w s 
s v
i

u

f
he Jewish p e. Hece we m y ifer,
h
we re b
ud by 
p r

f
he Levi
ic   w, s
ric
y d pr
pery s
c ed; bec use y

big
i
, bey
d
h
risig fr
m
he  w
f 
ure, mus
pr
ceed
fr
m
he express wi
f
he  w-giver. N
w i
c 

be disc
vered
by y pr

f,
h
G
d i
eded y

her pe
pe, bu

he Isr ei
es

be b
ud by
h
 w. Theref
re wi
h respec



urseves, we h ve


cc si


pr
ve  br
g
i

f
h
 w; f
r i
c
ud ever
be br
g
ed wi
h respec



h
se, wh
m i
ever b
ud. Bu

he
Isr ei
es were ree sed fr
m
he cerem
i  p r
, s s

 s
he  w

f
he G
spe w s pr
c imed; ce r reve
i

f which w s m de



e
f
he Ap
s
es, Ac
s x. 15. Ad
he

her p r
s
f
he M
s ic  w

s

heir pecui r dis
ic
i
, whe
he Jews ce sed

be pe
pe
by
he des

i
 d des
ruc
i

f
heir ci
y wi
h
u
y h
pes
f
res

r
i
. Ideed i
w s 

ree se fr
m
he  w
f M
ses
h

we, wh
were s

r gers


he C
mm
we 
h
f Isr e,
b
ied by
he
c
mig
f Chris
. Bu
s bef
re
h

ime,
ur h
pes i
he g

dess
f
G
d were
bscure d ucer
i, we g ied
he ssur ce
f  express
c
ve 
,
h
we sh
ud be ui
ed i
e Church wi
h
he seed
f
Isr e,
he chidre
f
he p
ri rchs,
heir  w,
h
w s
he w 
f
sep r
i
 be
wee us, beig br
ke d
w. Eph. ii. 14.
XII. Sice
he
he  w give by M
ses imp
ses 
direc

big
i

up
 us, s i
h s bee re dy sh
w, e
us c
sider whe
her i

h s y

her use b

h i
his iquiry i


he righ
s
f w r, d
i

her ques
i
s
f
he s me kid. I
he firs
p ce,
he M
s ic
 w sh
ws
h
wh
i
ej
is is 

c

r ry


he  w
f 
ure.
F
r sice
he  w
f 
ure is perpe
u  d uch ge be, 

hig
c

r dic

ry

i
c
ud be c
mm ded by G
d, wh
is ever ujus
.

Besides
he  w
f M
ses is c ed i
he xix. Ps m  udefied
d righ
 w, d S
. P u, R
m. vii. 12, describes i


be h
y,
jus
, d g

d. I
s precep
s re here sp
ke
f, f
r i
s permissi
s
require m
re dis
ic
discussi
. F
r
he b re permissi
, sigifyig

he rem
v 
f  impedime
,
r pr
hibi
i
, h s 
re
i



he
prese
subjec
. A p
si
ive, eg  permissi
 is ei
her fu, gr 
ig
us p
wer

d
s
me p r
icu r c
wi
h
u

he e s
res
ric
i
,

r ess fu,
y 
wig me impui
y f
r cer
i c
i
s, d
righ


d

hem wi
h
u
m
es

i
 fr
m

hers. Fr
m
he permissi


f
he f
rmer kid 
ess
h  fr
m p
si
ive precep
, i
f

ws

h
wh

he  w 
ws, is 

c

r ry


he  w
f 
ure.[4]
Bu
wi
h reg rd


he 

er kid
f permissi
, 
wig impui

y
f
r cer
i c
s, bu


expressy u
h
rizig
hem, we c 

s

re diy c
cude
h
se c
s

be c
f
rm be


he  w
f 
ure.[5]
Bec use where
he w
rds
f permissi
 re mbigu
us i
heir me ig,
i
is be

er f
r us

i
erpre
cc
rdig


he es
bished  w
f

ure, wh
kid
f permissi
 i
is,
h  fr
m
ur c
cep
i

f i
s
expediecy

c
cude i
c
f
rm be


he  ws
f 
ure. C
ec
ed
wi
h
his firs

bserv
i

here is 

her, expressive
f
he p
wer

h

b
is m
g Chris
i  Prices

e c
 ws
f
he s me imp
r

wi
h
h
se give by M
ses, excep
such s re
ed e
irey


he
ime

f
he expec
ed Messi h, d
he G
spe
he ureve ed,
r where
Chris
himsef h s i geer 
r p r
icu r m er es
bished y

hig


he c

r ry. F
r excep
i
hese
hree c ses, 
re s
 c 
be devised, why y
hig es
bished by
he  w
f M
ses sh
ud be

w u wfu. I
he
hird p ce i
m y be
bserved,
h
wh
ever

he  w
f M
ses ej
ied re

ig


h
se vir
ues, which Chris

required
f his discipes, sh
ud be fufied by Chris

i s 
w, i
gre
er degree, fr
m
heir superi
r k
wedge, d higher m

ives.
Thus
he vir
ues
f humii
y, p
iece, d ch ri
y re required
f
Chris
i s i m
re perfec
m er
h 
f
he Jews uder
he M
s ic
dispes
i
, bec use
he pr
mises
f he ve re m
re ce ry  id
bef
re us i
he G
spe. Hece
he
d  w, whe c
mp red wi
h
he
G
spe, is s id

h ve bee ei
her perfec

r f u
ess, d Chris

is s id

be
he ed
f
he  w, d
he  w
ur sch

m s
er

brig
us

Chris
. Thus
he
d  w respec
ig
he S bb
h, d
he  w
respec
ig
i
hes, sh
w
h
Chris
i s re b
ud

dev

e 

ess

h  seve
h p
r
i

f
heir
ime

divie w
rship, 
r ess
h 

e
h
f
heir frui
s

m i
i
h
se wh
re emp
yed i h
y

higs,
r



her pi
us uses.

CHAPTER II.
INQUIRY INTO THE LAWFULNESS OF WAR.
Re s
s pr
vig
he  wfuess
f W r--Pr

fs fr
m His

ry--Pr

fs
fr
m geer  c
se
--The L w
f N
ure pr
ved 

repug 



W r--W r 

c
demed by
he v
u
ry Divie L w precedig
he
G
spe--Objec
i
s swered--Review
f
he ques
i
 whe
her W r be
c

r ry


he L w
f
he G
spe--Argume
s fr
m Scrip
ure f
r
he
eg
ive Opii
s--Aswer


he Argume
s
ke fr
m Scrip
ure f
r

he ffirm
ive--The
pii
s
f
he primi
ive Chris
i s

he
subjec
ex mied.
I. Af
er ex miig
he s
urces
f righ
,
he firs
d m
s
geer 
ques
i

h

ccurs, is whe
her y w r is jus
,
r if i
is ever

 wfu

m ke w r. Bu

his ques
i
 ike m y

hers
h
f

w,
mus
i
he firs
p ce be c
mp red wi
h
he righ
s
f 
ure. Cicer

i
he
hird b

k
f his B
uds
f G

d d Evi, d i

her p r
s
f
his w
rks, pr
ves wi
h gre
erudi
i
 fr
m
he wri
igs
f
he S

ics,

h

here re cer
i firs
pricipes
f 
ure, c ed by
he Greeks

he firs

ur  impressi
s, which re succeeded by

her pricipes

f
big
i
 superi
r eve


he firs
impressi
s
hemseves. He
c s
he c re, which every im , fr
m
he m
me

f i
s bir
h, fees
f
r i
sef d
he preserv
i

f i
s c
di
i
, i
s bh
rrece
f
des
ruc
i
, d
f every
hig
h

hre
es de
h, pricipe
f

ure. Hece, he s ys, i
h ppes,
h
if ef


his
w ch
ice,
every m  w
ud prefer s
ud d perfec


mu
i
ed d def
rmed
b
dy. S

h
preservig
urseves i 
ur  s

e, d h
dig


every
hig c
f
rm be, d ver
ig every
hig repug 



ure
is
he firs
du
y.
Bu
fr
m
he k
wedge
f
hese pricipes, 

i
 rises
f
heir
beig gree be

re s
,
h
p r

f m , which is superi
r

he b
dy. N
w
h
greeme
wi
h re s
, which is
he b sis
f
pr
prie
y, sh
ud h ve m
re weigh

h 
he impuse
f ppe
i
e;
bec use
he pricipes
f 
ure rec
mmed righ
re s
 s rue
h

ugh


be
f higher v ue
h  b re is
ic
. As
he
ru
h
f
his
is e siy sse
ed

by  me
f s
ud judgme
wi
h
u
y

her
dem
s
r
i
, i
f

ws
h
i iquirig i


he  ws
f 
ure

he firs

bjec

f c
sider
i
 is, wh
is gree be


h
se
pricipes
f 
ure, d
he we c
me


he rues, which,
h
ugh
risig
y
u

f
he f
rmer, re
f higher digi
y, d 


y


be embr ced, whe
ffered, bu
pursued by 
he me s i
ur p
wer.
This  s
pricipe, which is c ed pr
prie
y, fr
m i
s fi
ess,
cc
rdig


he v ri
us
higs
 which i

urs, s
me
imes is imi
ed

very  rr
w p
i

,
he e s
dep r
ure fr
m which is devi
i

i

vice; s
me
imes i

ws wider sc
pe, s

h
s
me c
i
s,
eve  ud be i
hemseves, m y be
mi

ed
r v ried wi
h
u
crime.
I
his c se
here is 

 immedi
e dis
ic
i
 be
wee righ
d
wr
g;
he sh des re gr du , d
heir
ermi
i
 uperceived; 

ike direc
c

r s
, where
he
pp
si
i
 is immedi
ey see, d

he firs
s
ep is
r sgressi

f
he fixed b
uds.
The geer 
bjec

f divie d hum   ws is

give
he u
h
ri
y

f
big
i


wh
w s
y  ud be i i
sef. I
h s bee s id
b
ve
h
 ives
ig
i

f
he  ws
f 
ure impies  iquiry,
whe
her y p r
icu r c
i
 m y be d
e wi
h
u
ijus
ice: 
w by
 c

f ijus
ice is uders


d
h
, which ecess riy h s i i

y
hig repug 



he 
ure
f re s
 be d s
ci  beig. S

f r fr
m y
hig i
he pricipes
f 
ure beig repug 


w r,
every p r

f
hem ideed r
her f v
urs i
. F
r
he preserv
i

f

ur ives d pers
s, which is
he ed
f w r, d
he p
ssessi

r
cquireme

f
higs ecess ry d usefu

ife is m
s
sui
be

h
se pricipes
f 

ure, d

use f
rce, if ecess ry, f
r
h
se

cc si
s, is 
w y diss
 



he pricipes
f 
ure, sice 
im s re ed
wed wi
h 
ur  s
reg
h, sufficie


ssis
d
defed
hemseves.
Xe
ph
 s ys,
h
every im  k
ws cer
i me
h
d
f figh
ig
wi
h
u
y

her is
ruc

r
h  
ure. I fr gme

f Ovid's,
c ed
he Ar

f Fishery, i
is rem rked,
h
 im s k
w
heir
eemy d his me s
f defece, d
he s
reg
h d me sure
f
heir

w we p
s. H
r ce h s s id, "
he w
f

cks wi
h i
s
ee
h,
he
bu wi
h i
s h
rs, d whece is
his k
wedge derived bu
fr
m

is
ic
?" O
his subjec
Lucre
ius e rges,
bservig
h
"every
cre
ure k
ws i
s
w p
wers. The c f bu

s wi
h i
s f
rehe d,
bef
re i
s h
rs ppe r, d s
rikes wi
h  im gi be fury." O
which G e expresses himsef i
he f

wig m er, "every im 
ppe rs

defed i
sef wi
h
h
p r

f i
s b
dy, i which i
exces


hers. The c f bu

s wi
h i
s he d bef
re i
s h
rs h ve gr
w, d

he c

s
rikes wi
h i
s hee bef
re i
s h

fs re h rd, s
he y
ug
d
g

emp
s

bi
e bef
re his
ee
h re s
r
g." The s me wri
er i
describig
he use
f differe
p r
s
f
he b
dy, s ys, "
h
m  is
cre
ure f
rmed f
r pe ce d w r. His rm
ur f
rms 

 immedi
e
p r

f his b
dy; bu
he h s h ds fi
f
r prep rig d h dig rms,
d we see if 
s usig
hem sp

e
usy, wi
h
u
beig
ugh



d
s
." Aris


e i
he 4
h b

k, d
e
h ch p
er
f
he his

ry
f
im s, s ys, "
h

he h d serves m  f
r spe r, sw
rd,
r y
rms wh
ever, bec use i
c  h
d d wied
hem." N
w righ
re s

d
he 
ure
f s
cie
y which c ims
he sec
d, d ideed m
re
imp
r

p ce i
his iquiry, pr
hibi


 f
rce, bu

y
h

which is repug 


s
cie
y, by deprivig 

her
f his righ
. F
r

he ed
f s
cie
y is

f
rm c
mm
 d ui
ed id

preserve


every
e his
w. Which m y e siy be uders


d

h ve
b
ied,
bef
re wh
is 
w c ed pr
per
y w s i
r
duced. F
r
he free use
f
ife d imbs w s s
much
he righ

f every
e,
h
i
c
ud 

be ifriged
r

cked wi
h
u
ijus
ice. S

he use
f
he c
mm

pr
duc
i
s
f 
ure w s
he righ

f
he firs

ccupier, d f
r y

e

r
b him
f
h
w s m ifes
ijus
ice. This m y be m
re e siy
uders


d, sice  w d cus

m h ve es
bished pr
per
y uder i
s
prese
f
rm. Tuy h s expressed
his i
he
hird b

k
f his Offices
i
he f

wig w
rds, "if every member c
ud h ve sep r
e feeig,
d im gie i
c
ud derive vig
ur fr
m egr
ssig
he s
reg
h
f
eighb
rig p r

f
he b
dy,
he wh
e fr me w
ud  guish d
perish. I
he s me m er if every
e
f us, f
r his
w dv 
ge,
migh
r
b 

her
f wh
he pe sed,
here w
ud be



ver
hr
w

f hum  s
cie
y d i
erc
urse. F
r
h
ugh i
is 
wed by 
ure
f
r every
e

give
he preferece

himsef bef
re 

her i

he ej
yme

f ife d ecess ries, ye
she d
es 

permi
us


icre se
ur me s d riches by
he sp
is
f

hers." I
is 

heref
re c

r ry


he 
ure
f s
cie
y

pr
vide d c
su
f
r

urseves, if 

her's righ
is 

ijured;
he f
rce
heref
re,
which ivi
 by bs
is fr
m

uchig
he righ
s
f

hers, is 

ujus
. F
r s
he s me Cicer

bserves s
me where i his Epis
es,

h
s
here re
w
m
des
f c

edig,
he
e by rgume
, d
he


her by f
rce, d s
he f
rmer is pecui r

m , d
he 

er
c
mm


him wi
h
he bru
e cre
i
, we mus
h ve rec
urse


he


er, whe i
is imp
ssibe

use
he f
rmer. Ad g i, wh
c  be

pp
sed

f
rce, bu
f
rce? Upi 
bserves
h
C ssius s ys, i
is
 wfu

repe f
rce by f
rce, d i
is righ
pp re
y pr
vided
by 
ure

repe rms wi
h rms, wi
h wh
m Ovid grees,
bservig

h

he  ws permi
us


ke up rms g is

h
se
h
be r
hem.
II. The
bserv
i

h
 w r is 

repug 



he  w
f 
ure,
m y be m
re mpy pr
ved fr
m s cred his

ry. F
r whe Abr h m wi
h his
serv 
s d c
feder
es h d g ied vic

ry, by f
rce
f rms,
ver

he f
ur Kigs, wh
h d pudered S
d
m, G
d ppr
ved
f his c

by

he m
u
h
f his pries
Mechisedech, wh
s id

him, "Bessed be
he
m
s
high G
d, wh
h
h deivered
hie eemies i


hie h d." Ge.
xiv. 20. N
w Abr h m h d
ke up rms, s ppe rs fr
m
he his

ry,
wi
h
u
y speci  c
mm d fr
m G
d. Bu

his m , 
ess emie
f
r
s c
i
y
h  wisd
m, fe
himsef u
h
rized by
he  w
f 
ure,
s i
is dmi

ed by
he evidece
f Ber
sus, d Orpheus, wh
were
s
r gers.

There is 

cc si


ppe 


he his

ry
f
he seve 
i
s,
wh
m G
d deivered up i


he h ds
f
he Isr ei
es

be des
r
yed.
F
r
here w s speci  c
mm d

execu
e
he judgme

f G
d up


i
s gui
y
f
he gre
es
crimes. Fr
m whece
hese w rs re
i
er y s
yed i scrip
ure, B

es
f
he L
rd, s uder
ke, 

by hum  wi, bu
by divie pp
i
me
. The xvii. ch p
er
f Ex
dus
suppies p ss ge m
re


he purp
se, re
ig
he
ver
hr
w which

he Isr ei
es, c
duc
ed by M
ses d J
shu , m de
f
he Am eki
es.
I
his c
,
here w s 
express c
mmissi
 fr
m G
d, bu

y 
ppr
v  f
er i
w s d
e. Bu
i
he xix. ch p.
f Deu
. ver. 10,
15. G
d h s prescribed geer  d s
dig  ws

his pe
pe


he m er
f m kig w r, by
his circums
ce shewig
h
w r
m y be jus
wi
h
u
y express c
mm dme
fr
m him. Bec use i
he
s me p ss ge, p i dis
ic
i
 is m de be
wee
he c se
f
he
seve 
i
s d
h

f

hers. Ad s
here is 
speci  edic

prescribig
he jus
c uses f
r which w r m y be uder
ke,
he
de
ermi
i

f
hem is ef



he disc
very
f 
ur  re s
. Of

his kid is
he w r
f Jeph
h h g is

he Amm
i
es, i defece
f

heir b
rders. Jud. xi. d

he w r
f D vid g is

he s me pe
pe
f
r h vig vi

ed
he righ
s
f his Amb ss d
rs. 2 S m. x. T

he
precedig
bserv
i
s m y be dded, wh

he ispired wri
er
f
he
Epis
e


he Hebrews s ys
f Gide
, B r ck, S mps
, Jeph
h h,
D vid, S mue, d

hers, wh
by f i
h m de w r up
 kigd
ms,
prev ied i w r d pu
wh
e rmies
f
heir eemies

figh
. Heb.
xi. 33, 34. The wh
e
e
r
f
his p ss ge shews,
h

he w
rd f i
h
impies persu si
,
h
wh

hey did w s beieved

be gree be

he wi
f G
d. I
he s me m er, D vid is s id, by w
m 
dis
iguished f
r her wisd
m, 1 S m. xxv. 28.

figh

he b

es
f

he L
rd,
h
is

m ke  wfu d jus
w rs.
III. Pr

fs
f wh
h s bee dv ced, m y be dr w s
fr
m
he
c
se

f , especi y,
f
he wises

i
s. There is
ceebr
ed p ss ge i Cicer
's speech f
r Mi
, i which, jus
ifyig
rec
urse

f
rce i defece
f ife, he be rs mpe
es
im
y


he
feeigs
f 
ure, wh
h s give us
his  w, which is 

wri

e,
bu
i
e, which we h ve 

received by is
ruc
i
, he rig
r
re dig, bu

he eeme
s
f i
h ve bee egr ve i
ur he r
s
d mids wi
h her
w h d:  w which is 


he effec

f h bi

d cquireme
, bu
f
rms p r
i
he
rigi  c
mpexi

f
ur
fr me: s

h
if
ur ives re
hre
eed wi
h ss ssi
i

r
pe
vi
ece fr
m
he h ds
f r
bbers
r eemies, ANY me s
f defece
w
ud be 
wed d  ud be. He pr
ceeds, re s
 h s
ugh

his

he e red, ecessi
y


he b rb ri s, cus

m


i
s, d 
ure
hersef

wid be s
s,

use every p
ssibe me s
f repeig f
rce

ffered


heir b
dies,
heir imbs d
heir ives. C ius d L wyer
s ys, 
ur  re s
 permi
s us

defed
urseves g is
d gers.
Ad F
re
ius, 

her eg  u
h
ri
y, m i
is,
h
wh
ever y

e d
es i defece
f his pers

ugh


be es
eemed righ
. J
sephus

bserves,
h

he 
ve
f ife is  w
f 
ure s
r
gy imp 
ed
i  cre
ures, d
heref
re we 

k up

h
se s eemies, wh

w
ud
pey deprive us
f i
.
This pricipe is f
uded
 re s
s
f equi
y, s
evide
,
h

eve i
he bru
e cre
i
, wh
h ve 
ide
f righ
, we m ke
dis
ic
i
 be
wee

ck d defece. F
r whe Upi  h d s id,

h
 im  wi
h
u
k
wedge,
h
is wi
h
u

he use
f re s
,
c
ud 

p
ssiby d
wr
g, he immedi
ey dds,
h
whe
w
im s
figh
, if
e kis
he

her,
he dis
ic
i

f Qui
ius Mu
ius
mus
be dmi

ed,
h
if
he ggress
r were kied 
d m ges c
ud

be rec
vered; bu
if
he

her, which w s

cked,  c
i
 migh

be m i
ied. There is p ss ge i Piy, which wi serve f
r 
exp 
i

f
his, he s ys
h

he fierces
i
s d


figh
wi
h
e ch

her, 
r d
serpe
s bi
e serpe
s. Bu
if y vi
ece is d
e

he
mes

f
hem,
hey re r
used, d up
 receivig y hur
,
wi defed
hemseves wi
h
he gre
es
 cri
y d vig
ur.
I. Fr
m
he  w
f 
ure
he which m y s
be c ed
he  w
f

i
s, i
is evide

h
 kids
f w r re 



be c
demed.
I
he s me m er,  his

ry d
he  ws
f m ers
f every pe
pe
sufficie
y if
rm us,
h
w r is 

c
demed by
he v
u
ry  w

f 
i
s. Ideed Herm
gei us h s s id,
h
w rs were i
r
duced
by
he  w
f 
i
s, p ss ge which
ugh


be exp ied s
mewh

differe
y fr
m
he geer  i
erpre

i
 give

i
. The me ig
f
i
is,
h
cer
i f
rm i
ies,

edig w r, were i
r
duced by
he
 w
f 
i
s, which f
rm i
ies were ecess ry

secure
he pecui r
privieges risig
u

f
he  w. Fr
m hece dis
ic
i
, which

here wi be
cc si


use here f
er, be
wee w r wi
h
he usu 
f
rm i
ies
f
he  w
f 
i
s, which is c ed jus

r perfec
, d
 if
rm  w r, which d
es 

f
r
h
re s
 ce se

be jus
,
r
gree be

righ
. F
r s
me w rs, whe m de up
 jus
gr
uds,
h
ugh


ex c
y c
f
rm be, ye
re 

repug 



he  w, s wi be
exp ied m
re fuy here f
er. By
he  w
f
he 
i
s, s ys Livy,
pr
visi
 is m de

repe f
rce by rms; d F
re
ius dec res,

h

he  w
f 
i
s 
ws us

repe vi
ece d ijury, i

rder

pr

ec

ur pers
s.

. A gre
er difficu
y
ccurs respec
ig
he divie v
u
ry  w.
N
r is
here y f
rce i
he
bjec
i

h
s
he  w
f 
ure is
uch ge be, 

hig c  be pp
i
ed eve by G
d himsef c

r ry

i
. F
r
his is
rue
y i
h
se
higs, which
he  w
f 
ure
p
si
ivey f
rbids
r c
mm ds; 

i
h
se which re
ci
y
permi

ed by
he s me  w. F
r c
s
f
h
kid, 

f ig s
ric
y
wi
hi
he geer  rue, bu
beig excep
i
s


he  w
f 
ure,
m y be ei
her f
rbidde
r c
mm ded. The firs

bjec
i
 usu y m de
g is

he  wfuess
f w r is
ke fr
m
he  w give

N
h
d his p
s
eri
y, Ge. ix. 5, 6, where G
d
hus spe ks, "Surey
he
b

d
f y
ur ives wi I require;

he h d
f every be s
wi I
require i
, d

he h d
f every m ;

he h d
f every m 's
br

her wi I require
he ife
f m . Wh
ever sheds m 's b

d, by
m  sh  his b

d be shed; f
r i
he im ge
f G
d m de he m ." Here
s
me
ke
he phr se
f requirig b

d, i
he m
s
geer  sese, d

he

her p r
,
h
b

d sh  be shed i i
s
ur,
hey c
sider s
b re
hre
, d 

 ppr
b
i
; ei
her
f which ccep

i
s
c  be dmi

ed. F
r
he pr
hibi
i

f sheddig b

d ex
eds 

bey
d
he  w i
sef, which dec res, THOU SHALT NOT KILL; bu
p sses

c
dem
i
 up
 c pi
 puishme
s
r w rs uder
ke by pubic
u
h
ri
y.
Nei
her
he  w
f M
ses, 
r
h
give

N
h es
bished y
hig
ew,
hey were
y dec r

ry repe
i
i

f
he  w
f 
ure,
h

h d bee
bi
er
ed by depr ved cus

m. S

h

he sheddig
f b

d
i crimi  d w 

 m er is
he
y c
pr
hibi
ed by
h
se
c
mm dme
s. Thus every c

f h
micide d
es 

m
u


murder, bu

y
h
, which is c
mmi

ed wi
h wifu d m ici
us i
e
i



des
r
y
he ife
f  i
ce
pers
. As

wh
f

ws b
u
b

d
beig shed i re
ur f
r b

d, i
seems

impy 

mere c

f
pers
  revege, bu

he deiber
e exercise
f perfec
righ
, which
m y be
hus exp ied; i
is 

ujus
, cc
rdig


he pricipes

f 
ure
h
y
e sh
ud suffer i pr
p
r
i



he evi he h s

d
e, c
f
rm by


he judici  m xim
f Rh d m 
hus,
h
if y

e himsef suffers wh
he h s d
e, i
is bu
jus
d righ
. The
s me
pii
 is
hus expressed by Seec
he f
her; "i
is bu
jus

re
i
i
 f
r y
e

suffer i his
w pers

he evi which
he i
eded

ific
up
 

her." Fr
m sese
f
his 
ur 
jus
ice, C i k
wig himsef gui
y
f his br

her's b

d s id,
"wh
s
ever fids me sh  ki me."
Bu
s i
h
se e ry
imes, whe me were few, d ggressi
s r re,

here w s ess
cc si
 f
r ex mpes, G
d res

r ied by  express
c
mm dme

he impuse
f 
ure which ppe red  wfu, he f
rb d y

e

ki
he murderer,

he s me
ime pr
hibi
ig  i
erc
urse
wi
h him, eve s
f r s 





uch him.[6]
P

h s es
bished
his i his  ws, d
he s me rue prev ied
i Greece, s ppe rs fr
m
he f

wig p ss ge i Euripides, "
ur
f
hers
f
d did we i b ishig fr
m
heir i
erc
urse d sigh

y
e
h
h d shed 

her's b

d; imp
sig b ishme
by w y
f


eme
, r
her
h  ific
ig de
h." We fid Thucydides
f
he
s me
pii
, "
h
cie
y igh
er puishme
s were ific
ed f
r

he gre
es
crimes; bu
i pr
cess
f
ime, s
h
se pe 
ies c me

be despised, egis

rs were
biged

h ve rec
urse

de
h
i cer
i c ses." We m y dd


he b
ve is
ces
he rem rk
f
L c

ius,
h
s ye
i
ppe red si

puish eve
he m
s

wicked me wi
h de
h.
The c
jec
ure
f
he divie wi
ke fr
m
he rem rk be is
ce

f C i, wh
m 

e w s permi

ed

ki p ssed i

 w, s

h

L ech, h vig perpe
r
ed simi r deed, pr
mised himsef impui
y
fr
m
his ex mpe.--Ge. iv. 24.
Bu
s bef
re
he deuge, i
he
ime
f
he Gi 
s,
he pr c
ice
f
freque
d w 

 murders h d prev ied; up

he reew 
f
he
hum  r ce, f
er
he deuge,
h

he s me evi cus

m migh


be
es
bished, G
d
h
ugh
pr
per

res
r i i
by severer me s. The
ei
y
f f
rmer ges w s  id side, d
he divie u
h
ri
y g ve
s c
i



he precep
s
f 
ur  jus
ice,
h
wh
ever kied
murderer sh
ud be i
ce
. Af
er
ribu s were erec
ed,
he p
wer

ver ife w s, f
r
he very bes
re s
s, c
ferred up

he judges

e. S
i s
me
r ces
f cie
m ers rem ied i
he righ
which
w s gr 
ed, f
er
he i
r
duc
i

f
he M
s ic L w,


he e res

i b

d


he pers
 kied.
This i
erpre

i
 is jus
ified by
he u
h
ri
y
f Abr h m, wh
, wi
h
perfec
k
wedge
f
he  w give

N
h,


k rms g is

he
f
ur Kigs, fuy persu ded
h
he w s d
ig 

hig i vi

i

f

h
 w. I
he s me m er M
ses
rdered
he pe
pe

figh
g is

Am eki
es, wh

cked
hem; f

wig i
his c se
he dic

es

f 
ure, f
r he ppe rs

h ve h d 
speci  c
mmuic
i
 wi
h
G
d. Ex
d. xvii. 9. Besides, we fid
h
c pi
 puishme
s were
ific
ed up


her crimi s, s we s murderers, 


y m
g

he Ge
ies, bu
m
g
h
se wh
h d bee impressed wi
h
he m
s

pi
us rues d
pii
s, eve

he P
ri rchs
hemseves. Ge. xxxviii.
24.
Ideed up
 c
mp rig
he divie wi wi
h
he igh

f 
ure, i
w s
c
cuded,
h
i
seemed c
f
rm be

jus
ice,
h


her crimes

f gre
e
rmi
y sh
ud be subjec



he s me puishme
s
h

f murder. F
r
here re s
me righ
s, such s
h
se
f repu

i
,
ch s
i
y, c
jug  fidei
y, submissi

f subjec
s


heir prices,

 
f which re es
eemed
f equ  v ue wi
h ife i
sef, bec use


he preserv
i

f
hese
he pe ce d c
mf
r

f ife deped. The
vi

i

f y
f
h
se righ
s is i

e ess
h  murder i
sef.
Here m y be ppied
he
d
r di
i
 f
ud m
g
he Jews,
h

here
were m y  ws, which were 

ALL me
i
ed by M
ses, give by G
d

he s
s
f N
h; s i
w s sufficie
f
r his purp
se,
h

hey
sh
ud f
erw rds be c
mpreheded i
he pecui r  ws
f
he Hebrews.
Thus i
ppe rs fr
m xviii. ch p.
f Levi
icus,
h

here w s 
cie
 w g is
ices
u
us m rri ges,
h
ugh 

me
i
ed by M
ses
i i
s pr
per p ce. N
w m
g
he c
mm dme
s give by G
d


he
chidre
f N
h, i
is s id,
h
de
h w s expressy dec red


be
he puishme



y f
r murder, bu
f
r du
ery, ices
, d
r
bbery, which is c
firmed by
he w
rds
f J
b xxxi. 11. The  w
f
M
ses


, f
r
he s c
i

f c pi
 puishme
s, gives re s
s which

per
e 
ess wi
h

her 
i
s,
h  wi
h
he Jewish pe
pe. Levi
.
xviii. 25-30. Ps . ci. 5. Pr
v. xx. 8. Ad p r
icu ry respec
ig
murder i
is s id,
he  d c 

be ce sed uess
he b

d
f
he
murderer be shed. Numb. xxv. 31-33. Besides, i
were bsurd

supp
se

h

he Jewish pe
pe were iduged wi
h
he priviege
f m i
iig

he pubic s fe
y, d
h

f idividu s by c pi
 puishme
s, d
sser
ig
heir righ
s by w r, d
h


her kigs d 
i
s were



wed
he s me p
wers. N
r d
we fid
h

h
se kigs
r 
i
s
were f
rew red by
he Pr
phe
s,
h

he use
f c pi
 puishme
s,
d
h
 w rs, were c
demed by G
d i
he s me m er s
hey
were dm
ished
f 

her sis. O
he

her h d, c  y
e
d
ub
, s
he  w
f M
ses b
re such  express im ge
f
he divie
wi respec
ig crimi  jus
ice, whe
her

her 
i
s w
ud 

h ve
c
ed wisey i d
p
ig i
f
r
heir ex mpe? I
is cer
i
h

he
Greeks, d
he A
hei s i p r
icu r did s
. Fr
m hece c me
he
c
se resemb ce which
he Jewish b
re


he
d A
hei   w, d

h

f
he
weve
bes
f R
me. E
ugh h s bee s id,

shew

h

he  w give

N
h c 

be r
he i
erpre

i

f
h
se, wh

derive fr
m i

heir rgume
s g is

he  wfuess
f  w r.

I. The rgume
s g is

he  wfuess
f w r, dr w fr
m
he G
spe,
re m
re speci
us. I ex miig which i
wi 

be ecess ry


ssume, s m y d
,
h

he G
spe c

is 

hig m
re
h 
he  w

f 
ure, excep

he rues
f f i
h d
he S cr me
s:  ssump
i
,
which i i
s geer  ccep

i
 is by 
me s
rue. I
m y re diy be
dmi

ed,
h


hig ic
sis
e
wi
h 
ur  jus
ice is ej
ied
i
he g
spe, ye
i
c  ever be 
wed,
h

he  ws
f Chris
d



imp
se du
ies up
 us, b
ve
h
se required by
he  w
f 
ure.
Ad
h
se, wh

hik

herwise, s
r i
heir rgume
s

pr
ve
h

m y pr c
ices f
rbidde by
he g
spe, s c
cubi ge, div
rce,
p
yg my, were m de
ffeces by
he  w
f 
ure. The igh

f 
ure
migh
p
i

u

he HONOUR
f bs
iig fr
m such pr c
ices, bu

he
SINFULNESS
f
hem c
ud 

h ve bee disc
vered wi
h
u
reve
i


f
he wi
f G
d. Wh
f
r is
ce w
ud s y,
h

he Chris
i 
precep

f  yig d
w
ur ives f
r

hers w s 
big
i

f
he
 w
f 
ure? 1 J
h iii. 16. I
is s id by Jus
i
he M r
yr,
h



ive cc
rdig


he b re  w
f 
ure is 


he ch r c
er
f
rue
beiever. Nei
her c  we f

w
h
se, wh
, d
p
ig 

her me ig
f

ic
sider be imp
r
, c
s
rue
he precep
deivered by Chris
i
his serm


he m
u
, i



hig m
re
h   i
erpre

i

f

he M
s ic L w. F
r
he w
rds, "y
u h ve he rd i
w s s id


hem
f

d, bu
I s y

YOU," which re s

f
e repe
ed, impy s
me
hig
ese. Th
se
f
d were 


her
h  c

emp
r ries
f M
ses: f
r
wh
is
here repe
ed s s id


h
se
f OLD re 


he w
rds
f

he
e chers
f
he  w, bu

f M
ses, ei
her LITERALLY,
r i THEIR

me ig. They re ci
ed by
ur S vi
ur s his express w
rds, 

s
i
erpre

i
s
f
hem: "Th
u sh 


ki," Ex
d. xx. wh
ever
kie
h sh  be i d ger
f Judgme
, Levi
. xxi. 21. Numb. xxxv. 16,
17, 30. "Th
u sh 


c
mmi
du
ery," Ex
d. xx. "wh
s
ever sh 
pu
w y his wife, e
him give her wri
ig
f div
rceme
." Deu
.
xxiv, 1. "Th
u sh 


f
rswe r
hysef, bu
sh 
perf
rm u


he
L
rd
hie

hs." Ex
d. xx. 7. Numb. xxx. 2. "A eye f
r  eye, d




h f
r



h," m y be dem ded i jus
ice. Levi
. xxxiv. 20.
Deu
. xix. 21. "Th
u sh 

ve
hy eighb
ur,"
h
is,  Isr ei
e.
Levi
. xix. 18. " d
h
u sh 
h
e
hie eemy,"
h
is, y
e

f
he seve 
i
s

wh
m friedship
r c
mp ssi
 w s f
rbidde

be shew. Ex
d. xxxiv. 11. Deu

. vii. 1. T

hese m y be dded

he Am eki
es, wi
h wh
m
he Isr ei
es were c
mm ded

m i
i
irrec
cie be w r. Ex
d. xxvii. 19. Deu
. xxv. 19.
Bu


uders
d
he w
rds
f
ur S vi
ur, we mus

bserve
h

he
 w
f M
ses is
ke i d
ube sese, ei
her s c

iig s
me
pricipes i c
mm
 wi
h hum   ws, such s imp
sig res
r i
up

hum  crimes by
he dre d
f exemp ry puishme
s. Heb. ii. 2. Ad
i
his m er m i
iig civi s
cie
y m
g
he Jewish pe
pe:
f
r which re s
 i
is c ed, Heb. vii. 16,
he  w
f c r 
c
mm dme
, d R
m. iii. 17.
he  w
f w
rks:
r i
m y be
ke
i 

her sese, c
mprehedig
he pecui r s c
i
s
f divie
 w, requirig puri
y
f mid, d cer
i c
i
s, which migh
be

mi

ed wi
h
u

emp
r  puishme
s. I
his sese i
is c ed
spiri
u   w, givig ife


he s
u. The
e chers
f
he  w, d

he Ph risees c
siderig
he firs
p r
s sufficie
, egec
ed


is
ruc

he pe
pe i
he sec
d d m
re imp
r

br ch, deemig
i
superfu
us. The
ru
h
f
his m y be pr
ved, 


y fr
m
ur
w
wri
igs, bu
fr
m J
sephus s
, d
he Jewish R bbis. Respec
ig

his sec
d p r
we m y
bserve,
h

he vir
ues which re required

f Chris
i s, re ei
her rec
mmeded
r ej
ied


he Hebrews,
bu


ej
ied i
he s me degree d ex
e
s

Chris
i s. N
w
i b

h
hese seses Chris

pp
ses his
w precep
s


he
d  w.
Fr
m whece i
is ce r,
h
his w
rds c

i m
re
h  b re
i
erpre

i

f
he M
s ic  w. These
bserv
i
s ppy 


y

he ques
i
 immedi
ey i h d, bu


m y

hers;
h
we m y 

res
up

he u
h
ri
y
f
he M
s ic  w f r
her
h  is righ
.

II. Omi

ig
heref
re
he ess s
isf c

ry pr

fs, s e dig
p
i

f evidece

shew
h

he righ

f w r is 


ke w y by

he  w
f
he g
spe,
h
p ss ge i S
. P u's Epis
e

Tim

hy
m y be referred

, where
he Ap
s
e s ys, "I exh
r

heref
re

h
, firs

f , suppic
i
s, pr yers, i
ercessi
s, d givig

f
h ks be m de f
r  me; f
r Kigs, d f
r 
h
re i
u
h
ri
y,
h
we m y e d quie
d pe ce be ife, i 
g
diess d h
es
y; f
r
his is g

d d ccep
be i
he sigh

f
G
d
ur S vi
ur, wh
w
ud h ve  me

be s ved, d

c
me

he k
wedge
f
he
ru
h." 1 Eph. ii. 1, 2, 3. Fr
m
his p ss ge,

he f

wig c
cusi
s m y be dr w; i
he firs
p ce,
h

Chris
i  pie
y i kigs is ccep
be

G
d,
h

heir pr
fessi


f Chris
i i
y d
es 

bridge
heir righ
s
f s
vereig
y. Jus
i

he M r
yr h s s id, "
h
i
ur pr yers f
r Kigs, we sh
ud beg

h

hey m y ui
e spiri

f wisd
m wi
h
heir r
y  p
wer," d
i
he b

k c ed
he C
s
i
u
i
s
f Ceme
,
he Church pr ys f
r
Chris
i  ruers, d
h
Chris
i  Prices m y perf
rm  ccep
be
service

G
d, by securig



her Chris
i s
he ej
yme

f quie

ives. The m er i which

he S
vereig secures
his imp
r

ed,
is exp ied i 

her p ss ge fr
m
he s me Ap
s
e. R
m. xiii. 4.
"He is
he miis
er
f G
d


hee f
r g

d. Bu
if
h
u d
evi, fe r,

f
r he be re
h 


he sw
rd i v i; f
r he is
he miis
er
f G
d,
 veger

execu
e wr
h up

hem,
h
d
evi." By
he righ

f
he sw
rd is uders


d
he exercise
f every kid
f res
r i
,
i
he sese d
p
ed by
he L wyers, 


y
ver
ffeders m
gs

his
w pe
pe, bu
g is
eighb
rig 
i
s, wh
vi

e his
w
d his pe
pe's righ
s. T
ce r up
his p
i
, we m y refer


he
sec
d Ps m, which 
h
ugh i
ppies i
er y

D vid, ye
i i
s
m
re fu d perfec
sese re
es

Chris
, which m y be see by
c
su
ig

her p r
s
f scrip
ure. F
r is
ce, Ac
s iv. 25. xiii.
33. F
r
h
Ps m exh
r
s  kigs

w
rship
he s

f G
d, shewig

hemseves, s kigs,

be his miis
ers, which m y be exp ied by

he w
rds
f S
. Augus
ie, wh
s ys, "I
his, kigs, i
heir r
y 
c p ci
y, serve G
d cc
rdig


he divie c
mm dme
, if
hey
pr
m

e wh
is g

d, d pr
hibi
wh
is evi i
heir kigd
ms, 

y re
ig

hum  s
cie
y, bu
s
respec
ig reigi
." Ad i


her p ce
he s me wri
er s ys, "H
w c  kigs serve
he L
rd i
fe r, uess
hey c  pr
hibi
d puish wi
h due severi
y
ffeces
g is

he  w
f G
d? F
r
he c p ci
ies i which
hey serve G
d, s
idividu s, d s kigs, re very differe
. I
his respec

hey
serve
he L
rd, s kigs, whe
hey pr
m

e his service by me s which

hey c
ud 

use wi
h
u
reg  p
wer.
The s me p r

f
he Ap
s
e's wri
igs suppies us wi
h sec
d
rgume
, where
he higher p
wers, me ig kigs, re s id

be fr
m
G
d, d re c ed
he
rdi ce
f G
d; fr
m whece i
is p iy
iferred
h
we re

h

ur d
bey
he kig, fr
m m

ives
f
c
sciece, d
h
every
e wh
resis
s him, is resis
ig G
d. If

he w
rd
rdi ce me 


hig m
re
h  b re permissi
,
h

bediece which
he Ap
s
e s
s
reu
usy ej
is w
ud
y h ve

he f
rce
f  imperfec

big
i
. Bu
s
he w
rd
rdi ce, i

he
rigi , impies  express c
mm dme

d pp
i
me
, d s
 p r
s
f
he reve ed wi
f G
d re c
sis
e
wi
h e ch

her,
i
f

ws
h

he
bediece
f subjec
s

s
vereigs is du
y
f
supreme
big
i
. N
r is
he rgume

 we keed by i
s beig
s id,
h

he S
vereigs

he
ime whe S
. P u wr

e, were 

Chris
i s. F
r i
is 

uivers y
rue, s Sergius P uus,
he
depu
y g
ver
r
f Cyprus, h d 
g bef
re pr
fessed
he Chris
i 
reigi
. Ac
s xiii. 12. There is 

cc si


me
i

he
r di
i

respec
ig Abg rus
he Kig
f Edess 's Epis
e


ur S vi
ur;

r di
i
 miged wi
h f seh

d,
h
ugh, i s
me me sure f
uded
up

ru
h. F
r
he ques
i
 did 


ur up

he ch r c
ers
f
he
Prices, whe
her
hey were g
dy
r 

, bu
whe
her THEIR h
dig
he
kigy
ffice w s repug 



he  w
f G
d. This S
. P u deies,
m i
iig
h

he kigy
ffice, eve uder  circums
ces, w s
pp
i
ed by G
d,
heref
re i

ugh


be h

ured fr
m m

ives
f
c
sciece, which, pr
pery spe kig, re uder
he c

r
u
f G
d

e. S

h
Ner
, d Kig Agripp wh
m P u s
e res
y e
re
s

bec
me Chris
i , migh
h ve embr ced Chris
i i
y, d s
i
re
ied,
he
e his reg , d
he

her his imperi  u
h
ri
y,
which c
ud 

be exercised wi
h
u

he p
wer
f
he sw
rd. As
he
eg  s crifices migh
f
rmery be perf
rmed by wicked Pries
s; i
he
s me m er reg  p
wer w
ud re
i i
s ideibe s c
i
y,
h
ugh i

he h ds
f  ug
dy m .
A
hird rgume
is derived fr
m
he w
rds
f J
h
he B p
is
, wh
,


ime whe m y
h
us ds
f
he Jews served i
he R
m  rmies,
s ppe rs fr
m
he
es
im
y
f J
sephus d

hers, beig seri
usy
sked by
he s
diers, wh

hey sh
ud d


v
id
he wr
h
f G
d,
did 

c
mm d
hem

re
uce
heir mii
ry c ig, which he
ugh

h ve d
e, h d i
bee ic
sis
e
wi
h
he  w d wi
f G
d,

bu


bs
i fr
m vi
ece, ex

r
i
, d f se ccus
i
, d


be c

e
wi
h
heir w ges. I repy


hese w
rds
f
he B p
is
,
s
p iy givig u
h
ri
y


he mii
ry pr
fessi
, m y
bserved

h

he ijuc
i

f
he B p
is
is s
widey differe
fr
m
he
precep
s
f Chris
,
h
HE seemed

pre ch
e d
c
rie d
ur LORD


her. Which is by 
me s dmissibe, f
r
he f

wig re s
s.
B

h
ur S vi
ur d
he B p
is
m de repe
ce
he subs
ce
f

heir d
c
rie; f
r
he kigd
m
f he ve w s
h d. By
he Kigd
m

f He ve is me 
ew  w, s
he Hebrews used

give
he  me

f Kigd
m


heir  w. Chris
himsef s ys
he Kigd
m
f He ve
beg 

suffer vi
ece fr
m
he d ys
f J
h
he B p
is
. M

. xi.
12. J
h is s id

h ve pre ched
he b p
ism
f repe
ce f
r
he
remissi

f sis. M rk i. 4. The Ap
s
es re s id

h ve d
e
he
s me i
he  me
f Chris
. Ac
s xi. 38. J
h requires frui
s w
r
hy

f repe
ce, d
hre
es des
ruc
i



h
se, wh
d


pr
duce

hem. M

. iii. 8, 10. He s
requires w
rks
f ch ri

y b
ve
he
 w. Luke iii. 2. The  w is s id

h ve c

iued
i J
h,
h

is, m
re perfec

 w is s id

h ve c
mmeced fr
m his is
ruc
i
.
He w s c ed gre
er
h 
he pr
phe
s, d dec red

be
e se

give
he k
wedge
f s v
i



he pe
pe by 
ucig
he
g
spe. He m kes 
dis
ic
i
 be
wee himsef d Jesus

he sc
re

f d
c
rie,
y scribig pre-emiece

Chris
s
he pr
mised
Messi h,
he L
rd
f
he Kigd
m
f He ve, wh
w
ud give
he p
wer
f

he h
y spiri



h
se, wh
beieved i him. I sh
r
,
he d wig
rudime
s
f k
wedge, which pr
ceeded fr
m
he f
reruer, were m
re
dis
ic
y uf
ded d ce red up, by Chris
himsef,
he igh

f
he
w
rd.
There is f
ur
h rgume
, which seems

h ve 
i

e weigh
,
pr
ceedig up

he supp
si
i
,
h
if
he righ

f ific
ig
c pi
 puishme
s were b
ished, d prices were deprived
f
he
p
wer
f
he sw
rd

pr

ec

heir subjec
s g is

he vi
ece
f
murderers d r
bbers, wickedess w
ud
riumph 
y prev i, d

he w
rd w
ud be deuged wi

h crimes, which, eve uder
he bes

es
bished g
verme
s, re wi
h s
much difficu
y preve
ed
r
res
r ied. If
he i
h d bee
he i
e
i

f Chris


i
r
duce
such 
rder
f
higs s h d ever bee he rd
f, he w
ud
ud
ub
edy by
he m
s
express d p r
icu r w
rds, h ve c
demed
 c pi
 puishme
s, d  w rs, which we ever re d
h
he
did. F
r
he rgume
s, br
ugh
i f v
r
f such 
pii
, re
f
r
he m
s
p r
very idefii
e d
bscure. N
w b

h jus
ice d
c
mm
 sese require such geer  expressi
s

be
ke i imi
ed
ccep

i
, d 
w us, i exp iig mbigu
us w
rds,

dep r

fr
m
heir i
er  me ig, where
ur s
ric
y dherig

i
w
ud
e d

m ifes
ic
veiece d de
rime
.
There is fif
h rgume
, m i
iig
h

pr

f c  be dduced

h

he judici  p r

f
he M
s ic L w, ific
ig se
ece
f
de
h, ever ce sed

be i f
rce,
i
he ci
y
f Jerus em, d

he civi p
i
y
f
he Jews were u

ery des
r
yed, wi
h
u
h
pes

f res

r
i
. F
r i
he M
s ic dispes
i
 
ssig be
erm is
 med f
r
he dur
i

f
he  w; 
r d
Chris
d his Ap
s
es ever
spe k
f i
s b
i
i
, excep
i usi



he
ver
hr
w
f
he
Jewish s

e. Ideed

he c

r ry, S
. P u s ys,
h

he High
Pries
w s pp
i
ed

judge cc
rdig


he  w
f M
ses. Ac
s xxiv.
3. Ad Chris
himsef, i
he i
r
duc
i


his precep
s, dec res

h
he c me 



des
r
y
he  w, bu


fufi i
. M

. v. 17.
The ppic
i

f his me ig


he ri
u   w is very p i, f
r
i
w s
y
he
u
ie d sh d
w
f
h
perfec
b
dy,
f which
he
G
spe f
rmed
he subs
ce. Bu
h
w is i
p
ssibe
h

he judici 

 ws sh
ud s
d, if Chris
, cc
rdig


he
pii

f s
me,
b
ished
hem by his c
mig? N
w if
he  w rem ied i f
rce s 
g
s
he Jewish s

e c

iued, i
f

ws
h

he Jewish c
ver
s


Chris
i i
y if c ed


he m gis
eri 
ffice, c
ud 

refuse i


he sc
re
f deciig

p ss se
ece
f de
h, d
h

hey
c
ud 

decide

herwise
h 
he  w
f M
ses h d prescribed.
Up
 weighig
he wh
e m

er,
he sigh
es
gr
ud c 

be
disc
vered f
r supp
sig
h
y pi
us m , wh
h d he rd
h
se
w
rds fr
m
ur S vi
ur himsef, w
ud h ve uders


d
hem i sese
differe
fr
m
h
which h s bee here give. I
mus
h
wever be
dmi

ed
h
, bef
re
he G
spe dispes
i
 permissi

r impui
y
w s gr 
ed

cer
i c
s d disp
si
i
s, which i
w
ud ei
her
be ecess ry 
r pr
per

ex mie
prese
, up
 which Chris
did



w his f

wers

c
. Of
his kid w s
he permissi



pu
w y wife f
r every
ffece, d

seek redress by  w f
r
every ijury. N
w be
wee
he p
si
ive precep
s
f Chris
d
h
se
permissi
s
here is differece, bu


c

r dic
i
. F
r he

h
re
is his wife, d he
h
f
rg
es his righ

f redress, d
es


hig CONTRARY


he  w, bu
r
her c
s gree by


he SPIRIT

f i
. I
is very differe
wi
h judge, wh
is 

merey permi

ed,
bu
c
mm ded by
he  w

puish murderer wi
h de
h, icurrig
gui
i
he sigh

f G
d, if he sh
ud c


herwise. If Chris
h d
f
rbidde him

pu
murderer

de
h, his pr
hibi
i
 w
ud h ve
m
u
ed

c

r dic
i
, d i
w
ud h ve b
ished
he  w.
The ex mpe
f C
reius
he Ce
uri
 suppies six
h rgume
i
f v
r
f
his
pii
. I receivig
he h
y spiri
fr
m Chris
, he
received  idubi
be pr

f
f his jus
ific
i
; he w s b p
ized
i


he  me
f Chris
by Pe
er, ye
we d


fid
h
he ei
her
h d resiged
r w s dvised by
he Ap
s
e

resig his mii
ry
c
mmissi
. I repy

which s
me m i
i,
h
whe is
ruc
ed
by Pe
er i
he 
ure
f
he Chris
i  reigi
, he mus
h ve bee
is
ruc
ed

f
rm
he res
u
i

f qui

ig his mii
ry c ig.
There w
ud be s
me weigh
i
heir swer, if i
c
ud be sh
w
h

 bs
u
e pr
hibi
i

f w r is

be f
ud m
g
he precep
s

f Chris
. Ad s i
c  be f
ud 
where ese, i
w
ud h ve bee
iser
ed i i
s pr
per p ce m
g
he precep
s
f Chris
,
h
f
er
ges migh


h ve bee ig
r 

f
he rues
f du
y. N
r s m y be
see i
he xix. ch p.
f
he Ac
s
f
he Ap
s
es d
he 19
h ver.
is i
usu  wi
h S
. Luke, i c ses where
he pers
  ch r c
er d
si
u
i

f c
ver
s required  ex
r
rdi ry ch ge
f ife d
disp
si
i
,

p ss
ver such circums
ce wi
h
u


ice.
The seve
h rgume
is ike
he precedig, d is
ke fr
m
he
ex mpe
f Sergius P uus, which h s bee re dy me
i
ed. I
he
his

ry
f his c
versi

here is 


he e s
i
im
i

f his
bdic
ig
he m gis
r cy,
r beig required

d
s
. Theref
re
siece respec
ig circums
ce, which w
ud 
ur y d
ecess riy h ve bee me
i
ed, m y be f iry
ke s pr

f
h

i
ever exis
ed. The c
duc

f S
. P u suppies us wi
h  eigh
h
rgume


his subjec
. Whe he uders


d
h

he Jews  y i
w i
f
r 
pp
r
ui
y

seize d ki him, he immedi
ey g ve
if
rm
i

f
heir desig


he c
mm der
f
he R
m  g rris
,
d whe
he c
mm der g ve him gu rd
f s
diers

pr

ec
him

his j
urey, he m de 
rem
s
r ce, 
r ever hi
ed ei
her


he
c
mm der
r
he s
diers
h
i
w s dispe sig

G
d

repe f
rce
by f
rce. Ye

his is
he s me Ap
s
e wh
, s ppe rs fr
m  his
wri
igs, 2 Tim. iv. 2. ei
her himsef egec
ed 
r 
wed

hers

egec
y
pp
r
ui
y
f remidig me
f
heir du
y. I ddi
i





h
h s bee s id, i
m y be
bserved,
h

he pecui r ed

f wh
is  wfu d bidig, mus
i
sef be  wfu d bidig s
.
I
is  wfu

p y
ribu
e, d cc
rdig

S
. P u's exp 
i
,
i
is  c
bidig up

he c
sciece, R
m. xiii. 3, 4, 6. F
r
he
ed
f
ribu
e is

suppy
he s

e wi
h
he me s
f pr

ec
ig

he g

d, d res
r iig
he wicked. There is p ss ge i T ci
us
very ppic be


he prese
ques
i
. I
is i
he f
ur
h b

k
f
his his

ry, i
he speech
f Pe
iius Cere is, wh
s ys, "
he pe ce

f 
i
s c 

be preserved wi
h
u
rmies, 
r c  rmies be
m i
ied wi
h
u
p y, 
r p y suppied wi
h
u

x
i
." There is
se
ime
simi r


his
f
he his

ri , i S
. Augus
i, he s ys,
"f
r
his purp
se we p y
ribu
e,
h

he s
dier m y be pr
vided wi
h

he ecess ries
f ife."

The
e
h rgume
is
ke fr
m
h
p r

f
he xxv. ch p.
f
he
Ac
s
f
he Ap
s
es, where P u s ys, "If I h ve wr
ged y m ,
r
d
e y
hig w
r
hy
f de
h, I refuse 



die." Fr
m whece
he

pii

f S
. P u m y be g
hered,
h
, eve f
er
he pubic
i


f
he g
spe,
here were cer
i crimes which jus
ice 


y 
wed
bu
required

be puished wi
h de
h; which
pii
 S
. Pe
er s

m i
is. Bu
if i
h d bee
he wi
f G
d
h
c pi
 puishme
s
sh
ud be b
ished, P u migh
h ve ce red himsef, bu
he
ugh


h ve ef
 impressi


he mids
f me,
h
i
w s

h

ime equ y  wfu s bef
re

puish
he gui
y wi
h de
h. N
w s
i
h s bee pr
ved,
h

he c
mig
f Chris
did 


ke w y
he
righ

f ific
ig c pi
 puishme
s, i
h s

he s me
ime bee
pr
ved,
h
w r m y be m de up
 mu
i
ude
f rmed
ffeders, wh

c 
y be br
ugh


jus
ice by defe
i b

e. The umbers,

he
s
reg
h d b
dess
f
he ggress
rs,
h
ugh
hey m y h ve
heir
weigh
i res
r iig
ur deiber
i
s, c 

i
he e s
dimiish

ur righ
.
The subs
ce
f
he eeve
h rgume
res
s 


y up

ur
S vi
ur's h vig b
ished
h
se p r
s
f
he M
s ic  w, which f
rmed
w 
f sep r
i
 be
wee
he Jews d

her 
i
s, bu
up

his 
wig
he m
r  p r
s

rem i, s s
dig rues, ppr
ved
by
he  w
f 
ure, d
he c
se

f every civiized pe
pe, d
c

iig wh
ever is g

d d vir
u
us.
N
w
he puishig
f crimes, d
he
kig up rms

vege
r w rd

ff ijuries re m
g
h
se c
i
s, which by
he  w
f 
ure
r k s  ud be, d re referred


he vir
ues
f jus
ice d
beeficece. Ad here is
he pr
per p ce

im dver
sigh
y up


he mis
ke
f
h
se, wh
derive
he righ
s
f w r, p
ssessed by
he
Isr ei
es, s
ey fr
m
he circums
ce
f G
d h vig give
hem
he
 d
f C   d c
mmissi
ed
hem

drive
u

he ih bi

s. This
m y be
e jus
re s
, bu
i
is 


he s
e re s
.
F
r, pri
r


h
se
imes, h
y me guided by
he igh

f 
ure
uder


k w rs, which
he Isr ei
es
hemseves f
erw rds did f
r
v ri
us re s
s, d D vid i p r
icu r,

vege
he vi

ed righ
s

f mb ss d
rs. Bu

he righ
s, which y
e derives fr
m
he  w
f

ure, re 
ess his
w
h  if G
d h d give
hem: 
r re
h
se
righ
s b
ished by
he  w
f
he G
spe.

III. Le
us 
w c
sider
he rgume
s, by which
he c

r ry
pii

is supp
r
ed,
h

he pi
us re der m y judge m
re e siy,

which
side
he sc e icies.
I
he firs
p ce,
he pr
phecy
f Is i h is geer y eged, wh

s ys
he
ime sh  c
me, "whe 
i
s sh  be

heir sw
rds i


p
w-sh res, d
ur
heir spe rs i

pruig h

ks. N
i
 sh 


if
up sw
rd g is

i
, ei
her sh 
hey e r w r y
m
re." ii. 4. Bu

his pr
phecy, ike m y

hers, is

be
ke
c
di
i
 y, udig


he s

e
f
he w
rd
h
w
ud
ke
p ce, if  
i
s w
ud submi



he  w
f Chris
, d m ke
i

he rue
f ife,

which purp
se G
d w
ud suffer 

hig


be w 
ig
 his p r
. F
r i
is cer
i,
h
if  pe
pe were
Chris
i s, d ived ike Chris
i s,
here w
ud be 
w rs, which
Ar
bius expresses
hus, "If  me, k
wig
h
i
is 


heir
c
rp
re  f
rm 
e which m kes
hem me, bu

he p
wers
f
he
uders
dig, w
ud ed p
ie
e r

his s u
ry d p cific
is
ruc
i
s, if
hey w
ud
rus


his dm
i
i
s r
her
h 


he
sweig pride d
urbuece
f
heir seses, ir
 w
ud be emp
yed
f
r is
rume
s
f m
re h rmess d usefu
per
i
s,
he w
rd ej
y

he s
f
es
rep
se d be ui
ed i
he b ds
f ivi
 be
re
ies."
O
his subjec
L c

ius, repr
chig
he P g s wi
h
he deific
i


f
heir c
quer
rs, s ys, "wh
w
ud be
he c
sequece, if  me
w
ud ui
e i c
c
rd? Which migh
cer
iy be br
ugh


p ss,
if, b d
ig rui
us d impi
us r ge,
hey w
ud ive i jus
ice
d i
cece." Or
his p ss ge
f
he pr
phecy mus
be uders


d
i
er y, d, if
ke i
h
sese, i
shews
h
i
is 

ye

fufied, bu
i
s cc
mpishme
mus
be 

ked f
r i
he geer 
c
versi

f
he Jewish pe
pe. Bu
, which ever w y y
u
ke i
, 

c
cusi
 c  be dr w fr
m i
g is

he jus
ice
f w r, s 
g s
vi
e
me exis


dis
urb
he quie

f
he 
vers
f pe ce.[7]
IX. I ex miig
he me ig
f wri

e evidece, geer  cus

m, d

he
pii
s
f me ceebr
ed f
r
heir wisd
m h ve usu y gre

weigh
; pr c
ice which i
is righ



bserve i
he i
erpre

i


f h
y scrip
ure. F
r i
is 

ikey
h
churches, which h d bee
f
uded by
he Ap
s
es, w
ud ei
her suddey
r uivers y h ve
swerved fr
m
h
se
pii
s, which
he Ap
s
es h d briefy expressed,
i wri
ig, d f
erw rds m
re fuy d ce ry exp ied


hem
wi
h
heir
w ips, d reduced

pr c
ice. N
w cer
i expressi
s

f
he primi
ive Chris
i s re usu y eged by
h
se wh
re
dverse

 w rs, wh
se
pii
s m y be c
sidered d refu
ed i

hree p
i
s
f view.
I
he firs
p ce, fr
m
hese expressi
s 

hig m
re c  be g
hered

h 
he priv
e
pii
s
f cer
i idividu s, bu

pubic

pii

f
he Churches. Besides
hese expressi
s f
r
he m
s
p r

re

be f
ud
y i
he wri
igs
f Orige, Ter
ui  d s
me
few

hers, wh
wished

dis
iguish
hemseves by
he brii cy
f

heir
h
ugh
s, wi
h
u
reg rdig c
sis
ecy i
heir
pii
s. F
r

his s me Orige s ys,

h
Bees were give by G
d s p

er f
r
me

f

w i c
duc
ig jus
, regu r, d ecess ry w rs; d
ikewise Ter
ui , wh
i s
me p r
s seems

dis ppr
ve
f c pi

puishme
s, h s s id, "N

e c  dey
h
i
is g

d
he gui
y
sh
ud be puished." He expresses his d
ub
s respec
ig
he mii
ry
pr
fessi
, f
r i his b

k up
 id

ry, he s ys, i
is fi
m

er

f iquiry, whe
her beievers c 
ke up rms,
r whe
her y
f

he mii
ry pr
fessi
 c  be dmi

ed s members
f
he Chris
i 
Church. Bu
i his B

k e
i
ed,
he SOLDIER'S CROWN, f
er s
me

bjec
i
s g is

he pr
fessi

f rms, he m kes dis
ic
i

be
wee
h
se wh
re eg ged i
he rmy bef
re b p
ism, d
h
se
wh
e
ered f
er
hey h d m de
he b p
ism  v
w. "I
evide
y,
_s ys he_ 
ers
he c se wi
h
h
se wh
were s
diers bef
re
heir
c
versi


Chris
i i
y; J
h dmi

ed
hem

b p
ism, i
e
is
ce Chris
ppr
ved, d i 

her Pe
er is
ruc
ed f i
hfu

Ce
uri
: ye
wi
h
his s
ipu
i
,
h

hey mus
ei
her ike
m y

hers, reiquish
heir c ig,
r be c refu

d


hig
dispe sig

G
d." He w s sesibe
he
h

hey c

iued i
he
mii
ry pr
fessi
 f
er b p
ism, which
hey w
ud by 
me s h ve
d
e, if
hey h d uders


d
h
 w r w s f
rbidde by Chris
. They
w
ud h ve f

wed
he ex mpe
f
he S


hs yers,
he M gi, d

her
pr
fess
rs
f f
rbidde r
s, wh
ce sed

pr c
ice
hem, whe
hey
bec me Chris
i s. I
he b

k qu

ed b
ve, c
mmedig s
dier, wh

w s

he s me
ime Chris
i , he s ys, "O S
dier g
ri
us i G
d."
The sec
d
bserv
i
 ppies


he c se
f
h
se, wh
decied
r
eve refused be rig rms,
 cc
u

f
he circums
ces
f
he

imes, which w
ud h ve required

hem

d
m y c
s ic
sis
e
wi
h

heir Chris
i  c ig. I D
 be 's e

er


he Ephesi s, which
is

be f
ud i J
sephus, we see
h

he Jews reques
ed  exemp
i

fr
m mii
ry expedi
i
s, bec use, i migig wi
h s
r gers,
hey
c
ud 

c
veie
y h ve
bserved
he ri
es
f
heir
w  ws d
w
ud h ve bee
biged

be r rms, d

m ke 
g m rches

he
S bb
hs. Ad we re if
rmed by J
sephus
h
, f
r
he s me re s
s,

he Jews
b
ied
heir disch rge
f L. Le
uus. I 

her p r
, he
re
es
h
whe
he Jews h d bee
rdered

e ve
he ci
y
f R
me,
s
me
f
hem eis
ed i
he rmy, d
h


hers, wh

u

f respec

he  ws
f
heir c
u
ry, f
r
he re s
s bef
re me
i
ed, refused

be r rms, were puished. I ddi

i



hese
hird re s
 m y
be give, which w s
h

hey w
ud h ve

figh
g is

heir
w
pe
pe, g is
wh
m i
w s u wfu

be r rms, especi y whe
hey
icurred d ger d emi
y f
r dherig


he M
s ic  w. Bu

he
Jews, wheever
hey c
ud d
i
, wi
h
u

hese ic
veieces, served
uder f
reig prices, previ
usy s
ipu
ig, s we re if
rmed by
J
sephus, f
r iber
y

ive cc
rdig


he  ws d rues
f
heir

w c
u
ry. Ter
ui 
bjec
s


he mii
ry service
f his
w

imes
 cc
u

f d gers, d ic
veieces very simi r


h
se,
which de
erred
he Jews. I his b

k
 Id

ry, he s ys, "i
is
imp
ssibe

rec
cie
he

h
f fidei
y

serve uder
he b ers

f Chris
, wi
h
h


serve uder
he b ers
f
he Devi." Bec use

he s
diers were
rdered

swe r by Jupi
er, M rs, d
he

her
He
he G
ds. Ad i his b

k

he S
dier's Cr
w, he sks, "if
he
s
dier be

keep w
ch bef
re
he
empes, which he h s re
uced,


sup where he is f
rbidde by
he Ap
s
e, d

gu rd i
he igh

he
G
ds, wh
m he h s bjured i
he d y?" Ad he pr
ceeds wi
h skig, "if

here be 

m y

her mii
ry du
ies, which
ugh


be reg rded i

he igh

f sis?"
The
hird p
i

f view, i which
he subjec
is

be c
sidered,
re
es


he c
duc

f
h
se primi
ive Chris
i s, wh
, i
he
rd
ur
f ze , imed

he m
s
brii 

ime
s,
kig
he
divie c
uses f
r precep
s
f
big
i
. The Chris
i s, s ys
A
he g
r s, ever g


 w wi
h
h
se, wh
r
b
hem.
S vi  s ys, i
w s c
mm ded by Chris

h
we sh
ud reiquish

he
bjec

f dispu
e, r
her
h  eg ge i  w sui
s. Bu

his,

ke i s
geer   ccep

i
, is r
her by
he w y
f c
use,
i
rder

i

subimer m
de
f ife,
h  i
eded s
p
si
ive precep
. Thus m y
f
he primi
ive F
hers c
demed 


hs wi
h
u
excep
i
, ye
S
. P u, i m

ers
f gre
imp
r
ce,
m de use
f
hese s
em ppe s

G
d. A Chris
i  i T
i  s id,
"I refuse
he
ffice
f Pr e

r," d i
he w
rds
f Ter
ui , "
Chris
i  is 

mbi
i
us
f
he Aedie's
ffice." I
he s me m er
L c

ius m i
is
h
jus
m , such s he wishes Chris
i 

be,
ugh




eg ge i w r, 
r, s  his w 
s c  be

suppied
h
me, eve

g


se . H
w m y
f
he primi
ive f
hers
dissu de Chris
i s fr
m sec
d m rri ges? A
hese c
uses re g

d,
rec
mmedig excee

ime
s, highy ccep
be

G
d, ye

hey
re 

required
f us, by y bs
u
e  w. The
bserv
i
s re dy
m de re sufficie


swer
he
bjec
i
s derived fr
m
he primi
ive

imes
f Chris
i i
y.
N
w i
rder

c
firm
ur
pii
s, we m y
bserve
h

hey h ve

he supp
r

f wri
ers, eve
f gre
er 
iqui
y, wh

hik
h

c pi
 puishme
s m y be ific
ed, d
h
w rs, which res
up


he s me u
h
ri
y, m y be  wfuy eg ged i by Chris
i s. Cemes
Aex drius s ys,
h
" Chris
i , if, ike M
ses, he be c ed

he exercise
f s
vereig p
wer, wi be ivig  w

his subjec
s,
rew rdig
he g

d, d puishig
he wicked." Ad, i 

her p ce,
describig
he h bi

f Chris
i , he s ys, "i
w
ud bec
me him


g
b ref


, uess he were s
dier." I
he w
rk usu y e
i
ed

he CONSTITUTIONS OF CLEMENS ROMANUS, we fid

h
"i
is 


kiig which is c
sidered u wfu, bu

y
h

f
he i
ce
;
ye

he dmiis
r
i

f judici  puishme
s mus
be reserved


he
supreme p
wer 
e." Bu
wi
h
u
res
ig up
 idividu  u
h
ri
ies,
we c  ppe 


he pubic u
h
ri
y
f
he church which
ugh



h ve
he gre
es
weigh
. Fr
m hece i
is evide

h

e were ever
refused b p
ism,
r exc
mmuic
ed by
he church, merey f
r be rig
rms, which
hey
ugh


h ve bee, h d
he mii
ry pr
fessi
 bee
repug 



he
erms
f
he ew c
ve 
. I
he CONSTITUTIONS jus

qu

ed,
he wri
er spe kig
f
h
se wh
, i
he primi
ive
imes,
were dmi

ed

b p
ism,
r refused
h

rdi ce, s ys, "e

s
dier wh
desires

be dmi

ed be
ugh


f
rbe r fr
m vi
ece,
d f se ccus
i
s, d

be c

e
wi
h his regu r p y. If he
pr
mises
bediece e
him be dmi

ed." Ter
ui  i his Ap

gy,
spe kig i
he ch r c
er
f Chris
i s, s ys, "We s i 
g wi
h y
u,
d we eg ge i
he s me w rs," h vig i

e bef
re
bserved, "we

re bu
s
r gers, ye
we h ve fied  y
ur ci
ies, y
ur is ds,
y
ur c s
es, y
ur muicip 

ws, y
ur c
ucis, d eve y
ur
c mps." He h d re
ed i
he s me b

k
h
r i h d bee
b
ied
f
r
he Emper
r M rcus Aureius by
he pr yers
f
he Chris
i 
s
diers.[8] I his b

k
f
he cr
w, he c
mmeds s
dier, wh
h d

hr
w w y his g r d, f
r c
ur ge superi
r

h

f his bre
hre
i rms, d if
rms us
h
he h d m y Chris
i  fe
w s
diers.
T

hese pr

fs m y be dded
he h

urs
f M r
yrd
m give by
he
Church

s
me s
diers, wh
h d bee cruey persecu
ed, d h d eve
suffered de
h f
r
he s ke
f Chris
, m
g wh
m re rec
rded
hree
f
S
. P u's c
mp i
s, Ceri is wh
suffered m r
yrd
m uder Decius;
M rius uder  eri ; fif
y uder Aurei , ic

r, M urus, d
 e
ius, ieu
e 
geer  uder M ximi . Ab
u

he s me
ime
M rceus
he Ce
uri
, Severi  uder Liciius. Cypri , i spe kig

f L ure
ius, d Ig
ius, b

h Afric s, s ys, "They


served i

he rmies
f e r
hy prices, ye

hey were
ruy spiri
u  s
diers

f G
d, defe
ig
he wies
f
he Devi by s
e dy c
fessi

f
he
 me
f Chris
, d e rig
he p ms d cr
ws
f
he L
rd by
heir
sufferigs." Ad fr
m hece i
is p i wh
w s
he geer 
pii


f
he primi
ive Chris
i s up
 w r, eve bef
re
he Emper
rs bec me
Chris
i s.
I
eed 

be
h
ugh
surprisig, if
he Chris
i s
f
h
se
imes
were uwiig

ppe r

ri s f
r ife, sice, f
r
he m
s

p r
,
he pers
s

be
ried were Chris
i s. I

her respec
s


,
besides beig uwiig

wi
ess
he umeri
ed sufferigs
f
heir
persecu
ed bre
hre,
he R
m   ws were m
re severe
h  Chris
i 

ei
y c
ud 
w
f, s m y be see fr
m
he sige is
ce
f
he
Si i  decree
f
he Se
e.[9] Ideed c pi
 puishme
s were 

b
ished eve f
er C
s

ie embr ced d beg 

ec
ur ge
he
Chris
i  reigi
. He himsef m
g

her  ws e c
ed
e simi r

h

f
he cie
R
m s, f
r puishig p rricides, by sewig
hem
i s ck wi
h cer
i im s, d
hr
wig
hem i


he se ,
r
he
e res
river. This  w is

be f
ud i his c
de uder
he "
i
e
f

he murders
f p re
s
r chidre." Ye
i

her respec
s he w s s

ge
e i puishig crimi s,
h
he is b med by m y his

ri s
f
r his excessive ei
y. C
s

ie, we re if
rmed by his

ri s,
h d

h

ime m y Chris
i s i his rmy, d he used
he  me

f Chris
s
he m

up
 his s
d rds. Fr
m
h

ime



he
mii
ry

h w s ch ged


he f
rm, which is f
ud i ege
ius, d

he s
dier sw
re, "By G
d, d Chris

, d
he h
y spiri
, d
he
m jes
y
f
he Emper
r,

wh
m s ex


G
d, h
m ge d reverece
re due fr
m m kid." N
r
u

f s
m y Bish
ps

h

ime, m y

f wh
m suffered
he m
s
crue
re
me
f
r
heir reigi
, d
we
re d
f sige
e, wh
dissu ded C
s

ie, by
he
err
rs
f
divie wr
h fr
m ific
ig c pi
 puishme
s,
r pr
secu
ig w rs,

r wh
de
erred
he Chris
i s, f
r
he s me re s
s, fr
m servig
i
he rmies. Th
ugh m
s

f
h
se Bish
ps were s
ric

bservers

f discipie, wh
w
ud by 
me s dissembe i p
i
s re
ig

he du
y
f
he Emper
rs
r
f

hers. Am
g
his c ss, i
he

ime
f The
d
sius, we m y r k Ambr
se, wh
i his seve

h disc
urse
s ys, "
here is 

hig wr
g i be rig rms; bu


be r rms fr
m
m

ives
f r pie is si ideed," d i his firs
b

k
f Offices,
he m i
is
he s me
pii
,
h
"
he c
ur ge which defeds
e's
c
u
ry g is

he icursi
s
f b rb ri s,
r pr

ec
s
e's f miy
d h
me fr
m
he

cks
f r
bbers, is c
mpe

e jus
ice." These
rgume
s s
decidedy shew
he
pii
s
f
he primi
ive Chris
i s
i
he supp
r

f jus
d ecess ry w r,
h

he subjec
requires 

f r
her pr

f
r eucid
i
.
N
r is
he rgume
iv id
ed by f c
pre

y geer y k
w,
h

Bish
ps d

her Chris
i s
f
e i
erceded i beh f
f crimi s,

mi
ig
e
he puishme

f de
h, d
h
y, wh
h d
ke
refuge i churches, were 

give up, bu
up

he pr
mise
f
heir
ives beig sp red. A cus

m w s i
r
duced ikewise
f ree sig
 pris
ers b
u

he
ime
f E s
er. Bu

hese is
ces, if
c refuy ex mied, wi be f
ud
he v
u
ry c
s
f Chris
i 
kidess, embr cig every
pp
r
ui
y

d
g

d, d 

se

ed
p
i

f pubic
pii
 c
demig  c pi
 puishme
s. Theref
re

h
se f v
urs were 

uivers ; bu
imi
ed


imes d p ces,
d eve
he i
ercessi
s
hemseves were m
dified wi
h cer
i
excep
i
s.[10]

CHAPTER III.
THE DIISION OF WAR INTO PUBLIC AND PRIATE AND THE NATURE OF SOEREIGN
POWER.
The Divisi

f W r i

pubic d priv
e--Ex mpes

pr
ve

h
 priv
e W r is 

repug 



he L w
f N
ure sice

he erec
i

f C
ur
s
f Jus
ice--The Divisi

f Pubic W r
i

f
rm , d if
rm --Whe
her
he suppressi

f Tumu
s by
sub
rdi
e M gis
r
es be pr
pery pubic W r--Civi P
wer, i
wh
i
c
sis
s--S
vereig P
wer fur
her c
sidered--The
pii



f
h
se, wh
m i
i
h

he S
vereig P
wer is w ys i
he
pe
pe, refu
ed, d
heir rgume
s swered--Mu
u  subjec
i

refu
ed--C u
i
s requisi
e

uders
d
he 
ure
f S
vereig
P
wer--Dis
ic
i

f
he re  differeces
h
exis
uder simi r
 mes--Dis
ic
i
 be
wee
he righ


S
vereig P
wer, d
he
m
de
f exercisig i
.
I. The firs
d m
s
ecess ry divisi
s
f w r re i


e kid
c ed priv
e, 

her pubic, d 

her mixed. N
w pubic w r is
c rried
 by
he pers
 h
dig
he s
vereig p
wer. Priv
e w r is

h
which is c rried
 by priv
e pers
s wi
h
u
u
h
ri
y fr
m
he
s

e. A mixed w r is
h
which is c rried
,

e side by pubic
u
h
ri
y, d

he

her by priv
e pers
s. Bu
priv
e w r, fr
m
i
s gre
er 
iqui
y, is
he firs
subjec
f
r iquiry.
The pr

fs
h
h ve bee re dy pr
duced,

shew
h


repe
vi
ece is 

repug 



ur   w, ff
rd s
isf c

ry re s


jus
ify priv
e w r, s f r s
he  w
f 
ure is c
cered.
Bu
perh ps i
m y be
h
ugh

h
sice pubic
ribu s h ve bee
erec
ed, priv
e redress
f wr
gs is 


w be. A
bjec
i
 which
is very jus
. Ye

h
ugh pubic
ri s d c
ur
s
f jus
ice re


is
i
u
i
s
f 
ure, bu
erec
ed by
he ive
i

f me, ye

s i
is much m
re c
ducive


he pe ce
f s
cie
y f
r m

er i
dispu
e

be decided by disi
eres
ed pers
,
h  by
he p r
i i
y
d prejudice
f
he p r
y ggrieved, 
ur  jus
ice d re s
 wi
dic

e
he ecessi
y d dv 
ge
f every
e's submi

ig


he
equi
be decisi
s
f pubic judges. P uus,
he L wyer,
bserves
h

"wh
c  be d
e by m gis
r
e wi
h
he u
h
ri
y
f
he s

e,
sh
ud ever be i
rus
ed

idividu s; s priv
e redress w
ud give
rise

gre
er dis
urb ce. Ad "
he re s
, _s ys Kig The
d
ric_,
why  ws were ive
ed, w s

preve
y
e fr
m usig pers
 
vi
ece, f
r wherei w
ud pe ce differ fr
m 
he c
fusi

f w r,
if priv
e dispu
es were
ermi
ed by f
rce?" Ad
he  w c s i

f
rce f
r y m 

seize wh
he
hiks his due, wi
h
u
seekig
eg  remedy.
II. I
is m

er bey
d  d
ub

h

he iber
y
f priv
e
redress, which
ce exis
ed, w s gre
y bridged f
er c
ur
s
f
jus
ice were es
bished. Ye

here m y be c ses, i which priv
e
redress mus
be 
wed, s f
r is
ce, if
he w y

eg  jus
ice
were 


pe. F
r whe
he  w pr
hibi
s y
e fr
m redressig his

w wr
gs, i
c 
y be uders


d

ppy

circums
ces where
eg  remedy exis
s. N
w
he
bs
ruc
i
 i
he w y

eg  redress
m y be ei
her
emp
r ry
r bs
u
e. Temp
r ry, where i
is imp
ssibe
f
r
he ijured p r
y

w i
f
r eg  remedy, wi
h
u
immie

d ger d eve des

ruc
i
. As f
r is
ce, if m  were

cked i

he igh
,
r i secre
p ce where 
ssis
ce c
ud be pr
cured.
Abs
u
e, ei
her s
he righ
,
r
he f c
m y require. N
w
here re
m y si
u
i
s, where
he righ
mus
ce se fr
m
he imp
ssibii
y
f
supp
r
ig i
i eg  w y, s i u
ccupied p ces,

he se s,
i wideress,
r deser
is d,
r y

her p ce, where
here
is 
civi g
verme
. A eg  remedy


ce ses by f c
, whe
subjec
s wi 

submi



he judge,
r if he refuses
pey


ke
c
giz ce
f m

ers i dispu
e. The sser
i

h
 priv
e w r
is 

m de repug 



he  w
f 
ure by
he erec
i

f eg 

ribu s, m y be uders

d fr
m  w give


he Jews, wherei G
d

hus spe ks by
he m
u
h
f M
ses, Ex
d. xxii. 2. "If
hief be f
ud
bre kig up,
h
is, by igh
, d be smi

e
h
he dies,
here
sh  
b

d be shed f
r him, bu
if
he su be rise up
 him,


here sh  be b

d shed f
r him." N
w
his  w, m kig s
ccur
e
dis
ic
i
 i
he meri
s
f
he c se, seems 


y

impy impui
y
f
r kiig y
e, i sef-defece, bu


exp i 
ur  righ
,
f
uded 


 y speci  divie c
mm d, bu


he c
mm
 pricipes

f jus
ice. Fr
m whece

her 
i
s h ve p iy f

wed
he s me
rue. The p ss ge
f
he
weve
bes is we k
w, ud
ub
edy
ke
fr
m
he
d A
hei  L w, "If
hief c
mmi
r
bbery i
he igh
,
d m  ki him, he is kied  wfuy." Thus by
he  ws
f 
k
w d civiized 
i
s,
he pers
 is judged i
ce
, wh
kis


her, f
rciby

emp
ig
r ed gerig his ife; c
spirig d
uivers 
es
im
y, which pr
ves
h
i jus
ifi be h
micide,
here
is 

hig repug 



he  w
f 
ure.
I.[11] Pubic w r, cc
rdig


he  w
f 
i
s, is ei
her SOLEMN,

h
is FORMAL,
r LESS SOLEMN,
h
is INFORMAL. The  me
f  wfu
w r is c
mm
y give

wh
is here c ed f
rm , i
he s me sese
i which regu r wi is
pp
sed

c
dici,
r  wfu m rri ge

he c
h bi

i

f s ves. This
pp
si
i
 by 
me s impies

h
i
is 


wed

y m , if he pe ses,

m ke c
dici,

r

s ves

c
h bi
i m
rim
y, bu

y,
h
, by
he civi
 w, FORMAL WILLS d SOLEMN MARRIAGES, were

eded wi
h pecui r
privieges d effec
s. These
bserv
i
s were
he m
re ecess ry;
bec use m y, fr
m misc
cep
i

f
he w
rd jus

r  wfu,
hik

h
 w rs,

which
h
se epi
he
s d


ppy, re c
demed s
ujus
d u wfu. N
w

give w r
he f
rm i
y required by
he
 w
f 
i
s,
w

higs re ecess ry. I
he firs
p ce i
mus

be m de
 b

h sides, by
he s
vereig p
wer
f
he s

e, d i
he
ex
p ce i
mus
be cc
mp ied wi
h cer
i f
rm i
ies. B

h
f
which re s
esse
i 
h

e is isufficie
wi
h
u

he

her.
N
w pubic w r, LESS SOLEMN, m y be m de wi
h
u

h
se f
rm i
ies,
eve g is
priv
e pers
s, d by y m gis
r
e wh
ever. Ad
ideed, c
siderig
he
hig wi
h
u
respec



he civi  w, every
m gis
r
e, i c se
f resis
ce, seems

h ve righ



ke up
rms,

m i
i his u
h
ri
y i
he execu
i

f his
ffice; s
we s

defed
he pe
pe c
mmi

ed

his pr

ec
i
. Bu
s
wh
e s

e is by w r iv
ved i d ger, i
is  es
bished  w i
m
s
 
i
s
h

w r c  be m de bu
by
he u
h
ri
y
f
he
s
vereig i e ch s

e. There is such  w s
his i
he  s
b

k

f P

ON LAWS. Ad by
he R
m   w,

m ke w r,
r evy
r

ps
wi
h
u
c
mmissi
 fr
m
he Price w s high
re s
. Acc
rdig


he
C
rei   w s
, e c
ed by Lucius C
reius Sy ,

d
s
wi
h
u

u
h
ri
y fr
m
he pe
pe m
u
ed


he s me crime. I
he c
de
f
Jus
ii 
here is c
s
i
u
i
, m de by  e
ii  d  es,

h


e sh
ud be r rms wi
h
u

heir k
wedge d u
h
ri
y.
C
f
rm by


his rue, S
. Augus
i s ys,
h
s pe ce is m
s

gree be


he 
ur  s

e
f m , i
is pr
per
h
Prices sh
ud
h ve
he s
e u
h
ri
y

devise d execu
e
he
per
i
s
f w r.
Ye

his geer  rue, ike 

hers, i i
s ppic
i
 mus
w ys
be imi
ed by equi
y d discre
i
.
I cer
i c ses
his u
h
ri
y m y be c
mmuic
ed



hers. F
r i

is p
i
se

ed bey
d  d
ub

h
sub
rdi
e m gis
r
es m y,
by
heir
fficers, reduce few dis
bedie
d
umu
u
us pers
s

subjec
i
, pr
vided,
h


d
i
, i
requires 

f
rce
f
such e
rm
us m gi
ude s migh
ed ger
he s

e. Ag i, if
he
d ger be s
immie
s


w
f 

ime f
r  ppic
i



he
s
vereig execu
ive p
wer, here



he ecessi
y is dmi

ed s 
excep
i



he geer  rue. Lucius Pi rius
he G
ver
r
f E ,
Sicii  g rris
, presumig up

his righ
, up
 receivig cer
i

if
rm
i

h

he ih bi

s h d f
rmed c
spir cy

rev


he C r
h gii s, pu

hem 


he sw
rd, d by
h
me s s ved

he p ce. Fr ciscus ic

ri 
ws
he ih bi

s
f

w


ke
up rms, eve wi
h
u
such c se
f ecessi
y,

redress
heir
w
wr
gs, which
he Price egec
s

vege, bu
such 
pii
 is
rejec
ed by

hers.

. Whe
her
he circums
ces, uder which sub
rdi
e m gis
r
es re
u
h
rised

use mii
ry f
rce, c  pr
pery be c ed pubic w r
r


, is m

er
f dispu
e m
g eg  wri
ers, s
me ffirmig d


hers deyig i
. If ideed we c  


her pubic w r, bu

h

which is m de by m gis
eri  u
h
ri
y,
here is 
d
ub
bu

h

such suppressi
s
f
umu
re pubic w rs, d
h
se wh
i such
c ses resis

he m gis
r
e i
he execu
i

f his
ffice, icur
he
gui

f rebei
 g is
superi
rs. Bu
if pubic w r is
ke i
he
higher sese
f FORMAL w r, s i
ud
ub
edy
f
e is;
h
se re 

pubic w rs; bec use

e
i
e
hem


he fu righ
s
f such,
he
dec r
i

f
he s
vereig p
wer d

her requisi
es re w 
ig.
N
r d

he 
ss
f pr
per
y d
he mii
ry execu
i
s,

which

he
ffeders re subjec

,
 ffec

he ques
i
.[12] F
r
h
se
c su 
ies re 

s
pecui ry

ched

f
rm  w r, s

be
excuded fr
m 

her kids. F
r i
m y h ppe, s i  ex
esive
empire f
r is
ce,
h
pers
s i sub
rdi
e u
h
ri
y, m y, whe

cked,
r
hre
eed wi
h

ck, h ve p
wers gr 
ed

c
mmece
mii
ry
per
i
s. I which c se
he w r mus
be supp
sed

c
mmece
by
he u
h
ri
y
f
he s
vereig p
wer; s pers
 is c
sidered

be
he u
h
r
f me sure which by vir
ue
f his u
h
ri
y he
emp
wers 

her

perf
rm. The m
re d
ub
fu p
i
is, whe
her, where

here is 
such c
mmissi
, c
jec

ure
f wh
is
he wi
f
he
s
vereig p
wer be sufficie
. This seems 

dmissibe. F
r i
is


sufficie


c
sider, wh
we supp
se w
ud be
he S
vereig's
pe sure, if he were c
su
ed; bu
wh
w
ud be his c
u  wi, i
m

ers dmi

ig
f
ime f
r deiber
i
, eve
h
ugh he were 

f
rm y c
su

ed; if  w w s

be p ssed up

h
se m

ers. "F
r

h
ugh UNDER SOME PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES, i

m y be ecess ry


w ive c
su
ig
he wi
f
he s
vereig, ye

his w
ud by 
me s
u
h
rise i
s GENERAL PRACTICE. F
r
he s fe
y
f
he s

e w
ud
be ed gered, if sub
rdi
e p
wers sh
ud usurp
he righ

f m kig
w r

heir discre
i
. I
w s 

wi
h
u
re s
,
h
Ceus M ius
w s ccused by his Lieu
e 
s
f h vig m de w r up

he G 
i s
wi
h
u
u
h
ri
y fr
m
he R
m  pe
pe. F
r
h
ugh
he G 
i s h d
suppied A
i
chus wi
h
r

ps, ye
s pe ce h d bee m de wi
h him, i

res
ed wi
h
he R
m  pe
pe, d 

wi
h M ius

de
ermie i wh

m er
he G 
i s sh
ud be puished f
r ssis
ig  eemy. C


pr
p
sed
h
Juius C es r sh
ud be deivered up


he Germ s f
r
h vig

cked
hem i vi

i

f his pr
mise, pr
p
s  pr
ceedig
r
her fr
m
he desire

be rid
f f
rmid be riv ,
h  fr
m y
pricipe
f jus
ice.
The c se w s
hus;
he Germ s h d ssis
ed
he G us, eemies
f

he R
m  pe
pe,
heref
re
hey h d 
re s


c
mp i
f
he
ijury d
e


hem, if
he w r g is

he G us, i which
hey h d
m de
hemseves p r
y c
cered, w s jus
. Bu
C es r
ugh


h ve
c

e
ed himsef wi
h drivig
he Germ s
u

f G u,
he pr
vice
ssiged him, wi
h
u
pursuig
hem i


heir
w c
u
ry, especi y
s
here w s 
f r
her d ger

be ppreheded fr
m
hem; uess he
h d firs
c
su
ed
he R
m  pe
pe. I
w s p i,
he,
he Germ s
h d 
righ


dem d
he surreder
f C es r's pers
,
h
ugh
he
R
m s h d righ


puish him f
r h vig exceeded his c
mmissi
. O
simi r
cc si

he C r
h gii s swered
he R
m s; "I
is 


he subjec

f iquiry whe
her H ib  h s besieged S gu
um, by his

w priv
e
r by pubic u
h
ri
y, bu
whe
her jus
y
r ujus
y. F
r
wi
h respec



e
f
ur
w subjec
s i
is
ur busiess

iquire
by wh
u
h
ri
y he h s c
ed; bu

he m

er
f discussi
 wi
h y
u
is, whe
her he h s br
ke y
re
y." Cicer
defeds
he c
duc

f
Oc
vius d Decimus Bru
us, wh
h d
ke up rms g is
A

y. Bu

h
ugh i
w s evide

h
A

y deserved

be
re
ed s  eemy,
ye

hey
ugh


h ve w i
ed f
r
he de
ermi
i

f
he Se
e d
pe
pe
f R
me, whe
her i
were f
r
he pubic i
eres





ke


ice
f his c
duc

r

puish i
,

gree


erms
f pe ce wi
h
him,
r

h ve rec
urse

rms. This w
ud h ve bee pr
per; f
r 


e is
biged

exercise
he righ

f puishig  eemy, if i
is

eded wi
h pr
b be d ger.
Bu
eve if i
h d bee judged expedie


dec re A

y  eemy,

he ch
ice
f
he pers
s

c
duc

he w r sh
ud h ve bee ef

he Se
e d pe
pe
f R
me. Thus whe C ssius dem ded ssis
ce
f

he Rh
di s, cc
rdig


re
y,
hey swered
hey w
ud sed i
,
if
he se
e
h
ugh
pr
per. This refu

i

f Cicer
's
pii
 wi
serve, 
g wi
h m y

her is
ces

be me
wi
h; s  dm
i
i





be c rried w y by
he
pii
s
f
he m
s
ceebr
ed wri
ers,
p r
icu ry
he m
s
brii 

r

rs, wh

f
e spe k

sui

he
circums
ces
f
he m
me
. Bu
 p
i
ic  ives
ig
i
 requires
c

 d s
e dy judgme
, 



be bi sed by ex mpes, which m y
r
her be excused
h  vidic
ed.
Sice
he i
h s re dy bee es
bished
h

w r c   wfuy be
m de bu
by
he s
vereig p
wer
f e ch s

e, i respec



he
ques
i
s c
ec
ed wi
h w r, i
wi be ecess ry

ex mie wh

h

s
vereig p
wer is, d wh
re

he pers
s
h
h
d i
.

I. The m
r  p
wer

he
f g
verig s

e, which is c ed by
Thucydides
he civi p
wer, is described s c
sis
ig
f
hree p r
s
which f
rm
he ecess ry subs
ce
f every s

e; d
h
se re
he
righ

f m kig i
s
w  ws, execu
ig
hem i i
s
w m er, d
pp
i
ig i
s
w m gis
r
es. Aris


e, i
he f
ur
h b

k
f his
P
i
ics, c
mprises
he s
vereig
y
f s

e i
he exercise
f
he
deiber
ive, execu
ive, d judici  p
wers. T

he deiber
ive
br ch he ssigs
he righ

f decidig up
 pe ce
r w r, m kig
r
uig
re
ies, d fr mig d p ssig ew  ws. T

hese he
dds
he p
wer
f ific
ig de
h, b ishme
, d f
rfei
ure, d

f puishig s
f
r pubic pecu
i
. I
he exercise
f judici 
p
wer, he icudes 


y
he puishme

f crimes d misdeme 
rs,
bu

he redress
f civi ijuries.[13] Di
ysius
f H ic r ssus,
p
i
s
u

hree dis
iguishig m rks
f s
vereig p
wer; d
h
se
re,
he righ

f pp
i
ig m gis
r
es,
he righ

f e c
ig d
repe ig  ws, d
he righ

f m kig w r d pe ce. T
which, i


her p r
, he dds
he dmiis
r
i

f jus
ice,
he supreme
u
h
ri
y i m

ers
f reigi
, d
he righ

f c ig geer 
c
ucis.
A
rue defii
i
 c
mpreheds every p
ssibe br ch
f u
h
ri
y
h

c  gr
w
u

f
he p
ssessi
 d exercise
f s
vereig p
wer. F
r

he ruer
f every s

e mus
exercise his u
h
ri
y ei
her i pers
,

r
hr
ugh
he medium
f

hers. His
w pers
  c
s mus
be ei
her
geer 
r speci . He m y be s id

d
GENERAL c
s i p ssig
r
repe ig  ws, respec
ig ei
her
emp
r  m

ers,
r spiri
u 
c
cers, s f r s
he 

er re
e


he wef re
f
he s

e. The
k
wedge
f
hese pricipes is c ed by Aris


e
he m s
erpiece i

he sciece
f g
verme
.

The p r
icu r c
s
f
he S
vereig re ei
her direc
y
f pubic

ure,
r priv
e, bu
eve
he 

er be r referece

his pubic
c p ci
y. N
w
he c
s
f
he s
vereig execu
ive p
wer
f direc
y
pubic kid re
he m kig
f pe ce d w r d
re
ies, d
he
imp
si
i

f
xes, d

her simi r exercises
f u
h
ri
y
ver
he
pers
s d pr
per
y
f i
s subjec
s, which c
s
i
u
e
he s
vereig
y

f
he s

e. Aris


e c s
he k
wedge
f
his pr c
ice p
i
ic 
d deiber
ive sciece.
The priv
e c
s
f
he s
vereig re
h
se, i which by his u
h
ri
y,
dispu
es be
wee idividu s re decided, s i
is c
ducive


he
pe ce
f s
cie
y
h

hese sh
ud be se

ed. This is c ed by

Aris


e
he judici  p
wer. Thus
he c
s
f
he s
vereig re
d
e i his  me by his m gis
r
es
r

her
fficers, m
g wh
m
mb ss d
rs re reck
ed. Ad i
he exercise
f 
h
se righ
s
s
vereig p
wer c
sis
s.

II. Th
p
wer is c ed s
vereig, wh
se c
i
s re 

subjec

he c

r
u
f y

her p
wer, s
s

be ued

he pe sure

f y

her hum  wi. The
erm ANY OTHER HUMAN WILL exemp
s
he
s
vereig himsef fr
m
his res
ric
i
, wh
m y u his
w c
s,
s m y s
his success
r, wh
ej
ys
he s me righ
, h vig
he s me
p
wer d 


her. We re

c
sider
he wh
is
he subjec
i
which
his s
vereig p
wer exis
s. N
w
he subjec
is i
e respec

c
mm
, d i 

her pr
per, s
he b
dy is
he c
mm
 subjec

f
sigh
,
he eye
he pr
per, s

he c
mm
 subjec

f s
vereig p
wer is

he s

e, which h s re dy bee s id

be perfec
s
cie
y
f me.
N
w
h
se 
i
s, wh
re i s

e
f subjug
i




her p
wer,
s
he R
m  pr
vices were, re excuded fr
m
his defii
i
. F
r

h
se 
i
s re 

s
vereig s

es
f
hemseves, i
he prese

ccep

i

f
he w
rd; bu
re sub
rdi
e members
f gre

s

e, s s ves re members
f h
useh
d. Ag i i
h ppes
h

m y s

es, f
rmig e ch  idepede
b
dy, m y h ve
e he d.
F
r p
i
ic  re 

ike 
ur  b
dies,


y
e
f which
he
s me he d c  be
g. Where s i
he f
rmer,
e pers
 c  exercise

he fuc
i

f
he he d

m y dis
ic
b
dies. As cer
i pr

f

f which, whe
he reigig h
use h s bec
me ex
ic
,
he s
vereig
p
wer re
urs


he h ds
f
he 
i
. S
i
m y h ppe,
h
m y
s

es m y be c
ec
ed

ge
her by
he c
ses
feder  ui
, which
S
r b
, i m
re p ces
h 
e c s sys
em, d ye
e ch re
i
he
c
di
i

f perfec
, idividu  s

e, which h s bee
bserved by
Aris


e d

hers i differe
p r
s
f
heir wri
igs. Theref
re

he c
mm
 subjec

f s
vereig p
wer is
he s

e,
ke i
he sese
re dy exp ied. The pr
per subjec
is
e
r m
re pers
s cc
rdig

he  ws d cus

ms
f e ch 
i
. This is c ed by G e i
he
six
h b

k DE PLACITIS HIPPOCRATE ET PLATONIS,
he firs
p
wer
f
he
s

e.

III. Ad here is
he pr
per p ce f
r refu
ig
he
pii

f
h
se,
wh
m i
i
h
, everywhere d wi
h
u
excep
i
,
he s
vereig
p
wer is ves
ed i
he pe
pe, s

h

hey h ve righ


res
r i
d puish kigs f
r  buse
f
heir p
wer. H
wever
here is 
m 

f s
ber wisd
m, wh
d
es 

see
he ic cu be mischiefs, which
such
pii
s h ve
cc si
ed, d m y s
i
cc si
; d up

he
f

wig gr
uds
hey m y be refu
ed.
Fr
m
he Jewish, s we s
he R
m  L w, i
ppe rs
h
y
e
migh
eg ge himsef i priv
e servi
ude

wh
m he pe sed. N
w if

  idividu  m y d
s
, why m y 

wh
e pe
pe, f
r
he beefi

f be

er g
verme
d m
re cer
i pr

ec
i
, c
mpe
ey
r sfer

heir s
vereig righ

s


e
r m
re pers
s, wi
h
u
reservig y
p
r
i



hemseves? Nei
her c  i
be eged
h
such
hig is




be presumed, f
r
he ques
i
 is 

, wh
is

be presumed
i d
ub
fu c se, bu
wh
m y  wfuy be d
e. N
r is i
y
m
re


he purp
se


bjec



he ic
veieces, which m y, d
c
u y d
rise fr
m pe
pe's
hus surrederig
heir righ
s. F
r
i
is 

i
he p
wer
f m 

devise y f
rm
f g
verme
free
fr
m imperfec
i
s d d gers. As dr m
ic wri
er s ys, "y
u mus

ei
her
ke
hese dv 
ges wi
h
h
se imperfec
i
s,
r resig y
ur
pre
esi
s

b

h."
N
w s
here re differe
w ys
f ivig, s
me
f w
rse, d s
me

f be

er kid, ef



he ch
ice
f every idividu ; s

i
,
"uder cer
i circums
ces, WHEN f
r is
ce,
he successi



he

hr
e is ex
ic
,
r
he
hr
e h s by y

her me s bec
me v c 
,"
m y chuse wh
f
rm
f g
verme
she pe ses. N
r is
his righ


be
me sured by
he exceece
f
his
r
h
f
rm
f g
verme
,
 which

here m y be v rie
ies
f
pii
, bu
by
he wi
f
he pe
pe.
There m y be m y re s
s ideed why pe
pe m y e
irey reiquish

heir righ
s, d surreder
hem



her: f
r is
ce,
hey m y
h ve 


her me s
f securig
hemseves fr
m
he d ger
f immedi
e
des
ruc
i
,
r uder
he pressure
f f mie i
m y be
he
y
w y,
hr
ugh which
hey c  pr
cure supp
r
. F
r if
he C mp i s,
f
rmery, whe reduced by ecessi
y surredered
hemseves


he R
m 
pe
pe i
he f

wig
erms:--"Se

rs
f R
me, we c
sig

y
ur
d
mii

he pe
pe
f C mp i , d
he ci
y
f C pu ,
ur  ds,

ur
empes, d 
higs b

h divie d hum ," d if 

her
pe
pe s Appi  re
es,
ffered

submi



he R
m s, d were
refused, wh
is
here

preve
y 
i
 fr
m submi

ig i
he
s me m er


e p
werfu s
vereig? I
m y s
h ppe
h
m s
er

f f miy, h vig  rge p
ssessi
s, wi suffer 

e

reside
up

hem
 y

her
erms,
r 
wer, h vig m y s ves, m y give

hem
heir iber
y up
 c
di
i

f
heir d
ig cer
i services, d
p yig cer
i re
s;
f which ex mpes m y be pr
duced. Thus T ci
us,
spe kig
f
he Germ  s ves, s ys, "E ch h s his
w sep r
e
h bi

i
, d his
w h
useh
d

g
ver. The m s
er c
siders him
s
e 
, b
ud

p y cer
i re
i c
r, c

e, d we rig
pp re. Ad
his is
he u
m
s
ex
e

f servi
ude."
Aris


e, i describig
he requisi
es, which fi
me f
r servi
ude,
s ys,
h
"
h
se me, wh
se p
wers re chiefy c
fied


he b
dy,
d wh
se pricip  exceece c
sis
s i ff
rdig b
diy service,
re 
ur y s ves, bec use i
is
heir i
eres


be s
." I
he
s me m er s
me 
i
s re
f such disp
si
i

h

hey re m
re
c cu
ed


bey
h 

g
ver, which seems

h ve bee
he
pii

which
he C pp d
ci s hed
f
hemseves, wh
whe
he R
m s
ffered

hem p
pu r g
verme

, refused

ccep
i
, bec use
he 
i


hey s id c
ud 

exis
i s fe
y wi
h
u
kig. Thus Phi
s
r
us
i
he ife
f Ap

ius, s ys,
h
i
w s f

ish


ffer iber
y

he Thr ci s,
he Mysi s, d
he Ge
e, which
hey were 

c p be
f ej
yig. The ex mpe
f 

i
s, wh
h ve f
r m y ges
ived h ppiy uder kigy g
verme
, h s iduced m y

give
he
preferece


h
f
rm. Livy s ys,
h

he ci
ies uder Eumees w
ud


h ve ch ged
heir c
di
i
 f
r
h

f y free s

e wh
s
ever.
Ad s
me
imes s

e is s
si
u
ed,
h
i
seems imp
ssibe i
c 
preserve i
s pe ce d exis
ece, wi
h
u
submi

ig


he bs
u
e
g
verme

f sige pers
, which m y wise me
h
ugh


be
he

c se wi
h
he R
m  Repubic i
he
ime
f Augus
us C es r. Fr
m

hese, d c uses ike

hese i



y m y, bu
geer y d
es
h ppe,
h
me, s Cicer

bserves i
he sec
d b

k
f his
ffices,
wiigy submi



he supreme u
h
ri
y
f 

her.
N
w s pr
per
y m y be cquired by wh
h s bee re dy s
yed jus

w r, by
he s me me s
he righ
s
f s
vereig
y m y be cquired. N
r
is
he
erm s
vereig
y here me 


be ppied

m
 rchy 
e,
bu


g
verme
by 
bes, fr
m y sh re i which
he pe
pe re
excuded. F
r
here ever w s y g
verme
s
purey p
pu r, s 

require
he excusi

f
he p

r,
f s
r gers, w
me, d mi
rs
fr
m
he pubic c
ucis. S
me s

es h ve

her 
i
s uder
hem,

ess depede
up

heir wi,
h  subjec
s up

h

f
heir
s
vereig prices. Fr
m whece r
se
h
ques
i
, Are
he C

ie
pe
pe i
heir
w p
wer? Ad
he C mp i s, whe
hey submi

ed

he R
m s, re s id

h ve p ssed uder f
reig d
mii
. I

he s me m er Ac r i d Amphi
chi re s id

h ve bee uder

he d
mii

f
he Ae

i s; Per e d C uus uder
h

f
he
Rh
di s; d Pyd w s ceded by Phiip


he Oy
hi s. Ad
h
se

ws,
h
h d bee uder
he Sp r
s, whe
hey were deivered fr
m

heir d
mii
, received

he  me
f
he free L c
i s. The ci
y
f
C

y
r is s id by Xe
ph


h ve be
ged


he pe
pe
f Si
pe.
Nice i I
y, cc
rdig

S
r b
, w s djudged


he pe
pe
f
M rseies; d
he is d
f Pi
hecus


he Ne p
i
s. We fid i
Fr

ius,
h

he

ws
f C 
i d C udium wi
h
heir
erri

ries
were djudged,
he
e


he c

y
f C pu , d
he

her


h

f Beeve
um. O
h
, s T ci
us re
es, g ve
he ci
ies
f
he M

rs

he Pr
vice
f B e
i . N
e
f
hese is
ces, y m
re
h 
he
cessi
s
f

her c
quered c
u
ries c
ud be dmi

ed, if i
were
received rue
h

he righ
s
f s
vereigs re uder
he c

r
u d
direc
i

f subjec
s.
N
w i
is p i b

h fr
m s cred d pr
f e his

ry,
h

here re
kigs, wh
re 

subjec



he c

r
u
f
he pe
pe i
heir
c
ec
ive b
dy; G
d ddressig
he pe
pe
f Isr e, s ys, if
h
u
sh 
s y, "I wi p ce kig
ver me"; d

S mue "Shew
hem
he
m er
f
he kig, wh
sh  reig
ver
hem." Hece
he Kig is s id

be 
i
ed
ver
he pe
pe,
ver
he iheri
ce
f
he L
rd,
ver
Isr e. S

m
 is s
yed Kig
ver  Isr e. Thus D vid gives
h ks

G
d, f
r subduig

he pe
pe uder him. Ad Chris
s ys, "
he Kigs

f
he 
i
s be r rue
ver
hem." There is we k
w p ss ge i
H
r ce, "P
werfu s
vereigs reig
ver
heir
w subjec
s, d
he
supreme beig
ver s
vereigs
hemseves." Seec
hus describes
he

hree f
rms
f g
verme

, "S
me
imes
he supreme p
wer is 
dged i

he pe
pe, s
me
imes i se
e c
mp
sed
f
he e dig me
f
he
s

e, s
me
imes
his p
wer
f
he pe
pe, d d
mii

ver
he pe
pe

hemseves is ves
ed i sige pers
." Of
he  s
descrip
i
 re

h
se, wh
, s Pu

rch s ys, exercise u
h
ri
y 

cc
rdig


he
 ws, bu

ver
he  ws. Ad i Her
d

us, O
es describes m
 rch
s
e wh
se c
s re 

subjec


c

r
u. Di
 Prus eesis s

d P us i s defie m
 rchy i
he s me
erms.
Aris


e s ys
here re s
me kigs, wh
h ve
he s me righ
, which
he

i
 esewhere p
ssesses
ver pers
s d pr
per
y. Thus whe
he
R
m  Prices beg 

exercise reg  p
wer,
he pe
pe i
w s s id
h d
r sferred 
heir
w pers
  s
vereig
y


hem, which g ve
rise


he s yig
f M rcus A

ius
he Phi
s
pher,
h


e
bu
G
d 
e c  be judge
f
he Price. Di
. L. iii. spe kig
f
such price, s ys, "he is perfec
y m s
er
f his
w c
i
s,

d

wh
ever he pe ses, d c 

be
biged

d
y
hig g is
his

wi." Such cie

y w s
he p
wer
f
he I chid e es
bished

Arg
s i Greece. F
r i

he Greek Tr gedy
f
he Suppi 
s, Aeschyus
h s i
r
duced
he pe
pe
hus ddressig
he Kig: "Y
u re
he
s

e, y
u
he pe
pe; y
u
he c
ur
fr
m which
here is 
ppe ,
y
u preside
ver
he 
rs, d regu
e  ff irs by y
ur supreme
wi." Kig Theseus himsef i Euripides spe ks i very differe

erms
f
he A
hei  Repubic; "The ci
y is 

g
vered by
e m ,
bu
i p
pu r f
rm, by  u  successi

f m gis
r
es." F
r
cc
rdig

Pu
rch's exp 
i
, Theseus w s
he geer  i w r,
d
he gu rdi 
f
he  ws; bu
i

her respec
s 

hig m
re

h  ci
ize. S

h

hey wh
re imi
ed by p
pu r c

r
u re
impr
pery c ed kigs. Thus f
er
he
ime
f Lycurgus, d m
re
p r
icu ry f
er
he is
i
u
i

f
he Eph
ri,
he Kigs
f
he
L ced em
i s re s id by P
ybius, Pu
rch, d C
reius Nep
s,

h ve bee Kigs m
re i  me
h  i re i
y. A ex mpe which w s
f

wed by
he res

f Greece. Thus P us i s s ys
f
he Argives

he C
ri
hi s, "The Argives fr
m
heir 
ve
f equ i
y h ve reduced

heir kigy p
wer very 
w; s

h

hey h ve ef

he p
s
eri
y
f
Cisus 

hig m
re
h 
he sh d
w
f Kigs." Aris


e deies such


be pr
per f
rms
f g
verme
, bec use
hey c
s
i
u
e
y p r

f
 Aris

cr cy
r Dem
cr cy.
Ex mpes s
m y be f
ud
f 
i
s, wh
h ve 

bee uder
perpe
u  reg  f
rm, bu

y f
r
ime uder g
verme
exemp

fr
m p
pu r c

r
u. Such w s
he p
wer
f
he Amim
i s m
g

he Cidi s, d
f
he Dic


rs i
he e ry peri
ds
f
he R
m 
his

ry, whe
here w s 
ppe 


he pe
pe, fr
m whece Livy s ys,

he wi
f
he Dic


r w s
bserved s  w. Ideed
hey f
ud
his
submissi

he
y remedy g is
immie
d ger, d i
he w
rds
f
Cicer
,
he Dic


rship p
ssessed 
he s
reg
h
f r
y  p
wer.
I
wi 

be difficu


refu
e
he rgume
s br
ugh
i f v
ur
f

he c

r ry
pii
. F
r i
he firs
p ce
he sser
i

h

he
c
s
i
ue
w ys re
is c

r
u
ver
he s
vereig p
wer, which
he h s c

ribu
ed

es
bish, is
y
rue i
h
se c ses where

he c

iu ce d exis
ece
f
h
p
wer depeds up

he wi d
pe sure
f
he c
s
i
ue
: bu


i c ses where
he p
wer,
h
ugh
i
migh
derive i
s
rigi fr
m
h
c
s
i
ue
, bec
mes ecess ry
d fud me
 p r

f
he es
bished  w. Of
his 
ure is
h

u
h
ri
y

which w
m  submi
s whe she gives hersef

husb d.
 e
ii 
he Emper
r, whe
he s
diers wh
h d r ised him


he

hr
e, m de dem d
f which he did 

ppr
ve, repied; "S
diers,
y
ur eec
i

f me f
r y
ur emper
r w s y
ur
w v
u
ry ch
ice; bu

sice y
u h ve eec
ed me, i
depeds up
 my pe sure

gr 
y
ur
reques
. I
bec
mes y
u


bey s subjec
s, d me

c
sider wh
is
pr
per

be d
e."
N
r is
he ssump
i

rue,
h
 kigs re m de by
he pe
pe,
s m y be p iy see fr
m
he is
ces dduced b
ve,
f 
wer
dmi

ig s
r gers

reside up
 his demeses
 c
di
i

f
heir

bediece, d
f 
i
s submi

ig by righ

f c
ques
. A

her
rgume
is derived fr
m s yig
f
he Phi
s
phers,
h

p
wer is c
ferred f
r
he beefi

f
he g
vered d 


f
he
g
verig p r
y. Hece fr
m
he 
beess
f
he ed, i
is supp
sed

f

w,
h
subjec
s h ve superi
ri
y
ver
he s
vereig. Bu
i

is 

uivers y
rue,
h
 p
wer is c
ferred f
r
he beefi

f
he p r
y g
vered. F
r s
me p
wers re c
ferred f
r
he s ke

f
he g
ver
r, s
he righ

f m s
er
ver s ve, i which

he dv 
ge
f
he 

er is
y c

ige
d dve
i
i
us
circums
ce. I
he s me m er
he g i
f Physici  is

rew rd

him f
r his  b
ur; d 

merey

pr
m

e
he g

d
f his r
.
There re

her kids
f u
h
ri
y es
bished f
r
he beefi

f
b

h p r
ies, s f
r is
ce,
he u
h
ri
y
f husb d
ver his
wife. Cer
i g
verme
s s
, s
h
se which re g ied by righ

f c
ques
, m y be es
bished f
r
he beefi

f
he s
vereig;
d ye
c
vey 
ide
f
yr y, w
rd which i i
s
rigi 
sigific
i
, impied 

hig
f rbi
r ry p
wer
r ijus
ice, bu

y
he g
verme

r u
h
ri
y
f Price. Ag i, s
me g
verme
s
m y be f
rmed f
r
he dv 
ge b

h
f subjec
s d s
vereig, s
whe pe
pe, u be

defed
hemseves, pu

hemseves uder

he pr

ec
i
 d d
mii

f y p
werfu kig. Ye
i
is 




be deied, bu

h
i m
s
g
verme
s
he g

d
f
he subjec
is

he chief
bjec
which is reg rded: d
h
wh
Cicer
h s s id
f
er Her
d

us, d Her
d

us f
er Hesi
d, is
rue,
h
Kigs were
pp
i
ed i
rder
h
me migh
ej
y c
mpe
e jus
ice.
N
w
his dmissi
 by 
me s g
es

es
bish
he iferece
h

kigs re me be


he pe
pe. F
r
h
ugh gu rdi ships were
ive
ed f
r
he beefi

f w rds, ye

he gu rdi  h s righ



u
h
ri
y
ver
he w rd. N
r,
h
ugh gu rdi  m y f
r mism  geme

be rem
ved fr
m his

rus
, d
es i
f

w
h
kig m y f
r
he s me
re s
 be dep
sed. The c ses re qui
e differe
,
he gu rdi  h s
superi
r

judge him; bu
i g
verme
s, s
here mus
be s
me
derier res
r
, i
mus
be ves
ed ei
her i  idividu ,
r i s
me
pubic b
dy, wh
se misc
duc
, s
here is 
superi
r
ribu  bef
re
which
hey c  be c ed, G
d dec res
h
he himsef wi judge. He
ei
her puishes
heir
ffeces, sh
ud he deem i
ecess ry;
r permi
s

hem f
r
he ch s
iseme

f his pe
pe.
This is we expressed by T ci
us: he s ys, "y
u sh
ud be r wi
h

he r p ci
y
r uxury
f ruers, s y
u w
ud be r wi
h dr
ugh
,

r excessive r is,
r y

her c  mi
ies
f 
ure. F
r s 
g
s me exis

here wi be f u
s d imperfec
i
s; bu

hese re



f ui
errup
ed c

iu ce, d
hey re
f
e rep ired by

he successi

f be

er
imes." Ad M rcus Aureius spe kig
f
sub
rdi
e m gis
r
es, s id,
h

hey were uder
he c

r
u
f

he s
vereig: bu

h

he s
vereig w s me be

G
d. There
is rem rk be p ss ge i Greg
ry
f T
urs, where
h
Bish
p
hus
ddresses
he Kig
f Fr ce, "If y
f us, Sir, sh
ud
r sgress
he
b
uds
f jus
ice, he m y be puished by y
u. Bu
if y
u exceed
hem,
wh
c  c  y
u

cc
u
? F
r whe we ddress y
u, y
u m y he r us
if y
u pe se; bu
if y
u wi 

, wh
c  judge y
u, excep
him, wh

h s dec red himsef

be righ
e
usess?" Am
g
he m xims
f
he
Essees, P
rphyry ci
es p ss ge,
h
"

e c  reig wi
h
u

he
speci  pp
i
me

f divie pr
videce." Ire eus h s expressed
his
we, "Kigs re pp
i
ed by him
wh
se c
mm d me re cre
ed; d

heir pp
i
me
is sui
ed


he c
di
i

f
h
se, wh
m
hey re
c ed

g
ver." There is
he s me
h
ugh
i
he C
s
i
u
i
s
f
Ceme
, "Y
u sh  fe r
he Kig, f
r he is
f
he L
rd's pp
i
me
."
N
r is i

bjec
i


wh
h s bee s id,
h
s
me 
i
s h ve
bee puished f
r
he
ffeces
f
heir kigs; f
r
his d
es 

h ppe, bec use

hey f
rbe r

res
r i
heir kigs, bu
bec use
hey
seem

give,
e s

ci
c
se



heir vices,
r perh ps,
wi
h
u
respec



his, G
d m y use
h
s
vereig p
wer which he h s

ver
he ife d de
h
f every m 

ific
puishme
up

he
kig by deprivig him
f his subjec
s.
IX. There re s
me wh
fr me  im gi ry kid
f mu
u  subjec
i
,
by which
he pe
pe re b
ud


bey
he kig, s 
g s he g
vers

we; bu
his g
verme
is subjec



heir ispec
i
 d c

r
u.
If
hey were

s y
h
his du
y


he s
vereig d
es 


bige y

e

d
 c
m ifes
y ujus
d repug 



he  w
f G
d;

hey w
ud s y 

hig bu
wh
is
rue d uivers y dmi

ed, bu

his by 
me s icudes righ

y c

r
u
ver
he Price's
c
duc
i his  wfu g
verme
. Bu
if y pe
pe h d
he
pp
r
ui
y

f dividig
he s
vereig p
wer wi
h
he kig,
he privieges
f
he

e, d
he prer
g
ives
f
he

her
ugh


be defied by cer
i
b
uds, which migh
e siy be k
w, cc
rdig


he differece
f
p ces, pers
s,
r circums
ces.
N
w
he supp
sed g

d
r evi
f y c
, especi y i p
i
ic 
m

ers which dmi

f gre
v rie
y
f
pii
s d much discussi
,
is 

sufficie
m rk

scer
i
hese b
uds. Fr
m whece
he
gre
es
c
fusi
 mus
f

w, if uder pre
ece
f pr
m

ig g

d

r ver
ig evi me sures,
he pe
pe migh
s
rugge f
r
he Price's
jurisdic
i
:
urbue
s

e
f ff irs, which 
s
ber mided
pe
pe ever wished

experiece.
X. Af
er refu
ig f se
pii
s, i
rem is

ppy s
me c u
i
s,
which m y p
i

u

he w y

scer
i c
rrec
y
he pers


wh
m
s
vereig p
wer, i every s

e,
f righ
be
gs. The firs
c u
i

ecess ry is

v
id beig deceived by mbigu
us
erms,
r ppe r ces
f
reig


he re  subjec
. F
r is
ce, m
g
he L
is, 
h
ugh

he
erms PRINCIPALITY d KINGDOM re geer y
pp
sed

e ch


her, whe C es r s ys,
h

he f
her
f ercige

rix hed
he
pricip i
y
f G u, d w s pu


de
h f
r imig
s
vereig
p
wer; d whe Pis
, i T ci
us c s Germ icus
he s

f R
m 
Price, 


f P r
hi  Kig; d whe Sue

ius s ys,
h
C igu
w s

he p
i

f c
ver
ig
he p
wer
f price i


h

f
kig; d eeius sser
s
h
M r
b
duus 

c

e
ed wi
h
he
u
h
ri
y
f price
ver v
u
ry dhere
s d depede
s, w s
gr spig i his mid
reg  p
wer; ye
we fid
hese
erms
h
ugh
i re i
y very dis
ic
were
f
e c
f
uded. F
r
he L ced em
i 
chiefs,
he desced 
s
f Hercues,
h
ugh subjec



he c

r
u

f
he Eph
ri, were ever
heess c ed kigs: d T ci
us s ys,

h
m
g
he cie
Germ s
here were kigs, wh
g
vered m
re
by
he ifuece
f persu si

h  by
he u
h
ri
y
f p
wer. Livy

, spe kig
f kig Ev der, describes him s reigig m
re by

pers
  u
h
ri
y
h  by his reg  p
wer; d Aris


e, P
ybius,
d Di
d
rus give
he  mes
f Kigs


he Suffe
es
r Judges
f

he C r
h gii s. I
he s me m er S
ius s
c s H 
Kig

f
he C r
h gii s. S
r b
spe ks
f Scepsis i Tr
s,
h
h vig
ic
rp
r
ed
he Miesi s i


he s

e, i
f
rmed i
sef i


Dem
cr cy, e vig
he desced 
s
f
he cie
kigs
he
i
e, d
s
me
hig
f
he digi
y
f kigs.
O
he

her h d,
he R
m  emper
rs, f
er
hey h d exercised
pey,
d wi
h
u
y disguise, m
s
bs
u
e m
 rchic  p
wer, were


wi
hs
dig c ed Prices. Ad i s
me p
pu r s

es
he chief
m gis
r
es re gr ced wi
h esigs
f r
y 
y.
Ag i
he s

es geer ,
h
is
he c
ve
i

f
h
se wh
represe

he pe
pe, divided i

c sses cc
rdig

Gu
her, c
sis

f
hree

rders, which re
he Pre
es,
he N
bes, d Depu
ies
f  rge

ws. I s
me p ces,
hey serve s gre
er c
uci


he kig,


c
mmuic
e

him
he c
mp i
s
f his pe
pe, which migh


herwise
be kep
fr
m his e rs; e vig him

he s me
ime fu iber
y


exercise his
w discre
i
 up

he m

ers s
c
mmuic
ed. Bu
i


her p ces
hey f
rm b
dy wi
h p
wer

iquire i


he price's

me sures, d

m ke  ws.
M y
hik
h
i
rder

k
w whe
her price be s
vereig
r 

,
i
is pr
per

iquire whe
her his
i
e


he cr
w is by eec
i


r iheri
ce. F
r
hey m i
i
h
heredi
ry m
 rchies 
e
re s
vereig. Bu

his c 

be received s geer  cri
eri
.
F
r s
vereig
y c
sis
s 

merey i
he TITLE


he
hr
e, which

y impies
h

he success
r h s righ



he privieges d
prer
g
ives
h
his ces

rs ej
yed, bu
i
by 
me s ffec
s
he

ure
r ex
e

f his p
wers. F
r righ

f eec
i
 c
veys 
he
p
wers, which
he firs
eec
i

r pp
i
me
c
ferred. Am
g
he
L ced em
i s
he cr
w w s heredi
ry eve f
er
he is
i
u
i

f

he Eph
ri. Ad Aris


e describig
he chief p
wer
f such s

e,
s ys, "Of
hese kigd
ms, s
me re heredi
ry, d

hers eec
ive."
I
he her
ic
imes m
s

f
he kigd
ms i Greece were
f
his
descrip
i
, s we re if
rmed by Thucydides. The R
m  empire,

he
c

r ry, eve f
er
he p
wer
f
he Se
e d pe
pe w s b
ished,
w s give
r c
firmed by eec
i
.
XI. A

her c u
i
 is ecess ry. F
r

iquire i


he m

er
f
righ
is 


he s me
hig s

ex mie
he 
ure
f i
s
eure. A
dis
ic
i
 which
kes p ce 


y i c
rp
re  bu
i ic
rp
re 
p
ssessi
s. F
r righ

f p ss ge
r c rri ge
hr
ugh gr
ud is

ess righ

h 
h
which e
i
es m 


he p
ssessi

f

he  d i
sef. N
w s
me h
d
hese privieges by fu righ

f
pr
per
y, s
me by  usufruc
u ry, d

hers by
emp
r ry righ
.
Thus
he R
m  Dic


r h d s
vereig p
wer by
emp
r ry righ
. I

he s me m er kigs, b

h
h
se wh
re
he firs

f
heir ie
eec
ed


he
hr
e, d
h
se wh
succeed
hem i
he  wfu
rder,
ej
y  usufruc
u ry righ
,
r i ie be righ
. Bu
s
me s
vereigs
h
d
heir p
wer by pe ry righ

f pr
per
y; whe f
r is
ce i

c
mes i


heir p
ssessi
 by
he righ

f  wfu c
ques
,
r whe
pe
pe,

v
id gre
er evis, m ke  uqu ified surreder
f

hemseves d
heir righ
s i


heir h ds.
The
pii

f
h
se c  ever be sse
ed

, wh
s y
h

he p
wer

f
he Dic


r w s 

s
vereig, bec use i
w s 

perm e
. F
r i

he m
r  w
rd
he 
ure
f
higs is k
w fr
m
heir
per
i
s.
The p
wers

eded wi
h equ  effec
s re e
i
ed

equ   mes.
N
w
he Dic


r f
r
he
ime beig perf
rmed  c
s wi
h
he s me
u
h
ri
y s
he m
s
bs
u
e s
vereig; 
r c
ud y

her p
wer
u his c
s. The perm ece
heref
re
f ucer
i
y 
ers 


he

ure
f righ
, 
h
ugh i
w
ud ud
ub
edy bridge i
s digi
y,
d dimiish i
s sped
ur.[14]

BOOK II.

CHAPTER I.
DEFENCE OF PERSON AND PROPERTY.
C uses
f W r--Defece
f pers
 d pr
per
y--Wh
re c ed
jus
ifi be c uses
f w r--Jus
ifi be c uses
f W r re
Defece, rec
very
f
e's pr
per
y
r deb
,
r
he puishme


f
ffeces c
mmi

ed--W r f
r defece
f ife, jus

ifi be, d
 wfu--This kid
f w r  wfu g is
 ggress
r
y--The
d ger mus
be prese
d re , 

 im gi ry d ger--L wfu

ki y
e

emp
ig

m im
e's pers
,
r vi

e
e's
ch s
i
y--Occ si
s where
his righ
m y be  wfuy w ved--This
righ


be w ved p r
icu ry wi
h respec



he pers

f
he
S
vereig, which is s cred d ivi
 be--H
micide i defece
f

e's pr
per
y 
wed by
he  w
f 
ure--H
w f r h
micide is
permi

ed by
he  w
f M
ses--Sef-defece i pubic w r--N

 wfu

ck y p
wer s
ey
 cc
u

f i
s icre sig
gre
ess--The h
s
ie me sures
f  ggress
r, 



be
jus
ified

he pe
f sef-defece.
I. The c uses
f w r by which re me 

he jus
ifi be c uses, re

w

be c
sidered. F
r i s
me c ses m

ives
f i
eres

per
e
dis
ic
y fr
m m

ives
f jus
ice. P
ybius ccur
ey dis
iguishes

hese m

ives fr
m e ch

her, d fr
m
he begiig
f
he w r,
r

h
which g ve
cc si



he firs
c
s
f h
s
ii
y; s w s
he
c se whe Asc ius w
uded
he s
g, which g ve rise


he w r be
wee
Turus d Aee s. Bu

h
ugh
here is  c
u  dis
ic
i
 be
wee

he jus
ifi be c uses,
he pre
ex
s, d
he begiig
f w r; ye

he
erms used

express
hem re
f
e c
f
uded. F
r wh
we c 
jus
ifi be c uses, Livy, i
he speech which he h s pu
i


he m
u
h

f
he Rh
di s, c s begiigs. The Rh
di  depu
ies s id, "Y
u
R
m s pr
fess

beieve
h
y
ur w rs re successfu, bec use
hey
re jus
; 
r d
y
u b
s
s
much
f
heir vic

ri
us issue, s
f

he jus
pricipes, up
 which y
u m ke
hem." I which sese Aei 
s
yes
hem { h s
m} d Di
d
us Siuus,
i s  kig
f th 
f th L d m
i s g ist th E s givs
thm th  m
f {proph e} nd { h s}.
Th ii  d ift
f
u gumt sts u
 ths justifi b
 uss, t
hih th stimt
f C
i
 us i Di
ysius
f
H i  ssus, tiu y is, h s ys, "i th fi st  , I
bsh y
u t

sid h
 y
u m y fid i
us d just txts f

th  ." Ad Dm
sths i his s
d Oythi , m ks simi

bs v ti
, "I thik, _s ys h_, th t s i shi ,
h
us,
y

th f b i, th 
st ts
ught t
b th st
gst; s
i 

iti  m su s th m
tivs d txts
ught t
b  id d y
i th ii s
f t uth d justi." Th f

ig  gu g
f
Di
 C ssius is 
ss i b t
th qusti
. "Justi must b
m d th ii  g
ud
f
u ti
s. F
ith suh su
t th 
is th bst h

f suss t

u ms. But ith
ut th t, y
it
hih m y b g id f
th m
mt h s 
fi m g
ud t
st u
."
T
hih m y b ddd, th 
ds
f Ci
, h
m it is th
s  s
t
b ujust, hih  m d ith
ut suffiit  us. Ad i 
th
 , h 
vs C ssus f
h vig itdd t
ss th Eu h ts,
h th   s 
 us
f  . Whih is 
ss t u
f ubi th 
f
iv t  s. H 
m th 
m  its
f S , "Why d
 st i
h
miid, d th mu d
f idividu s, but g
y i th  im
f
s ught , hih dst
ys h
  ti
s? Av i d  uty k
 
t
y b
uds. By d s
f th S t, d
f th 
  u ts 
uth
izd, d m su s, hih  u sud by
d
f th st t, 
f
bidd t
idividu s." W s idd ud t k by ubi uth
ity
 ttdd ith  t i ffts
f ight, d h v th s ti

f

ii
 i thi f v
u . But thy  
t th ss  imi , h m d
ith
ut just  us. F
hih  s
 Ax d  s 
t im
 y
styd
bb by th Sythi  mb ss d
s, s m y b s i Quitus
Cu tius. S d Lu  giv him th s m  ti
; th Idi 

s gs   him m dm ; d i t
 sumd t
k him ith

his
  ss. Justi s  ks
f Phii i th s m t ms, h
, _s ys
h_, i didig dis ut bt t
iv  kigs, st i d b
th

f thi d
mii
s ith  th t  h y d vi

f
bb .
Augusti h s  tit m k
 this subjt. H s ys, h t 
ujusty qui d d
mii
s, but th s
is
f
bb y? I th s m
st i, L t tius s ys, "M,  tiv td ith th  s
f v i
g
y, giv th  ms
f vi tus t
thi  ims." Iju y,
th
vti

f iju y f
ms th
y justifi b  us
f  . "Ad, _i
th  gu g
f th s m Augusti_,  th vi 
squs
f 
 t
b  id t th d


f th gg ss
." Thus th R
m  H d i
d ti

f  m ks s
m   g ist th gg ss
, s
h vig vi
 td th  s
f  ti
s, d fusd
 s tisf ti
.
II. Th g
uds
f   s um
us s th
s
f judii  ti
s.
F
h  th

f    ss, th   bgis. N
 th  
mth
ds i   t
vt itdd iju is, s  s ti
s f

th
s tu y 
mmittd. F
CIIL INJURIES v i
us mth
ds
f
d ss,
vti
 
itd by th  ; d by th s m

 su itis 
vidd t
vt th 
mmissi

f  ims d
misdm 
s. I ivi  ss, th ty gg ivd m y 
v d m gs
f
th iju is sust id; d i  ims, hih 
ffs g ist
th ubi, th gg ss
must submit t
tu  uishmt. P t
, i
his ith b

k
  s, v y
 y m ks th s m distiti
, s
H
m h d d
 bf
 him.
N
  ti

idmity  ts t
h t ith d
s
did b
g
t
us; hih givs is t
  d  s
  ti
s. Ths s t i

u ight t
th d m gs, hih 
u du, ith f
m  g mt,

f
m  iju y ivd. A ight hih is t md i   ight by

t t,
iju y. C ims, hih 
ffs g ist s
ity, 

sutd by iditmt, th t is by  us ti
 i th  m
f th
s
v ig.
Th justifi b  uss g y ssigd f
  th , df,
idmity, d uishmt,  hih  
m isd i th d ti


f C mius g ist th G us, um tig  thigs, hih it is
ight t
dfd, t

v , d th 
hmt
 hih it is ight
t
uish.
Th  is 
missi
 i this um ti
, uss th 
d 
v b
t k i its m
st xtsiv ss. F

v ig by  h t  h v

st, iuds idmity f
th st, s  s th
suti

f

u  im t
dbt. P t
h s 
t
mittd t

ti this distiti
,
f
h h s s id, "th t  s  m d t
uish 
t
y
ssi



bb y, but s
f ud d d ti
." With h
m S g s; f

t

mm d ymt
f h t y
u
, h  s, "  quit b st,
st m d ith th uth
ity
f th  
f  ti
s." Idd th f
m
hih  s s ibd f
th R
m  h ds t
us i d ti
s

f  , b s x ty th s m im
t. F
th i th gg ss
is
h gd ith h vig ith giv, id, 
d
 h t  s du. S ust
i

f his f gmts, h s m d T ibu, i his h gu t
th

, s y, "As fi  sttmt
f  disussi
s, I dm d
stituti
 
dig t
th  
f  ti
s."
St. Augusti, i dfiig th
s t
b just  s, hih  m d t

vg iju is h s t k th 
d vg i g  ss
f
m
vig d vtig, s  s uishig gg ssi
s. This  s
t
b his m ig f
m th f

ig st
f th ss g, i hih
h d
s 
t um t th tiu ts, hih m
ut t
iju y,

but dds, by  y
f iust ti
, th t "th st t
 ti
, hih

h s gtd t
uish th gg ssi
s
f its
 subjts,
t

m k  ti
 f
th 
sss
 si
d by th
s gg ssi
s, is


bjt
f h
stiity d tt k." P
m td by this  tu 
k
dg
f ight d 
g, th Idi  Kig, s   if
md by
Di
d
us, usd Smi mis
f h vig 
mmd  g ist him ith
ut
h vig ivd y iju y. Thus th R
m s x
stu td ith th
S
s, th t thy
ught 
t t
tt k 
 h
h d giv thm 


v
 ti
. A ist
t i th s
d b

k d s
d h t
f his
A ytis, s ys,  g y is m d u
 th
s h
h v fi st d

 iju y. Quitus Cu tius ds ibs th Abi  Sythi s, s th bst
qu itd ith th ii s
f justi
f y
f th B b i s. F

thy did h vig 
u s t
ms, uss
v
kd by gg ssi
.
A just  us th
f  is  iju y, hih th
ugh 
t tu y

mmittd, th  ts
u  s
s

 ty ith d g .
III. It h s   dy b
vd th t h
u ivs  th  td ith
immdi t d g , it is  fu t
ki th gg ss
, if th d g
 
t
th is b v
idd:  ist , s it h s b sh,

hih th justi
f iv t  sts. W must
bs v th t this kid

f df d ivs its
igi f
m th ii 
f sf- s v ti
,
hih  tu  h s giv t
v y ivig   tu , d 
t f
m th
ijusti
mis
dut
f th gg ss
. Wh f
 th
ugh h m y b

f guit, s f
ist  s
di i tu  s vi, mist kig
my  s
 f
th t
f 
th ,
m dm  i his f zy,
m 
 kig i his s , 

f ths  ss d iv m
f th ight
f
sf-df g ist th
s  s
s. F
I m 
t b
ud t
submit t
th
d g
mishif itdd, y m
 th  t
x
s mysf t
th
tt ks
f id b st.
I. It dmits
f s
m d
ubt, hth th
s, h
uitti
 y

bst ut
u df,
s , hih  ss y t

u
s v ti
, m y b  fuy m imd
kid. Th   s
m, v
Th

gi s, h
thik thy m y. Ad,  t iy if  

k t
th  

f  tu  
, 
dig t
its ii s,
u
 s v ti

sh
ud h v muh m
 ight ith us, th  th f 
f s
ity. But
th  
f h ity, s i y th v gi   , hih h s ut
u
ighb
u u
 v ith
u svs, d
s 
t  mit it.
Th
m s Aqui s, if t k i ight ss, h s justy
bs vd, th t i
tu  sf-df 
m    b s id t
b u
sy kid. Idd,
it m y s
m tims h  th t th  is 

th  y f
 s
 t

s v himsf, th  by dsigdy d
ig  t, by hih th d th
f
 gg ss
must ivit by su. Yt h  th d th
f y
  s

t th im y
bjt itdd, but m 
yd s th
y m s
f
su ity, hih th m
mt su id. Sti it is btt f
th ty
ss utd, if h   s fy d
it, t
 
dis b th gg ss

th  t
shd his b

d.

. Th d g must b immdi t, hih is
 ss y
it. Th
ugh

it must b 
fssd, th t h  ss i t sizs y 
 ith 
t itti
 t
ki m I h v ight t
tii t d vt
th d g . F
i th m
 s  s th  tu  systm
f thigs,
th  is 

it ith
ut s
m b  dth. But thy  thmsvs muh
mist k, d mis d
th s, h
m it i th t y dg 
f f

ught t
b g
ud f
kiig 
th , t
vt his SUPPOSED
itti
. It is v y just
bs v ti
 m d by Ci
i his fi st
b

k
f Offis, th t m y 
gs
d f
m f ; s h th
 s
, h
itds t
hu t 
th , hds s
m d g t
himsf
uss h t

k th t mth
d. C hus, i X
h
, s ys, I h v k


s
m m, h
ty th
ugh mis  st ti
, d ty th
ugh

sus ii
, d  dig
 
th , i
d t
vt th su
sd
itti
s
f thi dv s is, h v 
mmittd th m
st 
m
us
 utis g ist th
s h
ith dsigd, 
ishd thm y h m.
C t
i his s h f
th Rh
di s, s ys, "A   t
vt thm by
d
ig fi st, h t  s y thy itdd t
d
t
us?" O this subjt
th  is m k b ss g i Auus Gius, "Wh G di t

 s t
t th ists f

mb t, suh is his 
t th t h must
ith ki his dv s y,
b kid himsf. But th if
f m  is

t i ums ibd by th h d t ms
f suh 
v - uig ssity,
s t

big him t
d
 iju y t
vt him f
m ivig
."
Quitii  h s qu
td ss g f
m Ci
, h i th
t
sks,
"Wh
v m d suh disi
,
t
h
m 
ud suh
it b yidd
ith
ut th m
st immit d g , th t y
u h v ight t
ki th
 s
, by h
m y
u s y, y
u f th t y
u sh  ft  ds b kid
y
u sf?" T
hih this ss g
f Eu i ids, m y b id, "If y
u
husb d, s y
u s y, itdd t
h v kid y
u, y
u
ught t
h v
 itd, ti h tu y did m k th ttm t." C
f
m by t
hih
Thuydids, i th fi st b

k
f his hist
y, h s x ssd himsf i
th f

ig t ms, "Th issu
f  is u t i, 

ught  t

b s
f t s
td by
u f s, s t
g g i immdi t d

h
stiitis." Th s m  it t

i his umi
us ds i ti

f th
d g
us f ti
s, th t h d is i th G i  st ts, 
dms th

b ti
 bst
d
 th  s
, th t iju d
dst
yd 
th
f
m h
m h himsf hdd iju y
dst uti
."
Livy s ys, "M, t
gu d g ist thi  ms, m k thmsvs
bjts

f t
; v tig th d g f
m thi
 h ds, by im
sig u


th s th ssity
f ith d
ig
suff ig th vi hih thy
thmsvs f ." ibius skd  s
, th t  d md i th
f
um, "Wh
g v y
u  missi
 t
sh y
u f i this m  ?" A
qusti
 
t i i b t
th st subjt, d muh 
mmdd
by Quitii . Livi s
i Di
 s ys, th t g  t if my d
uds t

th
s, h
by tii ti
  t t th  imi  t, hih thy f .
N
 if y
 itd 
immdi t vi
, but is f
ud t
h v
f
md 
s i y t
dst
y m by ss ssi ti
,

is
,
by
f s us ti
,  ju y,
sub
d itsss, I h v 
ight t

ki him. F
my k
dg
f th d g m y vt it. O v if
it   vidt th t I 
ud 
t v
id th d g ith
ut kiig
him; this 
ud 
t st bish my ight t
d
s
. F
th  is v y
sum ti
 th t my k
ig it i  d m t
y f
th g 
mdis
f vti
.

I. d II. Th xt thig t
b 
sid d is, h t must b s id u


th muti ti

f imb. N
, s th 
ss
f imb, s i y th t

f ii  imb i th b
dy, is g iv
us dt imt, d  y
qu  t
th 
ss
f if, t
hih m y b ddd th
b biity
f
d th suig f
m suh   mity; th  fuss
f kiig y
,
h
m ks suh  ttm t, if th d g  
t
th is b v
idd,
s  dmits
f d
ubt. Nith is th  y m
 diffiuty i

ig th s m ight f
th  s
  df
f h stity, th
s v ti

f hih, b
th i th 
mm
 stim ti

f m, d by
th divi  , is dmd
f qu  v u ith if itsf. W h v 
x m 
f this i Ci
, Quitii , d Put h, i th  s


f

f M ius's t ibus, h
 s kid by s
di . Am
g th
ti
s
f 
m, h
h v dfdd thmsvs, Hi
d
us 
ds th t

f H  , hih h  s just df
f h iju d h

u .

III. Th
ugh s
m, s it h s b   dy s id, dmit th  fuss
f

kiig th  s
, h
ttm ts ith
 vi
 t
dst
y
's
if, yt thy dm it m
 
mmd b t
s  th if
f 
th ,
v t th h z d
f
's
. Yt t
 s
s, i h
s s v ti

th ubi it st is iv
vd, thy i g t  xm ti
 f
m
this u
f f
b . Idd it sms us f t
im
s u
 ANY,
h
s ivs 
f im
t  t

th s, u
f f
b  s


t y t
 th ii s
f   . This xm ti
 th f

must b 
d t
 vstd ith y ubi
ffi, hih m ks thm
s
sib f
th s fty
f
th s; s th g s h

dut
mis,
th u s
f th st t, d m y
th s i simi
situ ti
s; t
h
m m y b id th is
f Lu --"Wh th ivs
d s fty
f s
m y  ti
s d d u
 y
u s, d s
g  t
ti


f th 
d h s h
s y
u f
its h d; it is  uty t
x
s
y
u sf ifuy t
d th."
IX. O th
th h d it m y h , th t th gg ss
m y b

h
s  s
 is d d s  d d ivi
 b by  divi, hum ,
d  tu   s; hih is th  s ith s t t
th  s

f
th S
v ig. F
th  
f  tu  g ds 
t
y th ii s

f STRICT JUSTICE, but 
m iss
th vi tus s
, s tm  ,
f
titud, d dis ti
, m kig th
bs v 
f thm i  t i
 ss, bidig s  s h

u b. T

bs v ths   b
ud
s
by th  
f h ity.
N
is th t uth
f this gumt t   kd by h t  squz
h s dv d, h
m it is th t th S
v ig h
ttm ts th if

f  idividu  
ss, i  ity, th h t
f S
v ig:
d
t i f ught ith qu  bsu dity d d g . F
s
v igty
 
t y m
 th 
 ty b f
fitd by y tiu t
f
diquy; uss it h s b vi
usy d x ssy s
 td by
th fud mt   s
f th st t. F
suh u
f f
fitu , hih

ud b
dutiv
f uiv s   hy d 
fusi
, v h s b,

v i b st bishd m
g y iviizd 
. F
th m xim,
"th t  g
v mt is f md f
th bfit
f th subjt d 
t

f th S
v ig," hih  squz d m y
th  it s  y d
 s
fud mt   , th
ugh it m y b g y t u i th
y, is by 

m s i b t
th qusti
. F
thig 
ss 
t its xist,
by 
sig s
m t
f its utiity. N
is th  suffiit 
sisty
i his
bs v ti
, th t v y idividu  dsi s th s fty
f th

mm
 th
 his
 
ut, d th f
 v y

ught t

f his
 s fty t
th t
f th h
 st t. F
 ish f
th
ubi f  
t

u
 
ut 
, but s
f
th s k
f

th s.
Th
ii

f th
s h
thik th t f idshi iss f
m ssity

, is jtd s f s, by th m
 s
ud Phi
s
h s; s  f
s
t 
us d  tu  ii ti
 t
 ds f idy it 
u s.
Ch ity idd
ft  su ds, d i s
m ist s 
mm ds us t

f th g

d
f m y t

u
 sig dv t g. T
hih th
f

ig ss g f
m S is v y i b. "It is 
t su isig
th t is, d kigs,
h tv  m th gu di s
f th ubi
f  m y b , sh
ud b 
vd ith v ti
 d ffti
, f
by
d th
s
f iv t f idshi . F
 m
f s
b judgmt, d
 gd if
m ti
 dm th ubi it st
f high m
mt th 
thi
. Thi tt hmt th f
 must b  mst t
th  s


h
m th  big d
s  ity
f th st t d ds." Ad t
th
s m fft, St. Amb
s i his thi d b

k
f Offis, s ys, "v y
m  fs g  t dight i v tig ubi th  iv t d g ."
S , th  it   dy qu
td,
dus t
ist s, th

f

C ist tus t Aths, d th
th
f Rutiius t R
m, h
fusd

t
b st
d f
m b ishmt thikig it btt f
t
idividu s
t
suff h dshi , th  f
th ubi t
b ugd it
  mitis.
XI.[15] Th xt
bjt t
b 
sid d,  ts t
iju is fftig

u
 ty. I st it justi, it  
t b did th t  h v
ight t
ki
bb , if suh st is ivit by ss y t
th
s v ti

f
u
 ty. F
th diff  bt th v u
f
if d
 ty is
v b  d by th h

hih
bb xits,
d by th f v
u b ii ti
 ft by  m t
 ds th iju d
d i
t. F
m h it f

s, th t g dig th t ight 
,

bb m y b 
udd
kid i his fight ith th
 ty, if
it  
t
th is b 
v d. Dm
sths i his s h g ist
A ist
 ts, x ims, "By  th t is s  d, is it 
t d  dfu
d
 vi
 ti

f  , 
t
y
f  itt  , but
f th t  
hih is th u itt u
f  m, t
b db d f
m th ight

f usig f
 g ist th
bb s  s g ist th my; h

is ud ig y
u
 ty?" N
is it f
bidd by th  ts

f h ity, t f
m  
sid ti

f divi d hum   ,
uss h  th
 ty is
f itt v u, d b th 
ti; 
x ti
, hih s
m  it s h v v y
 y ddd.
XII. Th ss
f th Jish  
 this
it is 
 t
b 
sid d.
Th
d  
f S

, t
hih Dm
sths, i his s h g ist
Tim
 ts,  s, g s ith it. F
m h th subst 
f
th TWELE TABLES, d P t
's m xim i his ith b

k
f  s  
t k. F
thy  g  i m kig distiti
 bt thif h

st s by d y, d th
bb , h

mmits th t by ight; th
ugh
thy diff b
ut th REASON
f this distiti
. S
m thik this
distiti
 iss f
m th diffiuty
f dis ig by ight, hth
 gg ss

ms ith  itt t
mu d
st , d th f

h
ught t
b t  td s  ss ssi. Oth s thik th distiti

is m d, b us s it is diffiut t
k
 th  s

f th thif,
th  is ss
b biity
f 
v ig th g

ds. I ith  s
d
th f m s
f  s sm t
h v 
sid d th qusti
 i its

 ight. Thi vidt itti
 is t

hibit th kiig
f
y
, m y
 
ut
f
u
 ty; hih 
ud h , f

ist , by kiig thif i his fight i
d t

v th
g

ds h h d st
. But if
u
 ivs  d g d, th  

d t
v t th d g , v t th h z d
f 
th 's if.
N
is
u h vig u it
th d g y
bjti
;
vidd it  s
d
 t
s v
t

v
u g

ds,
t
t k th thif. F


im ut ti

f guit   tt h t
us i y
f ths  ss, hi
  m 
yd i d
ig  fu t, 
  it b s id th t  
d
ig 
g t

th by x isig
u
 ight.
Th diff  th f
 m d bt thif i th ight d thif
i th d y, iss f
m th diffiuty
f
u ig suffiit vid

f th f t. S
th t if thif is f
ud kid, th  s
 h
s ys,
th t h  s f
ud by him ith dst utiv 
, d kid by
him i his
 df, i  siy g i bif. F
th Jish  
su
ss this, h it t  ts
f thif i th t
f i ig,
,
s s
m t s t it, ith st bbig ist umt. This it t ti


ds ith th  
f th tv t bs, hih f
bids y
 t

ki thif i th d y tim, x t h dfd himsf ith 
.
Th sum ti
 th f
 g ist thif i th ight is th t h
dfdd himsf i suh m  . N
 th t m 
 
m hds 
t

y  ist umt
f i
, but s C ius it ts this  , ub,

st
. U i 
 th
th h d, s  kig
f thif t k i th
ight, s ys th t th  s
 h
kis him i iu 
guit,
vidd

th t i s vig his
 ty h 
ud 
t s  his if, ith
ut

d g ig his
. Th  is sum ti
, s it h s b   dy

bs vd, i f v
u
f th  s
 h
h s kid thif t k i th
ight. But if th  b vid t

v, th t th if
f th  s

h
kid th thif  s i 
d g ; th th sum ti
 i his
f v
u f is, d th t m
uts t
mu d .
Th  
f th tv t bs idd qui d, th t th  s
 h
t

k
thif ith i th d y tim,
i th ight, sh
ud m k 
is
th t, if
ssib, th m gist ts
ighb
u s might ssmb t

ssist him d giv vid. But s suh 

u s 
ud m
  siy
b ssmbd i th d y tim th  i th ight, s U i 
bs vs
u
 th ss g bf
 qu
td f
m Dm
sths, th ffi m ti

f
 s
 d ig th d g h  s i du ig th ight is m
  diy
bivd. T
hih  dditi
 
bs v ti
 m y b m d, th t, v
ud qu  i umst s, th d g hih h s by ight   b
ss x mid, d s t id, d th f
 is th m
 t ib.
Th Jish   th f
, 
ss th  th R
m , tig u
 th s m
ii 
f td ss f
bids us t
ki y
, h
h s t k
u
g

ds, uss f
th s v ti

f
u
 ivs.
XI.[16] Wh t h s b   dy s id
f th ight
f dfdig
u
 s
s d
 ty, th
ugh g dig hify iv t  , m y
v thss b id t
ubi h
stiitis, 
ig f
th
diff 
f i umst s. F
iv t  m y b 
sid d s 
ist t 
us x is
f  tu  ight, hih  ss th m
mt th t
g  d ss   b
bt id. N
 s ubi    v t k  ,
but h  judii  mdis  s t
xist, it is
ft
t td,
d th s i it
f h
stiity if md by th 
tiud ssi

f

sss d iju is. Bsids, iv t  xtds
y t
sf-df,
h  s s
v ig
 s h v ight 
t
y t
v t, but t
uish

gs. F
m h thy  uth
isd t
vt m
t s  s
 immdi t gg ssi
. Th
ugh th sus ii

f h
sti itti
s,

th t
f 
th
 , m y 
t justify th 
mmmt
f tu 
 , yt it  s f
m su s
f md vti
, d i uth
is
idi t h
stiity. P
its, hih i b disussd i 
th  .
XII. S
m  it s h v dv d d
t i hih   v b
dmittd, m it iig th t th  
f  ti
s uth
iss


t

mm h
stiitis g ist 
th , h
s i  sig g  tss
 ks h  ms. As m tt
f x diy suh m su  m y b
d
td, but th ii s
f justi   v b dv d i its
f v
u . Th  uss hih tit  t
th d
mi ti

f just 
s
mh t diff t f
m th
s
f x diy 
. But t
m it i
th t th b 
b biity
f s
m m
t,
futu  
y  f
m
ighb
u ig st t ff
ds just g
ud
f h
sti gg ssi
, is
d
t i  ug t t
v y ii 
f quity. Suh h
v is th

diti

f hum  if, th t 
fu su ity   b j
yd. Th
y

tti
 g ist u t i f s must b s
ught, 
t f
m vi
,
but f
m th divi
vid, d dfsiv  uti
.
XIII. Th  is 
th
ii
, 
t m
 dmissib, m it iig
th t th h
sti ts
f  gg ss
, m y b 
sid d i th ight

f dfsiv m su s, b us, s y th dv
 ts
f this
ii
, f

  
tt t


ti
 thi vg t
th iju is thy
h v ivd; b
uds hih i 
b biity th ty gg ivd h s
xdd, d th f
 i tu  b
ms himsf th gg ss
. N

th xss
f t i ti
  
t, y m
 th  th f
f u t i
d g , giv 

u
f ight t
th fi st gg ssi
, hih m y b
iust td by th  s
f m f t
, h
  h v 
ight t

ud


ki th
ffi s
f justi i thi ttm ts t
t k him, u gig

s  th t h f d th uishmt 
ud xd th
ffs.
Th fi st st , hih  gg ss

ught t
t k, sh
ud b 
ff
f
idmity t
th iju d ty, by th bit ti

f s
m id dt
d disit std st t. Ad if this mdi ti
 b jtd, th his
 ssums th h t
f just  . Thus Hzki h h h h d 
t
st

d t
th g gmts m d by his st
s, big th  td ith
 tt k f
m th Kig
f Assy i
 th t 
ut, k
dgd his
f ut, d ft it t
th Kig t
ssig h t  ty h sh
ud y
f
th
ff. Aft h h d d
 s
, fidig himsf g i tt kd,
yig
 th justi
f his  us, h

sd th my, d
sudd by th f v
u
f G
d. P
tius th S mit, ft st
ti


f th izs h d b m d t
th R
m s, d th
m
t
f th 
div d u it
thi h ds, s id, "W h v 
 v td th  th
f
h v, hih
u vi
 ti

f t  tis h d
v
kd. But th su m
big h
 s  sd t
du us t
th ssity
f st
ti
,
 s 
t qu y  sd ith th id
f th R
m s, h
jtd
u

ff . Wh t f th s tisf ti
 d

 t
th R
m s,
t
H v,
th bit
f t  tis? W d

t sh ik f
m submittig th m su 

f YOUR stmt,

f OUR uishmt t
th judgmt
f y 
,

y idividu ." I th s m m  , h th Thb s h d
ff d
th m
st quit b t ms t
th L d m
i s, h
sti
s high
i thi dm ds, A istids s ys, th t th justi
f th  us h gd
sids d ssd f
m th L d m
i s t
th Thb s.

CHAPTER II.
THE GENERAL RIGHTS OF THINGS.
Th g  ights
f thigs--Divisi

f h t is
u
--Th
igi
d
g ss
f
 ty--S
m thigs im
ssib t
b m d th
subjt
f
 ty--Th S
f this  tu , i its fu xtt,

i its ii  ts--U
u id  ds m y b
m th
 ty

f idividu s, uss thy h v b vi
usy
u id by
th 
 t  g--Wid b sts, fishs, bi ds, m y b
m th

 ty
f him h
sizs thm--I  ss
f ssity m h v
ight
f usig th t hih h s   dy b
m th
 ty
f

th s--T
s ti
 this idug, th ssity must b suh
th t it  
t
th is b v
idd--This idug 
t 
d
h  th
ssss
is i  qu  dg 
f ssity--Th
ty thus su yig his  ts f
m 
th 's
 ty, b
ud
t
m k stituti
 hv it is
ssib. Th i ti


f this ii  t
th ti
f  --Th ight t
us th

 ty
f 
th ,
vidd th t us b 
 y judii  t

th
 --H th ight t
th us
f uig  t --Th ight

f ssig th
ugh 
ut is, d by iv s x  id--A iqui y
it
th ight
f im
sig dutis
 m h dis--Th ight
f
sidig f
tim i f
ig st t--Th ight
f xis t

sid i th d
mii
s
f f
ig st t,
vidd thy submit
t
its  s--I h t m  th ight
f
u yig  st  s is
t
b ud st

d--Th ight t
 t i tis ss y t
th
su
t
f hum  s
ity, d if--Th g  ight
f u h sig
th
s tis t  s
 b i--Th ight t
s, 
t
f
qu  f
 d xtt--Th ight t
th
s ivigs hih 

misu
usy g td t
f
ig s--Iqui y hth it b  fu
t

t t ith y 
 f
th u h s
f thi
duti
s


 
diti

f thi 
t sig th s m t

th s.

I. Am
g th  uss ssigd t
justify  ,  m y k
 th

mmissi

f iju y, tiu y suh s ffts y thig hih
b
gs t
us. N
  st bish this  im t
y thig s
u

ith by ight COMMON t
us s m,
qui d by us i
u
INDIIDUAL  ity. But t
bgi ith th t hih is th 
mm
 ight

f  m kid;  m y
bs v th t it 
m iss h t is  d by
g  uth
itis, C

  d I

  ights.[17]
Thigs 

   ith u
i td,
m d th subjts
f
iv t
 ty. N
 th thigs u
i td,  suh th t it
m y b ith
ssib
im
ssib f
thm t
b dud t

st t
f iv t
 ty.[18] I
d th f
 t
ud st d this
m
  y, it i b ss y t
t k su vy
f th
igi
f

 ty.
II. G
d g v t
m kid i g , d
mii

v  th   tu s

f th  th, f
m th fi st   ti

f th 
d; g t hih
 s d u
 th st
ti

f th 
d ft th dug. A
thigs, s Justi s ys, f
md 
mm
 st
k f
 m kid, s th
ih it
s
f
 g  t im
y. F
m h it h d, th t
v y m  sizd t
his
 us

sum ti
 h tv h mt ith;
g  x is
f ight, hih su id th  
f iv t

 ty. S
th t t
d iv y

f h t h h d thus sizd, b m
 t
f ijusti. Whih Ci
h s x  id i his thi d b

k,

th b
uds
f g

d d vi, by 
m ig th 
d t
Th t , i
hih th s ts  
mm

 ty, yt v y s t t
 ims th t
hih h
u is, f
th tim big, s his
. A st t
f ff i s,
hih 
ud 
t subsist but i th g  tst sim iity
f m  s, d
ud th mutu  f
b  d g

d-i
f m kid. A x m 
f

mmuity
f g

ds, isig f
m xt m sim iity
f m  s, m y
b s i s
m  ti
s
f Am i , h
f
m y gs h v subsistd
i this m  ith
ut i
vi. Th Esss
f
d, fu ishd 
x m 
f m tu td by mutu  ffti
 d h
dig  thigs i

mm
, ti d
td by th imitiv Ch isti s t J us m,
d sti v iig m
g s
m
f th igi
us
d s. M  t his
fi st
igi, qui ig 

thig, ff
dd

f
f th sim iity

f m  s i hih h h d b f
md. Yt  h s, s Justi s ys

f th Sythi s, h might b 
sid d s ig
t
f vi th
th  qu itd ith vi tu; T itus s ys, th t i th  y gs
f
th 
d, m ivd f  f
m th ifu
f vi ssi
s, ith
ut

h, d ikdss; d 
squty ith
ut th st its
f
uishmt. I imitiv tims th   d m
g m kid, 
dig
t
M 
bius, sim iity, ig
t
f vi, d ix  id i
 ft: sim iity hih i th b

k
f Wisd
m sms t
b  d
itg ity, d by th A
st P u sim iity i

siti
 t

subtity. Thi s
 m 
ymt  s th 
shi
f G
d,
f hih th
t 
f if  s th symb
, s it is x  id by th it Hb s,
h
s
ii
 is 
fi md by th B

k
f Rv ti
.
M t th t  i
d subsistd u
 th s
t 
us
duti
s
f th
g
ud: st t
f sim iity t
hih thy did 
t 
g dh , but
id thmsvs t
th ivti

f v i
us ts, idi td by th
t 
f k
dg
f g

d d vi, th t is th k
dg
f th
s
thigs hih m y b ith usd
 y,
busd; hih Phi

 s midd kid
f isd
m. I this vi, S

m
 s ys, G
d h th
  td m u ight, th t is, i sim iity, but thy h v s
ught
ut
m y ivti
s,
, i th  gu g
f Phi
, thy h v iid t

subtity. I th sixth
ti

f Di
 P us sis it is s id, "th

dsd ts h v dg td f
m th i

f imitiv tims,

t ivig m y subti ivti
s 
 y 
duiv t
th g

d
f
if; d usig thi st gth 
t t

m
t justi, but t
g tify
thi tits." Ag iutu  d stu g sm t
h v b th
m
st it u suits, hih h t izd th fi st b
th s. S
m
dist ibuti

f thigs 
ud ss iy f

 ths diff t st ts;
d   if
md by h
y  it, th t th iv  y thus   td dd
i mu d . At gth m i  sig i ikdss by thi vi

mmui ti
s ith  h
th , th 
f Gi ts, th t is
f st
g
d vi
t m  d, h
m th G ks d
mi t by tit,
sigifyig th
s h
m k thi
 h ds d st gth th m su 
f
justi.
Th 
d i
g ss
f tim big  d
f this  by th dug,
th s v g  s sudd by s
ft d m
 ssu   y
f if,
t
hih th us
f i
vd subs vit, big f

d by 
th vi 
squs
f it
xi ti
. But th g  tst b  h i
th h m
y
f m  s m d by mbiti
, hih is 
sid d i s
m
m su , s th
ffs ig
f 
b mid. Its fi st d m
st mit
ffts  d i th ttm t t
is th t

f B b; th
f iu 
f hih  usd th dis  si

f m kid, h
t

k
ssssi


f diff t ts
f th  th.
Sti ft this 
mmuity
f  ds f
stu , th
ugh 
t
f
f
ks, v id m
g m. F
th g  t xtt
f  d  s
suffiit f
th us
f 
u ts, s yt but f i umb ,
ith
ut thi i
mm
dig  h
th . I th 
ds
f th P
t, it  s
dmd u fu t
fix  d m k
 th  i,
t

ti
 it
ut
i st td imits. But s m i  sd i umb s d thi f
ks i
th s m

ti
, thy 
ud 

g ith 
vi j
y th
us
f  ds i 
mm
, d it b m ss y t
divid thm it


tmts f
 h f miy. N
 i th h
t 
ut is
f th E st, s

ud b
bjts
f g  t im
t , f
th f shmt
f thi
h ds d f
ks; s
th t i
d t
v
id st if d i
vi,
 
ud b xi
us t
h v thm s
ssssi
s
f thi
. Ths

uts  d iv f
m s  d hist
y, d thy  f
ud t
g 
ith th
ii
s m it id u
 this subjt by Phi
s
h s d
P
ts, h
h v ds ibd th 
mmuity
f g

ds, th t v id i
th  y st t
f th 
d, d th dist ibuti

f
 ty hih
ft  ds t

k  . H 
ti
 m y b f
md
f th  s

hy m d td f
m th im v  st t
f h
dig  thigs i

mm
, tt hig th id s
f
 ty, fi st t
m
v b d xt t

imm
v b thigs.
Wh th ih bit ts
f th  th bg  t
qui  t st f
m

di t f  th  th s
t 
us
duti
s
f th g
ud, d t



k f
m
 
mm
di
us h bit ti
s th   vs,
th h


f
t s, d t

g f
m
 g t 
thig th  th skis
f id
b sts, idust y b m ss y t
su y th
s  ts, d  h
idividu  bg  t
y his ttti
 t
s
m tiu t. Th
dist 
f th  s t

, it
hih m   dis  sd, vtd
thm f
m  yig th f uits
f th  th t

mm
 st
k, d i
th xt  , th WANT
f just ii  d quit b kidss 
ud
dst
y th t qu ity hih
ught t
subsist b
th i th  b
u
f

duig d 
sumig th ss is
f if.
At th s m tim,    h
 thigs ssd f
m big hd i 
mm

t
st t
f
 ty. It  s 
t by th t
f th mid 
 th t
this h g t

k  . F
m i th t  s 
ud v k
, h t


th s itdd t

i t t
thi
 us, s
s t
xud

th  im
f v y
th td t
th s m; d m y t

might
dsi  t

ssss th s m thig. P
 ty th f
 must h v b
st bishd ith by x ss g mt, s by divisi
,
by t it

st, s by
u y. F
s s

 s it  s f
ud i
vit
t
h
d thigs i 
mm
, bf
 y divisi

f  ds h d b
st bishd, it is  tu  t
su
s it must h v b g y
g d, th t h tv y
 h d
u id sh
ud b 
utd his
.
Ci
, i th thi d b

k
f his Offis s ys, it is dmittd s 
uiv s  m xim, 
t  ug t t
th ii s
f  tu   , th t
v y
 sh
ud th ish himsf t
j
y th ss is
f if,
th   v thm f
th quisiti

f 
th . Whih is su
td by
Quitii , h
s ys, if th 
diti

f if b suh, th t h tv
h s f  t
th iv t us
f y idividu , b
ms th
 ty

f suh h
d , it is vidty ujust t
t k  y y thig hih
is
ssssd by suh ight. Ad th its i styig C s
 -giv , d givig th  m
f Thsm
h
i t
h s  d ights,
m t by this t
sigify th t th divisi

f  ds h d giv bi th t

 kid
f ight.
III. N
tithst dig th st tmts b
v m d, it must b dmittd
th t s
m thigs  im
ssib t
b dud t
st t
f
 ty,

f hih th S ff
ds us  ist  b
th i its g  xtt,
d i its ii  b hs. But s s
m  iig t
m k this

ssi
 ith g d t
idividu s, but 
t ith g d t
 ti
s,
th
siti
 dv d i th bgiig
f this sti
 m y b
vd
f
m th f

ig m
 gumt, th t s i this  s th  s
 


g subsists hy m sh
ud h
d  thigs i 
mm
, th ti
 ss s
. F
th m gitud
f th s is suh, s t
b suffiit
f
th us
f   ti
s, t

 thm ith
ut i
vi d
judi t
 h
th th ight
f fishig, s iig,
y
th
dv t g hih th t mt ff
ds. Th s m m y b s id
f i s

mm

 ty, x t th t 

   us
j
y it, ith
ut t
th s m tim usig th g
ud
v hih it sss
sts. S
th t
th musmt
f f
ig  
t b f

d, x t by  missi
,
ith
ut t s ssig u
 th  ds
f s
m
 ,
v hih th bi ds
fy.
Th s m  ti

f COMMON m y b giv t
th s d
f th sh
,
hih big i b
f utiv ti
, is ft f  t
yid its
ixh ustib su is f
th us
f .
Th  is  tu   s
 s
, hih d s th s , 
sid d i
th vi   dy t k, i b
f big m d
 ty: b us

u y   v subsist, but i thigs th t   b 
fid t

 t i  m t b
uds. F
m h Thuydids givs th  m
f
ifiit s  t
u
u id  ds, d Is
 ts s  kig
f th t

u id by th Athi s  s it th t hih h s b m su d by us
it

td ts. But fuids, hih  
t b imitd
st id,
x t thy b 
t id ithi s
m
th subst ,  
t b

u id. Thus
ds, d  ks d iv s ikis,  
y b m d

 ty s f s thy  
fid ithi  t i b ks. But th

  s it is qu  t
,
 g th  th  th,  
t b 
fid
ithi th  d: s
th t th its s id th  th  s b
udd i by
th s ik gi d su
udig it. N
  y im gi b divisi


f it h v b
igi y f md. F
s th g  tst t
f it  s
uk
, it  s im
ssib th t  ti
s f m
vd f
m  h
th

ud g  u
 th b
uds t
b ssigd t
diff t ts.
Wh tv th f
  s th 
mm


 ty
f , d ft g 

divisi

f 
th thigs, t id its
igi  st t, 
ud


t b
i td by divisi
, but by
u y. Ad th m ks
f
distiti
 d s ti
 by hih its diff t ts   k
,
f

d suh
i ti
.
I. Th xt m tt s t
b 
tid  th
s thigs, hih th
ugh

t yt m d
 ty, m y b dud t
th t 
diti
. Ud this
ds i ti
 
m  st  ds, ds t is ds, id b sts, fishs, d
bi ds. N
 i ths  ss th   t
thigs t
b
itd
ut, hih
 d
ub kid
f
u y th t m y t k  ; th
 i th
 m
f th S
v ig,

f h
 
, th
th by idividu s,

v tig it
iv t st ts th  ds hih thy h v s

u id.
Th  tt kid
f idividu 
 ty
ds th f
m ssigmt
th  f
m f 
u y. Yt y  s th t h v b t k

ssssi

f i th  m
f s
v ig,

f h
 
, th
ugh

t
ti
d
ut m
gst idividu s,  
t t
b 
sid d s
 st  ds, but s th
 ty
f th fi st
u i , hth it b
th Kig,
h
 
. Of this ds i ti
  iv s,  ks,
f
sts, d id m
ut is.

. As t
id b sts, fishs, d bi ds, it is t
b
bs vd th t th

s
v ig
f th s tiv  ds,
 t s h  thy  f
ud,
h s g  ight t

hibit y
 f
m t kig thm, d th by
qui ig
 ty i thm. A
hibiti
 xtdig t
f
ig s,
s  s subjts. T
f
ig s; b us by  th us
f m

  thy

bdi t
th s
v ig, f
th tim du ig hih thy
sid i his t it
is. N
is th  y v idity i th
bjti

f
udd
 th R
m  L , th L 
f  tu ,
th L 
f  ti
s,
hih, it is s id, d  suh im s t
b b sts
f h  f  t

v y
's hutig. F
this is
y t u, h  th  is 
ivi
  t
it
s its
hibiti
; s th R
m    ft m y thigs i
thi imitiv st t, hih by
th  ti
s    d u
 v y
diff t f

tig. Th dvi ti
s th f
 f
m th st t
f  tu ,
hih h v b st bishd by th ivi  , 
d id by v y
ii 
f  tu  justi t
b
byd by m kid. F
th
ugh th
ivi     j
i 
thig hih th  
f  tu 
hibits, 


hibit y thig hih it j
is, yt it m y i ums ib  tu 
ib ty, st iig h t  s bf
 
d; th
ugh th st it
sh
ud xtd t
th v y quisiti

f
 ty, t
hih v y m 
AT FIRST h d ight by th  
f  tu .
I. Th xt thig t
b 
sid d is th ight, hih m h v t

th 
mm
 us
f thigs,   dy
i td; t ms, i hih t th
fi st sight th   s t
b s
m i
sisty, s it  s th t
th st bishmt
f
 ty h s bs
bd v y ight th t s ug f
m
st t
f thigs hd i 
mm
. But this is by 
m s th  s. F

th itti

f th
s, h
fi st it
du iv t
 ty, must b
t k it
th 
ut. Ad it  s but  s
 b t
su
s, th t i
m kig this it
duti

f
 ty, thy 
ud d t s itt s

ssib f
m th
igi  ii s
f  tu  quity. F
if  itt
 s  t
b 
st ud i ss,
hig s  y s
ssib
t
th  s
f  tu , muh m
 s
 th
s ust
ms hih  
t
ftt d ith th it  st iti
s
f  itt m xims. F
m h it
f

s th t i  ss
f xt m ssity, th
igi  ight
f usig
thigs, s if thy h d m id i 
mm
, must b vivd; b us i
 hum   s, d 
squty i th  s  tig t

 ty, th
 s
f xt m ssity sms t
f
m  x ti
.
U
 this ii  is buit th m xim th t if i v
y g
visi
s
bgi t
f i, th st
k
f v y idividu 
ught t
b
dud f


mm
 
sum ti
; f
th s m  s
 ighb
u ig h
us m y b

ud d
 t
st
th
g ss
f fi :
th  bs
ts,
i hih shi is t gd, m y b ut, if it  
t
th is b
disg gd. M xims, 

f hih   it
dud by th ivi  , but

y x  id by it 
dig t
th us
f  tu  quity.
N
 m
g Th

gi s s
it is ivd
ii
, th t if i u gt
dist ss, y
 sh  t k f
m 
th h t is bs
uty ss y
f
th s v ti

f his
 if, th t sh  
t b dmd
thft. A u 
t f
udd, s s
m g, s
y u
 th  
f
h ity, hih
bigs v y
ssss
t
y s
m t
f his  th
t
iv th dy; but u
 th
igi  divisi

f  ds m
g
iv t
 s, hih  s m d ith s v ti
 i f v
u
f th
imitiv ights
f  tu . F
if th
s h
t fi st m d th divisi

h d b skd thi
ii
 u
 this
it, thy 
ud h v giv th
s m  s
 th t h s just b dv d. Nssity, s ys S , th
g  t
tt ss
f hum  ifi mity b  ks th
ugh  hum   s,
d  th
s m d i th s i it
f hum  gu ti
s. Ci
i his
vth Phii i, s ys, th t C ssius t it
Sy i , hih might b

sid d s 
th 's
vi, if m dh d t
 itt  s, but
if ths   b
ishd, it 
ud b 
sid d s his
 by th  

f  tu . I th sixth b

k d f
u th h t
f Quitus Cu tius,
 fid 
bs v ti
, th t i 
mm
   mity v y m  

ks t

himsf.

II. N
 this idug must b g td ith  uti
s d

st iti
s, t
vt it f
m dg tig it
iti
usss. Ad

f ths  uti
s, th fi st qui s th dist ssd ty t
t y
v y m
d
f
bt iig if, by    t
m gist t,
by
t yig th fft
f t  ty t
v i u
 th
 t
g t h t
is ss y f
his ssig
 si
s. P t

s y
 t
sk
 t f
m his ighb
u 's , ft h vig dug t
 t i d th i
his
 ith
ut fft. S

 imits th d th t
f
ty ubits; u

hih Put h m ks, th t h itdd by this t
iv ssity
d diffiuty, but 
t t

u g s
th. X
h
 i his s t

th Si
i s, i th fifth b

k
f th x diti

f Cy us, s ys,
"h v  
m, hth it
b b
us 
ut y
it
y t
f
G , d fid th 
 uiig t
ff
d us su is,  t k
thm, 
t th
ugh m
tivs
f  t
ss, but f
m th 
m usi

f
ssity."
III. I th xt   this 
f ssity  
t b dmittd,
h  th
ssss
is i  qu  st t
f ssity himsf. F

ud qu  i umst s th
 h s btt ight t
th us
f
his
ssssi
s. Th
ugh L t tius m it is th t it is 
m k
f
f
y t
f
b th ustig 
th f
m th s m  k i shi  k
i
d t
s v y
u sf. B us y
u h v th by v
idd hu tig

th : si hih is  t iy

f
f isd
m t
bst i f
m.
Ci
, i th thi d b

k
f his
ffis, sks this qusti
, if is
m , i d g
f  ishig ith hug , h s 
t ight t
t k th

visi
s
f 
th , h
is g

d f

thig? T
hih h  is; By

m s. F


's if   b
f suh im
t  s t
uth
iz
th vi
 ti

f th t g  u
f f
b , by hih th  
d s fty
f v y idividu   su d.
IX. I th thi d  , th ty thus su yig his  ts f
m
th
 ty
f 
th , is b
ud t
m k stituti
,
giv 
quiv t t
th
 , hv th t is
ssib. Th   s
m
idd, h
dy this, u
 th g
ud th t 

 is b
ud t
giv 
idmity f
h vig x isd his
 ight. But st ity s  kig,

it  s 
t fu d  ft ight, hih h x isd; but kid
f

 missi
, isig
ut
f  s
f ssity, d xistig 

g
th  hi th ssity 
tiud. F
suh  missiv ight is
y
g td i
d t
s v  tu  quity i

siti
 t
th st it
d hu ish ig
u
f xusiv
 shi .
X. H it m y b if d, th t, i th
suti

f just  ,
y
 h s ight t
t k
ssssi

f ut  s
i; if th  b
  g
uds, d 
t im gi y f s f
su
sig th my itds
t
m k himsf m st
f th s m, s i y if th my's
u yig
it 
ud b ttdd ith immit d i  b mishif t
th t
s m
 . But i this  s th st iti
 is id th t 
thig b
t k but h t is tu y ss y t
suh  uti
 d su ity.
B y
u yig th   is  th t   b justifid:  vig t

th  
 th fu j
ymt
f  his ights, immuitis, d
ju isditi
, d  th
duti
s
f his s
i. Ad this must b
d
 t

ith th fu itti

f st
ig th   t
its  fu
S
v ig, hv th ssity, f
hih it  s
u id, m y
 s. Th t iig
f E , Livy s ys,  s ith  t
f vi
,

ss y m su ; by vi
 m ig th  st d tu  f
m
ssity. Th G ks, h
  ith X
h
 big i g  t  t
f
shi s, by X
h
's
 dvi, sizd u
 th
s th t   ssig,
sti s vig th
 ty ut
uhd f
th
 s, su yig th
s i
s ith
visi
s, d yig thm  gs. Th ii  ight
th f
, f
udd u
 th
igi  
mmuity
f g

ds, m iig
si th it
duti

f
 ty, is th t
f ssity, hih h s
just b disussd.
XI. Th  is 
th ight, hih is th t
f m kig us
f th
 ty

f 
th , h  suh us is ttdd ith 
judi t
th
 .
F
hy, s ys Ci
, sh
ud 
t y
, h h   d
it ith
ut
iju y t
himsf, 
 
th t
sh  ith him th
s dv t gs,
hih  usfu t
th iv , d 
 y dt imt  t
th giv ?
S th f

bs vs, th t it is 
f v
u t

 
th t

ight his fi  f
m y
u f m. Ad i th 7th b

k
f Put h's
Sym
si s,  fid 
bs v ti
, th t h  h v
visi
s m

th  suffiit f

u
 
sum ti
 it is ikd t
dst
y th
m id ;
ft su yig
u
  ts, t

bst ut
dst
y th
s igs
f  t ;
ft h vig fiishd
u v
y g, 
t t
 v
f

th ssg s th s -m ks, th t h v  bd us t
st
u

u s.
XII. U
 th ii s   dy st bishd, iv , s suh, is th

 ty
f th t 
,

f th s
v ig
f th t 
, th
ugh
h
s t it
is it f
s. H m y f
m qu ys, d butt sss u
 th t
iv , d t
him  th
du
f it b
gs. But th s m iv ,
s uig  t , sti m is 
mm
 t
 t
d 
d ik it.
Ovid it
dus L t
 thus dd ssig th Lydi s, "Why d
y
u fus
 t , th us
f hih is 
mm
?" h  h  s  t ubi gift
th t is 
mm
 t
m, t kig th 
d ubi i m
 g  ss
th  s id t
y PEOPLE, m ig i hih s
m thigs  s id
t
b ubi by th  
f  ti
s. Ad i th s m ss i gi h s
ss td  t t
b f  d
 t
 m.
XIII. It is u
 th s m f
ud ti

f 
mm
 ight, th t f 
ss g th
ugh 
ut is, iv s,

v y t
f th s , hih
b
gs t
s
m tiu 
,
ught t
b 
d t
th
s, h

qui  it f
th ss y
 si
s
f if; hth th
s
 si
s
b i qust
f sttmts, ft big d iv f
m thi
 
ut y,

t
t d ith m
t  ti
,
t

v by just  thi 
st


ssssi
s. Th s m  s
 v is h  s i th  ss b
v  md.

B us
 ty  s
igi y it
dud ith s v ti

f th t
us, hih might b
f g  bfit, d 
t judii  t
th
it st
f th
 :  itti
 vidty t t id by th
s,
h
fi st dvisd th s ti

f th b
ut
us gifts
f th   t

it
iv t
ssssi
s. Th  is m k b ist 
f this i th
M
s i hist
y, h th  d
f th hid 
f Is  qui d
f  ss g f
th t 
,
misig t
th Kig
f Ed
m, d t
th
Kig
f th Am
its, th t h 
ud g
by th high y, ith
ut sttig
f

t u
 th s
i
f iv t
ssssi
s, d th t th 
 sh
ud
y th i
f v ythig, hih thy might h v
 si
 t
us.
U
 ths quit b t ms big jtd, M
ss  s justifid i
m kig  u
 th Am
its. B us, s ys Augusti,  i
ffsiv
ss g, ight it 
v ith th v y f m
f hum  s
ity,  s
fusd. Th G ks ud th 
mm d
f C hus, s id, "  u

th  y t

u h
m, if 

 it u t us; but v y ttm t t

m
st us,  , ith th ssist 
f h v, dt mid t
vg."
N
t uik this s
f th s
di s ud C hus is th qusti

ut t
th diff t  ti
s
f Th  by Agsi us, h
dsi d t

k
 hth thy ishd him t
ss th
ugh thi 
ut y s f id,

s  my. Wh th B

ti s hsit td u
 s
m

siti
s
m d t
thm by Lys d , h skd thm hth thy itdd th t h
sh
ud ss ith  td
iid s  s, m ig by th x ssi

i h
sti
quit m  . W  if
md by T itus, th t th
B t vi s, s s

 s thy  m  th  m t B
, st mss g
t
H ius G us, im
tig th t "thy h d 
h
sti dsig; th t
if 
t
bst utd, thy 
ud m h i   b m  ; but if thy
mt ith

siti
 thy 
ud ut thi  y s
d i h d." Wh
Cim
 i  yig su is t
th L d m
i s, h d m hd ith his
t

s th
ugh s
m t
f th C
ithi  dist it, th C
ithi s
x
stu td u
 his 
dut s vi
 ti

f thi t it
y,
b us h h d d
 it ith
ut skig thi  v, t th s m tim

bs vig, th t 

 k
ks t 
th m 's d

,
sums t

t th h
us ith
ut
bt iig th m st 's  v. T
h
m h
 id, y
u v k
kd t th g ts
f C
 d Mg , but b
k
thm d
, bivig, I su
s, th t 
ight
ught t
ithst d th
f

f th mighty.
N
 bt ths t
xt ms th  is midd 
u s, qui ig
f  ss g t
b fi st skd; th fus 
f hih i justify th
i ti

f f
. Thus Agsi us i his tu  f
m Asi h h
h d skd ss g
f th Kig
f th M d
i s, h
s d th t
h 
ud 
sid
f it, s id, y
u m y 
sid , if y
u  s, but 
sh  ss i th m  tim.
Th f s, hih y
 t t is f
m mutitud i ms ssig
th
ugh its t it
is, d

t f
m suh  x ti
 s   d
 y
th u   dy  id d
. F
it is 
t

 s
 b th t th
f s
f
 ty sh
ud dst
y th ights
f 
th . Es i y,
s ss y  uti
s d su itis m y b usd, suh s th
s,
f
ist ,
f qui ig th t th t

s sh  ss ith
ut ms,

i sm  b
dis;
mis hih th Ag i ii s m d t
th G m s.
Ad, s   if
md by St b
, th ti sti v is i th

ut y
f th E s. A
th su ity m y b f
ud i
vidig
g is
s t th x s
f th ty, t
h
m th ss g is g td;

i givig h
st gs; th 
diti
, hih Suus dm dd
f
Dmt ius, f
 mittig him t
m i ithi his t it
is. N

is th f
f
ffdig th t
 , hih is th
bjt
f tt k,
suffiit txt f
fusig th ss g
f th t

s t
th st t

th t is g gd i just  . N
is it
  s
 t
ssig f

fus , t
s y th t 
th ss g m y b f
ud; s v y
th

 might g th s m, d by this m s th ight
f ss g

ud b ti y df td. Th qust
f ss g th f
, by th
 st d m
st 
mm
di
us  y, ith
ut d
ig iju y d mishif, is
suffiit g
ud u
 hih it sh
ud b g td. It t s th  s
ti y, if th ty m kig th qust is g gd i ujust  ,
d is m hig ith th t

s
f
 h
sti t
th s
v ig
f
th t t it
y; f
i this ist , ss g m y b fusd. F
th
s
v ig h s ight t
tt k th t
 i his
 t it
y, d t



s its m h.
N
 f  ss g
ught t
b 
d 
t
y t
 s
s, but t

m h dis. F


 h s ight t
vt
  ti
 f
m
t dig ith 
th t m
t dist ;  missi
 hih f
th
it st
f s
ity sh
ud b m it id. N
  it b s id th t y

 is iju d by it. F
th
ugh h m y b th by d ivd
f 
xusiv g i, yt th 
ss
f h t is 
t his du, s MATTER OF
RIGHT,   v b 
sid d s d m g
th vi
 ti

f  im.
XI. But it i f
m subjt
f iqui y, hth th s
v ig
f
th 
ut y h s ight t
im
s dutis
 g

ds  id by  d,

u
 iv
u
 y t
f th s , hih m y f
m  ssi

t
his d
mii
s. It 
ud ud
ubtdy b ujust f
y bu ds
f
ig t
th  tu 
f t d t
b im
sd u
 suh g

ds. Thus
st g s m y ssig th
ugh 
ut y 
ud h v 
ight t
y

-t x, im
sd t
su
t th xigis
f th st t. But if th
s
v ig iu s x  by
vidig su ity d
tti
 t
t d,
h h s ight t
imbu s himsf by th im
siti

f m
d t d
 s
 b dutis. It is th REASONABLENESS
f thm, hih 
stituts
th justi
f ust
ms d t xs. Thus S

m
 ivd t
s f

h
ss d i th t ssd
v th Isthmus
f Sy i . Piy,
s  kig
f f kis,
bs vs th t s it 
ud 
t b t s
td
but by th Gb its, duty u
 it  s id t
thi kig. I th
s m m  , s St b
if
ms us i his f
u th b

k, th 

f
M sis d ivd g  t  th f
m th    hih M ius h d m d
f
m th Rh
 t
th s , by x tig t ibut
f  th t s id u

it t
d f
ith vsss. I th ighth b

k
f th s m  it , 
 t
d th t th C
ithi s im
sd duty u
  g

ds, hih, t

v
id th d g
us ss g
f C  M  ,   t s
td by  d
f
m s t
s . Th R
m s t

m d th ss g
f th Rhi s
u 

f t ibut, d S  ts th t t
  s id f
g
ig
v
b idgs. Th 
ks
f g   it s b
ud i ist s
f this kid.
But it f quty h s th t xt
ti
 is tisd i ths m tt s,
hih St b
f
ms it
subjt
f 
m  it g ist hifs
f th
A bi  t ibs, 
udig th t it 
ud b uiky f
m
f th t
 ss kid t
im
s u
 th g

ds
f m h ts y dutis th t  

t
ssiv.
X. Th
s g
ig ith m h dis

y ssig th
ugh 
ut y,

ught t
b 
d t
sid th  f
tim, if th 
v y
f
h th,
y
th just  us sh
ud d suh sid ss y.
F
ths m y b k
d m
g th i
t uss
f
u ight.
Thus Ii
us i i gi  s h v t
itss th ijusti
f
th Af i s i d ivig him d his shi  kd 
m i
s f
m th
h
s it b us
f th sh
, d   if
md by Put h i his
if
f P is th t  th G i s
vd
f th 
m  it, hih
th Mg si s m d g ist th Athi s, h
h d
hibitd thm
f
m sttig f

t u
 th s
i
f thi t it
is,
 yig
vss it
thi h b
u s. S
th L d m
i s g dd this s th

m
st suffiit g
uds t
justify th  .

F
m h suts th ight
f  tig tm
y hut, u
 th
sh
, th
ugh, f
ist , th s m sh
 is 
d t
b th

 ty
f th 

f th t  . F
h t P
m
ius s ys
f its
big ss y t

bt i th P t
's  v, bf
 buidig  
b isd u
 th ubi sh
,  ts t
st utu s
f  m t
kid, h th m ssy is
f st
, s th P
t s ys, 
h u

th s , d th ff ightd fish f thi  vs 
t td.
XI. N

ught  m t sid t
b fusd t
f
ig s, h
,
d iv f
m thi
 
ut y, sk  
fug. But th it is

y u
 
diti
 th t thy submit t
th st bishd  s
f th
 , d v
id v y
 si

f xitig tumut d sditi
. A
 s
 b u, hih th divi
t h s
bs vd, h h it
dus
A s m kig 
ff th t L tius, h
h d b
m his f th -i- ,
sh
ud t i  miit y d ivi
 . Ad i Di
ysius
f
H i  ssus, L tius dmits th

s 
f A s t
b just; s
h  m th
ugh ssity i qust
f sttmt. T
d iv  y
fugs, s ys St b
, f
m E t
sths, is tig ik b b i s;
d 
dut ik this i th S t s  s s

dmd. St.
Amb
s sss th s m st
f 
dm ti
 u
 th
s
 s, h

fus  dmissi
 t
st g s. Yt stt s
f this ds i ti

h v 
ight t
dm d sh  i th g
v mt. A

s 
f this
kid m d by th Miy  t
th L d m
i s, h
h d ivd thm,
is v y
 y 
sid d by H
d
tus s is
t, d u  s
 b.
XII. It is idd but  t
f 
mm
 hum ity i s
v ig t


 st g s, t thi qust, ib ty t
fix thi sid u

y  st
b   ds ithi his d
mii
s, sti s vig t

himsf  th ights
f s
v igty. Sv hud d  s
f b 
d uutiv td  d, s S vius
bs vs,   giv by th  tiv
L tis t
th T
j s. Di
 P us sis, i his svth
ti
, s ys,
th t thy 
mmit 
 im
f t s ss, h
t k u
 thm t
utiv t
 st  ds. Th fus 
f this ivig m d th Asib i s
x im, "th fi m mt
v
u h ds is th m si

f th dity: th
 th  s giv t
m ; d h t m is u
u id, is i 
mm

t
." Yt th t 
m  it did 
t y x ty t
thi  s. F

th
s  ds 
ud 
t b  d u
u id, s thy s vd t
su y
th R
m  my ith f
g f
thi  tt, hih  t iy fu ishd
th R
m s ith just txt f
fusig t
g t thi qust. Ad
ith 
ss
ity th R
m s skd th G i S
s if it  
ight t
dm d  ds   dy
ssssd, d t
th  t t
t k thm
by f
.
XIII. Si th COMMON RIGHT TO THINGS h s b st bishd, th
COMMON RIGHT TO ACTIONS f

s xt i
d , d this ight is ith
bs
ut,
st bishd by th su
siti

f g  g mt
m
gst m kid. N
  m h v bs
uty ight t
d
suh

suh ts s  ss y t

vid h tv is ssti  t
th
xist

vi
f if. CONENIENCE is iudd i this
ight; f
th  is 

 si
 h  t
im gi  xist
f th
s m ssity s  s quisit t
uth
iz th sizig
f 
th 's

 ty. B us th
it
f disussi
 h  is 
t hth y t
is d
 AGAINST THE WILL
f 
 , but hth  qui  h t is
ss y f

u  ts ACCORDING TO THE TERMS t
hih th
 h s
g d.[19] Su
sig th  is 
thig ig  i th 
t t, 

y ifu itti

 his t t
m k it u d v
id. F
y
im dimt   td by th
 i suh t s ti
s, is  ug t
t
th v y ii s
f  tu  justi, hih su
s  qu ity


f u ight d ig t
subsist i b
th th tis 
 d. St.

Amb
s  s f udut 
dut
f th t kid,  ttm t t
d iv
m
f thi sh  i th g

ds
f 
mm
 t, t
ithh
d th

duti
s
f  tu  hih  th bi th ight
f , d t
dst
y
th t 
mm  hih is th v y su
t
f if. F
  
t
t  tig
f su  fuitis d uxu is, but
f th
s thigs, hih 
ssti  t
if, s hysi, f

d d 
thig.
XIX. F
m h t h s   dy b
vd, it f

s th t  m h v
ight t
u h s th ss is
f if t  s
 b i, x t
th
 s  t thm f
thi
 us. Thus i g  t s ity
f

, th  
ud b 
ijusti i thi fusig t
s. Ad yt
i suh tim
f ssity f
ig s, h
h v b
 dmittd,
 
t b d iv  y; but s St. Amb
s shs i th ss g   dy
qu
td, 
mm
 vi must b b
 by  ik.
XX. N

 s h v 
t th s m ight i th s 
f thi g

ds: f


th s  t fu ib ty t
dt mi hth thy i u h s
 t i tis

t. Th it Bgi s, f
ist , 
d

t is d
th f
ig m h dis t
b im
td m
g thm. Th
s m u,   if
md by St b
,  s tisd by th N b th  
A bi s.
XXI. It is su
sd t
b g y g d m
g m kid, th t th
ivigs, hih y  ti
 g ts
misu
usy t
th subjts

f f
ig
 s

ut is,  th 
mm
 ight
f .[20]
C
squty th xusi

f y
 
 f
m ths ights 
ud
b 
sid d s  iju y t
th t 
. Thus, h v f
ig s
i g   
d t
hut, t
fish, t
sh

t, t
g th  s,
t
sud t

 ty by tst mt, t
s 
mm
ditis,
t
f
m
it m i gs, th s m ivigs  
t b fusd t
y tiu

, uss thy h v by mis
dut f
fitd thi ight. O hih

ut th t ib
f Bj mi  s db d f
m it m yig ith

th t ibs.
XXII. It h s s
mtims b subjt
f iqui y hth
  ti

m y  fuy g  ith 
th t
xud   ti
s but h sf
f
m u h sig  t i
duti
s, hih  th ui g
th
f
h s
i. A g mt hih, it is vidt, m y b  fuy m d; if
th u h s itds t
su y
th  ti
s ith th
s tis t
 s
 b i. F
it is m tt
f idiff  t

th  ti
s
OF WHOM thy u h s,
vidd thy   h v  s
 b su y f

thi  ts. N
is th  y thig u fu i 
ig
 

 dv t g
v 
th i this s t, tiu y f
 ti

h
h s t k 
th ud h
tti
 d iu d x 

th t 
ut. N
 suh m


y, ud th i umst s   dy
mti
d, is 
 y  ug t t
th  
f  tu ,[21] th
ugh it
m y b s
mtims f
th it st
f th 
mmuity t

hibit it by
x ss  s.

CHAPTER III.
ON THE ORIGINAL ACQUISITION OF THINGS, AND THE RIGHT OF PROPERTY IN
SEAS AND RIERS.
S ifi ti

f m
v b
 ty--Th diff  bt
s
v igty d
 ty--Th ight t
m
v bs by
u y m y

b su  sdd by  --Riv s m y b
u id--Right t
s s--O th

t  tis bidig 
 
t t
 vig t th s s by
d  t i
b
uds--Iqui y it
th  tu 
f th h g hih iv ,
h gig its 
u s, m ks i th dj
iig t it
is--Wh t
dt mi ti
 is t
b m d, h  th iv h s ti y
h gd its h --S
mtims h
 iv m y  u t

t it
y--Thigs ds td b
g t
th fi st
u i .
I. Am
g th m s
f qui ig
 ty, P uus th L y k
s

, hih sms m
st  tu , d th t is, if by th iguity
f
t,
th x ti
s
f  b
u  h v giv t
y
duti
 its
xist m
g th 
ks
f m . N
 s 
thig    tu y b

dud, x t f
m s
m m t i s bf
 i xist, it f

s
th t, if th
s m t i s  
u
, th
ssssi

f thm ud y
 sh ,

mm
dity is
y CONTINUATION
f
u f
m
 ty;
if thy b
gd t


,
u
ssssi
 
ms ud th  ss
f
tit by
u y: but if thy   
th 's, 
im
vmt
f
u s
  by th  
f  tu  giv us ight
f
 ty th i.
II. Am
g th
s thigs, hih b
g t


, th   t
th t
m y b
m th subjts
f
u y; d th
s  ju isditi
,

s
v igty d
 ty. F
ju isditi
 d
 ty  distit
f
m  h
th i thi ffts. Th
bjts
v hih s
v igty
m y b x isd 
f t
f
d ds i ti
, mb ig b
th  s
s
d thigs. But this is 
t th  s ith
 ty, th ight
f hih
  xtd
y t
th i ti
  d i im t t
f th   ti
.
Th
ugh it might
igi y, f
th m
st t, b th s m t by hih
s
v igty d
 ty   qui d, yt thy  i thi  tu 
distit. SOEREIGNTY, s ys S , b
gs t
PRINCES d PROPERTY
t
INDIIDUALS. Th s
v igty th f
, 
t
y
v subjts t
h
m, but
v th
s i th i's f
ig d
mii
s sss ith th
h dit y dst
f th 
.
III. I  s, h  s
v igty is   dy st bishd, th ight t

m
v bs by
u y, d idd v y
igi  ight must giv  y
t
th su  i
s ti

f  . Ad h t y m  bf
 hd by y
suh ight, h 
ud ft  ds b 
sid d s h
dig by th  s
f
th 
ut y. F
th
s
igi  ights   PERMISSIONS
f th  
f
 tu , d 
t 
mm ds th t   t
b PERPETUALLY f
d. F
th

tiud st bishmt
f suh ight s th t by i

u y, s

f f
m
m
tig th f , 
ud
 t t
th v y dst uti


f hum  s
ity. Ath
ugh it m y b s id by  y
f
bjti
, th t
th  
f  ti
s sms t
dmit
f suh ight, yt  m y s
th t if suh u ith is
h s b 
mm
y ivd i y t

f th 
d, it h s 
t th f

f g  
m t bidig u

diff t id dt  ti
s; but m y b 
sid d s
 b h
f
th ivi  
f m y  ti
s, hih y st t h s ight t

tiu,

   
dig t
its
  su 
dis ti
. Th   m y

th thigs idd hih g   it s, i t  tig
f th divisi

d quisiti

f
 ty, 
sid s f
mig t
f th  
f
 ti
s.
I. Riv s m y b
u id by 
ut y, 
t iudig th st  m
b
v, 
th t b
 its
 t it
is. But th  t s hih  sh
its  ds f
m  is b t
f th u t, m kig its  y
t
th m i s . F
t

stitut th ight t

 ty i its
h , it is suffiit th t its sids, i
sd by th b ks
f th t
t it
y f
m its g  tst t, d th t th iv itsf 
m d
ith th  d, m ks but sm 
ti
.

. I th s m m  , th s  s  b
f big m d
 ty

by th

ssssd
f th sh

 b
th sids
f it; th
ugh
by
d th
s imits it m y s  d t
id xtt, hih is th  s
ith b y, d ith st ight by
d  h
f its
utts it
m i
s

 . But this ight
f
 ty   v t k   h 
th s is
f suh m gitud, s t
su ss  
m is
 ith th t

ti

f th  d hih it  shs. Ad th ight, hih
 


i
sssss, m y s
b sh d by g  t umb
f st ts, m
g
h
s s tiv t it
is th s f
s. Thus iv s s tig
t

 s m y b
u id by b
th, t
 h
f h
m thi us d
dv t gs m y b qu .
I. Ist s m y b f
ud
f t  tis by hih
  ti
 bids itsf
t

th , 
t t
 vig t tiu s s by
d  t i b
uds.
Thus bt th Egy ti s d th P is ih bitig th b
d s
f
th Rd S , it  s g d, i it tims, th t th f
m sh
ud

t t th t s ith y shi
f  , 
ith m
 th 

m h t shi . I th s m m  , i th tim
f Cim
, th P si s
  b
ud by t  ty, m d ith th Athi s, 
t t
s i ith y
shi
f  bt th Cy  
ks d th Chid
i  is ds;

hibiti
, hih, ft th b tt
f S  mis, st itd y P si 
md vss f
m s iig bt Ph sis d th b
v  md
ks.
I th
 y 's t u
f th P

si   , th L d m
i s
 
hibitd f
m s iig ith y shi s
f  h tv ,
idd
ith y
th shi s
f m
 th  tty t
s bu d. Ad i th fi st
t  ty, hih th R
m s, immdi ty ft th x usi

f thi
kigs, m d ith th C th gii s, it  s sti u td th t ith th
R
m s, 
thi is sh
ud s i by
d th
m
t
y
f Puh um,
x t thy   d iv thith by st ss
f  th ,
t
v
id big
 tu d by  my. But i ith  s thy   t
t k 
thig m

th  ss is, d t
d t bf
 th x i ti

f fiv d ys. Ad
i th s
d t  ty, th R
m s  
hibitd f
m 
mmittig y
ts
f i y,
v f
m t dig by
d th
m
t
y
f Puh um,
M ssi d T sius.
I t  ty
f   bt th Iy i s d R
m s, th  tt
qui d th t thy sh
ud 
t ss by
d th Lissus ith m
 th  t

f ig ts, d th
s u md. I th   ith Ati
hus, h  s b
ud

t t
s i ithi th  s
f C y dius d S d
, x t ith
shi s  yig t ibut, mb ss d
s,
h
st gs. N
 th ist s
udd t
d

t
v th tu 
u y
f th s ,
th ight

f  vig ti
. F
it m y h  th t b
th idividu s d  ti
s
m y g t s m tt
f f v
u

m t, 
t
y h t thy h v

m tt ight t
dis
s
f, but th t hih is th 
mm
 ight

f  m s  s
f thmsvs. Wh this h s,  m y s y
s U i  did
 ik
 si
, h   st t h d b s
d ith
s v ti
, th t th u h s sh
ud 
t fish f
Tuy t
th
judi
f th s . H
bs vd th t th s 
ud 
t b d d
subjt t
s vi, but sti th u h s d th
s h
sudd
t
his
ssssi
,   b
ud i h

u t

bs v th t t
f th

t t.

II. Whv iv h s h gd its 
u s, dis uts h v is
bt ighb
ig st ts t
did hth suh  t ti
   ts
y h g i th dj
iig t it
is, d t
h
m y dditi

f
 d
 si
d by th t h g  us. Dis uts hih must b sttd

dig t
th  tu  d m 
f suh quisiti
. W it s,
h
h v t  td
f th divisi

f  d, h v ds ibd it s
f
th f
d  tu :
 kid thy  m DIIDED d ASSIGNED  d,

hih F
tius th L y  s LIMITED, b us it is m kd
ut

by tifii  b
ud is. By  d ASSIGNED, is m t th t hih h s
b
i td t
h
 
mmuity, 
m hdig  t i umb

f f miis; hud d f
ist : f
m h it h s d ivd th t
 m. Ad th
s
ti
s   d hud ds. Th  is 
th divisi

 d ARCIFINIUM, hih is id h th  d is dfdd g ist
 my by th  tu  b
ud is
f iv s
m
ut is. Ths  ds
Aggus U bius  s OCCUPATORY, big suh s h v b
u id
ith by  s

f thi big v  t,
by th

f 
qust. I
th t
fi st kids
f  ds, b us thi xtt d b
uds  fixd
d dt mid, th
ugh iv sh
ud h g its 
u s, it
 si
s

h g
f t it
y, d h t is ddd by uvi
 i b
g t

th f
m
u t.
I ifii
us  ds, h  th b
uds  f
md by  tu , y
g du  h g i th 
u s
f th iv m ks h g s
i th
b
ud is
f t it
y, d h tv ssi
 is giv by th iv
t

 sid, it i b
g t
th
ssss

f th  d
 th t sid.
B us th s tiv  ti
s  su
sd
igi y t
h v t k

ssssi

f th
s  ds, ith  itti

f m kig th MIDDLE
f
th t iv , s  tu  b
ud y, th i
f s ti
 bt
thm. Thus T itus i s  kig
f th Usi i s d Tt i s, h

b
d
 th C tti s, s ys, "thi t it
y is
 th b ks
f th
Rhi, h  th t iv , sti f
ig i
 gu h , f
ms
suffiit b
ud y."

III. Disi
s ik th
s b
v  
y t k   i ist s,

h  th iv h s 
t t d its h . F
iv , dividig
t it
is, is 
t t
b 
sid d b y s s
muh  t , but s
 t f
ig i PARTICULAR CHANNEL, d i
sd WITHIN CERTAIN
BANKS. F
hih  s
  dditi
, d  s,
suh h g
f
sm 
ti
s, s  vs th it  , u
 th h
,
 y th s m, 
s us t

sid th iv s sti th s m. But
if th h
 f 
f th iv is h gd, th  s i b ti y
t d. F
s iv m y b ti y dst
yd by th  ti

f
d ms u
 th high ts
f its st  m,
by diggig   s, hih
 y
ff its  t s i 
th di ti
: s
by th ds ti

f its

d h , d b  kig
ut f
itsf 
th 
u s, it i 
t

tiu t
b s m iv it  s bf
, but i b 
m ty 

. I th s m m  if iv h s b d id u , th midd
f its
h  i m i s th b
ud y bt ighb
u ig st ts, h

i t kig
ssssi

f th ighb
u ig t it
y
igi y itdd
th midd
f suh iv t
b th i
f s ti
, d ud 
h gs t
s v th s m s  m t imit. But i d
ubtfu
 ss, th t it
is b
d ig u
 iv
ught t
b 
sid d
s ifii
us, b us 
thig   b m
 t m k
f distiti

th  th
s im ss b b
uds ssigd by  tu . It v y sd
m idd
h s, th t th tifii 
ivi dm su mts
f t it
y  
b gu td by suh  tu  b
uds, s thy , i g , th
fft
f
igi  quisiti
,
h v b dd by t  ty.
IX. Ath
ugh i d
ubtfu  ss, it h s b s id th t th t it
is

  h sid
f iv  dt mid by th midd
f th h ;
yt it m y h , d h s h d, th t th s
 ight t
iv
m y b
g t
th t it
is

 sid
f it. B us th t
 th


sit sid  s
f  t
u y, d subsqut t
th
ssssi


f th t iv by th
th
 :
b us this s
 ight m y h v
b s
sttd by t  ty.
X. It is 
t u
thy
f
bs v ti
 th t thigs hih h v h d 


 , but h v  sd t
h v
, b
m subjt t
th ight by

igi  quisiti
. Thy  su
sd t
h v b b d
d f
m th
 t
f 
 , d th f
 h v tu d t
th
igi  st t

f 
mm
 st
k. But t th s m tim it is
 t

bs v, th t
s
m tims th
igi  quisiti
 m y h v b m d by 


thi s
v ig, i suh m  s t
giv thm
him 
t
y th
s
-mit ights hih 
stitut 
g tiv, but s
th fu
tit
f
 ty.
Ad this
 ty g i m y b dividd it
sm  g ts, d th
s
g i subdividd it

th
ti
s, t
b hd s d dt u
 th

igi  g t
, th S
v ig,
th L
d. Th
ugh th  d m y 
t
b hd by b s s vi,
v ss  g, yt it is
ssssd by s
m

diti
  tu . F
thigs 
u id by m y kids
f ight;
m
g hih m y b k
d th ight
f  s
 h
x ts
 ty
t
b ft t
him ud th 
diti

f t ust. S s ys, th t 

 's big db d f
m sig his  ds, 
mmittig  st u

thm,
v m kig im
vmts, is 
t t
b t k s

f th t
th
 ty is 
t his. F
th t is m 's
, hih h h
ds ud
y  t i 
diti
s. Si th
 ty dist ibutd i th m 
b
v  md is hd
f th s
v ig,

f s
m it mdi t L
d, h

himsf is t t
f th s
v ig, it f

s th t y thig hih
 ts 
 d
s 
t b
m th
 ty
f him, h
  fi st siz
it, but v ts t
th st t
t
th s
v ig.
[Iust ti
: _WAR_
_By G i Mh s--F
m  itig i Lib y
f C
g ss._]

CHAPTER I.
TITLE TO DESERT LAND BY OCCUPANCY, POSSESSION, AND PRESCRIPTION.
Why Usu ti

P s i ti
  
t subsist bt id dt
St ts, d S
v igs--L
g
ssssi
 gd s g
ud

f ight--Iqui y it
th itti
s
f m, hih  
t
t
b judgd
f by 
ds 
--Itti
 t
b judgd
f by
ts--Itti
s s
t
b judgd
f by
missi
s--H
 f gth

f tim, si, d 
-
ssssi
, m y 
fi m th 
jtu 
f
 b d
d ight--Tim immm
i  g y th
ught t
b y
 im--Wh t 
stituts tim immm
i --Objti
s t
sumd
ds ti

f
 ty, 
sid d ith
ut y 
jtu , tim
immm
i   s t
t sf d 
stitut
 ty--Iqui y
hth  s
s yt ub
 m y thus b d ivd
f thi
ight--Rus
f ivi   s tig Usu ti
 d P s i ti
 s
id t
th  s
f S
v ig P is, x  id.
I. A g  t diffiuty iss h  s tig th ight t

 ty
by uit u td
ssssi
 f
y  t i tim. F
th
ugh tim is
th g  t gt, by h
s m
ti
  g  
 s d ights m y
b m su d d dt mid, yt it h s 
fftu 

f itsf
t
  t  x ss tit t
y
 ty. N
 th
s ights  
it
dud by th ivi  ; d it is 
t thi 
g 
tiu ,
but th x ss
visi
s
f th muii   , hih givs thm
thi v idity. Thy 
f 
f
 th f
, i th
ii

f
 squz, bt t
id dt  ti
s
s
v igs,
bt

f   ti
 d s
v ig: bt s
v ig d  idividu  h

is 
t his subjt,
bt t
subjts b
gig t
diff t
kigs
 ti
s. Whih idd sms t u; d is tu y th  s;
f
suh
its  tig t
 s
s d thigs,  
t ft t

th  
f  tu , but  sttd by th s tiv  s
f  h

ut y. As th uqu ifid dmissi

f this ii  
ud  d t

g  t i
vi, d vt th dis uts
f kigs d  ti
s
s tig th b
uds
f t it
y f
m v big djustd; i
d
t
 di t th sds
f  tu   f  d 
fusi
, s
 ug t
t
th it sts d figs
f v y 
; th sttmt
f suh
b
ud is is 
t ft t
th  ims
f s i tiv ight; but th
t it
is
f  h 
tdig ty , i g , x ssy dfid
by  t i t  tis.
II. T
distu b y
 i th tu  d 
g
ssssi

f t it
y,
h s i  gs b 
sid d s  ug t t
th g  it sts
d figs
f m kid. F
 fid i h
y  it, th t h th
Kig
f th Amm
its dm dd th  ds situ td bt th iv s
A 
 d J b
k, d th
s xtdig f
m th ds ts
f A bi
t
th J
d , J th h

sd his tti
us by
vig his


ssssi

f th s m f
th  hud d y s, d skd hy h d
his st
s h d f
s

g  i
d gtd t
m k thi  im.
Ad th L d m
i s,   if
md by Is
 ts,  id it d
 f

 t i u dmittd m
g   ti
s, th t th ight t
ubi
t it
y s  s t
iv t
 ty  s s
fi my st bishd by
gth
f tim, th t it 
ud 
t b distu bd; d u
 this g
ud
thy jtd th  im
f th
s h
dm dd th st
ti

f
Mss .
Rstig u
 ight ik this, Phii th S
d  s idud t

d  t
Titus Quitius, "th t h 
ud st
 th d
mii
s hih
h h d subdud himsf, but 
ud u
 

sid ti
 giv u th

ssssi
s hih h h d d ivd f
m his st
s by just d
h dit y tit. Su itius, s  kig g ist Ati
hus,
vd h

ujust it  s i him t
td, th t b us th G k N ti
s i
Asi h d
 b ud th subjti

f his f
f th s, h h d
ight t
viv th
s  ims, d t
du thm g i t
st t
f
s vitud. Ad u
 this subjt t
hist
i s, T itus d Di
d
us
m y b f d t
; th f
m
f h
m  s suh
bs
t tsi
s,
m ty t kig, d th  tt t  ts thm s id t s d f bs.
With ths
ii
s Ci
, i his 2d b

k
f Offis, g s, skig
"h t justi th    b i d ivig 

f th  d, hih h
h s f
m y gs quity
ssssd?"
III. C  it b s id, i
d t
justify th distu b 
f 
g
j
yd
ssssi
s, th t th ightfu
 INTENDED t
ss t his
 im, h h v m ifstd suh itti
 by y
ut d visib
t? Th fft
f ight hih d ds u
 m 's itti
s  
v f

 f
m b  
jtu 
f his i, uss h h s d d
d
vd it by s
m x ss d visib t. F
ti
s big th

y vid
f itti
s, itti
s   v
f thmsvs

 ith
ut suh ts b th
bjt
f hum   s. N

jtu s
idd s tig th ts
f th mid   b dud t
m thm ti 
 t ity, but
y t
th vid
f
b biity t th utm
st. F

m by thi 
ds m y x ss itti
s diff t f
m thi  

s, d by thi ts 
ut fit itti
s hih thy h v 
t. Th
 tu 
f hum  s
ity, h
v , qui s th t  ts
f th mid,
h suffiity idi td, sh
ud b f

d by thi du ffts.
Th f
 th itti
, hih h s b suffiity idi td, is
t k f
g td g ist him h
g v suh idi ti
.

I. But t

d t


fs d ivd f
m ti
s. A thig is

ud st

d t
b b d
d, h it is  st  y; x t it b ud
tiu i umst s, s th
ig g

ds
v b
d i st
m t

ight shi , h  th
 is 
t su
sd t
h v b d
d 
itti

f 
v y, sh
ud it v b i his
 . Ag i, by givig
u
 ig
miss
y 
t, dbt is dmd t
b dish gd.
P uus th L y , s ys, ight t

 ty m y b 
ud 
t
y
by 
ds, but s
by ti
s,
y
th idi ti

f th i.
Thus, if 
 k
igy m k 
t t ith y
 h
is i

ssssi
, t  tig him s if h   th ightfu
it
, h
is  tu y su
sd t
h v iquishd his
 tsi
s. N

is th  y  s
, hy th s m u m y 
t t k   bt
s
v ig is, d id dt st ts, s bt idividu s. I
th s m m  , L
d by g tig  t i ivigs t
his  ss ,
hih h 
ud 
t g y j
y ith
ut  s f
m his f
m

big ti
s,  s su
sd by suh t t
h v giv him his f d
m. A

 d ivd 
t f
m th ivi  
y, but f
m th  
f  tu ,
hih 
s v y m  t
iquish h t is his
, d f
m
 tu  sum ti
 th t  s
 dsigd t
d
th t hih h h s
giv m ifst

fs
f his itti
 t
d
. I this ss, U i  m y
b ighty ud st

d, h  h s ys, th t ACCEPTILATION
th v b 
dish g
f dbt is f
udd u
 th  
f  ti
s.

. Ev
missi
s, t kig 
 i umst s it

sid ti
,


m ud th 
giz 
f th  . Thus th  s
, h
k
ig

f  t, d big st t th 
mmissi

f it, sss it
v
i si, sms t
giv his 
st t
it; this  s dmittd by
th M
s i L . Uss idd it   b sh th t th s m  s

 s hid d f
m s  kig ith by f
s
m
th ssig
i umst . Thus thig is 
utd s 
st h  h

f

v ig it is giv u ; s f
ist , if t m im , hih  s
i
u
ssssi
, b sizd d  id
ff by id b st. G

ds t



st by shi  k, U i  s ys,  s t
b 
sid d s
u
, 
t
immdi ty, but h thy  
st by
d 
ssibiity
f big
 imd, d h 


fs
f th
 's itti
 t
 im thm
  b dis
v d.
N
 th  s is t d, if  s
s   st t
iqui  ft th

st g

ds,

 ty, d  d  s
misd t
th fid . But
if  s
 k
s his
 ty t
b i th
ssssi

f 
th , d

s it t
m i s
f
gth
f tim, ith
ut ss tig his
 im, uss th   suffiit  s
s f
his si, h is

st ud t
h v ti y b d
d  tsi
s t
th s m. Ad
t
th s m u
s h h s s id sh , th t h
us is 

kd u

t
b b d
d
 
ut
f th 
g si
f th
it
.
Th Em 
At
ius Pius, i

f his s i ts, s id th   s but
itt justi i  imig it st u
 m
y ft 
g  i
d; f

th gth
f tim  sd  s  idi ti
 th t th dbt
h d b
xusd f
m ymt, f
m s
m m
tiv
f kidss.
Th   s s
mthig simi t
this i th  tu 
f ust
m.
F
t f
m th uth
ity
f ivi  s, hih gu t th tim
d m 
f ust
m, d its it
duti
, it m y is f
m th
idug
f s
v ig t

qu d 
. But th gth
f tim
f
m hih ust
m d ivs th f

f ight, is 
t dfid, but ft
t
th bit y disi

f h t is suffiit t
idi t g 

st. But f
si t
b t k s v id sum ti
 th t

 ty is ds td, t
thigs  quisit: it must b si

ith k
dg
f th f t, d ith  ft f d
m
f i i

th  s
 
 d. F
si f
udd i ig
   h v 

ight; d h  y
th  s
  s, th sum ti

f f 

st must f i.
I. Ath
ugh th t
quisits   dy  md m y b
dud, yt

th  s
s h v thi ight; m
g hih gth
f tim is 
t th
 st im
t t. F
i th fi st  , it   s y h , th t
f
g  t gth
f tim thig b
gig t
y
 sh
ud 
t
s
m  y

th 
m t
his k
dg, s tim might su y m y


tuitis. Ev if th ivi   did 
t it
s t
b m
t
tsi
s, th v y  tu 
f thigs 
ud sh th  s
 bss
f
sh
t  i
d
f imit ti
 big 
d t
st th  t
bst
 im ts. If im ssi
s
f f    dd by y
 i xus,
yt thi ifu 
ud 
t b
f  tu  du ti
, d gth

f tim 
ud uf
d v i
us m s
f su ity g ist suh f s,
ith f
m s
u s ithi himsf,
f
m th ssist 
f
th s.
Es ig by
d th  h
f him h d  dd, h might
tst g ist
his
ssi
, by  ig t

 judgs d bit t
s.
II. N
 s tim immm
i , 
sid d i m
 ight, sms t

h v 
b
uds, si f
suh gth
f tim  s suffiit
t
st bish th sum ti
 th t   im t
thig is b d
d,
uss th st
gst

fs t
th 
t y   b
dud. Th m
st
b L y s h v
 y
bs vd, th t tim 
dig t
th mm
y

f m  is 
t  hud d y s, th
ugh
b by it m y 
t f  f
sh
t
f th t s . F
hud d y s  th t m by
d hih
hum  xist sd
m  hs; s , hih i g  
m ts
th  gs
g ti
s
f m. Th R
m s m d this
bjti
 t

Ati
hus, th t h  imd itis, hih ith h himsf, his
f th , 
his g df th h d v
ssssd.
III. F
m th  tu  ffti
 hih  m h v f
thmsvs,
d thi
 ty, 
bjti
 m y b t k g ist th sum ti


f y
's b d
ig thig hih b
gs t
him, d 
squty
g tiv ts, v th
ugh 
fi md by 
g  i
d
f tim,  
t
suffiit t
st bish th b
v  md 
jtu .
N
 
sid ig th g  t im
t  ds vdy tt hd t
th
sttmt
f CROWNS,  
jtu s f v
u b t
th
ssss
s

ught t
b 
d. F
if A tus
f Siy
 th
ught it h d  s,
th t PRIATE
ssssi
s
f fifty y s' st dig sh
ud b distu bd,
h
 muh ighti is th t m xim
f Augustus, th t it is th h t

f g

d m  d g

d subjt t
ish f

h g i th st
g
v mt, d, IN THE WORDS, WHICH THUCYDIDES HAS ASSIGNED TO
ALCIBIADES, t
su
t th 
stituti
, ud hih h h s b b
?
But if 
suh us i f v
u
f
ssssi
 
ud b ddud, yt
m
 ighty
bjti
 might b f
ud g ist th sum ti
, d 
f
m th ii ti

f v y
 t
s v his
 ight, hih is
th im
b biity
f
 m 's 
ig 
th t
usu his
 ty
f
y gth
f tim, ith
ut d ig d ss tig his
 ight.
IX. P h s it m y  s
 by b s id, th t this m tt d
s 
t
st u
 sum ti

y, but th t it is u, it
dud by th
v
ut y  
f N ti
s, th t uit u td
ssssi
, g ist hih

 im h s b ss td, i ti y t sf suh
 ty t
th
tu 
ssss
. F
it is m
st iky th t   ti
s by 
st
g v thi s ti
 t
suh ti, s 
duiv t
thi 
mm

 . Th t m uit u td
ssssi
 th f
 h s b v y

 y usd t
sigify, s Su itius s ys i Livy, "th t hih h s

b hd by
 uif
m t
u
f ight, ith
ut it missi
." O s

th s m uth
, i 
th  ,  s it, "  tu 
ssssi
,
th t h s v b  d i qusti
." F
t sit
y
ssssi

  ts 
tit. Ad it  s this x ti
 hih th Numidi s h d
u gd g ist th C th gii s, gig th t s

tuity
ff d,
s
mtims th Kigs
f th Numidi s h d
i td t
thmsvs th
dis utd
ssssi
s, hih h d  ys m id i th h ds
f th
st
g ty.
X. But h  
th qusti
, d th t
f 
sid b diffiuty,
iss, hih is, t
did, hth , by this ds ti
,  s
s yt
ub
 m y b d ivd
f thi ights. If  m it i th t thy
MAY NOT, th u   dy st bishd 
ud b
f 
v i t
 ds
sttig th t quiity
f kigd
ms, d su ity
f
 ty. F

i m
st thigs s
m thig is du t
th it sts
f
st ity. But if
 ffi m th t thy MAY, it th sms 
d fu th t si sh
ud
judi th ights
f th
s, h
  u b t
s  k, bf
 thy
h d y xist, d th t th t
f OTHERS sh
ud
 t t
thi
iju y. T
 u this
it,  must
bs v th t 
ights  
b
g t
 s
 bf
 h h s y xist, s, i th  gu g
f
th sh

s, th    b 
idt ith
ut subst . Wh f

if P i, f
m u gt m
tivs
f
iy, d f
th dv t g
f
his
  tiv d
mii
s, d subjts, sh
ud di t
 t 
dditi
  s
v igty,
f
th s m  s
s, sh
ud iquish
th t, hih h h d   dy  td, h 
ud 
t b h gd ith
iju ig his hi s d suss
s, th ub
, h

ud h v 

ights bf
 thy h d  tu  xist.
N
 s s
v ig m y EXPRESSLY d  h g
f his i
s tig suh d
mii
s, s
th t h g m y, i  t i  ss, b
im id ith
ut suh d ti
.
I 
squ
f suh h g ith x ssd
im id, bf
 th
ights
f hi s d suss
s   b su
sd t
h v y xist,
th
ssssi
 m y b 
sid d s ti y b d
d. Th  s h 
h s b 
sid d 
dig t
th LAW OF NATURE: f
th ivi
 , m
g
th fiti
s, it
dud th t
f th  's  s
 tig
th
s, h
 
t yt i big, d s
vtig y
u y f
m
t kig   t
thi judi; gu ti

f   st bishd u


sight g
uds i
d t
s v st ts i f miis, th
ugh
v y m s
f PERPETUATING
 ty t
idividu s, hih vts
its t sf f
m h d t
h d, m y i s
m m su  b dt imt  t

th ubi it st. F
m h it is ivd
ii
, th t gth

f tim i giv
 ty i th
s fs, hih  
igi y

vyd, 
t by ight
f sussi
, but by vi tu
f imitiv
ivstitu . C
v uvi s,  y
f g  t judgmt, su
ts this

ii
 ith th st
gst gumts i f v
u
f im
gitu , d
is it t
st ts ft i t ust. F

thig   vt th ivi
  f
m istitutig ight, hih, th
ugh it  
t b  fuy
i td by th t
f
 ty ith
ut 
st
f th
th , yt, t

v
id u t ity i th tu 
f st
it
s, m y b 
st by
gt
f  im f
gth
f tim. Sti th tis thus d ivd
m y m it i  s
  ti
 g ist th
s,
thi hi s, th
ugh
h
s gt thi ight h s b f
fitd.
XI. It is  iqui y
f im
t  hth th  
f usu ti
 d
s i ti
, if it v i i i's d
mii
s,   b id t

th tu 
f th 
, d  its 
g tivs. M y g   it s,
h
h v t  td
f th  tu 
f s
v ig
 
dig t
th
ii s
f th R
m  ivi  , sm t
ffi m th t it m y b s

 id. But this is 
ii
 t
hih   
t d i its fu

xtt. F
t
m k   bidig u
 y
, it is quisit th t
th gis t
sh
ud
ssss b
th
 d i. A gis t
is 
t
b
ud by his  , s by th i v
 b d uh g b 
t
u
f
su  i
. But
 si
s m y is th t i dm d  t ti


v   
f th   hih h h s m d. Yt gis t
m y
b b
ud by his
  , 
t di ty s gis t
, but s 
idividu  f
mig t
f th 
mmuity: d th t t


dig t

 tu  quity, hih qui s th t  th 
m
t ts sh
ud b
f  t
th h
. W fid i h
y  it, this u
bs vd by
S u i th bgiig
f his ig.
N
 th t u d
s 
t t k   h . F
  
sid ig th
 giv , 
t s t but s th REPRESENTATIE d SOEREIGN
f th
h
 
mmuity. N
idd   y suh itti
 i th  giv
b sumd t
h v xistd. F
gis t
s  
t su
sd t


m hd thmsvs ithi th u
f th  , x t h  th
 tu  d subjt
f it  g . But s
v igty is 
t t
b

m d ith
th thigs; it s
f su sss thm i th 
bss

f its d, d th digity
f its  tu . N
is y ivi   t

b f
ud hih ith d
s,
dsigs t

m hd s
v ig

ithi th us
f s i ti
.

CHAPTER IX.[22]
IN WHAT CASES JURISDICTION AND PROPERTY CEASE.
Ju isditi
 d
 ty  s, h th f miy
f th
 h s
b
m xtit--I h t m  th ights
f 
 m y b
m
xtit--A 
 b
ms xtit h its ssti  ts 
dst
yd--A 
 d
s 
t b
m xtit by mig ti
--Th
xist
f s t st ts 
t dst
yd by fd  ui
.
I. d II. Aft th dig iqui is it
th m  i hih
iv t
 ty s  s s
v ig
 m y b qui d d
t sf d, th m  , i hih thy  s,  tu y 
ms xt
ud 
sid ti
. It h s b sh bf
 th t th ight t


 ty m y b 
st by gt; f

 ty   
tiu 

g
th  hi th i
f
 shi 
tius. Th  is s

th
m  i hih
 ty m y  s t
xist, ith
ut y x ss

im id i ti
: d th t is h  th f miy ith
f s
v ig,


 , b
ms xtit, 
tigy f
hih
visi
 must
b m d s
mh t simi t
sussi
 t
th
 ty
f
 h

dis itst t. Wh f
 if y
 di, ith
ut y d ti

f
his i, d h v 
 ti
s by b

d,  th ight, hih h h d,
b
ms xtit, d v ts, if s
v ig, t
th h ds
f th
 ti
, x t h  x ss
visi
s
f   h v b m d t
th

t y.
III. Th s m m
d
f  s
ig is t
 ti
. Is
 ts, d
ft him th Em 
Jui , h s s id th t st ts  imm
t ,

m y b s
. F

 is

f th t kid
f b
dis hih  f
md

f distit ts, f

ig  h
th i gu sussi
, d
su yig th  
f th d sd. This b
dy g
s ud
  m,
f
mig, s Put h s ys,
 
stituti
;
, i th  gu g

f P uus th L y ,
 s i it. N
 th s i it

stituti
 i

 
 is th fu d  ft h m
y
f ivi if, f
m hih

m  ts th s
v ig
 , th v y s
u
f  g
v mt, d, s
S s ys, th vit  b  th hih s
m y th
us ds d .
Ths tifii  b
dis b 
s smb  t
th  tu  b
dy,
hih, 
tithst dig th t ti

f its 
m
t tis,

ss 
t its idtity, s

g s th g  f
m m is. Ad
th f
 i th ss g
f S , h  h s ys, th t 

 is th
s m i his
d g th t h  s i his y
uth, h m s
y s t

 tu  subst . I th s m m  H itus, s itd by P t

i C tyus, d S i th     dy qu
td, h s s id, th t
  
t dsd TWICE it
th s m iv . But S ft  ds

ts himsf, ddig, th t th iv t is its  m, th
ugh th
 t y tis
f hih it is 
m
sd   tu y h gig.
S
A ist
t, t

, i 
m ig  ti
s t
iv s, h s s id th t th
iv s   ys  d by th s m  m, th
ugh thi sv  ts
 futu tig v y m
mt. N
is it th  m 
 hih 
tius,
but th t ii  s
hih C

  s th 
stituti
  systm

f th b
dy, d Phi
th s i it, th t h
ds it t
gth . S
th t

, s A hus d Put h, i s  kig
f th  t, but u ig

h
f divi vg , m it i, th
ugh 
t

f its mmb s

f f
m  i
d b 
 ivig, is th s m t st th t it  s
hud d y s g
, s 
g s th s i it, hih fi st f md d
ft  ds k t th b
dy t
gth , s vs its idtity.
H h s
igi td th ust
m, i dd ssig 
,
f s ibig
t
thm, h
 
 ivig, h t h d t
th s m 
 m y gs
bf
; s m y b s b
th i
f  hist
i s, d i th b

ks
f
h
y  it. S
i T itus, At
y th Fi st s vig ud s si ,
mids th s
di s
f th thi d gi

f h t thy h d d
 i
f
m tims, h
 ud M k At
y thy h d b t th P thi s, d
ud C
bu
th A mi s. Th   s m

f judi, th f
,
th  t uth i th 
h, hih Pis
 st u
 th Athi s
f his

 tim, fusig t

sid thm s Athi s si thy h d b
m
xtit by s
m y dis st s, d   
thig m
 th  b s mixtu 

f   ti
s
f th  th. W s y th   s m

f judi th 
t uth i this 
h. F
th
ugh suh mixtu  might dimiish th
digity, it 
ud 
t dst
y th xist
f 
. N
 s h
himsf ig
t
f this. F
h 
hs th Athi s
f his

 d y ith thi fb ff
ts i f
m tims g ist Phii
f
M d
, d thi ig titud t
thi bst f ids. N
 s h g

f its 
m
t ts  
t dst
y th idtity
f 
, 
t
v f
th
us d y s
m
; s
ith   it b did th t

 m y 
s its xist i t
 ys; ith by th xtiti

f
 its mmb s,
by th xtiti

f its f
m d s i it.
I. A b
dy is s id t
di, h its ssti  ts, d ss y
f
m
f subsist  dst
yd. T
th f
m  s m y b f d
th ist 
f  ti
s s 
d u by th s , s P t
 ts, d

th s h
m T tui  mti
s:
if 
 sh
ud b dst
yd
by   thqu k,
f hih th   m y ist s i hist
y,

sh
ud dst
y thmsvs, s th Sid
i s d S gutis did. W 
if
md by Piy, th t i it L tium, fifty-th   ti
s  
dst
yd ith
ut sig t 
f thm m iig.
But h t, it m y b s id i b th  s, if
ut
f suh  ti
 s

f m i th t thy  
t f
m 
? Thy i th t i th t

 ty, hih thy h d bf
 s iv t  s
s, but 
t i ubi
 ity. Th s m is th  s ith v y 
mmuity.

. A 
 
ss its f
m, by 
sig 
s
m
f th
s ights,

hih it h d i 
mm
; d this h s, ith h v y idividu 
is dud t
s v y, s th My  s, h
  s
d by th A givs;
th Oythi s by Phii , th Thb s by Ax d , d th B uti s,
m d ubi s vs by th R
m s: O h, th
ugh thy t i thi
 s
  ib ty, thy  d ivd
f th ights
f s
v igty. Thus
Livy if
ms us s tig C u , th t th R
m s dt mid, th
ugh it
might b ih bitd s ity, th t th  sh
ud b 
muii  b
dy,

s t, 
ubi 
ui, 
m gist ts, but th t d ivd
f

iti  dib ti
, d s
v ig uth
ity, th ih bit ts sh
ud
b 
sid d s mutitud; subjt t
th ju isditi

f P ft
st f
m R
m. Th f
 Ci
, i his fi st s h g ist Ruus,
s ys th t th   s 
im g
f  ubi ft t C u . Th s m
m y b s id
f  ti
s dud t
th f
m
f P
vis, d
f th
s
subjug td by 
th
 ; s Byz tium  s t
P ithus, by th
Em 
Sv us, d Ati
h t
L
di , by Th
d
sius.
I. But if  ti
 sh
ud mig t, ith s
t 
usy,
 
ut

f s ity
y
th   mity,
if by 
m usi
, hih  s th
 s ith th 

f C th g i th thi d Pui  , hi sh
t is h f
m, sh d
s 
t  s t
b 
; d sti ss s
,
if
y th  s
f h itis b dst
yd, d th f
 h th
L d m
i s fusd t
dmit th Mssi s t
s t
th  
f
G , b us th  s
f thi ity   dst
yd, it  s  id
g ist thm i th G  Assmby
f th Ais.
N
d
s it m k y diff  i th gumt, h tv th f
m
f
g
v mt m y b, hth g , ist
 ti ,
dm
 ti . Th
R
m  
 f
ist   s th s m, hth ud kigs, 
sus,

m 
s. Ev idd ud th m
st bs
ut f
m, th 
 is
th s m th t it  s i its id dt st t, hi th kig g
v s
it s h d
f th t 
, d 
t
f y
th . F
th s
v igty
hih sids i th kig s th h d, sids i th 
 ikis
s th b
dy
f hih h is th h d; d th f
 i  tiv
g
v mt, if th kig
th
y  f miy sh
ud b
m xtit, th
ights
f s
v igty, s it h s b   dy sh, 
ud v t t

th 
.
N
is this gumt
v th
 by th
bjti
 d  f
m A ist
t,
h
s ys th t, if th f
m
f g
v mt is h gd, th st t 


g 
tius t
b th s m, s th h m
y
f i
f musi is
ti y h gd by t siti
 f
m th D
i t
th Ph ygi  m su .
N
 it is t
b
bs vd, th t  tifii  systm m y
ssss m y
diff t f
ms, s i  my ud
 su m 
mm d th  
m y sub
di t ts, d if i

 s, hi i th
 ti
s

f th fid it  s but s
 b
dy. I s m m  , th ui

f
th gis tiv d xutiv i st t givs it th  
f

 f
m, hi th distiti
 bt subjt d s
v ig, d
thi sti mutu   ti
 giv it 
th . Th xutiv
 is th

itii 's 
 ; th judii , th  y 's. N
did this s 
th 
ti
f A ist
t. F
h s ys it b
gs t
si diff t
f
m th t
f
itis t
dt mi hth , ud h g i th f
m

f g
v mt, th dbts 
t td ud th
d systm
ught t
b
dish gd by th mmb s
f th . H d
s this, t
v
id th f ut
hih h b ms i m y
th  it s,
f m kig dig ssi
s f
m

subjt t

th .
It is vidt th t st t, hih f
m 
mm
 th h s b
m
g  g
v mt, is s b f
th dbts iu d bf
 th t

h g. F
it is th s m 
,
ssssig  th s m ights,

d
 s, hih  
 x isd i diff t m  , big 


g vstd i th b
dy, but i th h d. This fu ishs  dy
s t
qusti
 s
m tims skd, hih is, h t   i g 
ssmbis
f diff t st ts,
ught t
b ssigd t
s
v ig,
t
h
m th 

f 
mm
 th h v t sf d  thi
 ?
Ud
ubtdy th s m   hih th t 

thi  st tivs
h d
u id bf
 i suh 
uis. Thus i th Am hity
i 
ui,
Phii
f M d
 sudd t
th  
f th Ph
si s. S
,
 th

th h d, th 

f 
mm
 th
u y th   ssigd t

s
v igs.
III.[23] Whv t
 ti
s b
m uitd, thi ights, s distit
st ts, i 
t b 
st, but i b 
mmui td t
 h
th . Thus
th ights
f th Ab s i th fi st  , d ft  ds th
s

f th S bis, s   if
md by Livy,   t sf d t
th
R
m s, d thy b m
 g
v mt. Th s m  s
ig h
ds g

d
s tig st ts, hih  j
id, 
t by fd  UNION, but by
h vig
 s
v ig f
thi h d.
IX. O th
th h d, it m y h  th t  ti
,
igi y f
mig
but
 st t, m y b dividd, ith by mutu  
st,
by th
f t
f  ; s th b
dy
f th P si  Em i   s dividd m
g th
suss
s
f Ax d . Wh this is th  s, m y s
v ig
 s
is i th  
f
,  h j
yig its id dt ights,
h tv b
gd t
th
igi  st t, i 
mm
, must ith

tiu t
b g
v d s 
mm
 
 ,
b dividd i quit b


ti
s.
T
this h d m y b f d th v
ut y s ti
, hih t ks
  h  ti
 sds
ut 

is. F
thus  
 s it
  is f
md, j
yig thi
 ights; d s Thuydids s ys, st

ut 
t u
 t ms
f s v y, but qu ity, yt sti
ig s t
d
bdi t
thi m
th -
ut y. Th s m  it , s  kig
f
th s
d 

y st by th C
ithi s t
E id mus, s ys, "thy
g v ubi 
ti th t suh s   iig t
g
sh
ud j
y qu 
ivigs ith th
s th t st id t h
m."

CHAPTER X.
THE OBLIGATION ARISING FROM PROPERTY.
O igi d  tu 
f th
big ti
 t
st
 h t b
gs t


th --Obig ti
 t
st
 t
th ightfu
 th
fits
th t h v  ud f
m th ujust
ssssi

f his  s
 

 
 ty--A b
 -fid
ssss

t b
ud t
stituti
 if
th thig h s  ishd--Suh b
 -fid
ssss
b
ud t
th
stituti

f th
fits m iig i his h ds--B
ud t
m k
 ti
 f
th 
sum ti

 si
d by his
ssssi
--A

ssss

t b
ud t
m k 
m  f
gift, ith 
x ti
--Th s 
f y thig th t h s b b
ught,
bigs th
s t
m k stituti
, ith  t i x ti
--I h t  ss
b
 -fid u h s
f h t b
gs t

th m y t i th
i,
t
f it--H h
h s u h sd thig
f
 h
is

t th  
 ,  
t tu  it t
th t s --Th
ssss


f thig h
s  
 is uk
, 
t b
ud t
giv it u
t
y
--A  s
 
t b
ud t
st
 m
y ivd u


dish
st 
ut,
f
s vi d
--O ii
 th t th
 ty

f thigs v ud by ight, umb d m su , m y b t sf d
ith
ut 
st
f th
 , futd.
I. H vig x  id i th dig t th  tu  d ights
f

 ty, it m is f
us t

sid th
big ti
 hih  iu
f
m th.
N
 this
big ti

ds f
m thigs ith i xist,

t
i xist, 
m hdig, ud th  m
f thigs, th ight s


v  s
s, s f s is bfii  t
us. Th
big ti
, isig
f
m thigs i xist, bids th  s
, h
h s
u
 ty i
his
 , t
d
 h   t
ut us g i it

ssssi

f it. W
h v s id t
d
 h  : f


 is b
ud t
 im
ssibiity,

t

u  th st
ti

f thig t his
 x . But h is

bigd t
m k v y dis
v y hih m y  b 
th t

v his


 ty. F
s i 
mmuity
f thigs, it  s ss y th t
 t i qu ity sh
ud b s vd, t
vt
 m  f
m h vig 
udu sh 
f th 
mm
 st
k; s
u
 th it
duti

f
 ty,
it b m, s it  , kid
f st bishd u
f s
ity m
g th

 s, th t th  s
, h
h d i his
ssssi
 ythig b
gig
t

th sh
ud st
 it t
th  fu
it
. F
if th ight

f
 ty xtdd 
f th th  b y t
 b th
 t

m k dm d
f stituti
 ith
ut ENFORCING it by LEGAL PROCESS,
it 
ud st u
 v y  k f
ud ti
, d s  b 
th th
h
dig. N
d
s it m k y diff , hth  s
 h s f i y

f uduty
bt id
ssssi

f thig 
t b
gig t
him.
F
h is qu y b
ud t
st
 it, b
th by th
sitiv
big ti
s

f  , d by th ii s
f  tu  justi. Th L d m
i s
h d 
mi y  d thmsvs
f th  im, by 
dmig Ph bid s,
h
, i vi
 ti

f thi t  ty ith th Thb s, h d sizd u

th it d
f C dm , but i  ity thy h  guity
f ijusti,
by t iig th
ssssi
. Ad X
h
 h s m kd th t, suh
sigu t
f ijusti  s uishd by th sig 
vid
f
G
d. F
th s m  s
 M us C ssus, d Quitus H
tsius, 
b md f
h vig t id t
f  ih it  ft thm by i,
th m kig
f hih h d b
u d u
 f s ts, but i th
m  gmt
f hih thy h d 
sh . Ci
b ms thm, b us it
is ud st

d t
b sttd by g  g mt, th t  m  t

st
 h t thy 
ssssd
f, if 
th is
vd t
b th
ightfu
 . A ii  by hih
 ty is fi my su d, d
u
 hih  s i  
t ts  f
udd, d y x ti
s t

this u, 
t id i thm, must b x ssy  md s suh. This
th
s ight u
 th ss g
f T y h
ius. "If
bb , _s ys h_,
h s s
id m
f my g

ds, hih h h s d
sitd ith Sius, h

k
s 
thig
f th f t; th qusti
 is, hth h
ught t
st

thm t
th
bb
t
m. If  
sid him s givig d ivig

 his
 
ut, GOOD FAITH qui s th t th d
sit sh
ud b
st
d t
him h
g v it. If  
sid th quity
f th h

 s, iudig  th  s
s 
 d i th t s ti
, th g

ds
sh
ud b st
d t
m, s th  s
 ujusty d ivd
f thm."
Ad h
 y dds, "I
v it t
b st it justi t
ssig v y

 his du, ith
ut if igig
 th m
 just  ims
f 
th ."
N
 it h s b sh th t th justst tit
 hih y
  
 im, is th t hih is 
v  ith th
 ty itsf. F
m h
th ii   id d
 by T y h
ius, th t if y
 uk
igy
ivd g

ds s d
sit, d ft  ds dis
v s thm t
b his

, h is 
t b
ud t
st
 thm. Ad th qusti
, hih th s m
uth
uts itt bf
 s tig g

ds d
sitd by
, h
s


 ty h d b 
fis td, is btt sttd by this ii ,

th  by h t h s ys sh 
 th utiity
f uishmt. F
s t

th  tu 
f
 ty, it m ks 
diff , hth it iss f
m
th  
f  ti
s,
f
m th ivi  ; s it  ys  is ith it
ui qu itis, m
g hih m y b k
d th
big ti
, ud
hih v y
ssss
is t
st
 thig t
its ightfu
 .
Ad h it is s id by M ti , th t 
dig t
th  
f  ti
s,
stituti
 m y b dm dd,
f th
s, h
h v 
g  tit t
th

ssssi
. F
m th s m
igi s igs th m xim
f U i , th t
h
v h s f
ud thig b
gig t

th , is b
ud t
st
 it,
v ith
ut  imig
ivig  d f
fidig it. Th
fits
s
 t
b st
d, ith dduti

y
f  s
 b h gs.
II. Rs tig thigs, 
-xistt,
h
s idtity  
t b
s t id, is ii  g y ivd m
g m kid, th t
th  s
, h
h s b
m ih by th t
 ty,
f hih th
ightfu
 h s b dis
ssssd, is b
ud t
m k him  ti

i

ti
 t
th bfit, hih h h s d ivd f
m his
 ty.
F
th t u
it
m y b justy s id t
h v 
st, h t HE h s
g id. N
 th v y it
duti

f
 ty  s itdd t
s v
th t qu ity, hih ssigs t
v y
 his
.
Ci
h s s id, th t it is 
t y t
 tu  justi, f

 m 
t
im
v his
 dv t g t th x 
f 
th , d i 
th
 , th t  tu  d
s 
t 
 us t
i  s
u s
u s, ihs,
d
 , f
m th s
is
f
th s. Th  is s
muh
f quity i
this s yig, th t m y g   it s h v m d it th b sis
f thi
dfiiti
s, t
su y th dfiiy
f th st it tt
f th  ,
 ys  ig t
quity s th m
st su  d  u
f ti
.
If y
 m 
y s v, s his f t
, t
t d f
him, h is b
ud
by th ts
f th t f t
, uss h h s vi
usy giv 
ti th t
h is 
t t
b t ustd. But v if suh 
ti h s b giv, h 
th f t
h s
 ty i th 
 ,
th m st
fit, th

ti sh  b dmd f ud. F
, s ys P
uus, h
v m ks
 dv t g f
m th 
ss
f 
th is guity
f f ud; t m
im yig v y thig  ug t t
 tu  justi d quity. H, h
,
t th ist 
f m
th , h s ut i b i f
h s
's dv
 t,
h s 
ti

 th  s g ist th dv
 t f
h t is  d 
ssum sit
ud t kig. F
it  s 
t st ity his busiss, hih
th dv
 t m  gd; th b i  s ut i t th INSTANCE
f th
MOTHER. Yt 
dig t
th
ii

f P ii ,  ti

 th
 s f
th ssum sit,
ud t kig i i g ist th dv
 t,
b us it is ith th b i
's m
y th t h is dish gd f
m th
isqu
f th 
sts.
S
if h
h s giv t
h husb d m
y, hih sh m y by  
dm d g i, h s  s
  ti

f 
v y g ist him,

idi t ti
 u
 y thig u h sd ith th m
y. B us, s
U i  s ys, it  
t b did, th t th husb d h s b ih by
it, d th qusti
 is, hth h t h
sssss b
gs t
his if?
If I h v b
bbd by my s v, d y
 h s s t th m
y
ud th su
siti
 th t it  s th s v's

 ty,  ti

m y b m it id g ist th t  s
, s big ujusty i
ssssi


f my
 ty. A
dig t
th R
m   s, mi
s  
t s b
f
m
y b

d. Yt if mi
h s b
m ih by th 
, 
idi t ti
 i i g ist him,
, if ythig, b
gig t


th , h s b d d s
d by  dit
, th dbt
sh
ud b
 sd f
m th dbt i

ti
 t
h t th  dit
h s ivd.

B us, s ys T y h
ius, h tv th
big ti
 m y b, si th

m
y isd  ud f
m th dbt, it is m
  s
 b th t it
sh
ud d
ud t
th bfit
f th dbt
th  th  dit
. But
th dbt
is b
ud t
idmify th u h s , f
it 
ud 
t b
 s
 b th t h sh
ud d iv g i f
m 
th 's 
ss. N
 if
 dit
, h
dig  st t i dg f
his m
y, h s ivd f
m
it ts d
fits m
utig t
m
 th  his   dbt;  b
v
th t sh  b 
sid d s dish g
f s
muh
f th ii .
But t

d ith
th  ss. If y
u h v t  td ith my dbt
,

t su
sig him t
b idbtd t
m, but t

th  s
, d h v
b

d my m
y
f him, y
u 
bigd t
y m; 
t b us I h v
t y
u m
y; f
th t 
ud
y b d
 by mutu  
st; but
b us it is  s
 b d just, th t my m
y, hih h s 
m it

y
u
ssssi
, sh
ud b st
d t
m.
Th  t  it s
 th   h v ddud this kid
f  s
ig i
su
t
f simi  ss. Thus, f
ist , if th g

ds
f y
,
h
h s b  st th
ugh df ut, h v b s
d, if h   m k y
g

d x ti
 t
th disi
, h sh  b titd t
th m
y
isig f
m suh s . Ag i, h y
 h s t m
y t
f th
f
th m it 
f his s
; if th f th sh
ud b
m is
vt,
h m y b ig  ti
 g ist th s
,
vidd th s
 is
ssssd

f y thig th
ugh his m
th .
Ths t
us big  fty ud st

d, th  i b 
diffiuty
i s ig th qusti
s
ft

sd by L y s d Th

gi s

suh subjts.
III. I th fi st   it  s, th t  s
 h
h s
bt id

ssssi

f g

ds by f i m s, is 
t b
ud t
stituti
,
if th
s g

ds h v  ishd, b us thy  

g i his

ssssi
, 
h s h d ivd y dv t g f
m thm. Th  s
f
u fu
ssssi
 hih is ft t
th uishmt
f th   is
ti y
ut
f th qusti
.
I. I th xt   b
 -fid
ssss

f thig is b
ud t

stituti

f th f uits

fits th 
f m iig i his h d. Th
FRUITS
PRODUCE
f th THING ITSELF  h  m t. F
th bfit
d ivd f
m thig
ig t
th idust y bst
d u
 it by th

u i th 
f,  
t b
g t
th thig itsf, th
ugh
igi y

dig f
m it. Th  s

f this
big ti
 iss f
m th
istituti

f
 ty. F
th t u
it

f
ssssi
 is
 tu y
it

f th f uits

du
f th s m.

. Suh
ssss
i th thi d   is b
ud t
m k stituti

f

th thig,
 ti
 f
th 
sum ti

f it
 si
d by his

ssssi
. F
h is 
ivd t
h v b m d th ih th by.
Thus C igu is isd f
h vig, i th bgiig
f his ig,
st
d t
diff t P is 
g ith thi 
s, th it mdi t
vus
f thi kigd
ms.
I. I th f
u th  , 
u i
f  ds, f
ist , is 
t
b
ud t
m k 
m s ti
 f
th
du th 
f hih h h s 
t
 d. F
if dis
ssssd, h h s ith th thig itsf, 
y
thig i th  
f it.
II. I th fifth  ,
ssss
h
h s g td t
thi d  s

thig
f hih gift h d b m d t
himsf, is 
t b
ud t

m k 
m  t
th
igi  giv , uss h ivd it ud

sti u ti
, th t if h g td it t
thi d  s
, d th by

s d his

 ty, h sh
ud m k tu 

ti
 b t
suh
g i.

III. Sixthy, if y
 h s s
d thig hih h h s b
ught, h is


t b
ud t
stituti

f m
 th  th su us isig f
m th
s . But if h h d ivd it ud sti u ti
 t
s, h is b
ud
t
m k stituti

f th h
 i, uss, i t s tig th s 
h h s iu d  x , m
utig t
th h
 i, hih h

ud 
t
th is h v d
.[24]
IX. Svthy, b
 -fid u h s
f h t b
gs t

th is

bigd t
m k stituti
 t
th  
 , 
  th i h
id b 
v d. T
this h
v th  sms t
b
 x ti
,
hih is, h  th
 
ud 
t h v 
v d
ssssi
 ith
ut
s
m x ; s
f
ist , if his
 ty   i th h ds
f
i ts. F
th dduti
 m y b m d
f s muh s th
 
ud
iigy h v s t i th 
v y. B us th tu 
ssssi
,
s i y
f thig diffiut t
b 
v d, m y b s t id,
d th
 dmd s
muh th ih by suh 
v y. Ad
th f
, th
ugh i th
di y 
u s
f  , th u h s
f h t
b
gs t

's sf   v 
stitut b g i, yt P uus th
L y s ys, th t it m y d
s
, if it h s b
igi y g d th t
  t
y f
th -
ssssi

f h t 
th h s b
gig t
us
i his h ds.
N
is it i th  st m t i , hth thig h s b b
ught ith
 itti

f st
ig it t
th
 ; i hih  s, s
m s y,
th t  ti
 f

sts m y b m it id, hist
th s dy it. F

 ti

 th  s, t

v 
m s ti
 f
busiss d

iss f
m th tifii  us
f CIIL LAW, d 
t s
y f
m
th sim  dit ts
f  tu  justi; hih  h  th ii 
subjt
f iqui y.
N
t uik t
this is h t U i  h s  itt
 fu  x s, i
hih h s ys, th t 
m ssi
 t judg i 
t igidy g d th
b   b
u th t h s b giv, but 
ig s
m  x ti
 i f v
u

f quity, i sh idug t
th figs
f hum   tu .
Th s m  it , i 
th   h s s id, th t if y
 h s
t s td my busiss, 
t
ut
f g d t
m, but f
his

it st, d h s iu d x 
 my 
ut, h m y b ig 
ti

 th  s, 
t f
h t h h s giv, but f
h t I h v
g id by his  b
u d x .
I th s m m  ,
 s, by th
ig h
s g

ds
v b
d shi
h s b ightd, m y 
v 
m s ti
 f
m
th s h
s g

ds
  by th t m s s vd. B us th
s  s
s  
sid d s
muh
th ih by th s v ti

f h t 
ud
th is h v b 
st.
X. Eighthy, th  s
 th t h s b
ught thig
f
, h
is 
t th

 ,  
t tu  it t
th t s ; b us f
m th tim th t th
thig  m it
his
ssssi
, h iu d 
big ti
 t
st
 it
t
th  fu
 .
XI. Ag i, if y
 is i
ssssi

f thig, h
s  
 is
uk
, h is 
t  tu y, d ss iy b
ud t
giv it t
th


; th
ugh this m y b 
sid d s  t
f ity, ust
m v y

 y st bishd i s
m  s. Th  s

f hih is f
udd

 th it
duti

f
 ty. F
, i 
squ
f th t, 



x t th  
 ,    im ight t
y thig. T
th  s


th f
, h
 
t dis
v suh 
 , it is th s m s if
th   y   
.
XII. L sty,  s
 is 
t
bigd by th  
f  tu  t
st

m
y, hih h s b ivd u
 dish
st 
ut,
f
th
 f
m 
f g  t, t
hih th t  s
  s
f himsf
b
ud. H
v it is 
t ith
ut  s
 th t s
m  s h v qui d
stituti
 i suh  ss. Th  s

f this is, b us 

 is
b
ud t
t ith y thig uss it b
gs t

th . But h  th

 ty is v
ut iy t sf d by th fi st
 .
Th  s i b t d, if th  b y thig iiquit
us i th
m 
f qui ig th thig; s if, f
ist , it b g id
by xt
ti
. This givs is t
th
big ti

f submittig t

 tis, hih is 
t immdi ty t
th st u
s.
XIII. Th st subjt m y b 
udd ith fut ti

f
Mdi 's f s
ii
, th t
 ty i thigs, b
gig t


th , m y b t sf d ith
ut 
st
f th
 ;
vidd
th thigs  suh s  usu y v ud by ight, umb d
m su . B us thigs
f th t  tu    b  id i kid,
by 
quiv t. But this is
y, h  suh m
d
f  ymt h s b
vi
usy g d u
;
h  it is ud st

d t
b st bishd by
 
ust
m;
h  th thig itsf h s b 
sumd, d  
t
b idti y st
d. But ith
ut suh 
st, ith x ssd

im id,
x tig th im
ssibiity just mti
d, th thigs
thmsvs must b st
d.

CHAPTER XI.
ON PROMISES.
O ii
, th t th
big ti
 t
fufi
miss is 
t  td
by th  
f  tu , futd--A b  ss ti
 
t bidig--A

mis b
ud t
fufi his g gmts, th
ugh 
ight t
x t
th  f
m 
f thm, is th by 
vyd t

th --Wh t
kid
f
mis givs suh ight--Th
mis sh
ud
ssss
th ight us
f  s
--Diff  bt  tu  d ivi
  ith s t t
mi
s--P
miss m d ud  
,

xt
td by f , h
 f bidig--P
miss v id, if i th


f th
mis t
 f
m thm--P
mis m d u
 u fu

sid ti
s, hth bidig--M 
f 
fi mig th
miss
m d by
th s, d th 
dut
f Amb ss d
s h
xd thi
ist uti
s, 
sid d--O s
f shi s, h
 f b
ud by th
ts
f th m st s
f suh vsss, d m h ts by th ts

f thi f t
s--A t  quisit t
giv v idity t


mis--P
miss s
mtims v
k b--Th

f v
kig

mis, x  id by distiti
s--Bu ds
m 
diti
s xd
t

mis--M s
f 
fi mig iv id
miss--N tu 

big ti
 isig f
m g gmts m d f

th s.
I. Th 
u s
f th subjt xt  ds t
 iqui y it
th

big ti

f
miss.[25] Wh  th fi st
bjt, th t sts
itsf, is th
ii

f F isus C
 us, m 
f 

di y
 ig. H m it is 
ii
 th t th  
f  tu  d
f  ti
s

d
s 
t f
 th fufimt
f th
s g mts, hih d

t

iud  x ss 
t t.[26] Yt th fufimt
f thm is ight,
i  ss, h , v ith
ut
mis, th  f
m  
ud b

s
 t t
vi tu d quity. I su
t
f his
ii
, h b igs

t
y th s yigs
f L y s, but ikis th f

ig  s
s. H
s ys, th t th  s
, h
m ks, d h h
bivs, sh
mis,
 qu y t
b m. F
th f
tus
f  m 
ud b i immit
d g , if thy   b
ud by suh
miss, hih
ft
d f
m
m
tivs
f v ity th th  f
m sttd dib ti
, d 
th sut
f ight d i
sid t mid. L sty, th  f
m 

f h tv is y  y just i itsf,
ught t
b ft t
th f 
i
f v y
, d 
t x td 
dig t
th igid us
f
ssity. H s ys th t it is sh mfu 
t t
fufi
miss; 
t
b us it is ujust, but b us it gus vity i m kig thm.
I su
t
f his
ii
, h  s s
t
th tstim
y
f Tuy,
h
h s s id, th t th
s
miss  
t t
b k t, hih 
judii  t
th  s
 t
h
m thy  m d, 
, if thy 
m
 dt imt  t
th giv th  bfii  t
th iv . But
if th  f
m 
f  g gmt is bgu u
 th st gth
f

mis, but 
t fiishd, h d
s 
t qui  
m t fufimt

f th
mis, but
y s
m 
m s ti
 t
th ty f
th
dis
itmt. Ag mts, h 
tius, h v 
it isi f

f

big ti
, but
y h t thy d iv f
m th x ss 
t ts, i
hih thy  iudd,
t
hih thy  xd,
f
m th
div y
f th thig
misd. F
m h is ti
s,
 th

sid, d x ti
s
 th
th , d b s t
  ims
f 
v y.
But it is th
ugh f v
u
f th  s 
, hih giv th ffi y

f
big ti
 t
h t is
y f i d quit b i itsf, th t

big t
y g mts, suh s x ss 
v ts d
th thigs
f
th t kid, d iv thi f
.
N
 th  is 

sisty i this
ii
, t k i th g  ss
itdd by its uth
. F
i th fi st   it immdi ty f

s
f
m th, th t th  is 
f
 i t  tis bt kigs d
diff t  ti
s, ti s
m t
f thm b  id it
xuti
,
s i y i th
s  s, h  
 t i f
m
f t  tis


m ts h s b st bishd. But 
just  s
   b f
ud, hy
 s, hih  kid
f g  g mt m
g 
, d idd
  d s
by A ist
t, d Dm
sths, sh
ud b b t
giv th
f

f
big ti
 t

m ts, d hy th i
f  idividu ,
d
ig v y thig t
bid himsf, sh
ud 
t h v th s m
 ;
s i y h  th ivi     ts 
im dimt t
it. Bsids,
s it h s b   dy s id th t th
 ty
f thig m y b
t sf d, h  suffiit idi ti

f th i is giv. Why
m y  
t th 
vy t

th th ight t
 im t sf
f
u

 ty t
him,
th fufimt
f
u g gmts, s  h v th
s m

v
u ti
s, s
v
u
 ty?
This is 
ii
 
fi md by th isd
m
f  gs. F
s it
is s id by g  uth
itis, th t si 
thig is s

s
 t t

 tu  justi, s f
th i
f 
 , f y t sf ig his

 ty t

th , t
b 
fi md, s

thig is m
 
duiv t

g

d f ith m
g m, th  st it dh  t
th g gmts thy
h v m d ith  h
th . Thus g  disi
 f
th ymt
f
m
y, h  
dbt h s b iu d, x t by th v b  
st
f
th ty
misig, is th
ught 
f
m b t
 tu  justi. P uus
th L y s
s ys, th t th  
f  tu  d th  
f  ti
s
g  i 
m ig  s
, h
h s ivd  dit, t
ymt. I

this   th 
d, COMPELLING, sigifis m

big ti
. N

  h t C
 us s ys b dmittd, hih is, th t   su
sd t

h v  dit f
fu  f
m 
f
mis, h  th g gmt
h s b i t fufid. F
P uus i this   is t  tig
f 
ti
 h  
thig is du; hih ti
 is ti y v
id, if m
y
h s b id, i y  y, hth 
dig t
th m  x ssy
sti u td,
y
th . F
th ivi  , i
d t
dis
u g
f qut  uss
f itig ti
, d
s 
t it f  ith th
s g mts
hih  f
d by th  
f  tu  d
f  ti
s.
Tuy, i th fi st b

k
f his Offis, ssigs suh f
 t
th

big ti

f
miss, th t h  s fidity th f
ud ti

f
justi, hih H
 s
stys th sist
f justi, d th
P t
ists
ft   justi, TRUTH, hih A uius h s t s td
FIDELITY, d Sim
ids h s dfid justi t
b 
t
y tu ig
h t
 h s ivd, but s
s  kig th t uth.
But t
ud st d th m tt fuy,  must  fuy
bs v th t
th   th  diff t  ys
f s  kig, s tig thigs hih
ARE,
hih, it is su
sd, WILL b i
u
 .
II. Th fi st
f ths  ys is, h   ssu  is giv
f futu 
itti
s, d if th ssu  b SINCERE t th tim it is giv,
th
ugh it sh
ud 
t b  id it
fft, 
b m is iu d, s
it might ft  ds 
t b f
ud x dit. F
th hum  mid h s 
t

y  tu 
 , but ight t
h g its u
s. Wh f
 if
y b m tt hs t
h g
f
ii
,
u
s, it is 
t t
b
im utd t
th BARE ACT OF CHANGING, but t
th CIRCUMSTANCES, ud
hih it h s, s i y h th f
m s
uti
  s th bst.
III. Th s
d  y is, h futu  itti
s  x ssd by
ut d
ts d sigs suffiit t
idi t s
uti

f bidig by
st ssu s. Ad ths kid
f
miss m y b  d im  ft

big ti
s, but 
vyig t
th  s
 t
h
m thy  giv 

RIGHT t
x t thm. F
it h s i m y  ss th t  m y b ud

big ti

f duty, t
th  f
m 
f hih 
th h s 
ight
t

m  us. F
i this s t th duty
f fidity t

miss, is
ik th dutis
f 
m ssi
 d g titud. I suh kids
f
miss
th f
 th  s
 t
h
m thy  m d, h s 
ight, by th  
f
 tu  t

ssss himsf
f th ffts
f th
mis , s his
,

t
COMPEL him t
th  f
m 
f his
mis.
I. Th thi d  y is, h  suh dt mi ti
 is 
fi md by
vidt sigs
f  itti
 t

vy ui ight t

th ,
hih 
stituts th  ft
big ti

f
mis, d is ttdd
ith 
squs simi t
 i ti

f
 ty.
Th  m y b t
kids
f i ti
, th

f
u
 ty, th

th
f  t i
ti

f
u ib ty. Ud th
s
f th f
m
kid  m y  ss th
miss
f gifts, d ud th  tt th

miss
f d
ig  t i ti
s. O this subjt   su id
ith 
b gumts f
m th divi
s, hih if
m us, th t
G
d himsf, h
  b imitd by 
st bishd us
f  , 
ud
t 
t y t
his
  tu , if h did 
t  f
m his
miss.
F
m h it f

s th t th
big ti
s t
 f
m
miss s ig
f
m th  tu 
f th t uh g b justi, hih is  tt ibut
f
G
d, d 
mm
 t
 h
b his im g, i th us
f  s
. T

th

fs
f s i tu  h  f d t
,  m y dd th judgmt
f
S

m
, "My s
 if th
u h st b su ty f
thy f id, th
u h st
tid u thy h ds t
st g ; th
u t s d by th 
ds
f thy

m
uth, th t th
u t k by th 
ds
f thi
 m
uth." H

mis is  d by th Hb s b
d
h i, d is 
m d t

v
. Eust thius i his 
ts
 th s
d b

k
f th Ii d, ssigs
simi
igi t
th 
d {hy
shss}
g gmt. F

h h
h s ivd th
mis, i s
m m su  t ks d h
ds th
 s
, th t h s m d th g gmt. A m ig 
t i x ssd by
Ovid i th s
d b

k
f his Mt m
h
ss, h  th
mis s ys
t
him, t
h
m h h d
misd, "My 
d h s b
m y
u s."
Aft k
ig this, th  m is 
diffiuty i  yig t
th
gumts
f C
 us. F
th x ssi
s
f th  y s, s tig
BARE PROMISES, f
y t
h t  s it
dud by th R
m   s,
hih h v m d FORMAL STIPULATION th ud
ubtd sig
f dib t
mid.
N
  it b did th t th    simi  s m
g
th  ti
s.
F
S , s  kig
f hum   s, d
miss m d ith
ut

s
mitis, s ys, "Wh t  , _
f y 
ut y,  m y dd_,
bigs us
t
th  f
m 
f b 
miss?" But th  m y  tu y b
th
sigs
f dib t mid, bsids f
m  sti u ti
,
y
th
simi t hih th ivi   qui s, t
ff
d g
uds f
g 
mdy. But h t is 
t d
 ith dib t mid,   iid
t
biv d
s 
t 
m ud th  ss
f  ft
big ti
s; s
Th
h stus h s
bs vd i his b

k
  s. N y, v h t is d

ith dib t mid, but 
t ith  itti

f 
dig
u

 ight t

th ; th
ugh it  
t giv y
  tu  ight

f x tig its fufimt, yt it   ts 
big ti
 
t
y i

it
f duty, but i
it
f m
 ssity. Th xt m tt t
b

sid d is, h t  th quisits t

stitut  ft
mis.

. Th us
f  s
 is th fi st quisit t

stitut th

big ti

f
mis, hih id
ts, m dm, d if ts 

squty i b
f m kig. Th  s
f mi
s is s
mh t
diff t. F
th
ugh thy m y 
t h v s
ud judgmt, yt it is

t  m t dft, 
suffiit
f itsf t
iv id t 
thi ts. It  
t b  t iy dfid t h t  i
d
f if
 s
 
mms. But it must b judgd
f f
m d iy ti
s,
f
m
th tiu ust
ms
f  h 
ut y. Am
gst th Hb s
mis
m d by m  t th g
f thi t, d by fm  t th g
f
tv,  s v id. I
th  ti
s, th ivi  s, tig u
 just
m
tivs, d   t i
miss m d by  ds d mi
s t
b v
id,

t
y m
g th R
m s, but m
g th G ks s
, s it h s b

bs vd by Di
 Ch ys
st
m i his tty-fifth
ti
. T
d
 y
th fft
f im
vidt
miss, s
m  s it
du ti
s
f

v y,
stituti
. But suh gu ti
s  ui t
th
ivi  , d h v 
immdi t 
ti
 ith th  
f  tu  d

f  ti
s, y f th th  th t h v thy  st bishd, it is

s
 t t
 tu  justi th t thy sh
ud b
bs vd. Wh f

if f
ig t it
 g mt ith itiz
subjt
f
y
th 
ut y; h i b b
ud by th  s
f th t 
ut y, t

hih, du ig his sid th i, h
s tm
y
bdi.
But th  s is diff t, h   g mt is m d u
 th

s ,
i ds t is d,
by tt s
f 
s
d. F
suh

t ts  gu td by th  
f  tu  
, i th s m m 
s 
m ts m d by s
v igs i thi ubi  ity.
I. Th 
sid ti

f
miss, m d ud  
, is subjt

f s
m it i y. F
it, i g , m ks diff , hth
th
mis k th fu xtt
f his
mis, d th v u
f
th thig
misd,

t,
hth th 
t t, hih  s m d,


igi td i f udut itti
,

t,
hth

f th

tis  s ivy t
th f ud; d hth th fufimt
f it  s
 t
f st it justi,

y
f g

d f ith. F

dig t

th v ity
f ths i umst s,  it s

u s
m ts v
id
d
th s v id,  vig th iju d ty dis ti
 y
 t

sid
md thm.
M
st
f ths distiti
s
igi t i th it ivi, d
t
i  R
m   . Th
ugh s
m
f thm  
t st ity f
udd i
 s
 d t uth. But th m
st
bvi
us d  tu   y
f dis
v ig
th t uth is by f ig t
 s, hih d iv thi f
 d
ffi y f
m th g  
st
f m kid; s
th t if   sts
u
 th sum ti

f y f t, hih i  ity h s 
xist,
suh   is 
t bidig. F
h 
vid
f th f t   b

dud, th ti  f
ud ti
,
 hih th t   sts must f i. But
 must h v 
u s t
th subjt, t
th 
ds d i umst s
f
 , t
dt mi h it is f
udd
 suh sum ti
.[27]
Th s m u is t
th it t ti

f
miss. F
h  thy
 m d u
 th su
siti

f f t, hih i th d
vs 
t
t
b t u, thy 
s th f

f
big ti
s. B us th
mis
m d thm u
  t i 
diti
s
y, th fufimt
f hih b
ms
im
ssib. Ci
, i his fi st b

k
 th t ts d h t
f

t
, uts th  s
f f th , h
, ud th su
siti


itig th t his s
  s d d,
misd t
dvis his
 ty t

his  h. But th su
siti

vig 

us, d th itig
f s, th f th  s  sd f
m th
big ti

f th
mis m d
t
his  tiv. But if th
mis h s gtd t
x mi th
m tt ,
h s b  ss i x ssig his m ig, h i b
b
ud t
 i th d m g hih 
th h s sust id
 th t 
ut.
This
big ti
 is 
t buit
 th st gth
f th
mis, but
 th
iju y, hih it h s
 si
d. A 

us
mis i b bidig,
if th 
 s 
t th OCCASION
f th
mis. F
h  th  is

 t
f 
st i th ty, h
m d it. But if th
mis  s

bt id by f ud, th  s
 s

bt iig it sh  idmify th

mis f
th iju y sust id, if th  h s b y ti  

i th
mis, yt i
th s ts it sh  b dmd v id.

II. P
miss xt
td by f  subjt
f 
ss it i t

disi
. F
h  t

distiti
 is usu y m d bt
 f
udd d him i  f , bt just f d b 
sus ii
, d bt th  s
s h

 si
 it, hth it b th
 s
 t
h
m th
mis is giv,
s
m
th . A distiti

is s
m d bt ts u y g tuit
us, d th
s i hih
b
th tis h v  it st. F

dig t
 this v ity
f
i umst s s
m g gmts  
sid d s v
id,
th s s
v
 b t th  su 
dis ti

f th m k , d
th s s
 tig  im t
idmity f
th i
vi
 si
d. But

  h
f ths
its th  is g  t div sity
f
ii
.
Th  is s
m sh
f  s
 i th
ii

f th
s h
, ith
ut
t kig it

sid ti
 th

f th ivi   t
u

dimiish 
big ti
, m it i th t  s
 is b
ud t
fufi

mis hih h h s giv ud im ssi
s
f f . F
v i
this  s th   s CONSENT, th
ugh it  s xt
td; ith  s it

diti
 , s i 

us
miss, but bs
ut. It is  d
CONSENT. F
s A ist
t h s
bs vd, th
s h

st t
th

thi g

ds
v b
d i st
m, 
ud h v s vd thm, h d it

t b f
th f
f shi  k. But thy f y t ith thm

sid ig  th i umst s
f tim d  .

III. T
d
mis v id, it must b suh s it is i th


f th
mis t
 f
m. F
hih  s
 

miss t
d
ig 
ts  v id; b us 

 ith h s,
v   h v ight t

d
thm. But
mis, s  s s id bf
, d ivs  its f
 f
m
th ight
f th
mis t
m k it, 
  it xtd by
d th t.
If thig is 
t 
 i th

f th
mis , but m y b s
t
s
m futu  tim; th
big ti
 i m i i sus s. F
th

mis  s
y m d ud th x t ti

f s
m futu  biity
t
fufi it. But if  s
 h s 
t
u
v th 
diti
 u

hih th
mis is m d, t
 is it

t, h is ud m


big ti
 t
us v y d v
u t
fufi it. But i
big ti
s
f
this kid s
, th ivi  , f
m
bvi
us m
tivs
f g  utiity,

 si
 y it
ss its uth
ity t
m k thm v
id:
big ti
s,
hih th  
f  tu  
ud h v 
fi md.
IX. Th xt g  iqui y, f
th m
st t, f s t
th v idity

f
miss m d u
 y imm

u fu 
sid ti
; s if,
f
ist , y thig is
misd t

th
 
diti

f his

mmittig mu d . H  th v y
mis itsf is ikd d
u fu, b us it 
u gs th 
mmissi

f  im. But it d
s

t f

 v y FOOLISH
IMPROIDENT
mis 
ss th f

f 

big ti
, s i th 
fi m ti

f im udt

dig  g ts, f


fu th vi   sut f
m 
fi m ti

f h t h s b   dy
giv: d th iv idity
f
miss 
ud b g  t vi th  y
th t 
ud sut f
m 
fi m ti

f th m
st im
vidt. But i

miss m d u
 IMMORAL d UNLAWFUL 
sid ti
s, th  is  ys
 imi ity m iig, v hi thy 
tiu ufufid. F

du ig th h

f th t tim, th x t ti

f fufimt  is
ith it th idib m k
f 
u gmt t
th 
mmissi

f
 im.
XII.[28] W 
bigd t

fi m th g gmts m d by
th s,
tig i
u  m, if it is vidt th t thy h d s i ,
g 
ist uti
s f
m us t
d
s
. Ad i g tig 
mmissi
 ith fu

 s t
y
, it m y s
h  th t   b
ud by th 
dut

f th t gt, v if h xd th s t ist uti
s hih h h s
ivd. F
h ts u
 th t
stsib uth
ity, by hih  
b
ud t
tify h tv h d
s, th
ugh  m y h v b
ud him t
d


thig but 
dig t
his iv t ist uti
s. This u,  must

bs v, is t
th
miss m d by mb ss d
s i th  m
f
thi s
v igs, h, by vi tu
f thi ubi  dti s, thy
h v xdd thi iv t
d s.
XIII. F
m th dig gumts, it is  sy t
ud st d h
 f

 s
f shi s  s b f
th ts
f th m st s m 
yd by
thm i th
s vsss,
m h ts f
th 
dut
f thi f t
s.
F
 tu  quity i qu ify th ti
s b
ught g ist thm,

dig t
th ist uti
s d
 s hih thy giv. S
th t 
m y justy 
dm th ig
u
f th R
m   , i m kig th
 s

f shi s bs
uty b
ud by  th ts
f th m st s m 
yd. F

this is ith 
s
 t t
 tu  quity, hih h
ds it suffiit
f
 h ty t
b s b i

ti
 t
his sh , 
is it

duiv t
th ubi g

d. F
m 
ud b dt d f
m m 
yig
shi s, if thy  y ud th  tu  f
f big s b f
th
ts
f thi m st s t
 uimitd xtt. Ad th f
 i H
 d,

ut y h  t d h s f
u ishd ith th g  tst vig
u , th
R
m    h s v b
bs vd ith 

t y f
m  i
d.
O th 
t y, it is  st bishd u th t 
ti
   b

m it id g ist th
 f
y g  t sum th  th v u
f th

shi d  g
.
F

mis t

vy ight,  t  is 
ss ss y th 
i t sf
f
 ty. Ad i this  s th  is su
sd t
h v
b dt qust, hih is th s m s  t . N
is this

t ditd by th
miss hih th ivi   im is v y
 t

h v m d t
th st t, WITHOUT ANY REQUEST OR FORMAL ACCEPTANCE.
XI. A  s
 hih h s idud s
m t
biv th t th s
 t
f

mis , by th  
f  tu , is suffiit. Ou fi st
siti
 is

t 
t ditd by th R
m   . F
it 
h  s ys, th t
mis
h s its fu fft bf
  t , but
y f
bids th v
 ti


f it hih might vt  t : d this fft suts, 
t f
m
NATURAL but f
m u y LEGAL us.
X. A
th qusti
 is, hth th  t  

f
mis is
suffiit,
hth it
ught t
b 
mmui td t
th
mis
bf
 it   b m d bidig.
It is  t i th t
mis m y b m d t
 ys, ith u


diti

f its big fufid, if  td,
u
 
diti

f its
big tifid, if th
mis is isd
f its big  td. Ad
i  ss
f mutu 
big ti
, it is sumd t
b t k i th  tt
ss; but it is btt t
t k
miss th t  u y g tuit
us i
th f
m ss, uss th  b vid t
th 
t y.
XI. F
m h it f

s, th t
mis m y b v
kd, ith
ut th
im ut ti

f ijusti
vity, BEFORE ACCEPTANCE, s 
ight h s
yt b 
vyd; s i y if ACCEPTANCE   m d th 
diti


f its big fufid. It m y b v
kd t

if th ty t
h
m it
 s m d, sh
ud di bf
  t . B us it is vidt th t
th
 t
 t it

t,  s 
f d u
 HIM, d 
t u

his HEIRS. F
t
giv m  ight, hih m y POSSIBLY dsd t

his hi s, is
 thig, d t
x ss  itti

f givig it t

his hi s is 
th . F
it m ks  ssti  diff  u
 h t
 s
 th f v
u is 
f d. This is ud st

d i th s m d
by N tius, h
s id, th t h did 
t biv th i 
ud h v
g td t

 h
 s d d, h t h g td, su
sig him sti iv.
XII. A
mis m y b v
kd, by th d th
f th  s

itd
t

mmui t t
thi d th itti

f th
mis . B us th

big ti
 t
th thi d  s
 std u
 suh 
mmui ti
. Th
 s is diff t, h  ubi mssg is m 
yd, h
is 
t
himsf th
big t
y ist umt, but
y th m s th
ugh hih it
is 
vyd. Th f
 tt s idi tig
mis,

st m y b

vyd by y
. Yt th  is distiti
 t
b m d bt
miist
itd t

mmui t
mis, d

itd t
m k
th
mis i his
  m.
F
i th f
m  s, v
 ti
 i b v id, v th
ugh it
h s 
t b m d k
 t
th miist m 
yd; but i th  tt
 s, it i b ti y v
id, b us th ight
f
misig  s

mmittd t
th miist , d fuy d dd u
 his i; th f

th
big ti

f th
mis  s 
m t, s h k
f 
itdd
v
 ti
. S
s
i th f
m  s, h  s
d  s
 is

mmissi
d t

mmui t th itti
s
f d

t
thi d; v
if th d

sh
ud di, th  t 
f th gift i b dmd
v id,  th t  s quisit big  f
md

 t; th
ugh ti
th t  i
d th itti
  s v
 b, s is vidt i th  s
f

bqusts. But i th
th  s, h   s
 h s ivd fu


mmissi
 t
xut
mis du ig th LIFE
f th d

, sh
ud
th d

di bf
 th xuti

f it, d th  s
 m 
yd b
isd
f his d th; th 
mmissi
, th
mis, d th  t 

f it i th, t
, b
m v
id.
I d
ubtfu  ss, it is  s
 b t
su
s th t it  s th
itti

f th
mis , th t th 
mmissi
 hih h g v sh
ud
b xutd, uss s
m g  t h g, s f
ist , his
 d th
sh
ud
u . Yt  s
s i f v
u
f 
t y
ii
 m y  siy
b f
ud d dmittd, s i y ith s t t
i
us d
 ti
s,
hih, t  vts,
ught t
st d g

d. Ad i th s m m  m y
b didd th 
g dis utd qusti
, hth  ti

 
ut
f
suh bqust 
ud b b
ught g ist th hi . U
 hih th uth


f th s
d b

k t
H ius s ys, th t M us D usus th t

didd
  y, d Sxtus Juius 
th .
XIII. Th  t 
f
mis f
thi d  s
 is m tt
subjt t
disussi
, i hih th  is distiti
 t
b
bs vd
bt
mis m d t
 s

f thig, hih is t
b giv t


th , d
mis m d di ty t
th  s
 himsf,
 h
m
th f
m is t
b 
f d. If
mis is m d t
y
, h 
his
  s
  it st is 
t 
 d, 
sid ti
 it
dud
by th R
m   , by  t  h sms  tu y t
qui  ight
hih m y b t sf d t

th f
HIS  t , d this ight
i ss s
fuy, th t i th m  tim th
mis  
t b v
kd
by th  s
 h
g v, th
ugh it m y b  sd by him h
ivd
it. F
th t is m ig by 
m s  ug t t
th  
f  tu ,
d it is ti y 
f
m b t
th 
ds
f suh
mis; 
 
it b m tt
f idiff  t
th  s
, th
ugh h
m 
th is
t
iv bfit.
But if
mis is m d di ty t

,
 h
m thig is t
b

f d, distiti
 must b m d, hth th  s
 ivig
suh
mis h s SPECIAL 
mmissi
 f
 t ,

 s
GENERAL
s t
iud  t ,
h s it 
t. Wh 
mmissi
 h s b
vi
usy giv, 
f th distiti
 is ss y, hth th
 s
 b f 

t, 
diti
 hih th R
m   s qui . But it
is  i th t f
m suh   t , t th 
diti

f th  s

b h t it i, th
mis is 
m t: b us 
st m y b giv
d sigifid th
ugh th mdium
f 
th . F
 s
 is su
sd
t
h v fuy itdd, h t h h s ut it
th

f 
th t

 t
fus.
Wh  th  is 
suh 
mmissi
, if 
th , t
h
m th
mis
 s 
t di ty m d,  ts it ith th 
st
f th
mis ,
th
mis i b s
f bidig, th t th
mis i 
t b t
ib ty t
v
k it, bf
 th  s
, i h
s f v
u it  s m d
h s tifid, d ft  ds h
s t
 s th g gmt. Yt, i
th m  tim, th  t  
t  s it, s h vig d ivd 

ui ight f
m it himsf, but
y b usd s  ist umt
i
m
tig th kid itti
s d g

d f ith
f th
mis . Th

mis th f
 himsf, by v
kig it, is 
t d
ig vi
 t

th  ft ight
f 
th , but
y tig i 
t diti
 his

g

d f ith.
XIX. F
m h t h s b s id bf
, it is  sy t

iv h t

ii

ught t
b t t id
f bu ds
m 
diti
 xd t


mis. F
it m y b xd t y tim, ti
mis h s b

m td by  t ,
 i v
 b dg t
fufi it h s b

giv. But th 
diti

f bu d xd t
f v
u itdd t

b 
f d u
 thi d  s
, th
ugh th mdium
f y
, m y
b v
kd bf
 th  s
 h s 
fi md it by his  t . O
this
it th  is g  t diff 
f
ii
. But u
 im ti 

sid ti
 th  tu  quity
f y  s m y b  siy s ith
ut
y g  t gth
f gumts.
XX. XXI. XXII. A
th
it
f disussi
  ts t
th v idity
f
 

us
mis, h th  s
, h
m d it, u
 big isd

f his 
is iig t
dh  t
his g gmt. Ad th s m
iqui y is t

miss, hih, isig
ut
f f
y
th
suh m
tiv, 
hibitd by th ivi  . Wh t, it m y b skd,
i b
m
f ths
miss, if th t f ,
th t m
tiv h s b
m
vd?
T

fi m suh
big ti
s, s
m thik  it   
st
f th mid

 i 
juti
 ith s
m vi
us xt   t is suffiit.
Oth s dis
v
f this
ii
, b us thy d

t dmit th t 
xt   t is   sig
f subsqut itti
. Th f
 thy
qui   x ss  titi

f th
mis d  t . Bt
ths t

ii
s, th t uth is m
st iky t
b f
ud. Th  m y
b  xt   t x ssiv
f
mis, th
ugh u 
m id ith

ds; h 
 ty's  tig d t iig gift, d th

th 's iquishig his ight i it  suffiit t

stitut
fu 
st.
T
vt ivi  s f
m big 
f
udd ith  tu  justi, 
must 
t
mit 
tiig, i this  , th t
miss th
ugh f
udd i

EXPRESS m
tiv,  
t, y m
 th  gifts, v
id by th  
f
 tu .
N
is  s
 h
h s g gd f

th 's  f
mig y thig,
b
ud t
y d m gs d it st f
gt,
vidd h h s d

v y thig th t  s ss y
 his t t
 ds
bt iig its

m ishmt. Uss th x ss t ms
f th g mt,
th
 tu 
f th busiss qui  st it
big ti
,
sitivy
d ig th t, ud  i umst s h tv , th thig sh  b
 f
md.

CHAPTER XII.
ON CONTRACTS.
Hum  ti
s dividd it
sim 
mixd--G tuit
us,


m id ith mutu 
big ti
--Ats by  y

f xh g, djustmt
f h t is t
b giv

d
--P t shi --C
t ts--P vi
us qu ity--As t
k
dg

f  i umst s--As t
f d
m
f 
st, quisit i

t ts
f xh g,
f s ,
f 
mmissi
 d 
--P i

f thigs i h t m  t
b td--T sf
f
 ty by
s --Wh t kid 
t y t
th  
f  tu --M
y--Its us s
th st d d v u
f  thigs--N
b tmt i th t
hi 

f thig
 
ut
f
di y idts--I  s
dimiuti


f just s  is--Usu y, by h t   f
bidd--It st 
t

mig ud th  m
f usu y--Isu --P t shi s
f T d,
N v  Ass
i ti
s--Iqu ity i th t ms
f 
t t 
 y
 ug t t
th  
f  ti
s.

I. d II. Of  hum  ti
s, h i th it st
f
th s is


 d, s
m  sim , d s
m  mixd. I th
s
f th f
m
ds i ti
  s vi is u y g tuit
us, but i th  tt it is
t ffi
f xh g. I th
  s th s vi is g td ith
ut
quit , but i th
th it is 
m id ith 
big ti


b
th sids. G tuit
us s vis  ith immdi t i thi fft,

t
t k   t s
m futu  tim. A bfii  s vi m y b s id
t
b immdi ty  f
md, h it 
f s  dv t g, t
hih
th  s
 s
bfittd h s 
di t
bs
ut ight. As gift
t sf s
 ty, h  th  is 
vi
us ight. A subjt, hih
h s b   dy disussd. Ad
miss m y b s id t
 t t
s
m
futu  gift,
ti
,
f hih fu d suffiit x   ti
 h s
bf
 b giv.
S vis 
m id ith mutu 
big ti
  th
s h  th us

f thig is 
d t
y
 ith
ut 
m t i ti
,

h   b
u is giv i x t ti

f s
m v u b 
sid ti
.
Ud th fi st
f ths h ds  m y k
 th 
 d us
f 

sum b
i
sum b
 ty: d ud th  tt  m y  
 
mmissi
s t
t s t busiss,
 t usts t
s v th

 ty
f 
th . Simi t
hih  
miss
f s
mthig t

b d
, x t th t thy g d futu  tim. Ad i this vi 
m y 
sid  th ti
s, hih  
 t
b x  id.
III. I  ts
f xh g, th  is ith  djustmt
f sh s,

th
fits  g dd s 
mm
 st
k. Ad suh djustmts
 m d by th R
m  L y s i th f

ig t ms, "I giv this
t
iv th t i tu , I d
this i
d f
y
u t
d
th t,

I d
this f
y
u t
giv m th t."[29] But th R
m s xud f
m
th t djustmt  t i kids
f 
t ts, hih thy   EXPRESS
ENGAGEMENTS. N
t b us thy  titd t
y suh ui  m
m
 th  th sim  ts
f xh g   dy mti
d: but b us
f
m f qut us thy h v  tu y d ivd h t simi t

th t
f th
igi  
t t, f
m hih thy   md, th
ugh thy
 
t ttdd x ty ith th s m i umst s, 
x ssd
di ty i th s m t ms. Wh  s i
th 
t ts ss f quty
i us, th f
m  s 
fid t
 x t st tmt
f  th
i umst s
f th  s. A ti
 u
 hih  s th f
  d by
th R
m     ACTION IN PRESCRIBED WORDS.
F
th s m  s
, if th
s 
t ts, hih  i g  us, b

m id ith y
f th quisit f
m itis, s i b g i

s , if th i h d b g d u
, th
ugh 
t
f th
g mt h d b  f
md by ith
f th tis, th ivi  
f
d 
big ti
 t
fufi thm. But s it 
sid s th
s

t ts hih  sd
m usd, m
 i th ight
f v
ut y
g gmts, d dig u
 th g

d f ith
f th s tiv tis,
th  u
 g 
big ti
, it  vs b
th sids t ib ty t

iquish thm t y tim i
t
thi big  tu y  f
md.
Distiti
s
f this kid  uk
 t
th  
f  tu , hih
givs SIMPLE AGREEMENTS qu  uth
ity ith th
s, th t  iudd
by ivii s i th  ss
f EXPRESS CONTRACTS. Ad
 th s

f
tiquity thi tsi
s  f su  i
. It is th f
  fty

f
m b t
th ii s
f  tu  t
du th djustmt
f
 g mts, ith
ut y g d t
th distiti
 bt SIMPLE
d EXPRESS CONTRACTS, t
th th  s is   dy  md. Thus, f

ist ,
 thig is giv f

th , hih 
stituts b t ,

th m
st it kid
f t ffi; th xt st i th
g ss
f


mm i  it 
u s is h 
 kid
f m
y is giv f

th ,
t s ti
 hih by m h ts is  d xh g; d thi d
s is
f 
t t is h  m
y is giv f
y thig, s i th
ts
f sig d buyig. O th USE
f
 thig m y b giv f

th t
f 
th ; m
y s
m y b giv f
th USE
f thig, hih
 st mth
d 
stituts th ts
f ttig d hi ig.
Th t m us is t
b ud st

d h  s id 
t
y t
th b 
u
dutiv us
f thig, but t
th t hih is ttdd ith
fit,
hth it b tm
y,  s
 , h dit y
i ums ibd, s
 s th  s m
g th Hb s ith g d t
t sf s, hih 
ud
b m d f


g tim th  ti th y
f Jubi. Th v y
ss
f 
 
sists i tu 
f th s m kid
f thig
ft st td  i
d. A tu  hih   t k  
y i thigs
gu td by ight, umb ,
m su , hth it b i 
mm
ditis

m
y. But th xh g
f  b
u b hs
ut it
v i
us kids
f

m 
tu . As, f
ist ,  s
 givs his  b
u f

m
y, hih i th d iy t s ti
s
f if is  d hi 
 gs:
h 
 ud t ks t
idmify 
th f
idt  
sss

d m gs, it is  d isu : s is
f 
t t s  k
 t

th its, but 
 f
mig v y im
t t b h i  m  ti
d m itim 
 s.
I. Ats
f 
mmui ti
  th
s, h   h 
t ibuts sh 
t
th j
it st
k. P h s

 sid, m
y, d
 th
th ,
ski d  b
u m y b giv. But i h tv  y ths 
 s 
gu td, thy 
m ud th d
mi ti

f t shi s. With this
 ss  m y k th i s
f diff t st ts i  . Ad
f
th s m ds i ti
  th
s  v  ss
i ti
s
f idividu s, s

f quty f
md i H
 d f

tti
 g ist i ts

th
iv d s, hih is g y  d  ADMIRALTY, d t
hih th
G ks g v th  m
f j
it ft.

. d I. N
 mixd ti
s  ith suh i thmsvs,
m d s

by s
m dvtiti
us i umst . Thus if I k
igy giv
  s

g  t i f
thig th  I   u h s it f

f 
th , th
xss
f i m y b 
sid d ty s gift, d ty s
u h s. O if I g g g
dsmith t
m k m y ti ith his

 m t i s, th i hih I giv i b ty u h s, d
ty  gs. Th fud  systm t

might b 
sid d s t i
f
mixd 
t ts. Wh  th g t
f th f might b 
sid d s
bfii  t; but th miit y s vi qui d by th L
d, i
tu  f
his
tti
, g v th f th  tu 
f 
t t, h 
 s
 did
 thig x tig f
it th  f
m 
f 
th . But
if y ymt is tt hd t
it by  y
f k
dgmt, it t ks

f th  tu 
f quit t. S
m
y st t
s by  y
f vtu  is
s
mthig 
m
udd
f 
t t,
f 
, d
f  isu .
II. A ts bfii  t

th s, x t th
s th t 
g tuit
us, 
m ud th d
mi ti

f 
t ts.

u y

III. I  
t ts,  tu  justi qui s th t th  sh
ud b

 qu ity
f t ms: is
muh th t th gg ivd ty h s  ti

g ist th
th f

v  hig him. This qu ity 
sists ty
i th  f
m , d ty i th
fits
f th 
t t, yig
t
 th vi
us gmts, d t
th ssti  
squs
f
th g mt.
IX. As t
 qu ity
f t ms

vi
us t
th 
t t, it is vidt

th t s is b
ud t
dis
v t
u h s y dfts,

hih  k
 t
him, i thig
ff d f
s ; u 
t

y st bishd by ivi  s, but st ity 
f
m b t
 tu 
justi. F
th 
ds
f g mt bt 
t tig tis 
v st
g th  th
s,
 hih s
ity is f
udd. Ad i this
m  m y b x  id th
bs v ti

f Di
gs th B by
i ,
h
i disussig this t
i s id, it is 
t v y dg 
f si,
hih m
uts t

 mt; 
is
  s
 b
ud t
dis
s
v y thig, hih m y b
f s vi t

th . Thus f
ist ,
m 
f si is 
t st ity b
ud t

mmui t t

th th t
k
dg, hih might d
ud t
his dv t g. F

t ts, hih
  ivtd t

m
t bfii  it 
u s m
g m kid,
qui  s
m 
s d m
 itim t 
ti
 th  b  g

d-i
t
f
 thi
big ti
. U
 hih Amb
s h s justy m kd,
"th t, i 
t ts, th f uts
f thigs x
sd t
s 
ught t
b
m d k
,
f hih uss th s h s giv itim ti
, th
ugh h
m y h v t sf d th ight
f
 ty by s , yt h is i b t

 ti

f f ud."
But th s m  
t b s id
f thigs 
t 
mig ud th  tu 

f 
t ts. Thus if y
 sh
ud s his 
 t high i,
h h k
s th t m y shi s  d ith g i  b
ud f
th t
 , th
ugh it 
ud b  t
f kidss i him t

mmui t
suh itig t
th u h s s, d th
ugh 
dv t g 
ud b
d ivd t
him, f
m ithh
dig th 
mmui ti
, but t th x 

f h ity, yt th  is 
thig ujust i it,

t y t
th
g  us
f d ig. Th ti is vidi td by Di
gs i
th ss g
f Ci
udd t
, h s ys, "I  id my 
mm
ditis
d
ff d thm t
s , i sig thm I dm dd 
g  t i
th 
th s did; if th su y h d b g  t I 
ud h v s
d thm
f
ss, d h  is th 
g d
 t
y
?" Th m xim
f Ci

th f
  
t g y b dmittd, th t, k
ig thig y
u sf,
t
ish 
th , h
s it st it is t
k
 it s
, t
m i
ig
t
f it, m y f
th s k
f y
u
 dv t g, m
uts t

f udut 
 mt. By 
m s; f
th t
y is f udut

 mt hih immdi ty ffts th  tu 
f th 
t t:
s f
ist , i sig h
us, t

  th i umst 
f
its big iftd ith th  gu,
h vig b
d d by ubi
uth
ity t
b ud d
. But it is uss y t
mti
, th t
th  s
, ith h
m s t  ts,
ught t
b isd
f v y
i umst  ttdig th thig
ff d f
s ; if it b  ds,
hth th tu  b subjt t
t-h g,
s vi
f y kid,

b ti y f .
X. d XI. N
is th qu ity th t h s b x  id 
fid s
y
t
th 
mmui ti

f  th i umst s
f th  s t
th

t tig tis, but it iuds s
 ti  f d
m
f 
st
i b
th.
I th ii  t itsf, th
 qu ity qui s th t 
m

sh
ud b dm dd ith ty th  h t is just. Whih   s 
h v   i g tuit
us ts. T
sti u t f

m  i
tu  f

,
f
th s vi
f  b
u

mmissi
 is d
ig


g, but 
stituts kid
f mixd 
t t, t kig
f th
 tu 
f g tuit
us t, d  t
f xh g. Ad i  ts

f xh g, this qu ity is t
b utu y
bs vd. N
  it
b s id th t if
 ty
miss m
, it is t
b 

kd u
 s
gift. F
m v t it

t ts ith suh itti
s, 


ught th xist
f suh itti
s v b sumd, uss thy
vidty  . F

miss
gifts, i ths  ss,  m d

ith  x t ti

f ivig  quiv t i tu . "Wh, _i

th 
ds
f Ch ys
st
m_, i  b g is d 
t ts,   xi
us
t
iv MORE d giv LESS th  is du, h t is this but s is

f f ud

bb y?" Th  it
f th if
f Isid
us i Ph
tius,
 ts
f H mi s, th t h y thig, hih h ishd t
u h s
 s v ud t t


 t, h m d u th dfiiy
f th i,
thikig th t t
t
th is  s s is
f ijusti, th
ugh it
might s  th
bs v ti

f
th s. Ad i this ss, m y b
it td th  
f th Hb s.
XII. Th  m is 
th dg 
f qu ity t
b 
sid d, isig

ut
f th f

ig  s. It m y h  i 
t ts th t th
ugh

thig is 
 d, hih
ught t
b m d k
, 
m
 x td

t k by
 ty th  is du, yt th  m y b s
m iqu ity
ith
ut y f ut i ith
f th tis. P h s, f
ist  th 
might b s
m uk
 dft i th thig,
th  might b s
m
mist k i th i. Yt, i suh  ss, t
s v th t qu ity,
hih is  ssti  quisit i  
t ts, th ty suff ig
by suh dft
mist k,
ught t
b idmifid by th
th . F
i
 g gmts it ith is,

ught t
b st dig u, th t b
th
tis sh
ud h v qu  d just dv t gs.
It  s 
t i v y kid
f qu ity th t th R
m    st bishd
this u, ssig
v sight
 si
s, i
d t
dis
u g
f qut d f iv

us itig ti
. It
y it
sd its judii 
uth
ity i ighty m tt s, h  th i xdd th just v u
by
 h f. L s idd, s Ci
h s s id, h v
 t

m ,

st i m, h  s hi
s
h s  
y   t
thi  s


ud st dig. Yt th
s, h
 
t subjt t
th

f ivi
 s
ught t

m y ith h tv  s

its
ut t
thm t
b
just: S
t


ught thy, h
 subjt t
th

f hum   s, t

 f
m h tv  tu  d divi justi qui s, v i  ss,
h  th  s ith giv 
t k  y th ight, but
y f
b
t
f
 it f
tiu  s
s.
XIII. Th  is  t i dg 
f qu ity, t

, i bfii 

g tuit
us ts, 
t idd ik th t v iig i 
t ts
f
xh g, but
dig u
 su
siti

f th h dshi , th t
y
 sh
ud iv dt imt f
m v
ut y s vis, hih h
bst
s. F
hih  s
 v
ut y gt
ught t
b idmifid
f
th x 
i
vi, hih h iu s, by ud t kig th
busiss
f 
th . A b

 t

is b
ud t
 i thig th t h s
b d m gd
dst
yd. B us h is b
ud t
th
 
t
y
f
th thig itsf, by vi tu
f th
 ty hih h t is i
it, but h
s dbt
f g titud s
f
th f v
u
f th 
;
uss it  s th t th thig s
t 
ud h v  ishd, h d it
v m id i
ssssi

f th
 himsf. I this  s, th

 
ss 
thig by th 
. O th
th h d, th d
sit y h s
ivd 
thig but t ust. If th thig th f
 is dst
yd, h
 
t b b
ud t
st
 h t is 

g i xist, 
  h
b qui d t
m k 
m , h  h h s d ivd 
dv t g;
f
i t kig th t ust h did 
t iv f v
u , but 
f d

. I , th s m s i thig t
ut f
hi , midd  y

f didig th
big ti
 m y b u sud, s
th t th  s
 t kig
it is 
t s b, ik b

 , f
v y idt, d yt h
is
bigd t
us g  t  , th  b  d
sit y, i k ig
it s f. F
th
ugh t kig dg is g tuit
us  t , it
is f

d by s
m
f th 
diti
s
f 
t t. A ths  ss
 
f
m b t
th R
m   , th
ugh 
t
igi y d ivd f
m
th, but f
m  tu  quity. Rus, 
f hih m y b f
ud m
g


th  ti
s. Ad, m
g
th 
ks,  m y f t
th thi d b

k

d f
ty-s
d h t
f th GUIDE FOR DOUBTFUL CASES,  itt by
M
ss M im
ids, Jish  it .
U
 th s m ii s th  tu 
f 
th 
t ts m y b
x  id; but th  dig f tu s i th
s
f  t i ds i ti
s
smd suffiit f
t  tis ik th st.
XI. Th g  dm d f
y thig, s A ist
t h s  y

vd, 
stituts th t u m su 
f its v u, hih m y b s
tiu y f
m th ti v iig m
g b b
us  ti
s
f
xh gig
 thig f

th . But this is 
t th
y st d d:
f
th hum
u s d  i
f m kid, hih dit t d 
t
u 
gu ti
s, giv 
mi  v u t
m y su  fuitis. It  s uxu y,
s ys Piy, th t fi st dis
v d th v u
f  s, d Ci
h s
s
mh 
bs vd, th t th 
th
f suh thigs  
y b stim td
by th dsi s
f m.
But
 th
th h d, it h s th t th tifu su y
f
ss is 
 s thi i. This S , i th 15th h t
f his
sixth b

k
 bfits,
vs by m y ist s, hih h 
uds
ith th f

ig
bs v ti
, "th i
f v y thig must b
gu td by th m kt, d 
tithst dig  y
u iss, it is

th 
thig m
 th  it   b s
d f
." T
hih  m y dd th
uth
ity
f P uus th L y , h
s ys, th is
f thigs d

t
d d u
 th hum
u s d it st
f idividu s, but u
 
mm

stim ti
, th t is, s h x  is himsf sh , 
dig t
th

th hih thy 
f t
.
H it is th t thigs  v ud i

ti
 t
h t is usu y

ff d
giv f
thm, u dmittig
f g  t v i ti
 d
 titud, x t i  t i  ss, h  th   h s fixd st d d
i. I th 
mm
 i
f tis, th  b
u d x 
f th
m h t i
u ig thm is t k it
th 
ut, d th sudd
h gs s
f qut i  m kts d d u
 th umb
f buy s,
hth it b g  t
sm , d u
 th m
y d m kt b

mm
ditis, hth thy b tifu
s .
Th  m y idd b  su tis,
ig t
hih thig m y b  fuy
b
ught
s
d b
v
b
 th m kt i. Thus f
ist ,
thig by big d m gd m y h v 
st its
igi 

mm
 v u,

th t, hih
th is 
ud 
t h v b dis
sd
f, m y b b
ught

s
d f
m s
m tiu ikig
v si
. A ths i umst s

ught t
b m d k
 t
th 
t tig tis. Rg d t

sh
ud b
h d t
th 
ss
g i isig f
m d y

m tss
f ymt.
X. I buyig d sig  must
bs v, th t th b g i is

m td f
m th v y m
mt
f th 
t t, v ith
ut div y,
d th t is th m
st sim   y
f d ig. Thus S s ys, th t
s  is t sf
f
's ight d
 ty i thig t

th ,
hih is d
 i  xh gs. But if it b sttd th t th
 ty
sh  
t b t sf d immdi ty, sti th s i b b
ud t


vy it t th st td  i
d, t kig i th m  tim  th
fits
d 
sss.
Wh  s th 
m ti

f b g i d s , by givig th u h s
ight
f
ssssi
 d jtmt, d 
vyig t
him th h z d
ith  th
fits
f th
 ty, v bf
 it is t sf d,
 gu ti
s
f th ivi   
t uiv s y
bs vd. Idd
s
m gis t
s h v m d th s s b f
 idts

 d d m gs, ti th tu  div y
f
ssssi
 is m d, s

Th
h stus h s
bs vd i ss g i St
b us, ud th tit

f  s, h  th  d i fid m y ust
ms,  tig t
th
f
m itis
f s , t
 st, t
 t 
f b g i, v y
diff t f
m th us
f th R
m   . Ad m
g th Rh
di s, Di

P us sis if
ms us th t  s s d 
t ts   
fi md by
big t d i ubi gist .
W must
bs v t

th t, if thig h s b ti s
d,
f th t

s s th
 is v id, h   immdi t t sf
f th
 ty h s
b m d, ith by div y
f
ssssi
,
i y
th m
d. F

by this m s th s givs u  bs
ut ight, hih 
ud 
t
ss by
mis 
.
XI. It is 
t v y kid
f m


y th t m
uts t
di t
vi
 ti

f th  s
f  tu . Th S
v ig
 m y h v v y just
 s
s f
g tig m


is, d th t t

t sttd i:

b ist 
f hih  fid i th hist
y
f J
s h, h
g
v d
Egy t ud th us is
f Ph
h.[30] S
s
ud th R
m 
g
v mt th 

f Ax d i , s   if
md by St b
,
j
yd th m


y
f  Idi  d Ethi
i  g

ds.
A m


y s
m y, i s
m  ss, b st bishd by idividu s,

vidd thy s t  s
 b t. But  
mbi ti
s t
is
th ss y tis
f if t
 x
bit t t,
 vi
t
d f udut ttm ts t
vt th m kt f
m big su id,

t
buy u  t i 
mm
ditis, i
d t
h  th i, 
ubi iju is d uish b s suh.[31] O idd ANY WAY
f
vtig th im
t ti

f g

ds,
buyig thm u i
d t

s thm t g  t t th  usu , th
ugh th i, UNDER SOME
PARTICULAR CIRCUMSTANCES, m y 
t sm u  s
 b, is fuy sh by
Amb
s i his thi d b

k
f Offis t
b b  h
f h ity; th
ugh
it 
m 
t di ty ud th
hibiti

f  s.
XII. As t
m
y, it m y b
bs vd th t its uss d

t sut
f
m y v u it isi y b
gig t
th i
us mt s,
t

th s ifi d
mi ti
 d sh 
f 
i, but f
m th g 
i ti
 hih   b m d
f it, s st d d
f ymt f


mm
ditis. F
h tv is t k s 
mm
 m su 
f 
th
thigs,
ught t
b i b, i itsf, t
but itt v i ti
. N
 th
i
us mt s 
f this ds i ti
,
ssssig  y th s m
it isi v u t  tims d i   s. Th
ugh th 
mi 
v u
f th s m qu tity
f g
d d siv , hth id by ight


i i b g  t
ss, i

ti
 t
th bud 

s ity
f th thigs f
hih th  is g  dm d.
XIII. Lttig d hi ig, s C ius h s justy s id, 
m  st t

sig d buyig, d  gu td by th s m ii s. F
th
i 
s
ds t
th t
hi , d th
 ty
f thig t

th ib ty
f usig it. Wh f
 s 
 must b th 
ss
f
thig th t  ishs, s
 s
 hi ig thig
tig f m
must b th 
ss
f 
di y idts, s f
ist , th
s

f b ss
y
th  us, hih m y dimiish his
fits.[32]
N
i th
 ,
 th t 
ut, b th ss titd t
th
sti u td i
t, b us h g v th
th th ight
f
j
ymt, hih t th t tim  s 
th s
muh, uss it  s th
g d th t th v u sh
ud d d u
 suh 
tigis.
If 
 , h th fi st t t h s b vtd f
m usig
thig, sh  h v t it t

th ,  th
fits  uig f
m it

  du t
th fi st t t, f
it 
ud 
t b quit b th t th

 sh
ud b m d ih by h t b
gd t

th .
XIX. Th xt t
i, th t 
ms ud 
sid ti
, is th  fuss

f t kig it st f
th us
f 
sum b thig; th gumts
b
ught g ist hih  by 
m s suh s t

mm d
u sst.
F
s t
h t is s id
f th 

f 
sum b
 ty big
g tuit
us t, d titd t

tu , th s m  s
ig m y
y t
th ttig
f i
sum b
 ty f
hi , qui ig

m  f
th us
f hih is v dmd u fu, th
ugh it
givs th 
t t itsf diff t d
mi ti
.
N
is th  y m
 ight i th
bjti
 t
t kig it st f

th us
f m
y, hih i its
  tu  is b  d u
dutiv.
F
th s m m y b s id
f h
uss d
th thigs, hih 
u
dutiv d u
fit b ith
ut th idust y
f m .[33]
Th  is s
mthig m
 s i
us i th gumt, hih m it is,
th t, s
 thig is h  giv i tu  f

th , d th us d

fits
f thig  
t b distiguishd f
m th thig itsf, h
th v y us
f it d ds u
 its 
sum ti
, 
thig m

ught t

b qui d i tu  f
th us, th  h t is b y quiv t t

th thig itsf.
But it is ss y t
m k, th t h it is s id th j
ymt
f
th
fits
f 
sum b thigs, h
s
 ty is t sf d, i
th us, t
th b


t ust,  s it
dud by  t
f th
s t, this d
s 
t
 y 
m ud th 
ti

f Usuf ut, hih
 t iy i its
igi  sigifi ti
 s s t

suh ight.
Yt it d
s 
t f

 th t suh ight is
f 
v u, but
 th

t y m
y m y b qui d f
su d ig it t
th
it
.
Thus s
th ight
f 
t yig m
y
i b

d ti ft
 t i tim is thig h
s v u m y b s t id, th d y big

sid d s s
m dv t g. Th f
 i m
tg g th
fits
f
th  d s th us
f m
y. But h t C t
, Ci
, Put h d

th s g g ist usu y, is 
t s
muh t
th  tu 
f th
thig, s t
th idt  i umst s d 
squs ith hih
it is 
mm
y ttdd.[34]
XX. Th   s
m kids
f it st, hih  th
ught t
 th
 
f usu y, d g y 
m ud th t d
mi ti
,
but hih i  ity  
t ts
f diff t  tu . Th fiv
shiigs 
mmissi
 hih b k , f
ist , h gs u

v y hud d
uds, is 
t s
muh  it st i dditi
 t
fiv
 t, s 
m s ti
 f
his t
ub, d f
th isk d
i
vi h iu s, by th 

f his m
y, hih h might h v
m 
yd i s
m
th u tiv  y. I th s m m   s
 h

ds m
y t
m y idividu s, d, f
th t u
s, k s  t i
sums
f  sh i his h ds,
ught t
h v s
m idmity f
th

tiu  
ss
f it st u
 th
s sums, hih m y b 
sid d
s s
muh d d st
k. N
  y 
m 
f this kid b b dd
ith th  m
f usu y. Dm
sths, i his s h g ist P t tus,

dms it s 
di
us t
f ijusti, t
h g ith usu y m ,
h
i
d t
k his ii  udimiishd,
t
ssist 
th
ith m
y, ds
ut th s vigs
f his idust y d f ug  h bits,
u
 m
d t it st.
XXI. Th
s hum   s, hih 
 
m s ti
 t
b m d f
th
us
f m
y
y
th thig,  ith  ug t t
 tu  

v d  . Thus i H
 d, h  th t
f it st u
 
mm



s  s ight  t, th   s 
ijusti i qui ig tv

 t
f m h ts; b us th h z d  s g  t . Th justi d
 s
 bss idd
f  ths gu ti
s must b m su d by th
h z d
i
vi
f dig. F
h  th 
m  xds
this, it b
ms  t
f xt
ti


ssi
.
XXII. C
t ts f
gu dig g ist d g , hih   d
isu s, i b dmd f udut d v
id, if th isu  k
s
bf
h d th t th thig isu d is   dy s f,
h s  hd its
 
f dsti ti
, d th
th ty th t it is   dy dst
yd


st. Ad th t 
t s
muh
 
ut
f th qu ity  tu y
quisit i  
t ts
f xh g, s b us th d g d
u t ity is th v y ss
f suh 
t t. N
 th mium u

 isu s must b gu td by 
mm
 stim ti
.[35]
XXIII. I t dig t shi s, h  m
y is 
t ibutd by b
th
tis; if th

ti
s b qu , th
fits d th 
sss
ught
t
b qu  s
. But if thy b uqu , th
fits d th 
sss
must b th s m

ti
, s A ist
t h s sh t th 
usi


f th ighth b

k
f his Ethis. Ad th s m u i h
d g

d
h  qu 
uqu 

ti
s
f  b
 
t ibutd. L b

m y b giv s b   g ist m
y,
b
th  b
d m
y m y
b giv, 
dig t
th g  m xim th t
 m 's  b
u is 
quiv t f

th m 's m
y.
But th   v i
us  ys
f f
mig ths g mts. If m 
b

s m
y t
m 
y his ski u
 i t dig f
himsf, hth
h g is

ss th h
, h is s b t
th
 f
th
ii . But h  m  uits his  b
t
th  it 
f 
th
i t shi , th  h b
ms t i th ii , t
sh 

f hih h is titd. I th fi st
f ths  ss th ii  is

t 
m d s b   g ist th  b
, but it is t u
 t ms


ti
d t
th isk
f 
sig it,
th
b b g is t
b
d ivd f
m it. I th
th  s, th i
f  b
u is ighd, s
it  , g ist th m
y, d th ty h
bst
s it, is titd
t
 quiv t sh  i th  it .
Wh t h s b s id
f  b
u m y b id t
v
y gs, d 

th h z d
us ud t kigs. F
it is 
t y t
th v y  tu 

f t shi s f
y
 t
sh  i th g i, d t
b xm t
f
m th 
sss. Yt it m y b s
sttd ith
ut y dg 
f
ijusti. F
th  m y b mixd 
t t isig
ut
f 
t t

f isu  i hih du qu ity m y b s vd, by 
ig th
 s
, h
h s t k u
 himsf th 
sss, t
iv g  t
sh 
f th g i th  h 
ud
th is h v d
. But it is thig
quit i dmissib th t y
 sh
ud b s
sib f
th 
sss
ith
ut t kig
f th g is; f

mmui

f it sts is s

 tu  t
s
ity th t it  
t subsist ith
ut it.
Wh t h s b s id by  it s
 th ivi  , th t th sh s 
ud st

d t
b qu  h  thy  
t x ssy  md, is t u
h  qu  qu
t s h v b 
t ibutd. But i GENERAL t shi
th sh s  
t t
b m su d by h t m y is f
m this
th t
ti, but f
m th
b b
fits
f th h
.
XXI. I  v  ss
i ti
s th 
mm
 m
tiv
f utiity is
sf-df g ist i ts: th
ugh thy m y s
mtims b f
md f
m
ss 
thy m
tivs. I 
m utig th 
sss t
b sust id by  h,
it is usu  t
stim t th umb
f m, th umb
f shi s, d th
qu tity
f m h dis
ttd. Ad h t h s hith t
b s id i

b f
ud 
f
m b t
 tu  justi.

XX. N
d
s th v
ut y[36]  
f  ti
s  t
m k y
t ti
 h . H
v , th  is
 x ti
, hih is, th t h 
qu  t ms h v b g d u
, if 
f ud h s b usd, 
y
ss y if
m ti
 ithhd, thy sh  b 
sid d s qu  i
 xt  [37]
it
f vi. S
th t 
ti
   b m it id
i 
u t f
suh iqu ity. Whih  s th  s i th ivi  
bf
 Di
si 's 
stituti
. S
m
g th
s, h
 b
ud by th
 
f  ti
s 
, th    b 
d ss

st it
 suh

ut.[38]
Ad this is th m ig
f h t P
m
ius s ys, th t i b g i
s ,
 m  m y NATURALLY
v  h 
th :  
  hih

t t
b 
st ud, s ight, but is
y s
f  missi
,

g  mdy   b usd g ist th  s
, h
is dt mid
isist u
 th g mt.

d
is
th t
t

I this  , s i m y
th s, th 
d  tu  sigifis 
thig

m
 th  h t is ivd by g  ust
m. I this ss th A
st
P u h s s id, th t it is  tu y disg fu f
m  t
 
g
h i ; thig, i hih th  is 
thig  ug t t
 tu , but hih
is th g  ti m
g s
m  ti
s. Idd m y  it s, b
th
s  d d
f , giv th  m
f NATURAL t
h t is
y CUSTOMARY
d HABITUAL.

CHAPTER XIII.
ON OATHS.
Effi y
f
ths m
g P g s--Dib ti
 quisit i

ths--Th ss, i hih
ths  ud st

d t
b t k, t

b dh d t
--T
b t k 
dig t
th usu  m ig
f th

ds--Th subjt
f thm t
b  fu--N
t t

ut t m


big ti
s--I h t ss
ths     t
G
d--Th u
t

f
ths--T
b f ithfuy
bs vd i   ss--Th 
t
u

f s
v igs
v th
ths
f subjts--Obs v ti
s

u
S vi
u 's
hibiti

f
ths--F
ms substitutd f

ths.
I. Th s tity
f 
th ith g d t

miss, g mts, d

t ts, h s  ys b hd i th g  tst stm, i v y g
d m
g v y 
. F
s S
h
s h s s id i his Hi
d mi ,
"Th s
u is b
ud t
g  t  uti
 by th dditi

f 
th. F

it gu ds us g ist t
thigs, m
st t
b v
idd, th 
h
f
f ids, d th  th
f h v." I dditi
 t
hih th uth
ity

f Ci
m y b qu
td, h
s ys,
u f
f th s itdd th t 

th sh
ud b th bst su ity f
si ity
f ffi m ti
, d th

bs v 
f g

d f ith. "F
, _ s h
bs vs i 
th  _,
th    b 
st
g ti, t
th fufimt
f
u 
d d

mis, th  
th, hih is s
m   t
th tstim
y
f
G
d."
II. Th xt
it, t
b 
sid d, is th
igi  f
 d xtt

f
ths.
Ad i th fi st

  th gumts, th t h v b usd s tig


miss d 
t ts, y t

ths s
, hih
ught v t
b

t k but ith th m
st dib t fti
 d judgmt. N
  y

  fuy t k 
th, ith s t itti

f 
t big b
ud
by it. F
th
big ti
 is  is b d ss y 
squ

f 
th, d v y t 
m id ith 
big ti
 is su
sd t


d f
m dib t u
s
f mid. Ev y
 is b
ud ikis
t
dh  t

th i th t ss, i hih it is usu y ud st

d
t
b t k. F

th big    t
G
d, sh
ud d  th
fu t uth i th ss i hih it is ud st

d. Ad this is th
ss u
 hih Ci
isists th t 
ths sh
ud b  f
md d
dh d t
i th t ss, i hih th ty im
sig thm itdd
thy sh
ud b t k. F
th
ugh i
th kids
f
miss

diti
 m y  siy b im id, t
 s th
mis ; yt th t is
 titud by 
m s dmissib i 
th. Ad
 this
it   
m y b m d t
th t ss g, h  th dmi b  it
f th E ist
t
th Hb s h s s id, GOD WILLING m
 bud ty t
sh ut
th
hi s
f th
mis th immut biity
f his 
us 
fi md it by 

th: th t by t
immut b thigs, i hih it  s im
ssib f
G
d
t
div,  might h v st
g 
s
 ti
. I
d t
ud st d
ths 
ds,  must
bs v th t th s  d  it s, i s  kig
f
G
d,
ft tt ibut t
him hum  ssi
s, th i 
f
mity t


u fiit  itis, th  t
his ifiit  tu . F
G
d d
s 
t
tu y h g his d s, th
ugh h m y b s id t
d
s
, d t

 t, hv h ts
th is th  th 
ds smd t
idi t,
th
 si
,
 hih thy   div d, h vig  sd. N
 this
m y  siy b id i th  s
f th  ts, s 
f ig 
ight;
s
mtims t

i
miss, h  
diti
 is im id. Th A
st
th f
  ms t
thigs d
tig immut biity,
mis hih

f s ight, d 
th, hih dmits
f 
mt  s v ti
s.
F
m th b
v gumts it is  sy t

m hd h t is t
b th
ught

f 
th f uduty
bt id. F
if it is  t i th t  s

t

k th
th u
 su
siti
, hih ft  ds  s
vd t
h v

f
ud ti
, d but f
th bif
f hih h 
ud v h v
t k it, h i 
t b b
ud by it. But if it  s th t h 
ud
h v t k it ith
ut th t su
siti
; h must bid by his
th,
b us
ths 

f 
v si
.
III. Th m ig
f 
th sh
ud 
t b st thd by
d th usu 
 t ti

f 
ds. Th f
 th   s 
b  h
f thi
th i
th
s, h
, h vig s
 th t thy 
ud 
t giv thi d ught s i
m i g t
th Bj mits,  mittd th
s th t h d b  id
ff
t
iv ith thm. F
th  is diff  bt givig thig,
d 
t 
v ig th t hih is 
st.
I. T
giv v idity t

th, th
big ti
, hih it im
ss
ught
t
b  fu. Th f
 s

mis, t

mmit  ig  t, t

d
y thig i vi
 ti

f  tu 
v d  , i b
f 

fft.

. Idd if thig
misd u

th b 
t tu y ig , but

y 
bst uti
 t
s
m g  t m
 duty, i th t  s s
th

th i 
t b v id. B us it is duty hih 
 t
G
d 
t t

d iv
u svs
f th f d
m
f d
ig  th g

d i
u
 .
I. O ths m y diff i f
m, d yt g  i subst . F
thy 

ught t
iud    t
G
d,  ig u
 him t
itss th
t uth,
t
uish th f sh

d
f thi ss ti
s, b
th
f hih
m
ut t
th s m thig. F
   t
th tstim
y
f su  i
,
h
h s ight t
uish, is th s m s qui ig him t
vg 

 t
f  fidy. N
 th
misi
f G
d givs him
 t

s  s t
itss v y dg 
f f sh

d.

uish,

II. It  s ust
m ith th its t
s by  s
s
bigs

x ssy distit f
m th su m   t
, ith im  tig th
 th
f th
s by h
m thy s
, hth it   th su, th
h vs,
th  th;
s ig by thi
 h ds, by thi
hid , thi 
ut y
thi i, d  ig f
dst uti

u
 THEM, if th    y f sh

d i thi
ths.
N
 s this ti 
fid t
H th  ti
s
y, but, s 
 if
md by Phi
, it v id m
g th Js. F
h s ys th t

ught 
t, i t kig 
th u
 v y
 si
, t
h v 
u s
t
th m k d f th
f th uiv s, but t
s by
u ts,
by th h vs, th  th, th uiv s. Thus J
s h is s id t
h v
s
 by th if
f Ph
h, 
dig t
th ivd ust
m
f th
Egy ti s. N
d
s
u S vi
u , i th fifth h t
f St. M tth's
G
s , itd, s it is su
sd by s
m, t

sid ths
ths t

b ss bidig th  th
s t k x ssy by th  m
f G
d. But
s th Js   t

muh iid t
m k us
f, d yt dis g d
thm, h shs thm th t thy   
ths. F
, s U i  h s 

bs vd, h h
s s by his
 if, sms t
s by G
d, b ig
s t d f  t
his divi
 . I th s m m  Ch ist
shs th t h, h
s s by th tm , s s by G
d h
sids i
th tm , d th t h h
s s by H v, s s by G
d, h
sits
u
 th H vs. But th Jish t h s
f th t d y th
ught th t m
  
t b
ud by
ths m d i th  m
f   td bigs, uss
s
m  ty   xd, s if th thig, by hih thy s
,  

s td t
G
d. F
this is th kid
f
th im id i th 
d
{k
b } s BY A GIFT. Ad it is this 

f thi s, hih
Ch ist futs.

III. Th ii  fft
f
ths is t
ut sh
t dis uts. "A
th

f

fi m ti
, _ s th is i d  it
f th E ist t
th Hb s
h s s id_, is th d
f  st if." S
t

 fid i Di
d
us
Siuus, th t 
th  s g dd m
g th Egy ti s s th su st
dg
f si ity th t m 
ud giv. S
th t v y
, i t kig

th, sh
ud x ss th   u
s
f his mid, d d his
ti
s 
f
m b t
th
s x ssi
s. Th  is b utifu ss g

 this subjt, i Di
ysius
f H i  ssus, h
s ys, "th  st
dg m
g m, hth G ks
B b i s, d it is dg,
hih 
tim   b
t
ut, is th t hih t ks th G
ds, s itsss
t

ths d 
v ts."
IX. Th subst 
f 
th t

sh
ud b suh, d 
ivd i suh

ds, s t
iud 
t
y th divi, but th hum 
big ti
s,
hih it im is. F
it sh
ud 
vy t
th  s
, h
ivs it,
th s m su ity f
his ight, s h 
ud d iv f
m  x ss

mis

t t. But if ith th 
ds b 
f  t

 s
 s
s t

f u
 him ight,
if thy d
f t
him but
i suh m  th t s
m

siti
 m y b m d t
his  im, th
f

f th
th i, i th t  s, b suh s t
giv th t  s
 

ight f
m it; yt h h
h s t k it must sti submit t
th divi

big ti
, hih th
th im
ss. A x m 
f hih  h v i
 s
, f
m h
m s

mis h s b xt
td by f . F
h 
th
th 
vys 
ight, but h t th iv
ught t
iquish,
f
it h s b
bt id t
th judi
f th giv . Thus  fid
th Hb  Kigs   
vd by th
hts, d uishd by G
d f


t
bs vig th
ths, hih thy h d t k t
th kigs
f B by
.

X. Th s m u is 
t
y t
t s ti
s bt ubi

mis, but t
th
s bt y idividu s h ts
v . F
h, t

h
m th
th is t k, is 
t th
y  s
 t
b 
sid d; but
s
m g d must b id t
G
d, i h
s  m th
th is t k,
d h

sssss uth
ity t
f
 th
big ti
. F
hih  s

it is im
ssib t
dmit th
siti

f Ci
, th t it is 
b  h

f 
th t
fus yig t

bb s th sum sti u td f
h vig
s d
's if; b us suh m  
t t
b kd i th umb

f  fu mis, but t  td s th 
mm
 mis
f  m kid, s

th t t
 ds thm 
f ith
ught t
b k t, 
v th s tity
f

th
bs vd.
XI. Th

f su  i
s
v if i
s, th t is
f s
v igs
v
subjts, ith s t t

ths, is th xt t
i th t 
ms ud

sid ti
. N
 th t
f su  i
 
t u th  ft

big ti

f 
th, hih sts u
  tu  d v d  . But
s   
t, i st t
f ivi s
ity, ti y m st s
f
u

 ti
s, hih i s
m m su  d d u
 th di ti

f th
s
v ig
 , hih h s t
f
d ifu ith s t t

ths,
i th
  s yig t
th  s
 h
t ks, d i th
th , t

th  s
 h
ivs thm. This uth
ity m y b x isd
v th
 s
 t kig th
th, ith by d ig, bf
 it is t k, th t
it sh  b m d v
id,
by
hibitig its fufimt, h t k.
F
th if i

subjt, 
sid d s suh, 
ud 
t bid himsf
t
g gmts, by
d th
s 
d by th s
v ig gis tu . I
th s m m  , by th Hb  L , husb ds might u th
ths
f
ivs, d f th s th
s
f hid , h
  sti d dt.
XII. I this    m y u s
iy
bs v, th t h t is s id i th
 ts
f Ch ist, d by St. J ms, g ist s ig t , is

t t

th
f ffi m ti
, m y ist s
f hih  t
b
f
ud i th  itigs
f St. P u, but t

miss
y
ths s tig
u t i d futu  vts. This is  i f
m th

siti
 i th

ds
f Ch ist. "Y
u h v h d it h th b s id by thm
f
d tim,
th
u sh t 
t f
s thysf, but sh t  f
m ut
th L
d thi

th. But I s y t
y
u, s 
t t ." Ad th  s
 giv f

it by St. J ms, is th t "y
u f  
t it
hy
 isy,"
b f
ud
div s; f
s
th 
d HYPOCRISY sigifis i th G k.
Ag i it is s id by St. P u, th t  th
miss
f G
d i Ch ist
 YEA d AMEN, th t is   t i d ud
ubtd. H  m th
Hb  h s, th t just m 's YEA is YEA, d his NO is NO. O th

th h d,  s
s, h
s ti
s diff f
m thi ffi m ti
s,
 s id t
s  k YEA d NO, th t is thi ffi m ti
 is di ,
d thi di   ffi m ti
. I this m  St. P u vidi ts
himsf f
m th h g
f ightss
f s h, ddig th t his

v s ti
 h d 
t b YEA, d NO.
XIII. Affi m ti
s  
t th
y m
ds
f
big ti
. F
i m y
 s sigs h v b usd s dgs
f f ith; thus m
g th
P si s givig th ight h d  s 
sid d th fi mst ti. S
th t
h  y f
m is substitutd f

th, th vi
 ti

f it i b
 t
f  ju y. It h s b s id
f Kigs d P is i tiu ,
th t thi f ith is th s m s 
th. O hih 
ut Ci
, i
his s h f
Dj
t us, 
mmds C s 
ss f
th vig
u
f his
m i b tt, th  f
th su  fufimt
f th dg d
mis

f his ight h d.

CHAPTER X.[39]
ON TREATIES AND ON ENGAGEMENTS MADE BY DELEGATES, EXCEEDING THEIR POWER.
Pubi C
vti
s--Dividd it
t  tis, g gmts, d
th

m ts--Diff  bt t  tis d th g gmts m d
by dg ts xdig thi
 s--T  tis f
udd
 th
 
f  tu --Thi
igi--T  tis f
udd
 sti m

xtsiv ii s--T  tis ith th
s, h
 st g s t

th t u igi
,
hibitd ith by th Jish 
Ch isti 
 --C uti
s s tig suh t  tis--Ch isti s b
ud t
uit
g ist th mis
f th Ch isti  igi
--Am
g umb

f Ais i  , hih
f thm h v th fi st tsi
s t

ssist --T it  
f t  tis--Th fft
f  fidy i


f th 
t tig tis 
sid d--H
 f th u uth
izd
g gmts
f dg ts  bidig, h th s
v igs fus
t
tify thm--Th C udi  C
vti
 
sid d--Whth th
k
dg d si
f th S
v ig m ks th
s u uth
izd

vti
s bidig--Th C
vti

f Lut tius 
sid d.
I. U i  h s dividd 
vti
s it
t
kids, ubi d iv t,
d h h s 
t x  id ubi 
vti
 u
 th usu  ii s,
but h s 
fid it t
t  ty
f  , hih h gs s his
fi st x m , d h h s m d us
f th g gmts t d it

by th g s
f t

tdig
 s, s  ist 
f iv t

vti
s. By ubi 
vti
s th f
 h m s th
s, hih
 
t b m d but by th uth
ity d i th  m
f th s
v ig

 , thus distiguishig thm 
t
y f
m th iv t 
t ts

f idividu s, but ALSO f
m th PERSONAL 
t ts
f s
v igs
thmsvs. Ad idd iv t iju is d 
t ts, 
ss th 
ubi t  tis f quty
v th
igi
f  s. Ad s iv t

t ts h v b   dy s
m y disussd, th high
d

f 
t ts, hih 
m ud th d
mi ti

f t  tis, i
ss iy f
m th  dig t i
u f th iqui is.
II. d III. N
 ubi 
vti
s m y b dividd it
t  tis,
g gmts, d
th 
m ts.
Th ith b

k
f Livy m y b 
sutd
 th distiti
 bt
t  tis d g gmts, h  th hist
i  if
ms us, th t t  tis
 th
s 
t ts, hih  m d by th x ss uth
ity
f th
s
v ig
 , d i hih th 
 iv
k th divi vg 

 thi h ds, if thy vi
 t thi g gmts. Am
g th R
m s
th  s
s m 
yd i d ig  d m kig  ,   i
th 
usi

f ths s
m t  tis,  ys 
m id by th
ii  h d, h
t

k th
th i th  m
f th h
 
.
A _s
si
_,
ENGAGEMENT, is h t  s m d by  s
s, h
h d 

x ss 
mmissi
 f
th t u
s f
m th s
v ig
 , d h
s
ts 
squty qui d fu th tifi ti
 f
m th s
v ig
himsf.[40]
Th S t
f R
m,   if
md by S ust, judgd v y
 y i
ssig d , th t 
t  ty 
ud b m d ith
ut thi 
st
d th t
f th 
. Livy  ts th t Hi
ymus, kig
f Sy us,
h vig t d it

vti
 ith H ib , st ft  ds t

C th g t
h v it 
v td by th st t it
 gu. F
hih
 s
 S th d h s s id, yig th x ssi
 t
 s
s
ivstd ith s i  
mmissi
 f
th t u
s, th t t  ty,

g
ti td by th g , bids th h

f th R
m  
, h


su
sd t
h v m d it.
But i m
 his, th

f m kig t  tis b
gs t
th kig

, m xim hih th  gu g
f
t y, 
ss th  th 
ds

f hist
y, shs t
h v b hd i  gs. Eu i ids, h
s
stimts   ys 
f
m b t
 tu , d
u
ii
, i
his T gdy
f th Su i ts, s ys, "It sts ith Ad stus t
t k
th
th, t
h
m, s s
v ig, th s
 ight
f bidig th 
ut y
by t  tis b
gs."
N
sub
di t m gist ts h v suh

f bidig th 
; 

i th ts
f sm 
ti
 bid th g  t ,  gumt usd
i f v
u
f th R
m s g ist th G us. F
th   s m j
ity
f
th 
 ith C mius, th dit t
.
But it m is t
b 
sid d h
 f th ts
f th
s, h
h v
g gd f
th 
, ith
ut y ubi uth
ity,  bidig.
P h s it m y b s id th t th 
t tig tis h v dish gd
thi s
sibiity h thy h v d
  i thi
 t
 ds th
fufimt
f thi
big ti
. Th t might b th  s i
miss, but
th
big ti
 i ubi 
t ts is
f st it kid. F
th ty

t tig qui s s
mthig i tu  f
th g gmts h m ks.
H th ivi  , hih jts 
miss m d by
  s
 f

th  f
m 
f s
m t by 
th , d s him h
g gs f
th
tifi ti

f thig i b t
y d m gs d it st.
I. Th m
st u t distiti
 i t  tis, is th t hih m ks th
f
ud ti

f s
m st u y u
 th  
f  tu , d
th s u

th
big ti
s, hih m h v ith d ivd f
m th  
f  tu ,

ddd t
it. T  tis
f th f
m kid , i g , m d, 
t

y bt mis, s t mi ti

f  ; but i it tims
  f quty m d, d, i s
m dg , th
ught ss y m
g m
i th f
m ti

f v y 
t t. This
s f
m th t ii  i
th  
f  tu , hih st bishd dg 
f kid d m
g m kid.
Th f
 it  s u fu f

 m  t
b iju d by 
th . Ad
this  tu  justi uiv s y v id bf
 th dug. But ft
th t vt, i
ss
f tim, s vi dis
siti
s d h bits g id
g
ud, it  s by dg s
bit td. S
th t
 
's
bbig d
ud ig 
th , v h 
 h d b 
mmd
d d,
 s dmd  fu. E i h ius  s this th Sythi  f shi
. N
thig
is m
 f qut i th  itigs
f H
m th  f
m t
b skd, if
thy 
bb s? A qusti
, s Thuydids if
ms us, by 
m s
itdig t

vy 
h, but u y f
if
m ti
. I  it
 
f S

's mti
 is m d
f 
m is f
md f

bb y: d, 
fid f
m Justi, th t, ti th tims
f T qui, i y  s ttdd
ith dg 
f g
y.
I th  
f th R
m s it  s m xim, th t  ti
s, hih h d 
t
t d it
t ms
f mity,
it
t  tis ith thm   
t t

b 
sid d s mis. But if y thig b
gig t
th R
m s
f it
thi h ds, it b m thi s;
y itiz
f R
m,
t k by thm, b m s v; d th R
m s 
ud t  t y  s

b
gig t
th t  ti
, i th s m m  . I this  s th ight

f
stimiium[41] is
bs vd. S
t m
t  i
d, bf
 th
tims
f th P

si   , th C
y  s   
t 
sid d
s mis by th Athi s, th
ugh th   s 
t  ty
f  
subsistig bt thm, s  s f
m th s h
f th C
ithi s
giv by Thuydids. A ist
t 
mmds th ti
f ud ig
b b i s, d i it L tium  my sigifid 
thig but

f
ig .
I th  ss
f t  tis f d t
i this sti
 m y b kd
th
s m d bt diff t st ts f
th mutu  s v ti

f th
ights
f h
s it ity d 
mm , s f s thy 
m ud th  

f  tu . A 
m ks us
f this distiti
, i his s h t
th
Ah  s, s 
td by Livy, h  h s ys h d
s 
t qui  

ffsiv d dfsiv i , but
y suh t  ty s m y su 
thi ights f
m if igmt by  h
th ,
vt thm f
m
h b
u ig th fugitiv s vs
f th M d
i s. C
vti
s
f this
kid    d by th G ks, st ity s  kig, PEACE i

siti

t
TREATIES.

. T  tis f
udd u

big ti
s ddd t
th
s
f th  
f

 tu   ith qu ,
uqu . Equ  t  tis  th
s, by
hih qu  dv t gs  su d
 b
th sids. Th G ks   thm
ALLIANCES, d s
mtims i s u
  qu  s . But t  tis

f th  tt kid  m

 y  gus th  t  tis, d h 


f th tis is if i
i digity, thy   d INJUNCTIONS,

INJUNCTIONS ANNEXED TO COENANTS. Dm
sths i his s h

th ib ty
f th Rh
di s s ys,   ti
s
ught t
gu d g ist
f
mig suh  gus, s
hig t

 t
s vitud.
T  tis
f b
th kids, hth
f  
i   m d f
m
m
tivs
f s
m dv t g t
th tis. By qu  t  tis
f  ,
th st
ti

f is
 s, th st
ti

ssi

f 
qu d
 s, d
th m tt s
vidig f
its du m it , 
sttd, subjt th t i b m
 fuy t  td
f h  ft , i
st tig th ffts d 
squs
f  . T  tis
f i  u

qu  
diti
s  t ith t

mm ,
t

t ibuti
s f
th
j
it
suti

f  ,
t

th
bjts
f qu  im
t .
Equ  t  tis
f 
mm  m y v y i thi t ms. F
ist  it
m y b sttd th t 
dutis sh  b im
sd u
 th g

ds
f th
subjts, b
gig t
 h
f th 
t tig
 s:
th t th
dutis u
 thi s tiv 
mm
ditis sh  b 
 th  th dutis
u
 th
s
f y
th  ti
. Th fi st
f ths x m s m y b
f
ud i  it t  ty bt th R
m s d C th gii s, i
hih th  is  us, m kig  x ti

f h t is giv t
th

t y d ubi  i . O it m y b sttd th t 
high dutis
th  th
s xistig t th tim th t  ty is m d sh  b im
sd,

th t thy sh  
t b ugmtd by
d  t i t.
S
i i s
f  th 
t tig tis  qui d t

fu ish qu  umb s
f t

s
shi s, kid
f i  hih,
s Thuydids x  is it,  s u
 th uitd
 s t
h
d th
s m st ts f

mm
 mis
f ids:  fid, i m y ts

f Livy, i s
f this ds i ti
 m
g st ts, f
th mutu 
df
f thi t it
is
f
th
suti

f s
m tiu
 ,
g ist s
m tiu my,
g ist  st ts x tig
thi s tiv is. P
ybius h s giv t  ty
f this kid,
m d bt th C th gii s d M d
i s. I th s m m 
th Rh
di s b
ud thmsvs by t  ty t
ssist Atig
us Dmt ius
g ist  mis x t Pt
my. Th  
th
bjts t

f

hih qu  t  tis  m d. Thus

 m y bid 
th t
buid

f
ts i thi ighb
u h

d hih might
v  
y , t
giv


u gmt t
bi
us subjts, t

 th t

s
f 
my 
ss g th
ugh thi 
ut y.

I. F
m qu  t  tis, th  tu 
f uqu  t  tis m y  siy

b ud st

d. Ad h  t

 s 
t t, this iqu ity m y

b
 th sid ith
f th su  i
,

f th if i

 .

A su  i

 m y b s id t
m k  uqu  t  ty, h it

miss ssist  ith
ut sti u tig f
y tu ,
givs
g  t dv t gs th  it g gs t
iv. Ad
 th t
f th
if i

 this iqu ity subsists h, s Is
 ts s ys i his
PANEGYRIC, h ivigs  uduy d ssd; s
th t g gmts
f
this kid m y b  d ijuti
s

mm ds th th  t  tis.
Ad ths m y,
m y 
t, b ttdd ith dimiuti

f thi
s
v ig
 .
Suh dimiuti

f s
v ig
 f

d th s
d t  ty bt
th C th gii s d R
m s, by hih th f
m   b
ud t
m k

 but ith th 
st
f th R
m  
; s
th t f
m th t
tim, A i  s ys, th C th gii s   
m d by t  ty t

m y
ith th hum
u
f th R
m s. T
this kid m y b ddd 
diti
 
su d , x t th t it  ds 
t t
DIMINUTION, but t
 ENTIRE
TRANSFER
f th s
v ig digity d
 .

II. Th bu ds tt hd t
uqu  t  tis, h  
dimiuti

f

s
v igty t ks  , m y b ith t sit
y
 m t.
TRANSITORY bu ds  th
s, by hih th ymt
f  t i sums
f
m
y is im
sd, th dm
iti

f  t i 
ks d f
tifi ti
s,
th ssi

f  t i 
ut is d th div y
f shi s
h
st gs
 qui d. But PERMANENT 
diti
s  th
s, hih qui  th
t ibut
f h
m g d submissi
 f
m

 t

th .
N y
hig t
suh t  tis  th
s, by hih

 is
db d f
m h vig y f ids
mis, but t th  su 
f

th ,
f
m 
ig ss g d su is t
th t

s
f y
st t, ith h
m th t
 m y b t  . Bsids ths th  m y b

diti
s
f  if i
d ss im
t t kid; suh s th
s, hih

hibit th buidig
f f
ts i  t i  s; m it iig mis,

h vig shi s by
d  t i umb ;  vig tig  t i s s,

isig t

s i  t i 
ut is; tt kig is
su yig
mis. S
m 
diti
s idd g
s
f s t

hibit st t f
m
dmittig fugs, d t
dm d uig  f
m g gmts ith
v y
th
 . Num
us x m s
f suh t  tis  t
b f
ud
i hist
i s b
th it d m
d .
Uqu  t  tis m y b m d 
t
y bt th 
qu
s d th

qu d but s
bt mighty d im
tt st ts, bt h
m 

h
stiitis h v v xistd.

III. I 
sid ig t  tis, it is f quty skd, hth it b

 fu t
m k thm ith  ti
s, h
 st g s t
th Ch isti 
igi
; qusti
, hih, 
dig t
th  
f  tu , dmits 
t

f d
ubt. F
th ights, hih it st bishs,  
mm
 t
 m
ith
ut distiti

f igi
.
Th g
s  h s m d 
h g i this s t, but th f v
u s
t  tis, by hih ssist  i just  us m y b ff
dd v t

th
s, h
 st g s t
igi
. F
t
mb 

tuitis
f
d
ig g

d t
 m is 
t
y  mittd s  ud b, but j
id
s  t. F
i imit ti

f G
d, h
m ks his su t
is u

th ight
us d th ikd, d f shs thm b
th ith his g i
us
i,   
mm dd t
xud 

f m f
m thi du sh 

f
u s vis. Yt, i qu   ss, it dmits
f 
d
ubt, th t th
s
ithi th 
f
u
 igi
us 
mmui
 h v f b  im
t

u su
t.

IX. I dditi
 t
th f
g
ig gumts  m y
bs v th t s 

Ch isti s  
sid d s mmb s
f
 b
dy, hih  qui d t

f f
th is d suff igs
f  h
th , this  t is

t
y t
idividu s, but t
 ti
s d kigs i thi ubi
 ity. F
th u
f duty is 
t t
b m su d by th ii ti


f idividu s, but by th ijuti
s
f Ch ist. Ad i s
m  ss
th v gs
f  im i
us my  
y b

sd by fi m i 
m
g Ch isti  kigs, d g
v mts. Ad it is duty f
m hih

thig, but ivit b ssity, d thi immdi t ttti
 big
g
ssd by th
suti

f
th  s,   xus thm.
X. A
th qusti
 f quty iss, hih is, h t
st ts 
g gd i  ith  h
th , t
hih
f thm
 , qu y
id t
b
th,
ught i f  t
giv ssist . H  t


must
bs v th    b 

big ti
 t
su
t ujust  s. O
hih 
ut th t 
fd t
 , hih h s justi
 its sid,
i h v  im t
f , if g gd i  ith 
th 
t

m hdd i th umb
f 
fd ts,
v if g gd ith


f th 
fd ts thmsvs.
But if t

 s g g i  , qu y ujust
 b
th sids,
thi d
 , uitd i 
fd y ith b
th, i udty bst i
f
m it f . Ag i, if t

 s id t
us  g gd i
just  g ist
th s, ith h
m  h v 

ti
; i th
su is
f m
m
y th t  fu ish t
ith 
ught t
f


th u,
bs vd i th  s
f  s
   dit
s.[42]
But if  s
  ssist , hih  
t b dividd, is qui d
f th

t tig ty, i th t  s th f  must b giv t
th
g gmts
f th 
gst st dig. H
v th  s
f subsqut
t  ty, hih m ks th g gmts
f m
 bidig d xtsiv
 tu , i f
m  x ti
 t
this u.
XI. Th t it  
f t  ty
ught 
t t
b sumd u
 t th
x i ti

f th  i
d, imitd f
its 
tiu , uss  t i
ts b  f
md, hih   x ssy b 
st ud s  
f it,
d   b t k i 

th ss.
XII. If

f th tis vi
 ts t  ty, suh vi
 ti
  ss
th
th f
m its g gmts. F
v y  us h s th bidig f


f 
diti
. Ad s  x m 
f this, ss g f
m Thuydids
m y b qu
td, h  th t hist
i  s ys th t "f


 t
d
t
 
fd y, d t
ds t  y h
h s gtd t

fufi his g gmts, is 
b  h
f t  ty; but 
t t
ssist

th
 i 
f
mity t
s
 g gmts m
uts t
vi
 ti

th 
f." Ad this is g y t u, x t h  it h s b g d
t
th 
t y, th t t  ty sh  
t b u d iquishd f

t ifig disgusts d mis i gs.
XIII. C
vti
s  s v i
us d um
us s t  tis, d th
distiti
 m d bt thm is
ig m
 t
th diff 
f

i th
s by h
m thy  m d, th  t
y   diff  i thi

  tu . But th   t
tiu
its
f iqui y m t i y

td ith  
vti
s, th fi st
f hih  ts t
th
xtt
f th g
ti t
's
big ti
, h th s
v ig
th
st t fuss t
tify 
vti
, hth h is b
ud t
m k 
idmity t
th
th ty f
th dis
itmt, t
st
 thigs
t
th situ ti
 thy   i bf
 h t  td,
t
div u his

  s
. Th fi st
ii
 sms 
f
m b t
th R
m  ivi  ,

th s
d t
quity s it  s u gd by th t ibus
f th 
, L.

Livius, d J. Mius, i th dis ut b
ut th  
f C udium;[43]
but th thi d is th t m
st g y d
td, s  s d
 s tig
th t
f m
us 
vti
s
f C udium d Num ti . But th  is

 uti
 tiu y t
b
bs vd, d th t is, th t th s
v ig is

 y b
ud by suh u uth
isd 
vti
s, uti h h s tifid
thm. I th 
vti
 udd t
, if th S mits h d itdd t

bid th R
m  
, thy sh
ud h v t id th my t C udium,
d st mb ss d
s t
th s t d 
 t R
m, t
disuss th
t  ty, d   u
 h t t ms thy h
s t
dm thi my.
XI. A
th qusti
 is, hth th k
dg d si
f th
s
v ig bid him t
th
bs v 
f 
vti
. But h  it is
ss y t
m k distiti
 bt  bs
ut 
vti
, d

 m d u
 
diti

f its big tifid by th s
v ig. F
s
 
diti
s
ught t
b it y fufid, suh 
diti
,

f iu 
f fufimt, b
ms v
id.
This ii   s v y
 y
bs vd i th 
vti
 m d
bt Lut tius d th C th gii s; t
hih th 
 fusd
t
d, s it h d b m d ith
ut thi 
st.[44] A  t  ty
th f
  s m d by ubi uth
ity.
Th xt thig t
b 
sid d is, hth th  m y 
t b s
m t

f 
st bsids si. F
ith
ut s
m visib t, si is

t
f itsf suffiit t
 t
b b 
jtu 
f itti
.
But if  t i ts  d
 hih   b 
utd f
u
 

th
g
uds th  th
s
f 
st, thy  su
sd t
tify t  ty.
Thus if th 
vti

f Lut tius h d 
t id m y  uss, s
m
f
thm iquishig  t i ights, d th
s  uss h d b  ys
duy
bs vd by th R
m s, suh
bs v  
ud b justy t k f

tifi ti

f th t  ty.

CHAPTER XI.
THE INTERPRETATION OF TREATIES.
Th xt  
big ti

f
miss--W
ds h 
th 
jtu s
  tig t
b t k i thi
u m ig--T ms
f t
t
b it td 
dig t
th  t ti

f th  d i
 h t, t d, d si--C
jtu s quisit t
x  i
mbigu
us
smigy 
t dit
y t ms--It t ti


f t  tis f
m th subjt-m tt --F
m 
squs, f
m
i umst s d 
ti
--C
jtu s t k f
m m
tivs--Th
m
 st it
m
 xtsiv it t ti
--T  tis f v
u b,

di
us, mixd
idiff t--Th g

d f ith
f kigs d  ti
s
i t  tis
f qu  v idity ith  --Rus
f it t ti

f
md f
m th b
v  md distiti
s--Whth th 
d
is, i t  ty, is imitd t
th
s, h
  suh t th
tim
f m kig it,
is t
 h
,
h  ft m y
b
m suh--It t ti

f th
hibiti

f
 ty's
m kig  ith
ut th 
st
ijuti

f th
th --Of th
f d
m g td t
C th g--Distiti
 bt  s
  d
  t  tis--A t  ty m d ith kig 
tius v du ig
his x usi
 by  usu  , suh t  ty xtds 
t t

iv d --Wh t kid
f
miss
ught t
h v th f --Th
xtt
f
bvi
us 
jtu s--Th  f
m 
f 
mmissi


by d
ig s
mthig quiv t--It t ti
 st itd m



sy th  th b  sigifi ti

f th 
ds im is--F
m

igi  dft
f itti
--F
m f iu 
f th s

m
tiv--F
m dft i th subjt--Obs v ti
s
 th  st
 md 
jtu s--Em gis  ug t t
th
igi  itti
,
by d ig it u fu
bu ds
m--C
jtu s t k f
m

m is

f
 t
f th  itigs ith 
th --Rus t

b
bs vd--I dubi
us  ss,  itigs 
t bs
uty quisit
t
th v idity
f 
t t--C
t ts
f S
v igs 
t
t
b it td by th R
m   --Whth th 
ds
f th
 s
  tig

ff ig th g gmt
ught t
b m
st
g dd--This x  id by distiti
.
I. If  
sid th
mis 
, h is  tu y b
ud t
fufi
his g gmts. G

d f ith,
bs vs Ci
, qui s th t m 
sh
ud 
sid s  h t h itds, s h t h s ys. But s ts

f th mid  
t,
f thmsvs visib, it is ss y t
fix u

s
m dt mi t m k, t
vt m f
m b  kig thi g gmts,
by 
ig thm t
ffix thi
 it t ti
 t
thi 
ds.
It is ight, hih  tu   s
 dit ts, th t v y
 h

ivs
mis, sh
ud h v
 t

m  th
mis t
d

h t f i it t ti

f his 
ds suggsts. F

th is it

ud b im
ssib f
m

big ti
s t
b b
ught t
y  t i

usi
. P h s it  s i this ss th t Is
 ts, t  tig
f
g mts, i his s i ti
 g ist C im hus, m it is th t
th  s  td
 this subjt  th 
mm
  s
f  m kid,

t
y G ks, but b b i s s
. It is f
this v y  s
, th t
s ifi f
ms h v b ssigd f
t  tis, hih  t
b d 
u i t ms
f uquiv
  d  t i m ig. Th
 u
f
it t ti
 is t
g th th itti

f th tis dgd, f
m
th m
st
b b sigs. Ad ths 
f t
kids,  my, 
ds d

jtu s, hih m y b 
sid d ith s ty,
t
gth .
II. Wh   h v 

th 
jtu  t
guid us, 
ds  
t t
b
st ity t k i thi
igi 
g mm ti  ss, but i thi

mm
  t ti
, f
it is th bit y i
f ust
m, hih
di ts th  s d us
f s h.[45] It  s f

ish t
f
 fidy th f
 i th L
 i s, h thy
misd thy 
ud dh 
t
thi g gmts s 
g s thy st

d u
 th t s
i, d b

th
s h ds u
 thi sh
ud s, i
d t
v d thi
mis t

 st  y th m
ud, hih thy h d vi
usy ut ithi thi sh
s,
d th h ds
f g ik, hih thy h d  id u
 thi sh
ud s.
Ats
f t  h y ik ths, Ci
, i th thi d b

k
f his Offis,
h s
 y
bs vd, ist d
f mitig tig, td t
gg v t th
guit
f  ju y.
III. I t ms
f t hih  b
v th 
m hsi

f th g 
buk
f m kid, 
u s, f
x   ti
, must b h d t
th
s, h

 m
st x  id i th t t; thus f
m 
sutig g   it s,
 m y 
iv th  tu 
f tiu  ims,
f
m th gs
f
th s m uth
s, d iv
u 
ti
s
f s
v ig
 .
It is just m k
f Ci
's, th t th  gu g
f 
gi is 
t
th t
f d iy d f mii it 
u s: th  it s
f th t  ss h v
h ss ui t
thmsvs: hih idd is th  s ith ts

f v y ds i ti
. S
i t  tis, h  miit y gmts

u ,  my is dfid t
b umb
f s
di s  b
f OPENLY
iv dig f
ig,
 my's 
ut y. F
hist
i s v yh 
m k distiti
 bt th iv t iu si
s
f
bb s, d

h t is d
 by  fu d gu my. Wh t 
stituts  my

must b th f
 judgd
f by th my's f
. Ci
dfis 
my t

sist
f six gi
s d uxii is. P
ybius s ys, th t
R
m  my i g  m
utd t
sixt th
us d R
m s, d tty
th
us d uxii is. But miit y f
 might b 
m
sd
f ss
umb
f t

s th  this. I th s m m  th umb
f shi s
suffiit f
y u
s i m
ut t
ft, d   b t

h
d
ut g ist  my m y b  d f
t.
I. It is ss y t
m k us
f 
jtu , h  
ds
sts
dmit
f m y m igs: A m
d
f x ssi
 h iudd i
 
d,
is  d by L
gii s, sy
ym
us t m, d, h xtdig t
t


m
 
ds, d
ubtfu h s. I th s m m  it is ss y
t
h v 
u s t

jtu  hv smig 
t diti

u s
i th x ssi
s
f t  ty. F
i th t  s  must t y t

dis
v suh 
jtu s, s i 
i, if
ssib,
 t
ith 
th . F
if th  b  vidt 
t diti
, th 
t tig
tis by thi  tt dt mi ti
s, must h v itdd t
b
g t
thi f
m ; s 

   dsig t
m k 
t dit
y s
uti
s
t th s m tim. Idd  ts d dig u
 th hum  i, s
i th  s
f  s d tst mts, hih d d u
 th i
f

ty, d i 
t ts d t  tis, hih d d u
 th t
f t


m
,  ths ts  i b t
h gs, ith subsqut h g

f i i th tis 
 d. I  suh  ss y
bsu ity i
th  gu g
bigs us t
h v 
u s t

jtu s, hih 
s
mtims s

bvi
us, s t

it
ut m ig di ty 
t y t

th t
f th 
ds i thi usu   t ti
. N
 th ii  s
u s

f 
jtu   t
b f
ud i th subjt-m tt , th 
squs,
d th i umst s d 
ti
.

. F
m th subjt
m tt , s f
ist , i th 
d d y. Thus

if t u b m d f
thi ty d ys, h  ivi d 
t  tu  d ys 
m t.[46]
S
th 
d d
 ti
 is s
mtims usd t
sigify t sf , 
dig
t
th  tu 
f th busiss. I th s m m  t

th 
d
ms, hih i g  sigifis miit y ist umts, is s
mtims
id t
t

s, d m y b t k i ith ss, 
dig t
th
tiu
 si
. Ev y it t ti
 must b giv 
dig t

th itti
 ud st

d. Thus th
mis
f f  ss g giv
u
 th v u ti

f t
, im is s
th t th t

s sh  ss
ith
ut m
st ti
. If umb
f shi s  t
b giv u ,  ft
d 
t muti td shi s  m t. Ad i  simi  ss simi
judgmt must b f
md 
dig t
th  tu  t

f th 
ds.

I. A
th s
u 
f it t ti
 is d ivd f
m th 
squs,

s i y h   us t k i its it  m ig 
ud  d t


squs f
ig
v  ug t t
th itti

f t  ty.
F
i  mbigu
us m ig suh   t ti
 must b t k s i
v
id  dig t
 bsu dity

t diti
. Th  vi
f B sid s
th f
 is highy b
mi b, h
,
misig th t h 
ud v u t
th B

ti  t it
y, s id h did 
t 
sid th t s B

ti 
t it
y, hih h
u id ith his my; s if th it b
uds
  
t itdd, but
y h t m id u
qu d,  v si
,
hih ti y ud th t  ty.
II. F
m th i umst s

txt 
th s
u 
f it t ti

is d ivd. N
i
sid b ight m y b th
 u
 th m ig

f  x ssi
 f
m th i umst 
f its big usd by th s m
 s
 t
x ss th s m itti
s

th simi
 si
s, d

f
m its  ti
 t
h t g
s bf
, d h t f

s th  ,

h  it st ds. F
i  d
ubtfu  ss,  h v  s
 t
su
s
th t th 
t tig tis m  t
b 
sistt ith thi f
m

ii
s d itti
s. Thus i H
m , i th g mt bt P is
d M us, th t H sh
ud b giv u t
th 
qu
, h

m d ith h t f

s, it is vidt th t by th 
qu
is
m t th 
mb t t, h
kid th
th . This u
f it t ti
,
Put h iust ts by th 
dut
f judgs, "h
ssig by h t is

bsu  st thi disi
s u
  d u mbigu
us
its."

III. As t
th m
tivs, hih  s
mtims t k f
u
f

it t ti
, th  m y b
th subst ti 
s, bsids th
s
immdi ty x ssd, f
th ssig
f  
th m kig
f
t  ty. Yt th st
gst 
jtu  is th t hih iss f
m  t i


f th t th i  s tu td by s
m  s
,
 tig s s

d suffiit m
tiv. F
th   f quty MANY m
tivs, d
s
mtims th i is ifud by its
 h
i id dt
f y

th  s
. I th s m m  g t m d, i 
tm  ti

f
m i g, i b v
id, if th m i g v t ks  .
IX. It is fu th t
b
bs vd th t m y 
ds h v v ity
f
 t ti
s, s
m m
 imitd d
th s m
 xtsiv; hih m y
b
ig ith t
th i ti

f g   m t
tiu
 ss
f thigs, s i th 
ds kid d d d
ti
;
t
th us

f m suis t
x ss im s b
th
f th m  d fm  kid,
h  
us
f 
mm
 gd   tig. I t ms
f t t

, 
ds

ft t k i mt h
i 
xtdd ss: thus i th ivi
  d th sigifis b ishmt; but i its
u  t ti

diss
uti

f th ts
f th  tu  b
dy.
X. I
miss ikis, s
m thigs 
f f v
u b, s
m 

di
us, d
th s
f mixd
idiff t ds i ti
. F v
u b

miss  th
s hih 
t i  qu ity
f t ms,
hih b
s
m  ti
 t
th 
mm
 g

d, th m gitud d xtt
f hih
i  ss th f v
u
f th
mis: s
th t  g gmts m


duiv t
  th  t
  t
b 
sid d s th
s
f
f v
u b 
m xi
, d i s f
mutu  df   ys
g dd s m
  ud b
bjt th  th
s f

ffsiv  .
T  tis
f 
di
us kid  th
s hih  y g  t bu ds


ty th 
 th
th , hih 
t i  tis f

-  f
m ,

hih  d t
 b
g ti

if ti

f f
m t  tis.
Wh  s, th
ugh g gmts
f mixd  tu  m y   t dvi ti

f
m f
m t  tis, thy m y b t k ith i f v
u b


di
us ight, 
dig t
th m gitud,

bjt
f th h g

dud. If it b f
th s k
f  , it is btt , t kig 
i umst s it

sid ti
, t
k thm ith th
s
f
f v
u b kid.
XI. Th distiti
 m d by th R
m    bt ts
f quity
d th
s
f st it justi,  
t GENERALLY b id t
th  

f  ti
s, th
ugh it m y i s
m  ss b d
td. Thus i y
t s ti
 bt th subjts
f t

ut is, i  h
f hih th
s m f
m
f g 
dig is
bs vd, th tis  su
sd t

t  t ith
ut y itti

f dvi tig f
m th 
mm
 u d f
m,
uss thy h v x ssy dt mid t
th 
t y. But i ts f

hih 

mm
 u is s ibd, s i d
 ti
s d f 
miss,
th  th tis  su
sd t
t  t 
dig t
th st it tt

f th g mt.

XII. Aft th st bishmt
f th f
m
siti
s, th subjt

 tu y
ds t
th us thmsvs, hih  t
b
bs vd
i th it t ti

f t  tis. Ad i th fi st    m y
m k, th t i thigs, hih  
t
f 
di
us  tu , 
ds 
t
b t k st ity i thi
u m ig, d h  thy dmit
f
x ti
s,
h v m
 sigifi ti
s th 
, it is  fu t
us
th t hih is m
st xtsiv. As it h s b   dy
bs vd, th t
b
th L
gii s d G mm i s f quty us tiu t ms i
g  ss. Thus Ci
i  dig f
C i , justy m it is
th t th it 
ut
y d ,
d ig THAT THE PERSON EJECTED FROM
HIS INHERITANCE SHOULD BE REINSTATED IN THE POSSESSION, im is 
t

y  jtmt, but xtds t
y f
ib vti

f th

 's t kig
ssssi
.
I thigs
f f v
u b  tu , if th tis g gd  qu itd
ith th g  ii s, u
 hih thy
d,
st u
 th
judgmt
f th
s h
 s
, th 
ds usd m y b t k i thi m
st
xtsiv sigifi ti
, iudig v t ms
f t d
f  .[47]
Ag i,  must v h v 
u s t
mt h
i  it t ti
,
x t h  th it  m ig 
ud  d t
di t bsu dity,


ud df t th itti

f t  ty.
O th
th h d ss g m y b it td i m
 imitd
sigifi ti
, th  th 
ds thmsvs b , if suh it t ti

b ss y, t
v
id ijusti
bsu dity. If 
suh ssity
xist, but quity
utiity m ifsty qui  st iti
 t
th
it  m ig, it must b m
st igidy dh d t
, x t h 
i umst s 
m  us t
d

th is. But i thigs
f 
di
us
 tu  figu tiv x ssi
 m y b 
d i
d t
v
id
i
vi
ijusti. Th f
, h y
 m ks g t,

iquishs his ight, th
ugh h x ss himsf i th MOST GENERAL
t ms, his 
ds  usu y RESTRICTED t
th t m ig, hih it is

b b h itdd. Ad i  ss
f this kid, th h

f t iig
thig is s
mtims t k f
th t
f
ssssi
. I th s m
m  it is ud st

d th t subsidis
f m,
misd by
 ty

y,  t
b m it id t th x 
f th
 , h
qui s
thm.
XIII. It is f m
us qusti
 hth th 
d ALLIES iuds
y
th
s h
  suh t th tim
f m kig th t  ty,
th
s h

might ft  ds b
m s
: s  s th  s i th t  ty m d bt
th R
m  
 d th C th gii s t th 
usi

f th 
th t h d
igi td i dis ut b
ut Siiy, by hih t  ty it  s
sti u td th t b
th
 s sh
ud f
b tt kig th is
f
 h
th . H th R
m s if d th t th
ugh th 
vti

m d ith Asd ub , by hih h  s
hibitd f
m ssig th
Ib us, h d b
f 
s vi t
thm, s it h d 
t b tifid by
th C th gii s, yt if th C th gii s s ti
d th 
dut

f H ib  i his tt k u
 th 

f S gutum ith h
m th
R
m s, ft th m kig
f th t 
vti
, h d t d it

i , thy sh
ud 
sid thmsvs s uth
isd t
d  
g ist th C th gii s f
h vig vi
 td s
m t  ty. U

hih Livy  s
s i th f

ig m  , "By th  us i f v
u
f
is
 b
th sids, th   s suffiit su ity f
th S gutis.
F
th   s 
imit ti

f th 
ds t
th
s, h
  is t
th t tim, 
  thy suh s t
xud ith
 f
m m kig
 i s. But if b
th sids   t ib ty t
m k  i s,
h

ud thik it just t
d iv th  is
f th t
tti

t
hih thy 
ud b titd f
m t  tis
f mity? Th xusi


ud  s
 by g

fu th th  t
d  th t th is
f th

C th gii s sh
ud 
t b sdud t

u thi g gmts, 

if thy did s
, b dmittd it
i  ith th R
m s."
Th  st ss g is t k, m
st 
d f

d, f
m th thi d b

k

f P
ybius. O hih  m y
bs v th t th 
d ALLIES m y st ity
m  th
s, h
  s
t th tim, h th t  ty  s m d, d,
ith
ut y f
d it t ti
, m y s
b xtdd t
mb 
th
s, h
ft  ds b m suh. T
hih
f ths it t ti
s
th f  is t
b giv m y b s f
m th us b
v giv:
d 
dig t
th
s us, it i b f
ud, th t i s f
md
ft th m kig
f th t  ty i 
t b 
m hdd i it, b us
it  ts t
th b  h
f t  ty, th vi
 ti

f hih is 

di
us t, d tds t
d iv th C th gii s
f th ib ty
f
d ssig thmsvs by f
 g ist th
s h
  su
sd t
h v
iju d thm; ib ty s ti
d by th  
f  tu , d 
t t

b b d
d
 y sight
 si
. W  th R
m s db d th by
this u f
m m kig y t  ty ith th S gutis, d dfdig
thm ft thy b m is? N
! thy h d ight t
dfd thm,

t by vi tu
f y t  ty, but u
 ii s
f  tu  justi,
hih 
t  ty   u. Th S gutis th f
 ith s t t

b
th
 s   i th s m situ ti
, s if 
g gmt h d b
m d i f v
u
f is. I this  s, it  s 
b  h
f t  ty f

th C th gii s, u
 just g
uds, t

mm h
stiitis g ist
th S gutis, 
f
th R
m s t
dfd thm. U
 th s m
ii , i th tim
f Py hus, it h d b sti u td, by t  ty,
bt th C th gii s d R
m s, th t if ith
f thm ft  ds
t d it
y g gmt ith Py hus, th ty s

t tig
sh
ud s v t
itsf th ight
f sdig su
u s t
th
th , if
tt kd by th t kig. Th
ugh i th t  s th  ON BOTH SIDES 
ud

t b just, yt it 
ud iv
v 
if ti

f y t  ty. This is
 x m 
f  s i qu  t  tis.
XI. Th  s
f  uqu  t  ty m y b ut, h  it is g d
th t

f th 
fd t tis sh  
t m k  , ith
ut th

st,
by th ijuti

f th
th , hih  s sti u td i
th t  ty bt th R
m s d C th gii s, ft th 
usi


f th s
d Pui  . Wh th t m WAR is id t

f v y
ds i ti
, tiu y t

ffsiv th th  dfsiv  ; i
dubi
us  s, it must b imitd t
its
 sigifi ti
, st th
t  ty sh
ud
 t s t

g  t st it u
 th ib ty
f th t

 , hih h s g gd i th uqu  t  ty.
X. Of th s m kid is th
mis giv by th R
m s, th t C th g
sh
ud b f , hih 
ud v m  th j
ymt
f 
m t
id d, by 
, h
h d 
g bf
 
st th ight
f m kig
 , d m y
f thi
th ivigs. Yt it ft thm s
m dg 

f ib ty, s
muh t  st, th t thy sh
ud 
t b
bigd t
m
v
th s t
f thi g
v mt t th 
mm d
f y f
ig
 , d
g v thm dg th t thi ity sh
ud 
t b distu bd. It  s
i v i th f
th R
m s t
u g th t it  s
y th ity hih
 s itdd. Wh  s th
s qu itd ith th us
f mt h
i 
 gu g k
 th t by th ity is f quty m t th ih bit ts, d
g
v mt ith its ivigs, d 
t th m   s d h
uss. F

th t m, BEING LEFT FREE, im is th t th 
 sh
ud j
y thi

  s.
XI. Th  tu 
f  s
  d   t  tis is f qut subjt
f
iqui y, hih m y
 y b x mid i this  . Idd i 
t s ti
s ith f  
, th g gmts t d it
ith thm

f    tu ; b us th subjt
f thm is  m t thig.

S
 m t, th t, th
ugh  ubi  b h gd it
g 

g
v mt, t  ty i m i i f
: f
th
iti  b
dy

tius th s m, th
ugh th h d b h gd, d th s
v ig

 , hih bf
  s diffusd m
g m y mmb s, is 
 t d i

. Yt this u i dmit
f  x ti
, h  it is vidt th t
th s ifi f
m
f g
v mt m d  ssti  t
f th t  ty,
s h t
st ts m k fd  ui
 f
th mutu  s v ti


f thi
iti  systms. But if t  ty b m d ith KING OR
SOEREIGN PRINCE, it d
s 
t 
squty f

 th t it is t
b

sid d
y s PERSONAL d 
t REAL t  ty. F
th  m
f
 s
 m y b is td i t  ty, 
t m y t
giv it th h t

f  s
  t  ty, but t

it
ut th 
t tig tis. Ad
this i b sti m
 vidt, if, s is usu  i m
st t  tis,
 us is xd d ig it t
b  tu ,
m d f
th g

d
f
th kigd
m,
ith th kig himsf, d his suss
s, d it i
s
b 
sid d s   t  ty, v if it is st td t
b ssd
f
dfiit tim. Th t  ty bt th R
m s d Phii , Kig
f
th M d
i s, sms t
h v b
f this ds i ti
, hih, u

th fus 
f his s
 t

tiu it, g v is t
 .
Oth f
ms t

bsids th
s   dy  md, d th subjt itsf,
i f quty su y 
im
b b g
uds
f 
jtu . But if th

jtu s  qu 
 b
th sids, it i m i th t f v
u b
t  tis  su
sd t
b  
 m t, d
di
us
s
y
 s
 . A t  tis
f  

mm   f v
u b. Yt 
t  tis
f   
t
di
us, s i y th
s
f th dfsiv
kid, suh h t b
gig
y t

ffsiv  s, f
m th

tm  ti

f th   mitis hih thy ifit. It is sumd t

,
th t i th f
m ti

f t  tis, th h t
f  h ty is t k
it
th 
ut, d th t b
th   su dd th t ith
f thm i

mm h
stiitis, but f
m just d im
t t  uss.
Wh t is usu y s id
f s
itis t mi tig ith th d th
f th
tis, h s 

ti
 ith this subjt, but  ts t
iv t
s
itis, th 
giz 
f hih b
gs t
th ivi  . Whth
it  s ight

g th f
 i th 

f Fid , th L tis,
Tus s d S bis, u
 th d th
f R
muus, Tuus, Aus, P isus,
S vius, t
b d
 th s tiv t  tis m d ith th
s kigs, it
is im
ssib f
us 
 t
did, th
s t  tis big 

g
xt t. O th s m
it, Justi m it is disussi
, hth
th
s st ts, hih h d b t ibut y t
th Mds,   u

h g
f g
v mt,  sd f
m thi
big ti
s. F
th thig
t
b 
sid d is, hth th 
vti
 ith th Mds h d b
v
ut y t
f thi
. Idd th gumt
f B
dius   by

m s b dmittd, hih is, th t t  tis m d ith kigs xtd

t t
thi suss
s; F
th
big ti

f 
th is imitd
t
th  s

f him, h
t ks it. It is t u th t th
th itsf
  bid
y th  s
 h
t ks it; yt th g gmts, hih it

fi ms, i b bidig u
 his hi s. N
is it t
b t k f

 st bishd m xim, th t
ths  th
y f
ud ti
,
 hih
t  tis st. Th g gmt itsf is suffiity bidig, th
ths
big
y ddd t
giv it th g  t s tity. I th C
sushi

f Pubius   ius, th R
m  
 h d t k 
th t
must t
th 
mm d
f th C
su. U
 his d th, h  s sudd by Luius
Quitius Cii tus. S
m
f th t ibus bg  t
quibb, tdig
th t th 
    sd f
m thi
big ti
. U
 hih Livy,
i his thi d b

k, m ks, th t " t th t tim thy h d 
t dg td
it
th dis g d
f igi
us
big ti
s, hih m kd his g: 

did v y
 
 himsf  titud i x  iig
ths, d  s,
but th
ught th t h  s b
ud t

f
m t
thi it  m ig."

XII. A t  ty m d ith kig 
tius i f
, v th
ugh

th s m kig
his suss
sh
ud b b ishd f
m th kigd
m
by bi
us subjts. F
th ights
f kig, m
g hih his
i s m y b k
d, m i uim i d, du ig th tm
y 
ss

f his th
. A  s t
hih th x ssi

f Lu  m y b id,
th t "
d v 
ss its ights ud y h g
f i umst s."
XIII. O th
th h d, y  , if it b ith th 
st
f th
 fu s
v ig, m d u
 th iv d
f his kigd
m,
u
 th
usu 
f f  
's ights bf
 his usu ti
 h s ivd
ubi s ti
, i b dmd 
if ti

f y f
m t  ty
ith th st bishd uth
itis
f th t kigd
m

ut y. F
ts

f usu ti
 
vy 
t immdi ty y ight by
d th t
f b 

ssssi
. Ad this is h t  s s id by Titus Quitius t
N bis, "W
m d 
t  ty
f i  d mity ith y
u, but ith th just d
 fu kig
f th L d m
i s." F
i t  tis th h t s
f
KING, SUCCESSOR, d th LIKE,  y ith thm  id
f ui
d  fu ight, hih must  ys d th  us
f USURPERS
di
us.
XIX. It  s qusti
 f
m y disussd by Ch ysi us, hth
iz
misd t
him, h
fi st  hd th g
, 
ud b giv t

t
, h
 hd it t th s m tim,
t
ith . But s  ds
f
m it  thigs
f f v
u b  tu , it is th just
ii
 th t
thy sh
ud divid th iz. Ath
ugh Si i
, C s d Jui  td
m
 ib y, i givig th ti  izs t
 h
f th
s h
h d
sdd th  s t
gth .
Wh t h s b   dy s id u
 th it 
figu tiv

f th 
ds, i it tig t  tis, i b suffiit.

i ti


XX. Th  is s

th kid
f it t ti
, isig f
m


jtu s, hih y x ty t
th sigifi ti

f th 
ds

t iig
mis
g gmt; d th t is
f t
f
d
ds i ti
, ith xtdig
imitig th m ig. But it is m

diffiut t
xtd th  t
imit th  t ti

f x ssi
s. F

s i  m tt s th  t
f
 ssti  quisit is suffiit
t
df t thi fft; s
i g gmts, th
s 
jtu s, hih
xtd th
big ti
  
t  diy t
b dmittd. Ad it is muh
m
 diffiut h  th  i th  s b
v mti
d; h  
ds

 m
 xtsiv but ss f mii  t ti
. F
h  it is
skig 
jtu  t
xtd th 
ds
f
mis: th 
jtu 
th f
, hih is t
  t 
big ti
,
ught t
b v y  t i.
N
is it suffiit th t th  is s
m smb  i th m
tivs;
f
th m
tiv
dud t

fi m 
big ti
 must b x ty th
s m s th t
f th  s ud 
sid ti
. Nith is it  ys

 t
g m
tiv f
xtdig 
big ti
; b us, s it
h s b   dy s id, m
tivs, i tu tig us t
f
m g gmts,
m y s
mtims b s yd by th i hih
ft ts id dty
f
y just m
tiv. T
uth
is th f
 suh  xtsi
, it must b
vidt th t th m
tiv,
dud s  x m  d uth
ity,  s
th s
 d fftu   us, hih ifud th
mis , d th t
h 
sid d it i th s m xtsiv vi; f

th is it 
ud
h v b ujust d judii . Th its i thi t  tiss

 ht
i f

 th s m u, h, i s  kig
f th LETTER
d DESIGN, thy giv us
 iv i b f
m
f x ssig th s m
stimt, but i thi sy
gisms
ts
f  s
ig thy
it
ut
 y
f it tig h t is 
t  itt, by h t is  itt. I th
s m m  t

g   it s  y d
 us f
v
idig f uds. N

if t tim, h th   s 

th m
d
f f
tifyig t
s, th  by

su
udig thm ith  s, it   sti u td th t  t i  

sh
ud 
t b s
su
udd, it is vidt th t t
m 
y y
th
m s
f f
tifi ti
 
ud b b  h
f th t t  ty.
As i th b
v  s th it t ti
 must b xtdd t
gu d
g ist v y
ssib v si
, s
i th f

ig x m , th

hibiti
 t
ssmb  md f
 t
ss i us iuds 
kids
f vi
 d f
, by hih
u ivs d su ity m y b
d g d.[48]
XXI. H m y b s
vd th qusti
 t
b f
ud i Gius,
s tig 
mmissi
, hth it   b fufid by d
ig, 
t th
immdi t t qui d, but s
m thig quiv t t
it,
i m 
m
 bfii  th  i th f
m s ibd. F
this dvi ti
 f
m
th  itt u m y b
 d  fu, h  th s ibd f
m is

t ssti  t
 ds tt iig th
bjt,
h , by d tig f
m
it, th t
bjt   b btt 
m ishd, 
dig t
th s
giv by S v
 , th t th  s
 qui d t
b b i d su ity f


th , m y giv 
d t
thi d  s
 t
y th t m
y t
th
 dit
. But h  suh  titud
f it t ti
 is 
t vidty
dmissib,  must dh  t
h t Gius h s s id i th s m  ,
th t it 
ud b diss
uti

f  t usts, if th ty tig i

mmissi
  , i   ss, ft t
his
 dis ti
, th th 
b
ud by his  itt ist uti
s.
XXII. A it t ti
, st itd m
 
sy th  th it 
sigifi ti

f th 
ds 
t iig
mis bs
uty qui s,
m y is ith f
m s
m
igi  dft i th itti

f
th
mis ,
f
m s
m subsqut m gy  ug t t
suh
itti
. Thus if it   vidt th t  bsu dity 
ud f

 th
fufimt
f
mis, this 
ud b suffiit t

v 
igi 
dft i th itti
, b us 
m    b su
sd t
h v
dib ty itdd d
ig  bsu d t. O if th s
 d fftu 
 s
, by hih th
mis  s ifud, sh
ud h v  sd, th

big ti
 s

ud b v
id, th s
 g
ud
 hih it std big


g i xist.
XXIII. I th xt  , h  y suffiit  s
   vidty b
ssigd f

mis
g gmt, it is 
t th subst 
f th

mis itsf, hih is t
b 
sid d, s
muh s th  s
 f

hih th t
mis  s giv.
XXI. Thi dy, th 
tdig tis must  ys b su
sd t
h v
i 
tm  ti
 th subjt, d 
thig but th subjt, h
v
xtsiv sigifi ti
 th 
ds m y sm t
b . This mth
d
f
it t ti
 s
is h dd by th it ht
i   it s, i
s  kig
f x ssi
 d dsig, d thy   it ud th h d
f
ARIATIONS IN OPINION.
XX. I s  kig
f m
tivs d  s
s, it is
 t

bs v, th t
thy s
m tims 
m hd thigs, 
sid d 
t 
dig t
thi
tu  xist, but 
dig t
thi m
 
squs: i hih
 s it is by 
m s ight t
imit th 
ds
f t  ty t
thi
it  m ig, but th utm
st xtt
f it t ti
 is 
 b,
i
d t
m it i th s i it s  s th tt
f suh t  tis.
Thus if it b sti u td th t 
t

s
shi s sh  b b
ught t

 t i  ,
ithi  t i dist , th
hibiti
 xuds
ALL shi s
t

s f
m big b
ught thith , v ud th f i st
d m
st h mss ts. F
th u
t
f th t  ty is t
gu d

t
y g ist tu  mishif but v g ist m
t d g .

It is
it
ft dis utd, hth th 
tiu 
f thigs i

thi st st t is t it 
diti
,
 hih th fufimt
f

miss is f
udd. A
siti
 th t   by 
m s b m it id,
uss it  s th t suh 
tiu   s th s
 m
tiv u

hih th t  tis   m d. As i m y ts
f hist
y,   d
f
mb ss d
s h vig iquishd thi missi
s, d tu d h
m,
u
 fidig th st t
f thigs s
h gd th t th
bjt
f thi
mb ssis  s t  d.
XXI. Wh  m gy iss  ug t t
th g  itti

f 
t, it is x  id by th it m st s
f ht
i ud th h d

f x ssi
 d dsig. N
 this v i ti
 bt th m gy d
th itti
 is
f t
f
d  tu . F
th i d its itti

 t
b 
td ith f
m  tu   s

f
m s
m
ut d
sig. I judgig
f th i by  tu   s
, A ist
t, h
h s
t  td th subjt ith g  t u y, m ks th MIND th SEAT OF
JUDGMENT, d th WILL th SEAT OF EQUITY, hih h 
by dfis t

b th 
ti

f th t, h i th  , by  s

f its uiv s 
 tu  is dftiv.[49]
Ad u
 this ii   is d t  tis
ught t
b it td.
F
s   ss 
ud ith b f
s 
x ssd by th
 giv , it is ss y t
 v

f x tig th  ss,
hih h himsf 
ud h v x td if h   st. Yt this is

t t
b d
 u
 ight g
uds; f
th t 
ud b x isig

t
u
v th ts
f 
th ; but is
y t
b st bishd u

th  st vid d st
gst

fs. Th  st

f 
  h v
f  t
f quity, is h  f

ig th it  m ig

f th 
ds 
ud b u fu, th t is,  ug t t
 tu 

divi  ts. F
suh thigs, s  i b
f
big ti
, 
ss iy t
b x td. Quitii  th d , s ys, "s
m thigs
th
ugh 
m hdd ithi th m ig
f 
  f
m  tu 
x ti
." Thus y
, h
h s
misd t
tu  s
d, th t
h s b giv u t
him,
ught 
t t
tu  it it
th h ds
f
m dm , s d g might sut f
m it t
himsf
t

th i
t
 s
s. Likis thig, hih h s b d
sitd ith y
,
ught

t t
b tu d t
th h ds
f th  s
, h
g v th dg, if
th  
 dm ds it. I
v this s ys T i h
ius t
b justi,
hih ssigs t
v y
 his
 ith
ut distu big th sti just
 ims
f 
th . F
th  s
, it h s b   dy
bs vd, is
f
udd
 th istituti

f
 ty, hih m ks it ujust 
t t

tu  thig h th  
 is k
.
XXII. Th d
f quity t

i  i  ss, h  f

ig th
it  m ig
f th 
ds i 
t b bs
uty u fu, yt, u

f i stim ti
, i b f
ud t

h d d it
 b. It might
im
s h dshi i
sistt ith th g  
diti

f hum 
 tu ,
, u
 
m ig th  s
 d m tt ud 
sid ti

ith  h
th , it might b f
ud t v i  ith th g  itt

f   , hih is t
vt vi d t
d ss iju y. Thus, if
 s
 h s t sum
f m
y,
y
th thig, f
CERTAIN
tim, h m y justy qui  th  ymt
st
ti

f it WITHIN
th t tim, if h h s g  t d
f it himsf: f
ts
f kidss 

f suh  tu , th t 

   b su
sd itti
 y t
bid
himsf th by t
m ifst i
vi
judi. I th s m
m  s
v ig, h
h s
misd ssist  t
 y, i, IN
EQUITY, b xusd f
m fufiig his g gmt, if h  ts  his
st gth t h
m t
 d
ff d g
h
stiitis. Th g t s

f
immuitis
ivigs i ORDINARY  ss,  
t b  dd s 

xm ti

x ti
 f
m th s vis, hih th st t i PARTICULAR

m gis qui s.
F
m th b
v ist s it  s th t Ci
h s t



sy 
dd
his

siti
, "th t suh
miss, s  judii  t
th
 s
, t
h
m thy  giv,  
t t
b k t, 
, if thy 
m
 judii  t
th ty givig, th  bfii  t
th  s

ivig thm." F
it sh
ud 
t b ft t
th
mis t
judg,
hth th fufimt
f his g gmt i b s vi b t
th
ty ivig it, x t i th  s
f th m dm  itd b
v:

is y TRIIAL
IMAGINARY judi th t might sut f
m it,
suffiit t
 s th
big ti
. But it
ught t
b suh, s,

dig t
th  tu 
f th t, 
ud ss iy b su
sd t

f
m  x ti
. Thus y
, h vig
misd his ssist  t

ighb
u t  t i  i
d, 
ud 
t b b
ud t
his g gmt,
if h   dt id t h
m by th sikss
f f th
hid.
A  s, hih Ci
, i his fi st b

k
f
ffis, h s ut i th
f

ig t ms, "If y
 h s ud t k t
m  g  us, d,
i th m  tim, his s
 is t k i, it i b 
b  h
f duty
i him 
t t
 f
m h t h h s
misd." Th  is ss g i
th f
u th b

k
f S , ON BENEFITS, t
th s m fft. "I m
i b, _s ys h_, t
b h gd ith vity, d b  h
f f ith,
if, thigs 
tiuig s thy  , h I m d
mis, I d

t
 f
m my g gmt. But if y h g h s t k  , it  vs
m t ib ty t

sid th m tt , d  ss th
big ti
.
I
misd my su
t i 
u t, d it ft  ds  d th t th
 us 
ud b judii  t
my
 f th . I
misd t
t k
j
u y, but ft  ds h d th t th
d  s ifstd ith
bb s.
I
misd my s
 s
m tiu
 si
, but  s vtd
f
m ttdig by th sikss
f s
. I  ths  ss, t
bid m
t
my g gmt, th i umst s
ught t
m i x ty th s m s
thy   h I m d th
mis."
XXIII. It h s b s id th t th  
th idi ti
s
f itti
,
hih qui   quit b x ti
 i f v
u
f th st  s. Ad
m
g suh

fs th    b 
thig st
g th  th s m 
ds
usd i 
th  , 
t h  thy di ty

s th st
m ig, f
th t 
ud m
ut t

t diti
, but h  thy
 sh ith it,
ig t
s
m ux td m gy, hih th G k
Rht
ii s   i umst ti  dis g mt.[50]
XXIX. Wh th  is y idt  
isi
 bt
 t
f
 itt d
umt d 
th , Ci
, i th s
d b

k
f his
t  tis ON INENTION, h s giv us f
didig hih
f thm
ught
t
h v th f . Th
ugh his gmt is 
t v y u t,
yt it is by 
m s t
b gtd. T
su y th f
 this dft

f u y, th us m y b digstd i th f

ig
d .
I th fi st  , PERMISSION
ught t
giv  y t

b us  missi
  s t
b g td
y i  s

ighti
bjti
 th  its big  x ti
 t

 t, 
y 
d  i f v
u
f 

sit
C
squty, s th  it t
H ius s ys, h t is
s ibd is m

 fu th  b   missi
.

COMMAND:
th  is

sitiv
dt mi ti
.

sitivy

I th xt   h t is qui d t
b d
 t FIXED tim sh
ud

h v th f  t
h t m y b d
 t ANY tim. F
m h it
f

s th t th PROHIBITIONS
f t  ty  g y
f m
 ight
th  its INJUNCTIONS: b us th
hibit
y

 ts t ALL
tims. But it is 
t s
ith ijuti
s, uss  x ss tim f

thi fufimt is  md,
thy 
t i t it
hibiti
.

Am
g th
s t  tis, hih, i th b
v  md s ts,  qu ,
th f  is giv t
suh s  m
 tiu , d
h
  t
th
it i qusti
. F
h  tiu s  st td,
th  s is   , d qui s f x ti
s th  g  us
d
.[51]
Th
s
hibiti
s hih h v  ty xd t
thm, 
f g  t
ight th  th
s, hih h v 
t; d th
s ith g  t  ty 
f
d i f  t
th
s th t h v ss. Th
s g gmts
s
hih  f
udd u
  uss
f ss m gitud d im
t 

ught t
giv  y t
th
s hih h v m
  ud b d usfu
bjts
i vi.
L sty it is t
b
bs vd th t subsqut  
t  ty  ys
  s f
m .
F
m h t h s b s id  if  m y b d  i f v
u
f s

t  tis
g mts th t thy
ught t
b t k i th m
st usu 
 t ti

f th 
ds, jtig  im id imit ti
s d
x ti
s, d suh s  
t immdi ty ss y t
th subjt.
C
squty i  s, h  s
 t  ty
g gmt m y h 
t
 sh ith 
th 
t f
d by th
big ti

f 
th, th
f 
ught t
b giv t
th f
m .
XXX. It is
ft skd hth i d
ubtfu
its, 
t t sh
ud b
dmd  ft, bf
 th  itigs  m d d div d. W fid
i A i 's hist
y
f th Mith id ti  , th t it  s u
 this v y
g
ud Mu 
bjtd t
th 
vti
 bt Sy d Mith id ts.
H
v it  s  i, uss it h s b sttd t
th 
t y,
th t  itig
ught t
b 
sid d dmissib s vid
f

t t, th
ugh 
t s t
f th subst ,
th is it is usu y
x ssd, s i th t u ith N bis, hih  s t
b tifid f
m
th d y th t ms   WRITTEN d DELIERED t
him.
XXXI. W   by 
m s dmit th u  id d
 by s
m  it s,
h
m it i, th t  g gmts
f kigs, d st ts,
ught t
b
x  id, s f s it is
ssib, u
 th ii s
f th R
m 
 : uss idd it   b m d t
 th t m
g s
m st ts, i
thi it 
u s ith  h
th , th CIIL LAW is ivd s th LAW
OF NATIONS; sum ti
 hih
ught 
t t
b h stiy g td.
XXXII. As t
th d
ubt, hih Put h dv s i his Sym
si s,
hth th 
ds
f th ty
ff ig,
th
s
f th
  tig

diti

ught t
b m
st ttdd t
, it  s th t h  th
ty  tig th t ms is th
mis , th  tu  d subst 

f th t s ti
 i d d u
 his 
ds, if thy  bs
ut
d uqu ifid. F
if th
ff is g dd s
sitiv g gmt
t
d
 t i ts, th th fu xtt
f it i b s by th
ss y  titi

f th s m 
ds i th
mis. But bf


diti
 is  td, it is vidt, s  s s i th h t


miss, th t th
mis is 
t b
ud t
its fufimt; f


ight h s b 
f d by th
 ty,
qui d by th
th .
Th f
 th
ff
f 
diti

f this kid d
s 
t m
ut t

 ft
mis.

CHAPTER XII.
ON DAMAGES OCCASIONED BY INJURY AND THE OBLIGATION TO REPAIR THEM.
O D m gs
 si
d by iju y, d th
big ti
 t
 i
thm--Ev y misdm 

bigs th gg ss
t
 i th

ss--By 
ss is m t y thig  ug t t
ight st ity s

 d--Distiti
 bt fitss d st it ight--L
ss

dimiuti

f
ssssi
 iuds v y iju y d
 t
th
du
s  s th
 ty itsf--L
ss stim td f
m th tim th t
g i  ss--Iju is d
 by ii s--By ss
is--Iju is
d
 by th gt
f ii 

f s
d y gts--Wh t
 s
s  im i td i th
s h gs, d i h t dg s--Th
tis g gd s b f
 
squs--Th  s h 
h
miid
y
th t
f vi
 sus--C s
f
bb y--O
thft--P
miss
bt id th
ugh f ud
ujust f --I h t
 ss th 
squs  im ut b t
th suff ig ty--H

f th  
f  ti
s uth
iss st ts t
t k dv t g
f 
my's f --H
 f s
v igs  s b f
y ts
f
vi
 
mmittd by thi subjts--Th  s h  subjts i
vi
 ti

f thi s
v ig's  missi
 d
d s 
mmit ts

f i y u
 id
ut  st ts--N

 s b by th
 
f  tu  f
th mishif d
 by his  tt, his s vs,

his shi --D m gs 
d f
iju is d
 t
 ut ti


h

u --Wh t kid
f  ti
 
d.
I. It h s b s id b
v th t th ights du t
us is f
m th 
s
u s, hih  
t t, iju y d  . It is uss y h 
t
d u
 th  tu 
f 
t ts hih h s b   dy s
fuy
disussd. Th xt
it th f
 t
hih 
d is  iqui y
it
th ights sutig t
us f
m iju is ivd. H  th  m

f  im
misdm 
is id t
v y t
f 
mmissi


gt  ug t t
th dutis qui d
f  m, ith f
m thi

mm
  tu 
tiu  ig. F
suh
ffs  tu y   t

big ti
 t
 i th 
ss
iju y th t h s b sust id.
II. By 
ss is m t dimiuti

f h t y

sssss, hth
it b ight d ivd t
him u y f
m th  
f  tu ,
f
m
th dditi

f hum  uth
ity, th t is f
m th  
f
 ty,

t t,
ivi  . G
d h s giv if t
m , 
t t
dst
y,
but t
s v it; ssigig t
him f
this u
s ight t
th
f  j
ymt
f  s
  ib ty,  ut ti
, d th 
t
u
v
his
 ti
s. Th m  , i hih
 ty d 
t ts 
vy
t
y
 ight t
thigs, s  s t
th s vi
f 
th ,
h s b sh i th dig t
f this t  tis. I th s m
m  f
m th   v y m  d ivs his ui ight; b us th
  h s th s m, if 
t g  t

v  s
s d thigs th 
idividu s thmsvs h v. Thus by th
itmt
f  ,  d
h s ight t
dm d th st itst diig
f gu di , th st t

f m gist t, d 
t
y th st t, but v y subjt h s ight
t
qui  it; h  th   x ssy d s
vidty im is
th t  t i ts sh  b  f
md. But th b  i umst 
f 
ti
 big fit

 givs 
t th ight
f POLITICAL justi t

dm d its  f
m , 
d
s th gt
f it tit th ty
suff ig t
y g  d ss. B us it d
s 
t f

 th t thig
must b
g t
 s
 b us it is fit
bfii  f
him. Thus,
s A ist
t s ys, th  is 
tu  ijusti, th
ugh it m y b
iib  t
fus ssistig 
th ith m
y. T
th s m u
s
Ci
, i his s h f
Cius P us, s ys, th t givig thi v
ts

t
h
m thy  s,
ithh
dig thm if thy thik
 , is th

t u h t isti
f f  
. H ft  ds, idd, 
ts
his ss ti
 by ddig, th t thy m y h  t
d
h t thy ik,
th th  h t thy
ught t
d
, t kig th 
d OUGHT t
sigify

ity.
III. A  uti
 is ss y h , i
d t
v
id 
f
udig
thigs
f diff t kid.
N
 th
s h
 t ustd ith th

f
itig m gist ts,
 b
ud, f
m m
tivs
f ubi g

d, t
hus th
 st  s
s,
d this is h t th st t h s RIGHT t
qui 
f thm. Thy 
b
ud th f
 t
 i y 
ss hih th st t m y sust i by th
h
i
f im
  s
s. S
y subjt h
is 
t disqu ifid,
th
ugh h h s 
ui ight t

ffi, h s  qu  ight ith

th s t
d v
u t

bt i it. I th x is
f hih ight,
if, h is
bst utd by vi

f ud, h m y 
v d m gs,

t t
th fu v u
f th
ffi hih h s
ught, but 
dig
t
th
b b 
ss hih h m y  s
 by b su
sd t
h v
suff d. Simi hih is th ight
f g t, h tst t
h s
b vtd by f ud
vi
 f
m m kig bqust. F
th
 biity
f ivig g y is kid
f ight, hih t

bst ut
tst t
f
m 
f ig, is ud
ubtdy  iju y.
I. Th 
ss
dimiuti

f y
's
ssssi
s is 
t 
fid
t
iju is d
 t
th SUBSTANCE 

f th
 ty, but iuds
v y thig fftig th
du
f it, hth it h s b g th d


t. If th
 himsf h d  d it, th ss y x 
f
 ig,

f im
vig th
 ty t
is
du, must s
b
t k it
th 
ut
f his 
ss, d f
m t
f th d m gs. F

it is  st bishd m xim th t 


ught t
d iv bfit f
m th

ss
f 
th .

. D m gs  t
b 
m utd t

, 
t 
dig t
y ACTUAL g i,

but 
dig t
th REASONABLE x t ti

f it. Whih i th  s
f
g
ig 
m y b judgd
f by th g  bud 
s ity
f
th t tiu s s
.
I. But bsids th  s
 immdi ty d
ig  iju y,
th s m y b
b
ud s
t
 i th 
sss
f th suff ig ty. F
s  s

m y b guity
f
ffs by gig s  s by th 
mmissi


f  t i ts, s
thy m y b d
 s
by ss
is, s  s
ii s. N
 ii  i y  im

ff is
, th t u gs
t
th 
mmissi

f it, th t givs 
ssib 
st, th t ids,
bts,
i y sh  is t i th  t ti

f it.
II. A ss
y is
 h
givs his 
us,
b ti
, d
sst. F
h  is th diff , s ys Ci
, i his s
d
Phii i, bt dvisig  t, d
vig
f it?
III. d IX. Th
big ti
 t
 i th 
sss suff d by
gig m y b 
sid d i t
-f
d ight. Fi sty, h y
 s
, h
s ui
ffi it is, gts ith t
f
bid th

mmissi

f  iju y,
t
ssist th iju d ty. Ad s
dy,
h th  s
, h

ught t
d
it, ith d
s 
t dissu d f
m th

mmissi

f 
ff,
sss
v i si, h t h is b
ud
t
m k k
. I ths  ss, h it is s id th t  s
 OUGHT t

d
,
t
f
b d
ig  t i ti
s, it is m t th t h is b
ud
by th t ight, hih st it justi qui s, hth th t duty iss
f
m  ,
f
m th  ity, hih th  s
 b s. F
th
ugh it

m y b 
g t

mit y duty j
id by th  
f h ity, th 

  b 
d ss f
suh
missi
, but v y LEGAL REMEDY must b
f
udd
 s
m PECULIAR RIGHT.
X. It is t
b
bs vd s
th t  th tis b
v-mti
d, if
thy h v b th  
 si

f 
ss t
y
,
h v bttd
th  s
 d
ig him th iju y,  s
f im i td i th guit,
s t
b i b t
fu d m gs,
, t  st,

ti
 by t
th
t thy h v t k. F
it m y d
ft d
s h  th t  im

ud h v b 
mmittd by 
ffd , v ith
ut th id
f

th ii s
ss
is. I hih  s h 
 is s b.
Yt ith ii s 
ss
is i b 
d t
 d s 
xus, th t if thy h d 
t idd
bttd,
th s 
ud h v b
f
ud t
ssist d 
u g th  t t
i th 
mmissi

f th
t. Es i y, if it  s th t ith
ut suh ssist  f
m thm
th  im 
ud v h v b 
mmittd. F
th
s
th im gi y
btt
s 
ud thmsvs h v b s b, if thy h d giv thi
dvi
id.
XI. I th s 
f im i ti
 th fi st dg  is t
th
s, h

by thi uth
ity,

th m s h v 
m d
u gd y

t
th 
mmissi

f 
ff. O f iu 
f ths th  t t

himsf h s th g  tst sh 
f guit, d xt t
him,
th s h

h v b 
 d. I sh
t,  idividu s, h
s h ds h v b
g gd i th  t ti
,  guity, th
ugh thy h v 
t b th
s
 uth
s
f th t.
XII. N
 h h
is s b f
 t, is s b f

th iju i
us 
squs ttdig it. S i

f his

t
v sis, t  tig u
 this
it, uts th  s
f  -t 
st
 fi , by hih h
us  s bu t, d h subj
is th f

ig
m k, " th
ugh th mishif t fu th th   s itdd, yt
th  s
 d
ig it  s s b f
th WHOLE, s muh, s if
h h d d
 it by dsig. F
y
 th t uts his df u

th 
f UNINTENTIONAL INJURY,
ught t
h v bst id f
m 
mishif h ts
v ." Wh A i ths, kig
f C d
i h d  t
y

bst utd th h 
f th iv M s, hih dish gs itsf
it
th Eu h ts, th s
f  t s bu stig th m
uds, th
Eu h ts
s t
suh hight, s t

 si
 xssiv d m g t
th
C d
i s, th G  ti s, d th Ph ygi s. U
 hih th disi


f th m tt big ft t
th R
m s, thy im
sd u
 him fi
f
th  hud d t ts.
XIII. XI. X. d XI. But t

d ith
th ist s
f iju y,
hih d th tis 
mmittig thm i b t
 i th 
sss

 si
d th by. Th  s
f xus b h
miid m y b gd s

, h i th  s
, h
h s 
mmittd it, is b
ud t
m k v y
 s
 b 
m s ti
 t
th f miy, d dts, d 
ti
s

f th d sd ty, i

ti
 t
th 
ss, hih thy h v
sust id f
m his d th. As Mih  th E hsi  i th fifth b

k

f A ist
t's Ethis h s
bs vd, th t th 
m s ti
 m d t
th
ts, th if
hid 
f th d sd is  y th s m s if
it 
ud b m d t
himsf. Th  it is h  s  kig
f xus b
h
miid, th t is, h th  s
 by h
m it is 
mmittd, d
s it 
t
i th immdi t dish g
f s
m g  duty. Wh f
 if y
, i
dfdig himsf, h s kid 
th f
m h
m h might h v s d,
th
ugh h m y h v vi
 td th  
f h ity, yt h h s 
t iu d
th  ty
f  it 
ff.
U
 th s m

ii  th  s
, h
h s m imd
muti td

 
th , i b b
ud t
m k him 
m s ti
,

ti
 by t

th m s
f subsist hih h is d ivd
f by suh   mity.
A thif

bb is b
ud t
st
 h t h s b t k, d t

tu  it ith  th im
vmts it m y h v qui d,
t
m k
 ti
 t
th
 , i

ti
 t
th g i, hih th iv ti

h s vtd him f
m m kig,
t
th tu  v u
f th thig
itsf. If th thig h s b i t iv by 
sumd, th stim ti

f
d m gs must b m d, 
dig t
mdium bt th highst d th

st v u.
T
this  ss
f
ffs d du  ti
 m y b f d  f uds
u
 th ubi vu,  ujust disi
s,
 f s vid,
by hih st ts
idividu s  iju d.
XII. C
t ts,

tit th iju d
f ud

m usi
,
f
m  tu    d

miss
bt id by f ud, vi

udu f

ty t
fu stituti
. F
 ft f d
m f
m
i 
u d igs, is RIGHT hih  d iv
ib ty.

With th s m  ss
f
ffd s  m y k  m i
ffi, h


uiig t
dish g thi duty ith
ut b ib.
XIII. Wh  s
 h s HIMSELF b th
 si

f th f ud

vi
, th 
squs  im ut b t
his
 
dut. F

h  v
ut y t givs is t
INOLUNTARY 
squs, th
s

squs, 
sid d i m
 ight,  t
b dmd th f uits
g
ig
ut
f th x is
f f  i.
XIX. But t

t th dig  ss d gumts ith ubi d
 ti
  
 s, it is ss y t

bs v, th t it is m xim
it
dud d st bishd by th 
st
f   ti
s th t th  s
hih  d d d 
dutd by th uth
ity
f th s
v ig


 b
th sids  
 titd t
th d
mi ti

f just
 s: Ad th my h s 
ight t
dm d stituti
 f
h t th

suti

f suh  s h s dud him t
b d
 th
ugh f . It
is u
 this ii   dmit th distiti
 hih Ci
h s m d
bt  my, t
 ds h
m th 
st d  
f  ti
s
big us
t

bs v m y 
mm
 ights, d bt
bb s d i ts. F
y
thig giv u t
i ts

bb s, th
ugh f , is 
 fu iz:
but it m y b 
v d, uss s
m
th
f ui ti
 h s b
t k. This is 
t th  s ith th  tu s m d i just  .
Th justifi ti
 hih P
ybius m ks f
th C th gii s, i th
s
d Pui  ,  is ith it   
f quity, th
ugh it
is 
t qusti
 immdi ty f
udd u
 th  
f  ti
s. Thy
gd s  s
 f
thi m kig th t  , th t, h thy  
g gd i quig mutiy
f thi
 m  is, th R
m s h d
d d  , sizd u
 S dii , d vid 
t ibuti
s
f m
y.
XX. S
v ig P is d St ts  s b f
thi gt, if
thy us 
t  th
 m s ithi thi
 f
su ssig
i y d
bb y. Ad
 this 
ut th Sy i s   f
m y

dmd by th Am hity
i 
ui.
Wh s
m
f th st ts
f th uitd P
vis h d,
 tiu

 si
, g td 
mmissi
s t
m y iv t s, d th
s dvtu  s
ud d f ids d mis ik, d b m g  i ts, it
 s subjt
f g  t disussi
, hth th
s st ts   justifid
i h vig m d us
f th s vis
f ds  t d b d
d m,

ith
ut x tig suffiit su ity f
thi g

d 
dut. At th t

tim, it  s m it id th t thy   b
ud t

thig m
, th  t

uish
div u th
ffd s, if thy 
ud b f
ud, d t
s
justi d
 by f
fitu 
f thi
 ty. F
thy thmsvs
h d ith uth
isd th
s UNJUST ts
f ud , 
sh d i
th f uits
f thm. Thy h d v st ity
hibitd th iv t s
f
m m
stig th subjts
f f idy
 s. As t
thi t kig
su itis, th   s 

big ti
 t
d
th t: f
thy h d ight
t
g t GENERAL 
mmissi
 t
 thi subjts t
siz u

th my's
 ty: thig, hih h d f quty b d
. N


ud th t tiu 
mmissi
 b 
sid d s  t
f ijusti
g ist ith is
ut s; si v ith
ut suh  missi

idividu s might h v fittd d st
ut md vsss. Th st ts

ud 
t f
s, 

squty
vid g ist th mis
dut
f
th
s dvtu  s, h
h d xdd thi 
mmissi
; d if  ti
s
  t
di usig th ssist 
f ikd m, 
my 
ud v
b 
td. Ad it h s b 
fi md by th uth
ity b
th
f F 
d Eg d, th t s
v ig  
t s f
v y iju y d
 t

th subjts
f f idy
 by his  v 
miit y f
s;
s i y if it is  i th t thy td i vi
 ti

f his
d s.
But i h t  ss y
 is  sd f
m big s b f
h t
is d
 by his sub
di t gts, is
it 
t s
muh f
th  

f  ti
s, s f
th muii   , d tiu y th m itim

d
f  h 
ut y t
did. I  s simi t
th t udd t
,
disi

f th su m 
u t
f judi tu   s m d g ist th
P
m i s t
tu is t  st bf
.
XXI. It is th CIIL   t

, hih m ks 
 s b f
th
mishif
d m g d
 by his s v,
by his  tt. F
i th y

f  tu  justi h is 
t t
b m. S
ith is th  s
, h
s
shi , by uig f
u
f 
th , h s d m gd it, th
ugh by th  s

f m y  ti
s, d
f
u s m
g th st, th d m gs  usu y
dividd bt b
th tis,
ig t
th diffiuty
f didig, h

 s i f ut.
XXII. D m gs  
d t

f
y iju y d
 t

u h

u

 ut ti
, by ss ut, s d ,
v i
us
th  ys. I hih, s
 s i thft d
th  ims th  tu 
f th
ff is t
b
stim td by its 
squs. F
th  ti
 i suh  ss s s
t
th  ty im
sd f
 ims. Ad th t  ti
 is m d s
m
tims by k
dgig th iju d ty's i
; d s
m tims by

m s ti
 i m
y, hih is st d d v u
f  thigs.

CHAPTER XIII.
ON THE RIGHT OF EMBASSIES.
Right
f Emb ssis, 
big ti
 isig
ut
f th  
f
 ti
s--Wh  it
bt is--Whth Emb ssis   ys t
b
dmittd--Dismiss 
uishmt
f mb ss d
s g gig i

ts 
t t
b 
sid d s h sh m su , but  t
f
sf-df--A
 t
h
m 
mb ss d
h s b st,

t b
ud t
s t th ights
f mb ssy--A my t
h
m
 mb ss d
is st b
ud t
s t his ights--Th  
f
t i ti
 
 f
i t  tmt
f  mb ss d
--This ight

f
tti
 xtds t
 mb ss d
's suit, if h thiks


t
 im it--T
his m
v b
 ty--Ex m s
f
big ti


ith
ut th ight
f 
m usi
--Im
t 
f th s  d h t

f mb ss d
s.
I. Hith t
th u suit
f
u iqui is h s d us t
x mi th
s
ights t
hih   titd by th  
f  tu ,
 si
 y
t
uhig u
 th
s
its h  its uth
ity is f th 
fi md by
th v
ut y  
f  ti
s. Ad th t v
ut y   s it is  d,
givs is t
 t i
big ti
s, hih 
 m i f

u disussi
,
d i hih th ights
f mb ss d
s f
m  dig f tu . Am
st
v y g
f hist
y
ff s s
m m k
 th ivi
 b ights
f
mb ss d
s, d th su ity
f thi  s
s, su ity s ti
d
by v y  us d  t
f hum  d v d  . N
is it
su isig th t th  s
s
f th
s sh
ud b dmd ivi
 b,
h
f
m th ii  ik i th t h i, by hih s
v igs d
id dt st ts m it i thi it 
u s ith  h
th . T

ff
vi
 t
thm is 
t
y  t
f INJUSTICE, but, s Phii i his
tt t
th Athi s s ys, is k
dgd by  t
b  t
f
IMPIETY.
II. But h tv ights th  
f  ti
s m y 
f u
 mb ss d
s,
it is ss y i th fi st   t

bs v, th t 
  titd
t
thm, but th
s, h
 st by th s
v igs
f id dt

ut is t
 h
th . F
th ivigs
f
vii ,
muii 
d utis st t
th st ts g 
f y 
ut y  gu td by th
tiu  s
f th t 
ut y d 
t by th  
f  ti
s.[52]
Thus  fid, i th fi st b

k
f Livy,  mb ss d
styig himsf
ubi mssg
f th R
m  P
; d, i th sixth b

k
f th
s m hist
i ,  h v d ti

f th s t, 
fiig th
ights
f mb ssis t
th it 
u s bt f
ig
 s, d
xudig itizs f
m th s m ivigs i thi t s ti
s ith
 h
th . U
 this t
i, th uth
ity
f Ci
m y b itd, h
,
i
d t
sh th im
ity
f sdig mb ss d
s t
At
y,

bs vs, th t thy  
t d ig ith H ib 
f
ig my,
but ith

f thi
 itizs.
N
 i gi h s s
 y x  id WHO  t
b k
d FOREIGNERS,
th t  d 
t h v 
u s t
 y s, t
ud st d h t is s

 x ssd by th
t, h
s ys, "I 

k u
 v y 
ut y s
f
ig, hih
s 
t th s y
f
u s t ." A. vii. 369.
A st t th f
 
td ith 
th th
ugh by  uqu  t  ty,
if it t i its id d, i h v ight
f sdig mb ssis.
Th P is
f G m y, h
  i s
m s ts subjt t
th
Em 
, s thi h d, big S
v ig P is
ssssd th ight
f
sdig mb ss d
s t
f
ig st ts. But Kigs h
h v b ti y
subdud i just  , d st i d
f thi d
mii
s, h v, ith 
thi
th s
v ig ights, 
st th t
f sdig mb ss d
s. It  s
f
this  s
, th t P uus Amiius m d is
 s
f th mssg s
st t
him by P sus, h
m h h d 
qu d.
I ivi  s ssity s
mtims givs bi th t
 ights i
vi
 ti

f f
m us. Wh f
ist , kigd
m is s
qu y
dividd bt t
tis, th t it is m tt
f d
ubt hih
f
thm 
stituts th  ti
,
i dis utd sussi
 bt t

 im ts
f th 
; th kigd
m m y b 
sid d s f
mig t

 ti
s t th s m tim. T itus, 
sid ig  h ty i suh
 ss, s titd t
th ights
f th  
f  ti
s, 
dms th

F vi s f
h vig, i th g
f ivi disssi
s, vi
 td, i

th  s
s
f th iti  mb ss d
s, th
s ivigs, hih
 s td v m
g FOREIGN  ti
s. Pi ts d
bb s, s
thy f
m 
ivi 
mmuity,  
t st y  im t

tti

d su
t u
 th  
f  ti
s. Tib ius, s   if
md by
T itus, h T f i s st mb ss d
s t
him, s u d t th id

f t  tig ith
bb , s ith  fu my. Yt s
mtims
dg
f ubi f ith, d th ights
f mb ssy  
d t
m
f
th t ds i ti
, hih  s d
 by P
m y t
th fugitivs f
m th
Py   f
st.
III. Th   t

its u
 hih th ivigs g td by th  

f  ti
s t
mb ss d
s tu . I th fi st  , thy h v ight
t
b dmittd it
y 
ut y, d s
dy t
b
ttd f
m 
 s
  vi
. Rs tig th f
m
f ths
its, th  is
ss g i th vth b

k
f Livy, h  H 
, C th gii 
s t
ivighs g ist H ib  f

t h vig dmittd it
his  m
mb ss d
s, h
 m f
m th is, d
 thi bh f; s h h d
th by
v tu d th  
f  ti
s.
But this u by 
m s 
m s  ti
s t
giv  UNQUALIFIED
dmissi
 t
 mb ss d
s. F
th t is h t th  
f  ti
s
  v itd: it
y
hibits th fus 
f dmissi
 ith
ut
suffiit g
uds.
Th   v i
us m
tivs hih m y ff
d suffiit  f

suh fus . Th  m y b 
bjti
 t
th
 h

ff s t

t  t, t
th  s
 st u
 th mb ssy,
 h s t
th
bjt

f his missi
. Thus t th suggsti

f P is, Msi us, th
L d m
i  mb ss d
,  s st
ut
f th t it
is
f Aths;
b us h  m f
m  my, h
h d 
ifi itti
s. Th
s t
f R
m s id, th t thy 
ud iv 
mb ssy f
m C th g,
s 
g s th C th gii  my m id i It y. Th Ah  s
fusd t
dmit th mb ss d
s
f P sus, h
  s ty
MEDITATING  g ist th R
m s. U
 th s m g
uds Justii 
jtd  mb ssy f
m T
ti s, d th s m  s d
 by th G
ths
t U bi
t
mssg s f
m Bis ius. P
ybius  ts i th thi d
b

k
f his hist
y, th t v y
 d
v  y th mb ss d
s
f th
Cythsi s, s thy   s
if m
us 
.
W h v  ist 
f th s
d kid, h  th
bjti
 is m d t

th PERSON st
  mb ssy, i th  s
f Th
d
, h
 s  d
th thist, d h
m Lysim hus fusd t
iv i th h t

f  mb ss d
st f
m Pt
my, d th s m thig h s f quty
h d t

th s, g ist h
m ui m
tivs
f v si
 h v
xistd.
I th thi d  , th  m y b suffiit g
uds f
fusig t

dmit  mb ss d
, if th
bjt
f his missi
 b
f sus ii
us
kid, s  s th  s ith th t
f Rh bsh kh th Assy i , h
m
Hzki h h d  s
 t
sus t
f 
mig ith dsig t
xit his

 t
bi
. O th fus  m y b justifid, h  it is 
t

sistt ith th digity
i umst s
f

 t
t it

y t  ty,
it 
u s ith 
th . F
this  s
 th R
m s
st d ti
 t
th At
i s, th t thy sh
ud sd 
mb ssy,
but ith th  missi

f thi g , d P sus  s 
t 
d
t
sd
 t
R
m, but t
Liiius. Jugu th 's mb ss d
s t

, s
S ust if
ms us,  
d d t
 v It y ithi th s 
f
t d ys, uss thy  m ith
ff s f
m th t i t
su d
himsf, d his kigd
m.

Th  m y
ft b th bst  s
s f
s
v ig's fusig t



f RESIDENT miist t his 
u t; ti, s
g  i th
st d y, but t
t y uk
 t
th gs
f tiquity.
I. As t
th  s
  xm ti

f mb ss d
s f
m st,

st it,
vi

f y kid, it is subjt
f s
m diffiuty
t
dt mi,
ig t
th v itis
f
ii
 t t id by th
m
st b td  it s
 th qusti
. I th 
sid ti

f this
m tt ,
u ttti
 is di td i th fi st   t
th  s
 
ivigs d xm ti
s
f mb ss d
s thmsvs, d xt t
th
s

f thi ttd ts, d thi g

ds. With s t t
thi  s
s,
s
m  it s 
f
ii
, th t it is ONLY f
m UNJUST IOLENCE,
d ILLEGAL CONSTRAINT, th t th  
f  ti
s
tts mb ss d
s.
F
thy im gi th t thi ivigs  t
b x  id 
dig
t
th 
mm
 ii s
f th  
f  tu . Oth s g i su
s
th t mb ss d
s  
t m b t
uishmt f
ALL
ffs, but

y f
suh s m
ut t
t sg ssi

f th  
f NATIONS, th
ii s
f hih 
f suh g  xtt, s t
iud th
 
f  tu : 
squty th    b 

ffs f
hih 
mb ss d
is 
t uish b, x t f
th
s ti
s th t  m d
suh by th
sitiv us
f MUNICIPAL
CIIL LAW.
Oth s g i 
sid ths ubi  st tivs
f st ts d

d h ds, s
y i b t
uishmt f

ffs fftig
th digity
g
v mts
f th s
v igs t
h
m thy  st.
Whi,
 th
th h d, th   s
m  it s h
m it i th t f

y st t t
uish  mb ss d
f
ANY CRIME WHATEER is highy
d g
us t
th id d
f f
ig
 s; but th t 
ffd s

f th t ds i ti

ught t
b ft t
th  s
f thi s tiv

ut is, t
b uishd

t 
dig t
thi ds ts, u
 du

m  it big m d t
th s
v igs by h
m thy   st.
S
m f  it s, idd, i  yig d
 th u t
b
bs vd
i suh  ss, h v didd th t    sh
ud b m d t

th
id dt d disit std
 s, hih m y b 
sid d th
s m tt
f DISCRETION, th 
f ABSOLUTE RIGHT. But th dv
 ts

f  ths v i
us systms h v 
m t

dfiit 
usi
 i
su
t
f thi f v
u it
ii
s. F
this is ight hih  
t,
ik th  
f  tu , b st bishd u
 uh g b us, but
d ivs  its ffi y f
m th i
f  ti
s. N ti
s if thy
h d th
ught
 ,  t iy might h v  id d
 ABSOLUTE us
f
su ity f
mb ss d
s,

u d thm ith  t i x ti
s.
Th gumt is su
td

 sid by th u gt ssity
f
hi
us  ims big uishd, d
 th
th , th utm
st  titud

f xm ti
 is f v
u d
 
ut
f th utiity
f mb ssis, th
f iity
f sdig hih
ught t
b 
u gd by v y
ssib
ivig, d su ity. T
stt th
it th f
,  must

sid h
 f  ti
s h v g d m
g thmsvs u
 ths
ii s; th

fs
f hih  
y b f
ud i th vid
f
hist
y.
M y ist s m y b
dud i f v
u
f b
th
ii
s. Ad i
 ss ik this, th
ii
s
f th
s b td f
thi judgmt
d k
dg i b
f 
sm  ight, but i s
m  ss  must
st u
 
jtu s. O this subjt th t
mit hist
i s,
Livy d S ust, m y b qu
td s uth
itis, th f
m
f h
m,
i mti
ig th mb ss d
s
f T qui, h
h d b guity
f
f
mtig t  s
 b 
s i is t R
m, s ys, "th t th
ugh thy
ds vd t
b t  td s mis f
thi guity 
dut, yt th

 ivig, hih thy d ivd f
m th  
f  ti
s, v id
v

v y
th 
sid ti
." H   s th t th ights
f mb ss d
s

ud 
t b ud v by th m
st  imi  ts
f h
stiity.
But th
bs v ti
 m d by S ust,  ts th t
th
s h

m
i th t i
f  mb ssy th  t
mb ss d
s thmsvs. Th  
f
 ti
s su y th i 
t dy th s m ivig t
ii ,
hih it vidty 
s t
th
s h
f
m but sub
di t t i
th ubi missi
. Th hist
i  s ys, th t "B
mi  s igd
d t id th u
 ii s
f quity d  tu  justi, th 
i 
f
mity t
th  
f  ti
s, s h b
gd t
th t i
f
Jugu th ; h
h d 
m t
R
m ud th dg
f ubi f ith."
Equity d  tu  justi qui  uishmt t
b ifitd
 ALL

ffd s, h  s th  
f  ti
s m ks  x ti
 i f v
u
f
mb ss d
s, d th
s h
h v th ubi f ith f
thi
tti
.
Wh f
 t
t y
uish mb ss d
s, is 
t y t
th  
f
 ti
s, hih
hibits m y thigs, th t   mittd by th  
f
 tu .
Th  
f  ti
s, thus dvi tig f
m th  
f  tu , givs is
t
th
s it t ti
s d 
jtu s, hih 
i ith th
ii s
f justi g  t xtsi

f ivigs th  th  

f  tu  st ity 
s. F
if mb ss d
s  
ttd g ist

thig m
 th  vi
 d ig  
st it, thi ivigs

ud 
f 
xt
di y dv t g. Bsids, th su ity
f
mb ss d
s is m tt
f muh g  t m
mt t
th ubi f 
th  th uishmt
f
ffs. B us  ti
 f
th mis
dut

f  mb ss d
m y b 

kd f
f
m th s
v ig, by h
m h is
st, uss th t s
v ig huss t
x
s himsf t
h
stiitis
by
vig
f his  ims. A
bjti
 t
suh ivigs is m d
by s
m, h
ss t, th t it is btt f

  s
 t
b uishd
th  f
h
  ti
s t
b iv
vd i  . But if s
v ig h s
SECRETLY giv his s ti
 t
th mis
dut
f his mb ss d
, his
APPARENT itti
s t
uish th t mb ss d
i 
t d iv th
iju d

f th ight t
sk d ss by 
mmig h
stiitis.
O th
th h d, th ight
f mb ss d
s 
ud st u
 v y
si  y f
ud ti
 if thy   
ut b, f
thi ti
s, t
y

 but thi
 s
v igs. F
s th it sts
f
 s sdig,
d
f th
s ivig mb ss d
s,  i g  diff t, d s
m
tims v

sit, if ubi miist  
bigd t

sut th
ii ti
s
f b
th, th  
ud b 
t
f his 
dut, t
hih
thy might 
t im ut s
m dg 
f b m. Bsids th
ugh s
m

its  s
 , s t
dmit
f 
d
ubt, yt uiv s  d g is
suffiit t
st bish th quity d utiity
f g   . F

this  s
 it is  tu  t
su
s, th t  ti
s h v g d, i
th  s
f mb ss d
s, t
dis s ith th t
bdi, hih v y

, by g  ust
m,
s t
th  s
f th t f
ig 
ut y, i
hih, t y tim, h sids. Th h t , hih thy sust i, is

t th t
f
di y idividu s, but thy  st th M jsty
f th
S
v igs, by h
m thy  st, h
s
 is imitd t


 
ju isditi
. As Ci
, i his ighth Phii i, s  kig
f  t i
mb ss d
, s ys, "h  id ith him th M jsty
f th S t,
d th uth
ity
f th St t." F
m h it is 
udd, th t 
mb ss d
is 
t b
ud by th  s
f th 
ut y, h  h sids.
If h 
mmit 
ff
f t ivi   tu , it m y ith b suff d
t
ss u
tid,
h m y b
d d t
 v th 
ut y.
P
ybius  ts  ist 
f  mb ss d
, h
 s
d d t
 v
R
m, f
h vig ssistd s
m h
st gs i m kig thi s . H

it is
bvi
us hy th R
m s ifitd 

  uishmt u
 

mb ss d

f T tum, b us th T tis   t th t tim thi

 subjts, by ight
f 
qust.
If  im is
f 
t
i
us  tu , fftig th g
v mt, 
mb ss d
m y b st h
m, d his s
v ig qui d t
uish,

div him u , s   d
f th G us h vig d
 t
th F bi s.
But, s  h v bf

 si
 y
bs vd,  hum   s  f md
u
 suh ii s, s, i  ss
f xt m ssity, t
dmit

f quit b  x ti
s, m
g hih th ivigs
f mb ss d
s
m y b k
d. But ths xt m  ss
f ssity m y, 
dig
t
th  
f  ti
s, s i b s h  ft , i disussig th
ffts
f just d s
m  , vt uishmt i CERTAIN  ss,
th
ugh 
t i ALL. F
it is 
t th t
f uishmt itsf, hih is

bjtd t
, ith i s t t
tim,
m  , but th xm ti
 is
  td t
vt th g  t ubi vi, hih might is f
m th
uishmt
f th
ffd . T

bvi t th f
 y immit d g ,
if 

th
 mth
d   b dvisd, mb ss d
s m y b dt id
d it
g td. Thus th R
m  C
sus sizd th mb ss d
s
f
T qui, vi
usy t kig   t
su  thi  s, t
vt
th vid, hih thy might ff
d, f
m big dst
yd. But if
 mb ss d
xits d h ds y vi
t isu ti
, h m y b
kid, 
t by  y
f uishmt, but u
 th  tu  ii 
f
sf-df. Th G us th f
 might h v ut t
d th th F bii,
h
m Livy  s vi
 t
s
f th  
f  tu .

. Mti
 h s bf
 b f quty m d
f th xm ti
s, by hih

mb ss d
s 
ttd f
m   s
  
st it d vi
,
d it is ud st

d th t 
 s  b
ud by t it g mt,
s it  , f
m th tim
f dmittig  mb ss d
, t
s t ths
xm ti
s. It MAY d idd s
mtims DOES h , th t


givs 
ti t

th th t 
mb ss d
i b ivd, d if

 is st, th t h i b t  td s  my. A d ti
 t

this fft  s m d by th R
m s t
th At
i s, d,
 
th

 si
, th jti  mb ss d
s  
d d t
 v R
m, ith
m , if thy fusd t

m y,
f big t  td i th s m m 
s th R
m  mb ss d
s h d b t  td by thi kig T
umius, h

h d ut thm t
d th. Th S mits t

f
b d th R
m s t
g
t
y

ui i S mium, ud i
f f
fitig thi ivs,
, t  st,
thi  s
  s fty.
Th b
v   d
s 
t bid
 , th
ugh h
s t it
is
mb ss d
s ss ith
ut  v. F
, if thy  g
ig t
 my

f th t
 ,
tu ig f
m him,
 g gd i y h
sti
dsig, thy m y  fuy b t  td s mis; hih  s d
 by th
Athi s i th  s
f th mssg s ssig bt th P si s
d S t s, d by th Iy i s i th t
f th
s, h
 id
 th
it 
u s bt th Essi s d R
m s. X
h
 m it is th t
i  t i  ss thy m y b m d is
 s, s Ax d m d th
s,
h
  st f
m Thbs d L d m
 t
D ius, d th R
m s
th
s, h
m Phii st t
H ib , d L tius th
s
f th 
si s.
F
t
t  t mb ss d
s ith y dg 
f ig
u , EXCEPT UPON THOSE
SUFFICIENT GROUNDS, 
ud b dmd 
t
y b  h
f th  
f
 ti
s, but  s
 
ff g ist th s
v igs, t
h
m thy
 g
ig,
by h
m thy  st. Justi if
ms us, th t Phii
II, kig
f M d
, st  mb ss d
t
H ib  ith  dti s,
m
 ig him t
m k  i , d th t, h this mb ss d

 s sizd d  id bf
 th S t
f R
m, thy dismissd him
ith
ut f th m
st ti
, 
t
ut
f s t t
th kig, but t

vt d
ubtfu my f
m b
mig didd
.

I. But if  mb ssy, dmittd by  ENEMY is titd t
 th

ivigs
f th  
f  ti
s, muh m
 s
is
, dmittd by

 UNFRIENDLY, but 
t g gd i ACTUAL HOSTILITIES. Di
d
us
Siuus s ys, th t mssg ith f g
f t u  ims  th
su ity
f  , v i th midst
f  . Th L d m
i s, h

h d mu d d th h ds
f th P si s,   s id by th t t t

h v 
f
udd v y distiti
 bt ight d 
g, s it is
k
dgd by   ti
s. F
g   it s  y it d
 s u,
th t t

ff  s
  vi
 t
mb ss d
s, h
s h t s 
dmd s  d, is dfi 
f th  
f  ti
s, d T itus  s
th ivigs   
 disussig, th ights
f mb ssy, s tifid
by th  
f  ti
s.
Ci
, i his fi st s h g ist  s, sks, if mb ss d
s
ught

t t
b s f i th midst
f  my's 
ut y,
v i his  m ?
Ium b
th ist s
f this kid might b
dud f
m th
highst uth
itis b
th it d m
d . Ad it is ith  s
 th t
suh ivigs  v d, f
i th midst
f  m y i umst s
is, hih  
t b didd but th
ugh mb ss d
s, d it is
th
y h  th
ugh hih

s s
f     b m d, d

fi md.

II. It is f quty m d subjt
f iqui y, hth th mb ss d

f s
v ig, h
h s x isd y t
f  uty
ig
u , i b
subjt t
th  
f t i ti
. Hist
y fu ishs m y ist s,
i hih uishmt h s b ifitd i suh m  . But hist
y
is s
mtims 
thig m
 th   t 
gu
f ti
s m kd ith
ijusti, d ug
v  b fu y. Wh  s th  
f  ti
s, by its
ivigs, dsigs t
su  th digity 
t
y
f s
v igs
thmsvs, but s
th t
f th mb ss d
s h
m thy m 
y.
C
squty th  is t it g mt ud st

d t
b m d ith
th  tt , th t HE sh  b xm t, 
t
y f
m y i t  tmt,
th t m y fft th ii , but f
m suh ikis, s m y fft
himsf. S
th t it  s m g im
us s , 
f
m b t
th  

f  ti
s, hih Si i
m d, h th R
m  mb ss d
s h d b
i-t  td by th C th gii s, d th C th gii  mb ss d
s  
b
ught bf
 him, u
 his big skd, i h t m  thy sh
ud
b t  td, h  id, 
t s th R
m  mb ss d
s h d b by th
C th gii s. Livy dds, th t h s id, h 
ud d

thig ub
mig
th h t d  s
f th R
m  
.   ius M ximus ssigs
th s m  gu g t
th C
sus,
 
 si
 simi , but i
t

this. I dd ssig H 
, thy s id, "th dg
f f ith, hih
u
st t h s giv,  ss y
u f
m y suh f ." F
v t th t
tim, C
ius Asi , i vi
 ti

f his ubi h t , h d b
std d th
 it
is
 by th C th gii s.
III. Th t i t


f  mb ss d
, d  th  t b
gig t

him  titd t
ui kid
f
tti
. Whih g v is t

th ss g i th it s
g
f th H ds, "O S
v ig, d
y
u
m k m
y  mssg f
m th R
m  itizs? d d
y
u 
f
th s m ivigs
 my t i d v y thig, hih b
gs t
m?"
Ad by th Jui   ,  iju y fftig 
t
y mb ss d
s, but
v thi ttd ts, is

ud t
b vi
 ti

f ubi ight.
But ths ivigs
f ttd ts 
y g td s
f s 
mb ss d
himsf m y thik
 : s
th t if y
f thm h s

mmittd 
ff, h must b qui d t
div u th
ffd t

uishmt. H must b REQUIRED t
giv him u . B us 
vi
,
i t kig 
ffd
f th t ds i ti
 must b usd. Wh th

Ah  s h d std s
m L d m
i s h
  
g ith th

R
m  mb ss d
s, th R
m s isd g  t
ut y g ist th t,
s vi
 ti

f th  
f  ti
s. S ust's
ii
 i th  s
f
B
mi h s   dy b f d t
.
But sh
ud th mb ss d
fus t
giv u suh
ffd , d ss must
b s
ught i th s m m  , s 
ud b d
 ith s t t
th
mb ss d
himsf. As t
his uth
ity
v his h
ush
d, d th
syum, hih h m y ff
d i his h
us t
fugitivs, ths d d
u
 th g mt m d ith th
 , t
h
m h is st, d d

t

m ithi th disi

f th  
f  ti
s.
IX. Nith   th m
v b
 ty
f  mb ss d
, 
y thig,
hih is k
d  s
  d g, b sizd f
th dish g
f
dbt, ith by
ss
f  ,
v by
y  uth
ity. F
, t

giv him fu su ity, 
t
y his  s
 but v y thig b
gig
t
him must b
ttd f
m  
m usi
. If  mb ss d
th
h s 
t td dbt, d, s is usu , h s 

ssssi
 i th

ut y, h  h sids: fi st
f , 
u t
us i ti
 must b
m d t
himsf, d, i  s
f his fus , t
his s
v ig. But
if b
th ths mth
ds
f d ss f i, 
u s must b h d t
th
s
m s
f 
v y, hih  usd g ist dbt
s sidig
ut
f th
ju isditi

f th 
ut y.
X. N
is th , s s
m thik, y  s
 t
f , th t if suh
xtsiv ivigs   st bishd, 

 
ud b f
ud iig
t
t it
y 
t t ith  mb ss d
,
t
fu ish him ith
ss y tis. F
th s m u i h
d g

d i th  s
f
mb ss d
s, s i th t
f Kigs. As s
v igs, h
f
th bst

f  s
s,   d b
v th  h
f g  
m usi
, fid 

diffiuty i
bt iig  dit.
XI. Th im
t 
f suh xm ti
s m y b  siy if d f
m th
ium b ist s, i hih b
th s  d d
f  hist
y b
ud,

f  s ud t k
 
ut
f th i-t  tmt
f mb ss d
s. Th
 hih D vid m d g ist th Amm
its,
 th t 
ut, ff
ds
us mm
b ist  f
m h
y  it; d s
f   it ,
Ci
m y b itd, h
dmd it th m
st justifi b g
ud
f th
Mith id ti  .
[Iust ti
: _PEACE_
_By G i Mh s--F
m  itig i Lib y
f C
g ss._]

CHAPTER XIX.
ON THE RIGHT OF BURIAL.
Right
f bu yig th d d f
udd
 th  
f  ti
s--O igi

f this ight--Du t
mis--Whth du t
th
s guity

f t
i
us  ims--Whth t
th
s, h
h v 
mmittd
suiid--Oth ights s
uth
isd by th  
f  ti
s.
I. Th ight
f bu yig th d d is

f th
s
igi tig i th
v
ut y  
f  ti
s. Nxt t
th ight
f mb ss d
s Di

Ch ys
st
m  s th t
f bu yig th d d, d  s it m
 t,

s ti
d by th u itt  
f  tu : Ad S , th d , ks

th  , hih 
mm ds us t

mmit th b
dis
f th d d t
thi
t  th, m
g th UNWRITTEN  ts, but s ys, thy h v
st
g s ti
 th  th RECORDED  s
f  gs   giv. F
, i
th  gu g
f th Jish  it s, Phi
d J
s hus, thy  m kd
ith th s 
f  tu , d ud th  m
f  tu ,  
m hd
th ust
ms, th t  
mm
 t
 m kid, d g  b t
 tu 
 s
.
W fid it s
m h  s id by Ai , th t
u 
mm
  tu   s
u
 us t

v th d d, d s
m  it , i 
th  ,
bs vs
th t  m  dud t
 qu ity by tu ig t
th 
mm

dust
f th  th. T itus if
ms us, i b. vi.
f his A s, th t,
h Tib ius m d g  m ss  
f , h
h d b 
td
ith Sj us, d th t h f
b d thm th its
f bu i , v y

 s st uk ith h

t
s th  st
ffis
f hum ity fusd;

ffis, hih Lysi s th
t
 s th 
mm
 h
s
f
u  tu .
As th its m su d th m
 h t
f v y 
 by thi

bs v 
gt
f ths ights, i
d t
giv thm g  t
 
f s tity, thy s ibd thi
igi t
th uth
ity d
istituti
s
f thi G
ds; s
th t i v y t
f thi  itigs 
mt ith f qut mti

f th ights
f mb ss d
s, d th ights

f bu i , s f
udd u
 divi
itmt.
I th T gdy
f th Su i ts, Eu i ids  s it th  
f th
G
ds, d i th Atig

f S
h
s, th h
i m ks th f

ig
 y t
C 
, h
h d f
bidd y
 ud i
f d th, t

giv th its
f bu i  t
P
yis, "A
hibiti
, ik this,  s

t v d by th su m i, 
by th t h v-b
 justi,
hih h s st bishd th
s  s
f s t f
th d d: 
did
I thik th t y
u 
ud 
mm d m
t s t
t sg ss th u itt
d ivi
 b  s
f G
d. Thy   
t st bishd t
-d y, 

yst d y, but f
m  t ity d i f
v b i f
. Thi
s
u s  uk
. Am I th
ugh f
f m
t , d by
byig his
ujust 
mm ds, t
iu th  th
f H v?"
Th uth
ity
f Is
 ts, d
f H
d
tus, d th t
f X
h
, i
th sixth b

k
f his G i  Hist
y, m y b  d t
i su
t
f
th h

u s, th t h v t  tims b id t
th d d. I sh
t,
ths
ffis
f hum ity  
mmdd by th 
s i ig tstim
y

f th
t
s, hist
i s,
ts, hi
s
h s d divis
f 
gs, h
h v digifid thm ith th  ms
f th m
st s did
vi tus.
II. Th  sms t
b 
g  g mt
f
ii
 u
 th

igi
f fu  its, d th v ity
f  ys, i hih thy  
 f
md. Th Egy ti s EMBALMED, d m
st
f th G ks BURNED th
b
dis
f th d d bf
 thy 
mmittd thm t
th g v. Ci
, i
th 22d h t
f his s
d B

k
 L s, s  ks
f th it mt

, hih is 
 i us, s th m
st it mth
d, d th t, hih
is m
st 
gi  t
 tu , d i this h is f

d by Piy.
S
m thik th t m id it s OLUNTARY dbt
f  tu , hih
thy k th t, AT ANY RATE, thy 
ud b
bigd t
dish g. F

th divi st, th t th b
dy sh
ud tu  t
th dust, f
m
hih it  s t k,  s 
t ssd u
 Ad m
y, but, s  fid it
k
dgd by th  itigs
f G  d R
m, xtdd t
th h

hum  . Ci
, f
m th Hy si y
f Eu i ids, s ys, "E th
must b tu d t
 th," d i th tfth h t
f S

m
's

Esi sts, th  is ss g t
th s m u
t, th t "th dust

sh  tu  t
th  th s it  s, but th s i it t
G
d, h
g v
it." Eu i ids h s  gd
 this subjt i th h t
f
Thsus i his Su i ts, "Suff th d d t
b  id i th 
f
th  th; f
v y thig tu s t
its
igi  st t, th s i it
t
h v, d th b
dy t
th  th: Nith
f thm is giv i
 y
ssssi
, but
y f
sh
t us: Th  th s

 dm ds
b k th b
dis, t
hih sh h d giv bi th d 
u ishmt." I th
s m m  Lu tius  s th  th "
ifi t d 
mm

g v." Piy s
ds ibs th  th, s ivig us t
u bi th,
h ishig
u g
th, su
tig us t
th v y  st, d, h 
th
th ts
f  tu  h v f
s k us, t kig us t
h m t  
b
s
m, d 
v ig us ith m t.
Th   s
m, h
thik th t th ust
m
f bu i   s bqu thd
t
us by
u fi st ts s tst mt y h

f su ti
.
F
  ist utd by Dm
 itus t
biv, th t
u b
dis 
s vd i th  th ud th
mis
f st
ti
 t
if. Ad
Ch isti s i tiu h v f quty s ibd th ust
m
f dt
bu i  t
th s m h
. P udtius Ch isti 
t s ys, "Wh t  
b th m ig
f h 
d
ks,
s did m
umts, x t th t
thy  th d
sit
is
f b
dis, 
sigd 
t t
d th, but t

tm
y s ?"
But th m
st
bvi
us x   ti
 is t
b f
ud i th digity
f m ,
h
su ssig
th   tu s, it 
ud b sh m, if his b
dy  
ft t
b dv
u d by b sts
f y. It is  t
f 
m ssi

th, s id Quitii , t
s v th b
dis
f m f
m v gs
f
bi ds d b sts. F
t
b t
 by id b sts, s Ci

bs vs
i his fi st b

k ON INENTION, is t
b
bbd
f th
s h

u s, i
d th, hih  du t

u 
mm
  tu . Ad th R
m  P
t, m ks
 mt ti

v

f his h
s, th t h h d 
i
us m
th t
 y
his b
dy i th g v, but h 
ud b ft y t
bi ds,
th

it
th iv s f

d f
fishs. A. x. 557-560.
But t
s  k f
m sti high uth
ity, G
d, by th m
uth
f his

hts, th  ts th ikd th t thy sh  h v bu i  ik th t

f th b uts, d th t th d
gs sh  ik thi b

d. Suh m 
d
ud g ist th ikd, s uishmt, shs th t it is 
idigity d
 t

u  tu , h, i th 
ds
f L t tius, th
im g
f G
d is  st
ut, t
th isuts
f b sts
f y. But i suh
idigity if th   s v 
thig  ug t t
th figs
f m,
sti th  kdss d ifi mitis
f
u  ish b  tu  sh
ud 
t
b x
sd t
th y
f d y.
C
squty th ights
f bu i , th dish g
f hih f
ms


f th
ffis
f hum ity,  
t b did v t
mis, h
m
st t
f  f  h s 
t d ivd
f th ights d  tu 
f m. F
,
s i gi
bs vs,  im
sity g ist th v quishd d th d d
must  s. A. xi. 104. B us thy h v suff d th  st
f vis
th t   b ifitd. "W h v b t  , I g t, _s ys St tius_,
but
u h t d h s f , d 
u mity is bu id i th g v."
Ad O t tus Mivit us ssigs th s m  s
 f

ii ti
. "If
th  h v b st uggs m
g th ivig, y
u h t d su y must b
s tisfid ith th d th
f  dv s y. F
th t
gu
f st if is

 sid."
III. U
 th ii s dv d b
v, it is g d by  th t
ubi mis  titd t
bu i . A i   s it th 
mm
 ight

f  , ith hih, T itus s ys, 
my i fus t

m y. Ad

th us, s tig this, , 
dig t
Di
Ch ys
st
m,
bs vd,

v hi th utm
st g
f  sti 
tius. "F
th h d
f
d th, _ s th  it just qu
td
bs vs_, h s dst
yd  mity
t
 ds th f , d
ttd thi b
dis f
m  isut."
Ex m s t
this u
s m y b f
ud i v i
us ts
f hist
y.
Ax d
d d th
s
f th my, th t   kid t th b tt

f Issus t
b h

u d ith th its
f bu i , d H ib  did
th s m t
C ius F miius, Pubius Amiius, Tib ius G hus, d
M us, th R
m  G s. S
th t y
u 
ud su
s, s ys Siius
It ius, h h d b yig ths h

u s t
C th gii  G .
Th R
m s t  td H 
, d P
m y Mith id ts i th s m m  . If
it   ss y t
qu
t m
 ist s, th 
dut
f Dmt ius

m y
 si
s, d th t
f At
y t
kig A h us might b  md.
Wh th G ks   t  ith th P si s, i
 t
f thi
miit y
th thy s
 t
bu y  th d d b
gig t
th ALLIES,
d h thy   vit
i
us, t
bu y v th BARBARIANS. Aft
b tt, it  s usu  f
b
th sids t

bt i  v t
bu y th
d d. P us i s, i his 
ut
f th Athi  ff i s, mti
s th
ti
f th Athi s h
bu id th Mds, g dig it s  t

f ity du t
 m. W fid f
m th Jish  it s, th t f
th
s m  s
, thi high ists, h
  f
bidd t

m 
d d b
dy, if thy f
ud
,  
bigd t
bu y it. But Ch isti s
dmd BURIAL  t
f suh im
t , th t thy 
ud 
 thi
hu h-  t t
b mtd d
, d s
d t
df y th x s s thy

ud h v d
 t
m it i th

,
t
dm  tivs.
Th   s
m f ist s t
th 
t y, but thy
by th uiv s  figs
f m kid, d suh  uty
th m
st s
m t ms. C udi   s it b

dy dd
d d, d sti m
 s
t
fus thm th 
v ig
f

 
b td
d  td i
t
ud th
itt s d.

I. Rs tig th
s, h
h v b guity
f t
i
us  ims, th 

is  s
 t
t t i s
m d
ubt, hth th ight
f bu i  is du
t
thm.
Th divi   idd, th t  s giv t
th Hb s, d hih is
f ught ith v y  t
f vi tu d hum ity,
d d th
s, h

   uifid, hih  s th m
st ig
mii
us kid
f uishmt th t

ud b ifitd, t
b bu id
 th s m d y. Oig t
this  , s
J
s hus
bs vs, th Js id suh g d t
bu i , th t th b
dis

f th
s, h
  xutd ubiy s  imi s,   t k  y
bf
 su-st, d 
mmittd t
th g
ud. Ad
th Jish  it s

f
ii
 th t this  s itdd s dg 
f v  t
th
divi im g, ft hih m   s f
md.
T

 bu i  t
 imi s must h v b th ti i th tim

f H
m : f
  t
d, i th thi d b

k
f th Odyssy, th t
gisthus, h
h d ddd th  im
f mu d t
th t
f dut y,  s
h

u d ith fu   m
is by O sts, th s

f th mu d d
kig. It  s th ust
m ith th R
m s, s m y b s f
m U i ,
v t
fus givig th b
dis
f  imi s t
thi  tivs, t

bu y. Th Em 
s, Di
ti , d M ximi , i s i t, d d,
th t thy did 
t fus t
div u , f
bu i , th
s, h
h d
ds vdy b ut t
d th f
thi  ims.
I  dig th hist
y
f ivi  s;  fid m
 f qut ist s

f idigitis
ff d t
th d d, th  i th 
uts
f y f
ig
 s. I s
m  ss, th b
dis
f xutd  imi s  x
sd t

ubi vi, d hug i h is, ust
m th
ity
f hih is

v y muh d
ubtd b
th by Th

gi  d P
iti   it s. S
f

f
m
vig
f th ti,  fid suh  it s bst
ig iss
u
 m y, h
h d
d d fu  h

u s t
b id t
th
s, h


ud 
t thmsvs h v 
d th s m t

th s. A ti

f this
kid  s d
 by P us i s th L d m
i , h
, big u gd by th


f Agi t
t i t u
 th P si s f
thi t  tmt

f L
id s, jtd th dvi, s ub
mig his
 h t d
th G i   m. Th Ph iss 
d bu i  v t
Kig J  us
Ax d , h
h d t  td th d d b
dis
f thi 
ut ym ith
v y kid
f isut. Th
ugh idd
  t i
 si
s, G
d m y h v
uishd s
m
ffd s ith th 
ss
f suh ight, h did s
by
vi tu
f his
 
g tiv, hih  s him b
v th st iti
s

f   . Ad h D vid x
sd th h d
f G
i h, it  s d
 t


, h
 s  i, d ds is
f G
d, d might b justifid by
th t  , hih 
fid th  m d ivigs
f ighb
u t
th
Hb s.

. Th  is
 thig 
t im
 t
b
bs vd, th t th u

v iig m
g th Hb s ith s t t
bu yig th d d,

t id  x ti
, s   if
md by J
s hus, xudig
th
s, h
h d 
mmittd suiid. N
is it su isig th t m k
f
ig
miy sh
ud b ffixd t
th
s,
 h
m d th itsf  
t b
ifitd s uishmt. A ist
t i th fifth b

k
f his Ethis,
s  ks
f th if my uiv s y tt hd t
suiid. N
is th

bs v ti
 t   kd by th
ii
s
f s
m
f th G i 

ts, th t s th d d  v
id
f    ti
, thy  
t b
fftd ith by 
ss
sh m. F
it is suffiit  s
 t

justify th ti, if th ivig   b dt d f
m 
mmittig
ti
s, f
hih thy s m k
f if my st u
 th d d.
I

siti
 t
th St
is, d
th s, h
dmittd th d  d
f
s vitud, sikss,
y
th   mity,
v th mbiti
us

v
f g
y t
b just  us
f v
ut y d th, i

siti
 t

thm, th P t
ists justy m it i, th t th s
u must b t id
i th ust
dy
f th b
dy, f
m hih it  
t b  sd, but t
th 
mm d
f him, h
g v it. O this subjt th   m y fi
th
ughts i P
tius, Oym i
d
us, d M 
bius
 th d  m
f
Si i
.
B utus, f

ig th
ii
s
f th P t
ists, h d f
m y

dmd th d th
f C t
, h
m h himsf ft  ds imit td. H

sid d it s  t
f im ity f
y
 t
ithd  himsf f
m
his gi  t
th su m big, d t
sh ik f
m vis, hih
h
ught t
b ith f
titud. Ad Mg sths, s m y b s, i
St b
b

k X. m kd th dis
b ti
, hih th Idi  s gs
x ssd
f th 
dut
f C  us: f
it  s by 
m s g  b
t
thi tts, th t y
, th
ugh im ti, sh
ud quit his
st
i if. I th fifth b

k
f Quitus Cu tius, th  is  x ssi


f Kig D ius t
this fft, th t h h d th di by 
th 's
guity h d th  by his
. I th s m m  th Hb s   d th
 s,
dismissi
, s m y b s 
t
y i th G
s 
f St.
Luk, h. ii. v. 19, but i th G k v si

f th Od Tst mt,
G. xv. 2, d Numb. xx, t
 ds th 
usi
: d th s m  y
f
s  kig  s usd by th G ks. Put h, i s  kig
f 
s
 ti
,
 s d th th tim, h G
d sh  iv us f
m
u
st.

I. Th    t i
th ights t

, hih
 thi
igi t

th v
ut y  
f  ti
s, suh s th ight
f
ssssi
 f
m
gth
f tim, th ight
f sussi
 t
y
 h
dis itst t,
d th ight sutig f
m 
t ts, th
ugh
f  uqu  kid.

F
th
ugh  ths ights, i s
m m su , s ig f
m th  
f

 tu , yt thy d iv thi 
fi m ti
 f
m hum   , hth it
b i

siti
 t
th u t ity
f 
jtu ,
t
 t i
th
x ti
s, suggstd by  tu   s
:
its, 
f hih h v b
sighty t
uhd u
 i
u disussi
s
 th  
f  tu .

CHAPTER XX.
ON PUNISHMENTS.
Dfiiti
 d
igi
f uishmt--I h t m  uishmt
 ts t
st it justi--Th ight
f uishig 
d by
th  
f  tu , t

, x t t
th
s, h
 i
t

f th  ims d misdm 
u s t
b uishd--Diff 

f m
tiv bt hum  d divi uishmt--I h t ss
vg is  tu y u fu--Th dv t gs
f uishmt,
th f
d--Th  
f  tu  
s y
 t
ifit uishmt
u
 
ffd , yt ith distiti
--Th g d hih th
 
f  ti
s ys t
th bfit
f th iju d ty, i th
ifiti

f uishmt--G  utiity
f uishmts--Wh t
is dt mid by th  
f th G
s , i this s t--As
t
th
bjti
s f
udd u
 th m y
f G
d, s dis  yd i
th G
s --C it  uishmts
bjtd t
s uttig
ff 

ssibiity
f  t --N
t s f f
iv t Ch isti s t

ifit uishmts, v h 
d t
d
s
, by th  
f
 ti
s--P
suti
s, f
 t i
ffs, t
b  id

i th  m
f th ubi d 
t
f idividu s--It   ts

t uish b by m --O  ts, h ivit b th
ugh hum 
ifi mity 
t uish b--Ati
s, ith di ty 
idi ty
iju i
us t
s
ity, 
t uish b by hum   s--Th  s
s

f th t xm ti
--Th
ii
, th t d
   v b g td,
futd--P d
 sh t
b 
 b bf
 th st bishmt
f
   --But 
t i   ss--A
 b s
subsquty t
th
st bishmt
f  tis--It   d xt    s
s--O ii
,
th t th    b 
just  s
 f
dis sig ith  s, x t
h  suh dis s ti
   b im id s uth
isd by th  ,
x mid d futd--Puishmt stim td by th ds t
f
th
ffd --Diff t m
tivs 
m d--M
tivs hih
ught
t
st i m f
m si--S 
f
ffs 
dig t
th
 ts
f th D 
gu--C ity
f th
ffd --Puishmt
mitig td f
m m
tivs
f h ity, x t h  th   st
g
m
tivs
f 

sit kid--F iity
f mii ity
f  ims
gg v ts thi  tu --Cmy,
 x is
f--is
f
th Js d R
m s i ifitig uishmt--W 
sid d s
uishmt--Whth h
stiitis   justy b 
mmd f

itdd gg ssi
s--Whth Kigs d N ti
s  justifid
i m kig  t
uish
ffs g ist th  
f  tu , 
t
immdi ty fftig thmsvs
thi subjts--Th
ii
,
th t ju isditi
 is  tu y ss y t
uth
is uishmt,
futd--Distiti
 bt th  
f  tu , d ivi ust
ms,
d th divi v
ut y  --Th qusti
, hth    b
ud t k t
uish ts
f im ity--
sid d--Th big
f
G
d, h k
--Rfus  t
mb  th Ch isti  igi
 
t
suffiit  us
f  --C u t  tmt
f Ch isti s, justifi b
 us
f  --O  dfi 
f igi
 uish b.

I. I th dig t
f this t  tis, h  th  uss, f
hih

 m y b ud t k,   x  id, it  s 
sid d i t
-f
d
ight, ith s  ti
 f
iju is,
s uishmt. Th
fi st
f ths
its h vig b   dy  d u , th  tt , hih
 ts t
uishmts, m is t
b disussd, d it i qui 
m
 m  ivstig ti
; f
th
igi d  tu 
f uishmt, 
t
big  fty ud st

d, h s giv is t
m y 
s.
Puishmt t k i its m
st g  m ig sigifis th i
f
suff ig, hih is ifitd f
vi ti
s. F
th
ugh  b
u m y
s
m tims b im
sd ist d
f uishmt; sti it is 
sid d
i th t  s, s h dshi d g iv
us bu d, d m y th f


 y b  ssd ith suff igs. But th i
vis, hih
m  s
m tims x
sd t
, by big xudd f
m th it 
u s

f s
ity d th
ffis
f if,
ig t
ifti
us dis
d s,


th simi  uss, hih  s th  s ith th Js
 
ut

f m y g  im u itis, ths tm
y iv ti
s  
t t
b
st ity t k f
uishmts: th
ugh f
m thi smb  t
 h

th , thy 
ft, by  bus
f t ms, 
f
udd.
But m
g th dit ts  id d
 by  tu , s  fu d just, d
hih th it Phi
s
h s   th  
f Rh d m thus, th
f

ig m xim m y b  d, THAT IT IS RIGHT FOR EERY ONE TO SUFFER
EIL PROPORTIONED TO THAT WHICH HE HAS DONE.
Whih g v
 si
 t
Put h, i his b

k
 xi, t
s y th t
"justi is  tt ibut
f G
d, vgig  t sg ssi
s
f th
divi  ; d  y it s th u d m su 
f
u d igs
ith  h
th . F
th
ugh s td by th bit y
g
g hi 
b
uds
f t it
y, th y
f  tu  

ks u
 , s f

subjts
f
 g  t m i ." Hi
s givs fi h t
f
justi,  ig it th h ig mdy
f  mishif. L t tius i
s  kig
f th divi  th  s it "
i
sid b mist k i
th
s, h
dg d hum 
divi uishmt ith th  m
f  uty

ig
u , im giig th t s
m dg 
f b m must  ys tt h t

th uishmt
f th guity." Wh t h s b s id
f th is b

ti

f  ty ith v y
ffs is simi t
th m k
f
Augusti, "th t t
m k uishmt JUST, it must b ifitd f

s
m  im." H is th x ssi
 t
x  i th divi justi,
h  th
ugh hum  ig
, th
ff is
ft udis
v b
th
ugh th judgmt m y b s.
II. Th   div sitis
f
ii
 hth uishmt 
ms ud th
k
f ATTRIBUTIE
th t
f STRICT justi. S
m f it t
justi

f th tt ibutiv kid, b us
ffs  uishd m

ss,
i

ti
 t
thi 
squs, d b us th uishmt is
ifitd by th h
 
mmuity, s it  , u
  idividu .
It is ud
ubtdy

f th fi st ii s
f justi t
st bish
 qu ity bt th  ty d th
ff. F
it is th busiss

f  s
, s ys H
, i

f his S ti s, t
y u d
m su , by hih th  ty m y b f md u
 s  ith th

ff, d i 
th  , h
bs vs, th t it 
ud b 
t y
t
  s
 t
uish ith th k s v, h
ds vd 
thig
m
 th  th hi . I. S t. iii. v. 77, d 119. Th divi  , s
m y b s f
m th xxv. Ch t
f Dut

my, sts u
 th s m
ii .
Th  is
 ss, i hih  uishmt m y b s id t
b
m tt
f st it justi. Thus, h  s y th t uishmt is du

t
y
,  m  
thig m
 th  th t it is ight h sh
ud b

uishd. N
  y
 ifit this uishmt, but th  s
,
h
h s ight t
d
s
. N
 i th y
f th  , v y  ty is

sid d, s dbt isig
ut
f  im, d hih th
ffd
is b
ud t
y t
th gg ivd ty. Ad i this th  is s
mthig

hig t
th  tu 
f 
t ts. F
s s , th
ugh 

EXPRESS sti u ti
 b m d, is ud st

d t
h v b
ud himsf by 
th USUAL, d NECESSARY 
diti
s
f s , s
, uishmt big
 tu  
squ
f  im, v y hi
us
ffd  s t
h v
OLUNTARILY iu d th  tis
f  . I this ss s
m
f th
Em 
s

ud st u
 m f t
s i th f

ig m  ,
"y
u h v b
ught this uishmt u
 Y
u svs." Idd v y ikd
ti
 d
 by dsig  s 
sid d s v
ut y 
t t t
submit
t
uishmt. F
, s Mih  th E hsi 
bs vs
 th fifth
b

k
f A ist
t's Ni
m h  Ethis, th its g v th  m
f

t t, 
t
y t
th v
ut y g mts hih m m d ith  h

th , but t
th
big ti
s isig f
m th st
f th  .
III. But t
h
m th ight
f uishig
 y b
gs, is m tt

t dt mid by th  
f NATURE. F
th
ugh  s
 m y
it
ut
th ssity
f uishig th guity, it d
s 
t s ify th PERSON,
t
h
m th xuti

f it is t
b 
mmittd.
N tu   s
 idd d
s s
f
it
ut th  s
, th t it is
dmd m
st SUITABLE f
SUPERIOR ONLY t
b ivstd ith th


f ifitig uishmt. Yt this dm
st ti
 d
s 
t m
ut t

 ABSOLUTE NECESSITY, uss th 
d su  i
b t k i ss
im yig, th t th 
mmissi

f  im m ks th
ffd if i

t
v y

f his
 s is, by his h vig dg dd himsf f
m
th k
f m t
th t
f th b uts, hih  i subjti
 t
m ;
d
t i, hih s
m Th

gists h v m it id. Phi
s
h s t


g d i this. F
Dm
 itus su
sd th t
  tu y b
gd
t
su  i
m it, d A ist
t  s
f
ii
 th t b
th i th

duti
s
f  tu  d t th if i
 
vidd f
th us
f
th su  i
ts.
F
m this
ii
 th  iss ss y 
squ, th t i  s
h  th   qu  dg s
f guit i t
tis, th ight
f
uishmt b
gs t
ith .
I 
f
mity t
hih,
u S vi
u , i th  s
f th 
m  t k
i dut y,

ud th t h
v
f th us s  s ith
ut si,
m ig sis
f qu  
mity, sh
ud  st th fi st st
. J
h viii.
7. H s id s
f
this  s
, b us i th t g th m  s
f th
Js   s

u t, th t, ud g  t d
f s tity, th
m
st 
m
us vis, d th m
st ikd dis
siti
s   
 d.
A h t
f th tims hih th A
st h s itd i th m
st
g
ig 

u s, d hih h 
ss ith 

f simi t
h t
his divi m st h d giv, "th f
 th
u t ixus b, O m ,
h
s
v th
u t th t judgst: f
h i th
u judgst 
th th
u

dmst thysf; f
th
u th t judgst d
st th s m thigs." R
m.
ii. 1. A i b t
hih th  is m k
f S 's, th t "

st, hih is ssd by guity  s
   h v y ight."
Ad i 
th  , th s m  it
bs vs, th t "if  

k it


u svs d 
sid hth  h v b guity
f th
ffs 
 g
ig t

dm,  sh  b m
 m
d t i
u judgmts."
I. A
th t
f
u iqui y s ts th d

sd by
uishmt. F
by h t h s hith t
b s id, it  s
y m t t

sh th t i uishig th guity 
iju y is d
 t
thm. Sti

th bs
ut ssity
f uishmt d
s 
t f

 f
m th. F

th d

f th guity
 m y
 si
s h s b 
sid d s th
m
st b ut
us f tu  i th divi d hum  h t . P t
is
b td f
his s yig th t "justi d
s 
t ifit uishmt
f
th vis th t  d
 d  
t b t ivd; but t
vt
th s m f
m big d
 f
th tim t

m." F
m Thuydids 
fid th t Di
d
us i dd ssig th Athi s
 th 
dut
f
th Mity  s, dviss thm "t
f
b uishig thi v
d
ijusti, uss it  s
b b th t th uishmt 
ud b ttdd
ith s
m g

d fft."
Ths m xims m y b t u ith g d t
hum  uishmts: f

 m 
big s
 y id t

th by b

d, 
dg 
f suff ig
sh
ud b ifitd, but f
s
m 
squt g

d. But th  s is
diff t ith s t t
G
d, t
h
m P t
ijudii
usy is
th b
v stimts. F
th
ugh th divi 
uss i ud
ubtdy
h v th g

d
f m i vi, s th d
f  uishmt, yt th
b  f
m ti

f th
ffd  
t b th s

bjt. Si th
divi justi, th
ugh tm  d ith m y must dh  t
th t uth

f th v d 
d, hih th  ts th ikd ith uishmt

dst uti
.
Th h

u th f

f G
d, s  s th x m  hd u t
m,
i b 
squ sutig f
m his uishmt
f th ikd.

. A d m ti  it h s s id th t "th

mdy t

udd s i it," i hih h
Put h: i th
ii

f th f
m "
uishmt
f  dv s y," d i th t
st mdii t
t
ubd mid."

i
f
g s
i is

f th

 my is h ig
ith Ci
d
mitig td by th
 tt "s tisf ti
 is

But dis
siti
 ik this, h st i d
f  disguis d f s



u ig, i b f
ud by 
m s suit b t
th  s
 b s
u
f
m , h
s
ffi it is t
gu t d 
t
u th ffti
s. N

i th t dis
siti
 iv y s ti
 f
m th  
f  tu , h

i  h dit ts, iis t
uit m i s
ity by g

d i,
th th  t
s t thm by h ishig im
sity. F
it is  id
d
 by  s
, s  dig xi
m i h 
d
f  s, th t 
m 
sh  d
y thig hih m y hu t 
th , uss it b f
th u
s

f s
m vidt d ssti  g

d. But th i
f  my 
sid d
s
y
f suh, is 
bfit t
us, but f s d im gi y
,
ik th t d ivd f
m su  fu
us ihs
thigs
f th s m
kid.[53]
I this  t ti
 vg is 
dmd b
th by Ch isti  t h s
d h th hi
s
h s. I this s t, th  gu g
f S

hs v y  t
th  fti

f Ch isti  m
s. H  s
vg, i its usu  d
  t ti
, t m
f ihum ity,
diff ig f
m iju y
y i dg . F
t i ti

f i  
b 
sid d s 
thig btt th  xus b si. Juv , ft
ds ibig th diff t tm  s,
v hih vg x iss th m
st

 fu d
mii
, d shig th mi b h t s
v hih it h s

ifu, 
uds it t
b th  su 
f itt d ifi m
mid.
F
m th dig gumts it is  i th t uishmt  
t justy
b ifitd f
m s i it
f vg. W
d th f
 t

sid
th dv t gs ttdig its just ifiti
.

I. This sms th m
st
   f
viig th
s distiti
s

i th m
tivs
f uishmt, hih h v b usd by P t
i his

G
gi s, d by T u us th hi
s
h i ss g qu
td by Gius
i th f
u tth h t
f his fifth b

k. Ths distiti
s sm t

sut  tu y f
m th d
f  uishmt. P t
idd 
sid s
th mdmt
f th
ffd , d th x m  giv t

th s, s th
t
ii  m
tivs: but T u us h s ddd thi d, hih h  s
s tisf ti
, d hih is dfid by Cms Ax d ius, t
b
 ymt
f vi, 
t ibutig t
th bfit
f b
th th gg ivd
d vgig ty. A ist
t ssig
v x m  s m
tiv,

fis th
bjt
f uishmt t
th mdmt

ti

f th

ffd . But Put h h s 
t m d th s m
missi
: f
h h s s id,
th t "h  immdi t uishmt f

s th xuti

f hi
us
 im, it b
th
 ts t
dt
th s f
m 
mmittig th s m  im,
d dmiist s s
m dg 
f 
s
 ti
 t
th iju d d suff ig
 s
." Ad this is h t A ist
t  s 
mmut tiv justi. But
ths m tt s qui  m
 miut iqui y. W m y
bs v th f

th t th  is 
thig 
t y ith t
hum 
divi  , i
uishmts, hih h v th g

d
f th
ffd ,
th t
f th
iju d ty,

f y  s
s h ts
v i vi.
Th th 
 ds 
bt id by th t kid
f uishmt, hih
s
m hi
s
h s h v  d 
ti
, s
m h stismt, d
th s
dm
iti
. P uus th L y , h s giv it th  m
f 
ti
;
P t
stys it ss

f ist uti
, d Put h mdii
f
th s
u, f
mig d h ig th suff  , hi it
 ts s
ifu mdy. F
s  dib t ts, by f qut  titi
,

du
sity, hih i s it
h bit, th bst mth
d
f
f
mig vis i thi  ist st g is t
d iv thm
f thi
st s v
u by  ifusi

f subsqut i. It is 
ii


f th P t
ists,   td by A uius, th t "im uity d th
d y
f 

f  m
 sv  d  ii
us t

ffd th 
y uishmt h ts
v ," d, i th 
ds
f T itus, "vi
t
dis
d s must b 
ut d ith mdis

ti
 by st
g."

II. Th

f ifitig th uishmt, subs vit t
this d,

is 
d by th  
f  tu  t
y

f 
m tt judgmt, d

t im i td i simi
qu 
ffs. This is vidt s f
s v b  

f g
s, f
m th m xim
f P utus, th t "t
bst

m itd 

f u
 f id is usfu, u
  t i
 si
s, th
ugh
by 
m s g tfu
ffi." But i  kids
f 
st it d

m usi
, th diff  m d bt th  s
s, h
 
d,
d h
 
t 
d t
x is it is 

itmt
f  tu 
 , but

f th
sitiv istituti
s
f th ivi  . F


suh  tu  distiti
 
ud b m d, y f th th  th t  s


ud it ust ts ith th ui us
f suh  uth
ity,
i 
sid ti

f thi ffti
. But  s, i
d t
v
id
im
sitis, h v, ith s t t
th uth
ity
f uishig, ssd

v th 
mm
 kid d subsistig m
g m kid, d 
fid it t

th  st dg s
f  ti
: s m y b s i m y 
ds, d
tiu y i th 
d
f Justii , ud th tit
f th POWER
OF RELATIES TO CORRECT IN ORDER TO REFORM OFFENDERS. Ad Cy us, i
th v. b

k d viii. h t
f X
h
's hist
y
f th Ex diti
,
dd sss th s
di s t
th f

ig u
t, "If I uish y

f
his g

d, I m iig t
submit t
justi; but 
ud it 
t b
qu y  s
 b th t ts d m st s sh
ud submit t
justi,
f
h vig 
td hid ,
th Su g
 b s
sib f
h vig
usd th iisi
-kif, h  th tit's  s qui d it?"
But this kid
f 
tiv uishmt d
s 
t xtd t
d th, hih
 
t b 
sid d, s bfit i itsf, x t INDIRECTLY d

BY WAY OF REDUCTION, s it is  d by L
gii s, h
, i
d t


fi m g tivs, du thm t
thigs
f 

sit kid. Thus,
i M k xiv. 21, h
u S vi
u s ys, th t it   btt f
s
m,
thy h d v b b
, s
, f
iu b dis
siti
s, it is btt ,
th t is 
ud b ss vi, t
di th  t
iv; si it is  t i
th t by ivig thy i g
 
s. Put h  s suh m st t


th s, but th g  tst st t
thmsvs. G  s ys th t  it 
uishmts  ifitd t
vt m f
m d
ig h m by 
g

u s
f iiquity, d t
dt
th s by th f
f uishmt,
ddig th t it is btt m sh
ud di, h thy h v s
us s

iftd ith vi, s t
b iu b.
Th   s
m, h
thik th t ths  th  s
s m t by th
A
st J
h, h
ds ibs thm s siig si ut
d th. But s
thi gumts  
t s tisf t
y, h ity qui s th t 


sh
ud b dmd i
igib, x t u
 th  st g
uds. S

th t uishmt ith suh  d i vi  
y b ifitd f

im
t t  uss.

III. Th bfit  uig t
 iju d  s
 f
m th uishmt

f 
ffd 
sists i his big su d i futu  g ist
u 
f th s m iju y f
m th t
ffd ,
f
m
th s.
Th   th   ys
f vtig this u --by m
vig th

ffd --by d ivig him
f th

f d
ig h m,
 sty by

m ig him t
btt h bits
f th
ught
ti
, hih is th
f
m ti

dud by th uishmt   dy s
k
f. It is 
t
v y kid
f uishmt, hih  
du suh ffts; it must b

 d 
s iu
us, t

 t s  x m , th t m y dt
th s
f
m th 
mmissi

f th s m  ims. A viditiv uishmt,
ifitd by  iju d idividu ,
by y
th  s
, h it
is st id by b
uds d imit ti
s
f this kid, h s 
thig
u fu i it 
sid ig th  
f  tu  by itsf, t f
m 
hum  d divi istituti
s, d v y dvtiti
us i umst ,
th t m y   t dvi ti
 f
m th imitiv dit ts
f  tu . W
h v s id th t it m y b ifitd by y
th idividu , s 
s by th iju d  s
: f
it is 
f
m b t
 tu , th t

m  sh
ud ssist 
th . But s
u judgmt is t t
b bi ssd
by
u ffti
s, i  ss, h 
u it st is 
 d; si
th f
m ti

f f miis it
st ts, judgs h v b
itd, d
ivstd ith th

f uishig th guity, h by th  tu 
ib ty
f  s
  d ss,
igi y 
d t
idividu s,  s
b
ishd,
t  st b idgd. Ad it is
y i  s,
 th s s
f
ist , h  
judii  mdy   b
bt id, th t this
 tu  ib ty 
tius i f
. Th  is i umst   td

f Juius C s , i b t
this subjt. Whi h  s
y i
iv t st ti
, big t k is
 by s
m i ts, ft h h d
dmd himsf by sum
f m
y, h id t
th

su f

d ss. But his i ti
 big gtd, h fittd
ut  t i
umb
f shi s, tt kd d df td th i ts, d
d d thm
 t
b  uifid.
Th ti
f iv t idividu s, x isig uishmt,  s th

igi
f sig 
mb ts, s
f mii t
th G m s bf
 th
it
duti

f Ch isti ity, d 
t yt suffiity  id sid.
W  if
md by ius P t uus, i his s
d b

k, th t th
G m s   su isd t
s th f
ms
f R
m  ju is ud, d
th
s dis uts, hih thy thmsvs didd by th s
d, sttd
by  . By th Jish  , th  st i b

d t
th d sd  

d t
ki mu d  , if t k by
d th  s
f fug.
Ad th Jish it t s
bs v, th t i GENERAL th ifiti



f uishmt, s t i ti
 f
mu d , it it ustd t

h d,

but th t
f th judg: s it is diffiut f
 idividu  i his

  s t
m
d t his stmt. Th s m ust
m
f 
ig
idividu s t
vg thi
 
gs v id m
g th it
G ks, s  fid f
m th 
ds
f Th
yms, i H
m 's Odyssy.
But it v id m
st i 
ut is, h  ubi 
u ts
f justi  

t st bishd. F
m h St. Augusti dfis th
s  s t
b just,
hih  itdd t
vg iju is. Ad P t
, i his tfth b

k
ON A COMMONWEALTH, justifis th

g ti

f h
stiitis, ti th
gg ss
is dud t
submit t
just, d quit b t ms.
IX. GENERAL utiity hih  s 
sid d s th thi d d

sd
by uishmt, m y b dividd it
th s m umb
f ts, s th
bfit  uig f
m th t
idividu s. F
ths  th
bjts
i vi, ith t
vt th idividu , h
h s iju d
  s
,
f
m d
ig iju y t

th s: 
bjt hih   b 
m ishd
y
by m
vig th
ffd , dis mig him
f th m s
f f th iju y,

by f
mig him:
it m y b ifitd t
dt
th s f
m big
u d, by  x m 
f im uity, t

mmit ts
f m
st ti


mity. Ad th ifiti

f uishmt, f
suh  s
s, is RIGHT
g td by th  
f  tu  t
v y idividu . U
 this ii ,
Put h
bs vs i th if
f P
id s, th t g

d m  dsigd
by  tu  f
th
ffi
f  tu  m gist y, d su  i
ity
b
gs t
th
s, i h
m th h t s
f t uth d justi uit.
But s it qui s ifu dg 
f ti t
x mi it
f ts,
d 
i
sid b sh 
f ski d quity t
ffix th xtt

f uishmts; i
d t
vt qu s f
m isig th
ugh th
sumig 
it, hih v y m  t t is
f his
 isd
m, d t

hih
th s  v s t
yid; i   gu td 
mmuitis,
it h s b usu  t
st f
th t ibu s
f justi th
s, h

  dmd 
thy
f suh h

u ,
iky t
b
m s
, f
m thi
itg ity d isd
m. Dm
 itus h s s id, th  
ud h v b 


 si
 f
 s t
vt v y m  f
m ivig 
dig t
his

hum
u , if
 h d 
t d
 iju y t

th . F
vy  s th
igi

f st if. But s  h v just
bs vd, th t it h s, i th  s

f vg, s
i this kid
f uishmt, ifitd f
th s k
f
x m , th   t s d m is
f it  , i th
s  s,
d m
g th
s  s
s, th t  subjt t

CIIL ju isditi
;
d i  t i
th  ss bsids. Thus y Hb , 
dig t
th
ust
ms
f th t 
, if h sh
ud tu   y f
m G
d,
f
m th
 
f G
d,
sh
ud sdu
th s t
f s 
shi , might immdi ty
b ut t
d th by y
 h ts
v . Th Hb s   th t  t
f
ZEAL, hih  s fi st d
 by Phih s, d hih ft  ds b m
ust
m. Thus M tt thi s s J, h
 s
utig himsf ith
G i  its. I th s m m  , i th b

k 
mm
y  d th
thi d b

k
f M  bs, it is  td th t th  hud d
th Js
  ut t
d th by thi
 
ut ym. N

ud y
th txt
b ssigd f
st
ig St h, d 
s i ig g ist P u. Phi
,
d J
s hus b
ud i ist s
f this kid. Th   m y 
ut is
h   m y t  th m is
f imitiv  , i th  y


d t
m st s
v thi s vs, d t
ts
v thi
hid , xtdig v t
ifit th uishmt
f d th. S
th
E h
i
f S t might ut itiz t
d th ith
ut th f
m ity
f
t i . F
m h t h s b s id, it is  sy t
if h t uishmt th
 
f  tu  uth
iss, d h
 f it h s m id i f
.
X. W 
m 
 t

sid hth th  
f th G
s  h s 
fid
th t ib ty ithi 
s b
uds. It h s b
bs vd i 
th
t
f this t  tis, th t it is 
t su isig th t s
m thigs,

hih  
d by  tu  d ivi  , sh
ud b f
bidd by th

divi  ,
ig t
its g  t  fti
, d th su  i
ity
f its
 ds
v y thig th t hum   tu    bst
. T
th tt imt

f hih it is 
t u  s
 b th t vi tus sh
ud b qui d, f
xdig th sim   ts
f  tu . Th
s kids
f 
ti
 th t
 v ith y m k
f if my, 
y  m t iju y, but 
suitd t
th g,

th i umst s
f th suff  , if ifitd
by th
s, h
d iv suh  missi
 f
m hum   s, f
ist 
by ts, gu di s,
m st s, 
t i 
thig  ug t t
th
 ts
f th G
s , s m y b  y ud st

d f
m th  tu 
f
th thig itsf. F
thy  mdis t
th mid 
ss h mss
th  mdiis ug tfu t
th  t  t
th b
dy. But s t

vg th  s is diff t. F
th ifiti

f uishmt,
y
t
g tify stmt, s
f f
m big 
f
m b t
th G
s , h s
b sh b
v t
b  ug t v t
th  
f  tu .
Th Jish   idd 
t
y f
bids th h ishig
f h t d g ist
ighb
u , th t is,

f th s m 
ut y d 
, but qui s
 t i 
mm
 ts
f kidss t
b bst
d v u
 mis
f
th t ds i ti
. Th G
s  th f
, 
m hdig  m ud
th  ti

f ighb
u , 
t
y f
bids us t
hu t
u mis,
but 
mm ds us t
d
thm g

d; 
mm dmt  y st td i th
G
s 
f St. M tth. Yt th    mittd th Js t
sk vg
f
iju is
f m
 g iv
us kid, 
t ith thi
 h ds, but
by  ig t
th judg. But Ch ist d
s 
t giv us th s m
 missi
, s  s f
m th t

siti
 hih h m ks bt
th  missi
s
f f
m tims, d th
s
f his
  . "Y
u h v
h d th t it  s s id  y f
 y--but I s y ut
y
u, 
v y
u
mis, t."
F
th
ugh h t f

s  ts ui y t
th  ig
f
iju y, d, i s
m m su , b idgs this  missi
, yt it sss
muh g  t su  u
 vg, jtig it s  idug
suit b
y t
m
 im  ft, d    st t.
T
ifit uishmt by  y
f t i ti
  s dis
vd
f v by
th
s
f th Js, h
  distiguishd f
thi 
th d isd
m;
b us thy g dd 
t
y th LETTER, but th PURPOSE d SPIRIT

f th  . This  s f
m Phi
, i h
s  itigs  fid th
Js
f Ax d i , u
 th   mity
f F us, thi  sut
,
dd ssig thmsvs t
G
d i th f

ig  gu g, "W d

t
j
i, O L
d, i th   mity
uishmt
f  my, big
t ught by thy h
y  s t
f f
th mis is
f m." Ad i this
 s  m y y th t g  
mm d giv by Ch ist t
f
giv
 h
h v
ffdd
iju d us, th t is, ith t
d
, 
t

ish thm vi, th
ugh stmt
f th vi thy h v d
 t
us.
But h t   b s id
f vg, 
t s g dig th st, but s

vidig su ity f
th futu ? H  t

Ch ist qui s
f his
f

 s th s m dis
siti
 t
d
 iju is, tiu y, if th

ffd shs y
b b sigs
f  t . Luk xvii. 3. E h.
iv. 32. C
. iii. 13. I th
s ss gs fu missi
 is itdd,
suh missi
 s st
s th
ffd t
his f
m situ ti

f
f idshi

fid: d 
squty 
thig   b qui d
f
him ud th  m
f uishmt. Bsids, if th    
suh m ks

f  t , th  ti

f 
ss is 
t t
b u sud ith t


muh ig
u ; d
t i if d f
m th  t
f Ch ist j
iig
us t
giv u th g mt 
g ith th 
k.
But if it is iky th t 
iv  t 
ff i b ttdd
ith immit i
vi d v d g t

u svs,  sh
ud b


ttd ith suh su itis s m y b fftu , d t th s m

tim
 t ith s itt judi s
ssib t
th
ffd .
F
v m
g th Js, th  
f t i ti
  s 
t i us, s 
 if
md by J
s hus, d
th  it s
f th t  ti
. But i
dditi
 t
th x  iu d, hih th   t  ts
f s s t

it, th iju d ty usu y ivd ui y fi ist d
f
t i ti
; th  ymt
f x s big 
sid d sim y s
stituti
, d 
t  ty.
It m is 
 t

sid uishmt, s
vidig f
th PUBLIC d

t INDIIDUAL su ity, hih is 
m ishd ith by m
vig th
guity  s

ut
f th  y
by st iig him f
m d
ig f th
mishif,
by dt ig
th s th
ugh th sv ity
f x m , 


f hih m s it h s b  y
vd   b
ishd by Ch ist; f

i givig his  ts h ffi md th t h dst
yd 
t
f th
 . Th  
f M
ss idd, hih i ths s ts  s t
m i
i f
 s 
g s th Jish P
ity xistd, st ity j
id
m gist ts t
uish mu d d
th simi  ims. But if th
 ts
f Ch ist 
ud xist i 
juti
 ith th  
f M
ss,
s f s it im
sd  it  uishmts, su y thy m y xist i

juti
 ith hum   s, hih i this s t  but  imit ti


f th divi  s.
XI. S
m, i su
t
f 

sit
ii
, g th su m m y

f G
d, s it is dis  yd i th  
v t, d hih is giv s
 x m  f
m, d f
m gist ts, i tiu , t
f

,
h
, i th x is
f uth
ity, xut th  s
f th Dity. This

ii
 m y i s
m m su  b t u, but 
t t
th t xtt, hih th
uth
s
f it itd. F
th g  t m y
f G
d dis  yd i th 

v t h s ui f  t

ffs g ist th imitiv
 ,
v g ist th  
f M
ss, bf
 th tim th t m h d
ivd k
dg
f th G
s . F

ffs 
mmittd ft th

mug ti

f th G
s , s i y if thy  
m id ith
h dd
bsti y,  t  td ith muh sv  judgmts th  y
th t   d d by M
ss. F
G
d uishs sis
f th t kid 
t

y i futu  st t, but i th st if. But f
sis
f th t
kid, t

bt i th t
f m y d idug, th
ffd must
ifit uishmt u
 himsf, 
t i sight
t ivi  m  , but
ith h tft s

, d s
uti
 t
si 
m
.
I th s m m  it is m it id th t if m  tu td by
 t , thy  ENTITLED t
im uity. W d

t s y th t m 
v tu td by si   t ; but it is 
t v y kid
f
v
 
k
dgmt, by hih G
d is m
vd t
mit th WHOLE
f
uishmt, s  s f
m th  s
f D vid. As th su m judg
th f
 might dis s ith th fu  ty
f th  , ifitig
d th, d yt x is 
i
sid b sv ity u

ffd s, s


 h m y dis s ith th st
f t   d th, t th s m
tim  vig th si t
fid   y g v by th st
k
f s
m
  mity,
by th h d
f hum  justi.
XII. d XIII. A
th
bjti
 m d g ist  it  uishmts is
th t suh kid
f st d xuti
 is uttig
ff  imi 
f
m 
ssibiity
f  t . But th
s, h
m k th
bjti
,
must k
, th t i  ss
f th t kid, v b d u ight judgs
us th g  tst  uti
s, d suff 

 t
b hu id  y t

xuti
, ith
ut  s
 b tim 
d f
fti
 d d
bh

f his  im:  t , hih th
ugh vtd by th
it
sig h d
f d th f
m
duig th f uits
f ight
usss,
 h v  s
 t
su
s, f
m th  s
f th thif d
d
 th


ss, m y b  td ith G
d.

But if
 th
th h d it b s id th t 
g if might h v b
f
m
 v i t
s i
us  t ,  m y
bs v th t, i s
m  ss,
th  y
f S m y b m d, th t t
m
f th t ds i ti
 d th
is
ft th g  tst bssig hih   b bst
d; f
, i th 
ds

f Eusbius, thi  
f ikdss  
t
th is b sh
td,

f
md. Ths i dditi
 t
th dig gumts i th f
m
t
f this t  tis m y b dmd suffiit s t
th
s, h

ss t th t   it  uishmts, d v  uishmts, ith
ut
x ti
,  b
ishd by th  ts
f
u S vi
u . Th A
st,

sigig t
th
ffi
f kigs th us
f th s
d, s  x is

f his divi 
mmissi
 t
vg  
gs, ist uts us t
y f

kigs, th t, s t u Ch isti s, i thi
y   ity, thy m y b

tti
 t
th i
t. A d, hih v ft th it
duti


f th g
s , 
ud 
t  siy b
bt id,
ig t
th d vity
f
m kid, if th vi

f s
m   
t st id by th xm  y
uishmt
f
th s. Suh uth
ity is th m
 ss y, h v
i th midst
f s
m y x m s d uishmts, th ivs
f th
i
t  s y su . Th  h v b idd, it  
t b
did, h y ist s h  th st
f d th  s h gd f

th t
f  tu   b
u , ti, s   if
md by Di
d
us,
f

d by S b 
, kig
f Egy t, i 
d f
his ity.
B s m

bs vs th t th    s
f R
m, ifitig d th,  
m
st
f thm h gd by th Ch isti  m 
s
f  t tims, d

th kids
f uishmt   substitutd, th t th guity might
iv d  im ssi
s
f  t , d thi uishmt
 t
s m
 du b x m .
XI. F
m h t h s b s id, it m y b if d, h
 us f it is f

iv t Ch isti , hth f
m m
tivs
f  s
  it st,
f
m
th
s
f th ubi g

d, t
t k u
 himsf th uishmt
f 

ffd , d tiu y t
ifit d th. Ath
ugh, s it h s b
s id bf
, it m y, IN SOME CASES, b 
d by th  
f  ti
s. A
 missi
, th t h s giv is t
th  ud b ti, v iig i
s
m 
ut is
f fu ishig dvtu  s ith ubi ist uti
s d

mmissi
s t
h s d  tu  i ts, h v thy m y b f
ud.
But th
s dvtu  s m y b 
sid d s dish gig ubi duty
th th  s tig u
 thi
 uth
ity.
X. A ust
m 
t uik t
hih v is i m y  s,
f 
t

ig idividu s t
b ig  imi  h gs g ist
th s t thi

  su : th t
ffi b
gig t
 s
s ivstd ith ubi
uth
ity t
ud t k it. S
th t 

   
t ibut t
 ds
shddig th b

d
f 
th , but s  t
f ss y duty. I
f  t
this ust
m,  

f th 
ui
f Eib is xudd
f
m th 
mmui
 y biv h
h d b ist umt  i  usig
th
s i ti

d th
f 
th .
XIII.[54] It is
 
 t

sid hth  ikd ts 
f
th t kid, hih  uish b by hum   s. I  y t
hih 
m y s th t thy  t iy  
t.--I th fi st  , m  ts

f th mid,
 imi  itti
s, th
ugh by subsqut 
fssi
,

s
m
th idt, thy m y 
m t
th k
dg
f
th s, 

t uish b by hum   s. B us, s it  s
vd i f
m
t
f this t  tis, it is 
t 
s
 t t
th  
f  tu , th t
INTENTIONS ONLY sh
ud giv is t
y ight,

big ti
 m
gst
m. Ad i this ss th m xim
f th R
m    is t
b t k, THAT
NO ONE DESERES PUNISHMENT FOR MERE THOUGHTS. Yt this d
s 
t vt
itti
s, h thy h v  ifu u
 th 
dut, f
m big


sid d s tu  dds, d qu y ds vig
f uishmt.

XIX. I th s
d  , v
ut d ts,  
t b uishd by m
h  thy is th
ugh s
m ivit b ifi mity
f hum   tu . F

th
ugh th    b 
si, x t h  th  is f d
m
f i,
yt t
b t  tims f  f
m  ifi mity d si, is m
 th 
  b x td f
m th 
diti

f m . S
th t S
t , Hi
s
d S m
g th Phi
s
h s; Phi
m
g th Js; Thuydids
m
g th hist
i s; d ium b  it s m
g Ch isti s h v
m it id th t si is it 
v ith
u v y  tu . N y idd,
d
ubt m y b t t id hth suh ts   ighty d
 y
b  d sis. F
th
ugh smig t
b v
ut y ti
s, thy i
b f
ud, h miuty 
sid d, 
t t

d f
m f  d
dib t x is
f th i. "L s, _s ys Put h i th if
f
S

_, sh
ud b f md t
suit
ssib  ss, th gis t
m y

bt i v y bfii  d by uishig f
ffd s, h  th
idis imi t uishmt
f mutituds 
ud b ttdd ith 
g

d
fft."
Th   s
m ti
s, hih th
ugh 
t im ut b t
hum   tu 
itsf,  ivit b 
squs
f th ifu
f b
diy h bits

 th mid. Ati
s ik ths  uish b i hum  
u ts,
ig
t
th  imi ity
f v
ut y 
t tig,

f 
t suffiity
gu dig g ist, th
s h bits.
XX. I th thi d  , hum  
u ts
f justi  
t t k 
giz 

f th
s
ffs, hih ith di ty 
idi ty, fft th
ubi
idividu s. F

 s
   b ssigd, hy suh
ffs
sh
ud 
t b ft t
th judgmts
f G
d, h
s -sig y must
k
 thm, h
s quity i igh thm, d h
s
   uish
thm. It 
ud b uss y th f
, d sum tu
us i hum 
t ibu s t
ssum suh disi
s. H
v  must x t f
m this
u th
s 
tiv kids
f uishmt, dsigd f
th f
m ti


f
ffd s, v h  thi 
dut is 
 y iju i
us t

th s.
Nith  th
s ti
s uish b, hih  di ty

sit t

th vi tus
f 
m ssi
, ib ity,
g titud, i th  f
m 

f hih vi tus  tu  justi 
s
f 

m usi
.
XXI. Th
it, ss iy t
b 
sid d xt, is th
ii
,
hth it is  fu s
m tims t
g t d
. F
th St
is
m it i it 
t t
b  fu, s m y b s f
m f gmt i
St
b us, ud th tit
f MAGISTRACY, f
m Ci
's s h f

Mu  , d t
 ds th 
usi

f S 's b

ks
 Cmy; but
thi gumts  f  i
us, d usubst ti . Thy s y "th t
d
 is th missi

f  ty, th t OUGHT t
b id; but is
m  d
s v y thig, hih h OUGHT t
d
." H  th f  y is i
th us
f th 
d OUGHT. F
if it m s th t 
ffd
s
 ty, th t is, th t h m y b uishd ith
ut ijusti, it i

t ss iy f

 th t th  s
 h
d
s 
t uish him, is
d
ig h t h
ught 
t t
d
. But if th 
d b t k t
im y th t
g

d m ,
is m ,
ught t  vts, t
x t th  ty,
it m y b
bs vd i  y th t THIS d
s 
t  ys h , d
th f
, i this ss, th  ty
uishmt m y b 
sid d,

t s dbt, but
y  missi
. Ad this i h
d g

d, b
th
bf
 d ft th st bishmt
f    s.
XXII. Bf
 th st bishmt
f    s, uishmt, by
d
 d
ubt, might b ifitd; b us by th  
f  tu , v y

ffd m d himsf subjt t
uishmt; but it is 
t  tu 

 d ivit b 
squ
f its big  fu, th t it sh
ud b

f
d. F
this d ds u
 th 
ti
 bt th ds, f

hih uishmts   st bishd, d th uishmts thmsvs. If
th ds

sd th f
  
t immdi ty ss y, i m


it
f vi,
if
th ds
f diff t kid, but 
t ss is
d s ut y sh
ud b dvisd,
th t th ds
igi y dsigd
m y b
bt id by s
m
th m s, i  ths  ss, th ight
f
uishmt m y b s vd, th  big 
immdi t
 si
 t
ifit
it. Thus f
ist , h  
ff is k
 t
v y f, th   
b 
immdi t
 si
 f
ubi uishmt, by  y
f xm  y
x
su , hih i s
m  ss might b v iju i
us t
s
ity th
th 
dutiv
f dv t g. U
 hih Ci
i tt t
his
b
th m ks  tit m k, s tig
 Zuxis,
bs vig,
th t "h d h
 b b
ught it

u t, h 
ud 
t h v b
 sd, but th   s 
ssity th t s h sh
ud b m d f

him, i
d t
b ig him t
t i ."--I th xt   th ight d
d
f uishmt m y b dis sd ith, h  m 's
 s vis,

th
s
f his f miy  suffiit t

utigh th 
sid ti

f his

ffs. "F
, _i th 
ds
f S _,  t
f kidss i ss
th f ut
f  iju y."--Ad i th  st  , h  

f
 ts
u
 
ffd , s m s
f 
ti
 d mdmt,
h  th
iju d ty is s tisfid ith  k
dgmt
f th
ff, th

 si
 f
uishmt is d
  y. It  s this m
tiv t
my,
hih th s

f D vid h d i vi, h  h
bs vs th t it bh
vs
th ight
us t
b m ifu. F
s  uishmt, s i y
f th
m
 sv   st, h s i it s
m thig, hih th
' 
t  ug t t

justi, is t v i , t  st, ith h ity,  s
  siy suff s
us t
f
b ifitig it, uss th t f
b  is

sd by s
m
ighti , just , d m
 udi b m
tiv
f h ity.
XXIII. C ss m y
u h  it is bs
uty ss y t
ifit
uishmt, s u
 
t
i
us, d t
i
us  imi s,
h  it
is f
th ubi g

d, t
dis s ith th t sv ity,
h 
th judii  uth
itis m y us thi
 dis ti
 i mitig tig

f
ig th st
f th  . U
 hih S  tity
m ks, th t th x is
f ity sh
ud  ys b  t
f f 
dib ti
. As t
th dis uts
f th St
is
 ths
its, thy
, i th
ii

f Ci
d
th s, db ts u
 
ds th
th  thigs: 
squty thy  ss 
thy
f hi
s
hi 

tm  ti
.
XXI. Th  sms t
b g  t diffiuty i didig h t is t

b d
, subsquty t
th st bishmt
f    s; b us
gis t
is b
ud, i s
m m su , by his
  s. But this, s it
 s
vd i f
m t
f this t  tis, is
y t u ith s t
t
th gis t
, i his idividu   ity, s iv t mmb
f
th st t, but 
t i his ubi h t , i hih h  sts
th h
 M jsty d Auth
ity
f th st t itsf. As suh, h  
ti y    th  : f
it is th  tu 
f  hum   s, t

d d u
 th i
f th m k , 
t
y f
thi
igi, but s

f
thi du ti
. Yt  giv
ught 
t, u
 t ivi  g
uds, t

   st tut, f
, i s
d
ig h 
ud b tig g ist th us

f s
v ig justi. But s th gis t
h s
 t
   th
h

f  , s
i th  s
f s
m tiu  s
,
idividu 
ti
, h m y  x its ig
u , 
ig it t
m i i
th
s ts, s it st

d bf
. As  x m 
f this, th ti
s
f
th Dity m y b itd, h
, 
dig t
th tstim
y
f L t tius,
i  tig his  s, did 
t d iv himsf
f th x is
f his
m y, t
g t d
s. "Th Em 
, _s ys Augusti_, m y  
his st, d
 d  s  imi ; b us, _ s h fu th

x  is it_, th  s
 h
h s
 t
m k  s, is 
t INARIABLY

b
ud t

bs v thm." Yt this ivig
f d tig f
m th tt
must v b usd but f
th m
st im
t t  s
s. Ath
ugh suh
 s
s  
t b isy dfid, yt it is  t i th t, si th
st bishmt
f ivi  , m
 ighty
s  qui d t
uth
is
suh d
s, th  bf
 th t  i
d. B us uishmts h v d ivd
 dditi
  s ti
 f
m th uth
ity
f th  , hih
ught t
b
s td d
bs vd.
XX. Th  s
s f
 sig y
 f
m th  tis
f th  ,

f t
kids, ith it  
xt  .
A it    s
, t
justify d tu  f
m th st
f th
 , must b
, h  th uishmt is sv  h 
m d ith th

ff.
XXI. A xt    s
 is
 isig f
m s
m f v
u b
i umst  i th h t
f th
ffd ,
s
m f i h
s th t
m y b t t id
f his futu  
dut. Ad ths  s
s i h v
th m
st ight i  ss, h  th tiu m
tivs f
m kig th
   s t

 t. F
th
ugh g   s
, u

sd by y

th
f ighti kid, m y suffiity uth
is th  ti

f
 ; yt h  th ui  s
, f
hih th t    s m d, h s
 sd t
xist, th  x ti

f it,
v t
t  dis s ti

i b ttdd ith ss d g t
th uiv s  uth
ity
f   i
g .
Suh dis s ti
 idd is m
st 
 b, h  
ff h s b

mmittd th
ugh ig
, th
ugh th ty s

mmittig it is 
t
ti y f  f
m b m,
th
ugh s
m iviib ifi mity
f mid,
i  hih  ss, Ch isti  u i h v  y t
th x m 

f G
d, h
, ud th
d 
v t,
itd m y suh
ffs
t
b t
d f
by  t i x i t
y
ff igs: Lvit. iv. d v.:
d, i th N Tst mt, h h s x ssy d d his itti
 t

d
 suh
ffs, u
 du  t . Luk xxiii. 34.; Hb. iv.
15. d v. 2.; 1 Tim. 1. 13. Ad Ch ys
st
m
bs vs, th t Th
d
sius,
im ssd ith th
s 
ds
f
u S vi
u , "F th , f
giv thm, f

thy k
 
t h t thy d
,"  s d t
g t d
 t
th 

f
Ati
h.
XXII. Ad h it is vidt, h
 mist k F di d  squz is
i his judgmt, h h m it is th t th    b 
just  s

f
dis sig ith  , th t is, f
 sig y
 f
m
its
big ti
s, x t h  th  giv , u
 big 
sutd,
x ssy d s th t h v itdd it sh
ud b
bs vd t

its fu xtt. F
h d
s 
t m k th
 distiti
 bt
 quit b it t ti
, d th ti   x ti

f  . F

hih  s
, i 
th  , h 
vs Th
m s, d S
tus, b us
thy s y th t   is bidig th
ugh th tiu  s

f its
big m d m y h v  sd, s if thy su
sd th t th m  tt
f
th    s th s
u 
f its
big ti
, 
ii
 hih thy v
did t t i. S
f f
m v y  x ti
 
mig ud th id
f
quity,
 y s
 d; th
s  x ti
s m y b f y g td

fusd, hih 
ud 
t b d
 i m tt s
f quity, t
hih
v ts
f h ity
th
s
f  s
 b
iy d

t st ity
b
g. F
th  is g  t diff  bt th   
f  
u
 f i
u gt g
uds, d gis t
's d ig th t t th
tim
f ssig th   h h d 
t th tiu
ff
 s i

tm  ti
.

H vig thus f 
sid d th  tu 
f dis s ti
s, 

vi
f th m its u
 hih thy m y b g td.

d t

XXIII. F
m h t h s b s id b
v, it  s th t i uishmts,

t
thigs  t
b g dd, th
ff, d th
bjt f
hih
thy  ifitd. It is 
s
 t t
justi th t 

 sh
ud
iv g  t uishmt th  h ds vs; u
 hih Ci
, i


f his tt s,
bs vs, th t, "th s m m
d ti
, hih is

mmdd i 
th thigs,
ught t
b
bs vd i uishmts."
P ii  th f
  s uishmt  stim ti

f dm it; but this
qu ity st bishd bt  im d uishmt, s ys Dm
sths i
his Ltt i bh f
f th hid 
f Lyu gus, is 
t th
y thig
t
b 
sid d: th
bjt d itti
 s

f th diqut must
b ighd d t k it
th 
ut. But, if   b t k t
ifit

m
 uishmt th  is du f

ff; it m y b g  t

ss, i

ti
 t
th utiity t
b d ivd f
m th.
XXIX. I x miig th diff t dg s
f guit, 
ught t
t k
it
th 
ut th m
tivs hih im d th
ffd t

mmit th
t--th m
tivs, hih
ught t
h v st id him th f
m, d h

f h  s  b
f yidig t
ith . S  y
 d
s ikd
ti
 ith
ut s
m m
tiv,
s
f st i s himsf
f th  tu 
f
m , s t
dight i suh ts f
m u  m igity. M
st m  d
 y by th idug
f thi tits, hih gd si. Ud
th  m
f tit s
m y b 
m hdd th st
g dsi 
f
v
idig vi, hih is th m
st 
s
 t t
 tu , d th f
 t

b k
d m
gst th m
st  ud b
f  dsi s. S
th t
ffs

mmittd f
th s k
f v
idig d th, im is
mt, i,

xt m  t  g y dmd th m
st xus b.
Whih g v
 si
 t
Dm
sths t
s y, "th t   justy m

x s  td g ist th
s, h
, b
udig i ihs, 
mmit vi
ti
s, th  g ist th
s, h
 im d by  t t
d
th s m.
Hum  judgs   ys  dy t
m k 
  f
ssity: but
h   th is uitd ith ijusti, 
txt   b  dd i
xus." O this s
, P
ybius xuss th A  i s, f
h vig
gtd, h th  td ith im dig d g thmsvs, t
fufi
th t ms
f dfsiv t  ty m d ith th G ks g ist th
At
i s.
Bsids th dsi 
f v
idig vi th  
th dsi s tdig
t
s
m g

d, ith  
im gi y. R  dv t gs, 
sid d
t f
m vi tus, d th
s ti
s, hih h v vi tu
us tdy,
 ith suh s giv dight thmsvs,
, ik bud 
f
ihs,  
u  th
s thigs, hih dmiist t
 su . Am
g
dv t gs u y im gi y,  m y k
 th t
f dsi ig t
x

th s, f
m s i it
f iv  y, th th  f
m y  ud b
itti
,
th

f g tifyig stmts, hih th f th
thy dvi t f
m  tu  justi th m
 sh
kig thy  t
 tu 
fig. Ths tits th A
st h s ds ibd i t ms
f m kd
su ,  ig thm, th "ust
f th fsh, th ust
f th y, th
id
f if." H  th fi st mmb
f th st x sss th

v
f  su , th s
d im is th is ti b 
v
f ihs,
d th thi d 
m hds th u suit
f v i g
y, d th dsi 
f
vg.
XXX. Th v y ijusti
f 
ffs
ught t
b GENERAL m
tiv
ith m, t
st i thm f
m th 
mmissi

f thm. F
t st
  
t 
sid ig sis
f y kid, but th
s, hih xtd
thi 
squs by
d th
ffd himsf, d fft
th s.

Ad ijusti is th m
 hi
us d  imi  i

g  tss
f th iju y, hih it ifits.

ti
 t
th

I th highst k
f  ims d misdm 
u s th f
,  m y

  th
s, hih   id it

m t xuti
: d 
 i
th s   fid th
s  imi  dsigs, hih h v
dd s
m
dg s, but 
t t
th  st st g
f 
m ti
. F
th gg v ti


f  imi  itt is m su d by th gth t
hih it g
s. I
ith  ss th t kid
f ijusti is m
st 
t
i
us, hih tds t

distu b th 
mm
  
f s
ity, d th f
 is iju i
us t

g  t umb s. P iv t 
gs f

 i th xt dg . Th g  tst

f hih  th
s fftig if, d v y g  t, th
ugh s
mh t
if i
i th dg s
f 
mity,  th
s, th t distu b th  

f f miis, hih is f
udd
 th m i g-
t t. Ad th  st
ds i ti

f 
gs  th
s fftig th
 ty
f idividu s,
ith by t kig it ith
 vi
,

bt iig
iju ig it by
f udut m s.
S
m 
f
ii
 th t m
 u t
d
f divisi
 might h v
b usd; but th t hih is h  f

d is th s m usd by G
d
himsf i th div y
f his 
mm dmts. F
ud th  m
f
ts  iudd 
t
y th
s, h
  tu y suh, but
s
v ig is, m gist ts, d u s
f v y ds i ti
, h
s
uth
ity is th ky-st

f th f b i
f s
ity. Nxt f

s th

hibiti

f mu d ; th
hibiti

f dut y, s vi
 ti

f
th m i g b
d; th
hibiti

f thft, d f s vid: d
th  t 
gu
f
ffs 
uds ith th
hibiti

f  imi 
dsi s. Am
g th immdi t  uss t
st i th 
mmissi

f
 im, 
t
y th  uty
f th t itsf, but  th m
t d

ssib 
squs sh
ud b t k it
th 
ut. If fi  is
bgu,
th b i s, th t k
ut th  vs,  b
k d
, th
 t t
b igs u
 his
 h d th b

d
f th
us ds, d 
th guit
f th t ui by hih thy  ish.
I dditi
 t
th g  h t s
f ijusti b
v ds ibd, 
m y x th  im
f big udutifu t
ts, ukid t
 tivs,

ug tfu t
bf t
s, hih   h
f thm vi
 ti

f
 tu , d i s
m s ts
f ivi  . Th  titi

f ths

ffs t

gg v ts thi 
mity: b us ikd h bits 
s
mtims 
s th  ikd ti
s. H  m y 
m hd th
 tu  justi
f th t u, hih th P si s f

d, 
m ig
th st if
f 
ffd ith his st t sg ssi
. Ad this

ught t
h v s
m ight i  ss h   im d
s 
t
igi t
f
m h bit, but f
m m
mt y
 si
. But 
t s
, h  
u s

f f
m titud h s b h gd it
 uv id 
u s
f
ikdss. F
i suh  ss, G
d himsf h s d d by th m
uth

f his
ht Ezki, th t h h s 
g d t
th f
m if.
Ev
f   it s h v th s m  vis u
 th subjt; f

Thuydids
bs vs, th t dg y f
m ight
us t
ikd

u s iu s d
ub uishmt: f

ffs   st d
 b i
th
s, h
k
 th diff  bt ight d 
g. I this s t
 is d dmi ti
  du t
th isd
m
f th imitiv
Ch isti s, h
, i stim tig th m gitud
f
ffs, ighd
th dig d th subsqut 
dut
f t sg ss
g ist
th ti
, f
hih h  s t
b uishd, s m y b s f
m th

ui
f Ay , d
th 
uis. It hights th 
mity
f 

ff, h  it is 
mmittd i vi
 ti

f  x ss
hibiti


f th  . F
, i th  gu g
f T itus, "th f
f
hibiti

m y s
mtims
 t s st it, but h  m
 t i
dfi 
f th t, f d sh m h v 
st  thi f
."

XXXI. Th  ity
f th  s
 t

, ith s t t
judgmt,

dis
siti
, g, du ti
, d v y
th i umst  must b t k
it

sid ti
, h  

k f
sist ,
submissi
 t
th
suggsti
s
f ikd ii ti
s. Th th
ught
f immdi t d g
ugmts f , d t, u  yd i if ms g ; s
th t i
ith  s th  m dit ts
f  s
  
t b h d. Offs
th f
 s igig f
m th ifu
f suh im ssi
s, 
f
ss
di
us 
m xi
 th  th
s isig f
m th 
v
f  su ,

th idug
f h t d. B us th  is ss xus f
ti
s

f th  tt kid, th d y,
t
t  f
b 
f hih 
ud

 si
 
s i
us i
vi. F
it must  ys b k t i
mid, th t h  th   m

 fu im dimts t
th x is

f judgmt, d m
 u gt  su sivs t
 tu  fig, th
 imi ity
f 
ff is

ti
 by s
ftd. Ad ths  th
us f
m su ig th dg s
f d

uishmt.
XXXII. Th Pyth g
 s m it i th t justi is i

ti
ig
th uishmt t
th
ff: u hih  
t b dmittd t

th fu xtt
f qui ig  gg ss
t
suff 
thig m

th  b  quit 
f th iju y h h s
 si
d. F
this is t
v i  ith th m
st  ft  s, hih i  ss
f thft s
mtims
qui  f
u f
d, d s
mtims fivf
d stituti
 t
b m d. Ad
th Athi   , bsids 
m ig thif t
y d
ub th v u

f h t h h d t k std him t
m y d ys' im is
mt. Am
g
th Idi s, s   if
md by St b
, th  s
, h
h d m imd

th ,  s 
dmd, i dditi
 t
th  ty
f t i ti
, t


s his h d. N
is it ight, s Phi
, i x  iig th uishmt

f mu d , justy
bs vs, f
th suff ig
f  i
t d guity
 s
 t
b x ty th s m. Ad h it is  sy t
s hy  t i
 ims 
t  id it
tu  xuti
, d th f
 ss iju i
us
th  th
s, hih  s
,  uishd
y

ti
 by t
th
dsig.--I this m  f s itsss   t  td by th Jish  ;
d by th R
m   , th
s h
 kd  dy md t

mmit mu d .
C
squty g  t dg 
f uishmt is du, h  th  imi 
itti
 is 
m td. But s d th is th sv st uishmt th t
  b ifitd, d
 th t   v b   td; th st
f
 hum    sts th : th
ugh by th ust
m
f s
m 
ut is d th
is 
m id ith t
tu , i  ss
f xt m t
ity.
XXXIII. I m y ist s, th m gitud
f uishmt  
y b
m su d by th situ ti

f th  s

 h
m it is t
b ifitd.
Thus fi im
sd u
 th


ud b h vy st, th
ugh
it 
ud s y fft th ih; d m 
f high k 
ud f
th ight
f disg , th t 
ud but ighty t
uh  ig
b
 s
. Suh distiti
s  f quty usd by th R
m   ,
ft
dg tig it
ts
f ti ity; f ut f
m hih th  
f
M
ss is ti y f . Ad th b
v us m y b 
sid d s th
s  f
stim tig th diff t dg s
f uishmt.
XXXI. Th
ugh uishmt d
s 
t xd th b
uds
f justi, yt i
 t i  ss it m y b mitig td i f v
u
f  imi , f
m m
tivs

f m y, x t h  suh ity t
th guity is dmd  uty t

th i
t, h
s s fty is th by d g d. F
th s 
f
 imi  is
ft  
u gmt t
his
  sv  i iiquity,
d t
th t
f
th s, h
 
u gd by th x m . Nssity
idd qui s th sh st mdis f
th su ssi

f  ims;
s i y, h  th itivs
f h bit d f iity t

mmit thm
v i.

XXX. Th divi   giv t
th Hb s uishd th st ig
f
 tt f
m stu  ith m
 sv ity th  b  kig it
h
us,

 
ut
f th  s ith hih th f
m
f th
s  ims might
b 
mmittd. Ex
d. xxii. 1-9. Justi i s  kig
f th Sythi s,
ds ibs thm s " uishig thft ith m
 sv ity th  y
th
 im; f
s thy h v 

v d h bit ti
s t

tt thi f
ks,
d h ds f
m d d ti
s, h t 
ud b s f, if thivig  

d?" Th
ugh th FAMILIARITY
f  t i  ims m y vt us f
m
big su isd t thi  t ti
, it by 
m s dimiishs thi
t
ity,
dm ds mitig ti

f uishmt. But, s S tu ius
s ys, "th gi t-st ids
f  ims must b im dd ith th st
gst
b ds." I t i s f

ffs, my m y b idugd, but i th
ssig
f  s sv ity sh
ud b g dd: F
th GENERAL  tu 

f   qui s th t
ffs sh
ud b u sud ith ig
u : but i
t i s, i hih idividu s  th
bjts 
 d, th  m y b
i umst s t
gg v t
dimiish th
ff: hih  vs

m
f
th dis ti
 y x is
f ig
u
ity.
XXXI. d XXXII. Th ii ti
 t
mitig t  tis, h 
th u gt m
tivs t
f
 thm 

g xist, is
it
f

m ssi
  fty distit f
m th b
iti

f uishmt
t
gth .
N
h s y thig b
mittd, th t might td t
 u this
diffiut d di t qusti
. But v y
it,  t ust, h s b
x mid i its
  , ith s tig th m gitud
f
 ims, s m su d by th iju y d
, th h bitu  
mmissi

f suh

ffs,
th ifu
f th m
tivs, suffiit t

u g

st i thm. Idd th h t
f th
ffd ff
ds th m
st

usiv m s f
judgig
f his  ity t

mmit th  im; d
th t
f th suff 
ft 
t ibuts s
mthig t
 ds  big us
t
stim t th du

ti

f th  ty. Th i umst s
f
th tim, h--th  , h --
th f iity, ith hih  im
is  t td, td t
gg v t,
ss its 
mity. Th gth

f tim it vig bt  imi  dsig d its xuti
 givs
us s
m

tuity t
x mi h
 f th  t t
 s tu td
by m ii
us u
s. But th t u 
m xi

f  im is t
b
dis
v d, ty f
m th  tu 
f th
s tits, t
hih it

s its bi th; d ty,
 th
th h d, f
m th  tu 
f th
m
tivs hih
ught t
h v st id thm. By this  ss
f tits
th m gitud
f  im m y b judgd
f; d th 
squs  th
m
tivs hih sh
ud
 t t
st i thm.
XXXIII. It h s b sh bf
, d it is t uth f
udd u

hist
i  f t, th t  s  ud t k, s ts
f uishmt, d
this m
tiv, ddd t
th t
f d ss f
iju is, is th s
u , f
m
hih th dutis
f  ti
s,  tig t
 , t k thi is. But it
is 
t v y iju y, th t   b 
st ud it
just g
ud
f  .
F
 s, h
s vg  is m t t

tt th i
t, d t
f 
u
 th guity, d

t g d v y  s, s suffiit  t f

thi x ti
. S
th t th  is muh t uth i th
ii

f S
t ,
h
s ys th t th   t ivi  d 
mm

ffs, hih it is btt
t
ss
v u
tid, th  t
uish.
XXXIX. Th m xim  id d
 by C t
, i his s h i df
f th
Rh
di s, th t it is 
t ight y
 sh
ud b uishd u
 th
b  sus ii

f his h vig itdd t

mmit gg ssi

iju y,
 s  id i th t  ; b us 

sitiv d 
f th


f Rh
ds 
ud b gd g ist thm, 
 s th  y
th


f by
d th CONJECTURE
f thi  v ig i thi
iy. But this

m xim is 
t uiv s y t u.

F
h  itti
 h s
dd t
y
ut d d visib sigs
f
is ti b mbiti
 d ijusti, it is dmd

bjt
f
j 
usy, d v
f uishmt. U
 this ii , th R
m s, s
m y b s f
m Livy's 
ut i th xii. b

k d xxx. h t
f
his hist
y, th
ught thmsvs justifid i d ig  g ist
P sus, Kig
f M d
, uss h g v s tisf t
y

f, th t h
h d 
h
sti itti
s g ist thm, i th  v  d miit y
m mts, hih h  s  ig. Ad   if
md by th s m
hist
i s, th t th Rh
di s u gd it s u st bishd by th
 s d ust
ms
f  iviizd st ts; th t if y
 ishd th
dst uti

f  my, h 
ud 
t uish him ith d th, uss h
h d tu y d
 s
mthig t
ds v it.
But it is 
t v y ujust dsig, th
ugh idi td by s
m
ut d
t, hih   uth
iz d di t h
stiitis. F
if th tu 

mmissi

f  ims d gg ssi
s is, i s
m  ss,
 t
b

v 

kd, muh m
 i it b m k
f dib t  uti
 t
us
th s m f
b , h  
thig fu th th  th u  dsig
f
gg ssi
  s. A f
b  hih Ci
justifis u
 th

ssibiity th t th my m y h v  td
f his dsig, bf
 th
xuti

f it. N

usiv if    b d  f
m th sv ity

f M
s i L  g ist  itdd ts
f im ity d mu d . F
, i

m ig hum   s ith th divi 
uss, h
s d ths   
t
s
ud,   i b t
u it

; d th im us
f g ,
h  it is ttdd ith 
f t  
squ, is  s i hih th
ifi mity
f hum   tu   s f
d
. F
th
' th  ts
f
th d 
gu  dsigd t
 y st it u
 u fu dsi s
s  s u
 u fu ti
s, yt i dditi
 t
th s i itu 
ss, th t hih is  d th   ,
xt   
mm dmt is
t
th
s dis
siti
s th t  m ifstd by s
m
 t. This
it t ti
 m y b ddud f
m ss g i th g
s 
f St. M k,
. x. 19, h  th
hibiti
 t
df ud is immdi ty dd by
th ijuti
 
t t
st . S
th t itdd gg ssi
s  
t t
b
uishd by f

f ms, x t i  ss
f t
ity, h  th v y
dsig th  ts 
squs
f th g  tst d g . A uishmt
th f
 must h v i vi ith su ity g ist futu  gg ssi
s,
 ti
 f
th iju y d
 t
 ti
 
iv t h

u ,
it
must b usd s  x m 
f fu sv ity.
XL. It is
 s
t

bs v th t kigs d th
s h

ssssd

f s
v ig
 h v ight t
x t uishmt 
t
y f

iju is fftig immdi ty thmsvs
thi
 subjts, but
f
g
ss vi
 ti
s
f th  
f  tu  d
f  ti
s, d
 t

th
st ts d subjts. F
th ib ty
f ifitig uishmt f
th
  d f 
f s
ity, hih b
gd t
idividu s i th
 y gs
f th 
d,  s 
v td it
th judii  uth
ity
f
s
v ig st ts d is; ight dv
vig u
 thm 
t
y
s u s
f
th s, but s subjt t
th 
t
u
f 
 thy

 . F
th t is ight, hih   b
g t

subjt. It is
v s f t
 v th ti  ss ti

f m 's
 ights,

th uishmt
f his 
gs, t
his
 judgmt; f
h  
t b
ti y disit std i his
  us. P ti ity i m k him f 
sh
t
f,
judi i m k him xd th b
uds
f justi. It
 s th thm
f is bst
d u
 th h
s
f tiquity, th t
i thi m
st du
us ud t kigs thy vgd th 
gs
f
th s
th th  thi
. U
 this ii  th    b 
hsit ti

i

uig   s t
b just, th t  m d u
 i ts, g 

bb s, d mis
f th hum  . S
f this
ii
 g s

ith th t
f I
tius d
th s, h
m it i   t
b  fu

g ist th
s h
h v 
ud th tis d  
f  tu . A
ii

di ty th v s is hd by it
i ,  squz, Az
ius, M
i ,
d
th s, h
dm  gg ssi
 d
 t
i, his g
v mt,

his subjts,
ivi ju isditi

v th gg ss
, th
y
justifi b  t f
ifitig uishmt, tiu y th
uishmt
f h
stiitis. F
thy su
s uishmt t
b  fft
u y isig f
m th uth
ity
f ivi  , h  s, 
dig t

th

fs st bishd i th bgiig
f this t  tis, it  s sh
t
b ight sutig ti y f
m th  
f  tu .
If th
ii

f th
s, f
m h
m  diff , b dmittd, 
my
i h v ight t
uish 
th , by th
suti

f just  ;
ight, hih 
tithst dig is 
d d 
fi md by th ti

f   ti
s, 
t
y ft th df t
f  my, but du ig th

tiu 
f  ; d th t t

, 
t f
m y ivi ju isditi
,
but f
m  tu  ight, hih v id 
g bf
 th f
ud ti

f
st ts, d hih sti xists i  its f
, i  s, h  th

mmuity 
sists
f f miis distit, d uitd s th subjts
f

 s
v ig.
XLI., XLII., XLIII. But  t i  uti
s  ss y t
vt
us f
m big  id  y by 
ii
 th t ivi ust
ms, th
ugh
f
udd u
 just  s
s, d ivd m
g m y  ti
s,  t
b
k
d s t
f th  
f  tu . Ad i th xt  , it is
ss y t
gu d g ist um tig s
hibiti
s
f  tu   ,
thigs hih  
t
vd t
b s
, s  t i kids
f m i gs th
t kig
f it st f
th us
f m
y, d
th
sitiv ijuti
s

f th divi,
M
s i  . Th thi d u is, t
m k  u t
distiti
 bt g  ii s, suh s th duty
f ivig

dig t
th dit ts
f  s
, d th
s
f m
 tiu
th
ugh 
t ss
bvi
us m ig; s th duty
f f
b ig t
t k h t
b
gs t

th . T
hih m y t uths m y b ddd th
ugh 
t quit
s
 sy
f hsi
: m
g hih m y b  md th  uty
f th t
kid
f uishmt, hih 
sists i vg, dightig i th i

f 
th . This is mth
d
f

f simi t
th t hih
u s i
m thm tis, th
ss
f hih iss f
m sf-vidt t uths t

dm
st ti
s, th  tt
f hih, th
ugh 
t itigib t

ik, u
 du x mi ti

bt i sst.
As th i m tt s
f ivi  , ig
 is dmd  xus, s
ith
s t t
th  
f  tu , h v ifi mity
f ud st dig f
ms
 iviib
bst uti
 t
th k
dg
f its us, suh ifi mity
m y b gd s vidi ti
. F
s, i  ss
f u v
id b
ig
 g  t dg 
f th guit
f si is m
vd; s
it is i
s
m m su  s
ftd h v this ig
 subsists, th
ugh it m y
b
ig t
f
m gig. Ad f
this  s
, A ist
t 
m s
b b i s, i thi ud, uf
md st t, t
 s
s, h
s tits
 d d siky by dis s. Put h s

bs vs th t th  
 t i ifi mitis d dis
d s, hih  tu y ift th s
u.
O f
, by  y
f 
usi
  m y dd th t  s ud t k
t
ifit uishmt m y b sus td
f ijusti, x t th  b
m ifst d 
m
us gg ssi
s, ith
th 
s i ig  uss, t

vidi t  ti
s f
h vig 
u s t
ms.
XLI. Th
g ss
f th 
k h s ss iy d t
th 
sid ti


f
ffs g ist G
d; th
ity
im
ity
f uishig
hih by f

f ms is fit subjt
f iqui y.
Admittig th ffi m tiv t
f th qusti
,  m y
bs v th t s

i si sti  ff i s Bish
s  it ustd ith C th
i,

g 
 ; s
kigs, bsids th  
f thi
 immdi t st ts
d subjts, m y b g dd s
tt
s
f th hum  . Th bst
gumt,
 th g tiv sid
f th qusti
, g ist th justi
f
suh  s, is th suffiiy
f th divi
mi
t t
vg its

 
gs. Yt th s m m y b s id
f
th
ffs. F
th Dity

sssss suffiit
 t
uish thm, th
ugh h  vs thm
t
th st
f hum  t ibu s. S
m i u g d m it i th t

th kids
f
ffs  uishd
y i  ss, h 
th s 
uiju d
d g d by th 
mmissi

f thm. O th
th h d,
it m y b s id th t m uish 
t
y
ffs, hih di ty hu t

th s, but v th
s, hih fft thm idi ty, s suiid d

th simi  ims.
Ath
ugh igi
 is 
  bt th s
u
f m  d his
M k 
, its ifu
 hum  m
s is
f 
i
sid b
im
t . S
th t P t
h d  s
 t
  it th bu k
f
uth
ity d  , d th b
d
f v y thig v b i s
i 

d d disi i. Ev y f s
ii
 i divi thigs, s ys
Put h, is  ii
us, bt yig itsf i th dis
d s
f th
im gi ti
, h v it t ks

t, d s igs u it
ti
. S

th t A ist
t k
s th   d su
t
f igi
 th fi st
f
ubi 
 s. This is t uth yig 
t t
y tiu st t,
but t
 g
v mts, d t
hum  s
ity i v y sh . A v
 
hih X
h
 m ks th h t isti
f g  t d is i,
tt ibutig t
Cy us d ti

f his fi m  su si
 th t th m

his subjts f d G
d, th m

bdit h sh
ud fid thm t
his
 s, d th m
 tt hd t
his  s
. But
 m
v th m
tivs

f igi
, s ys Tuy, d y
u dst
y f ith, th it 
u s
bt m  d m , d justi th m
st xt
f  vi tus.
Th
ii
s
f E iu us ff
d suffiit

f
f this: f
i
b ishig th
vid
f G
d f
m his systm, h m d justi

thig but  m ty  m, s igig f
m hum  
vti
s, f
udd

sf-it st, d st iig m f
m th 
mmissi

f  ims by 


th ii  but th t
f f .
But th  is id s h , th  th it   f 
f id dt
st ts,
 hih igi

 ts. I th s t s
ity, hih
v y kigd
m, st t,

ut y f
ms ithi itsf, th  
f
igi
 m y
 si
 y b su id by th ifu d xuti


f muii   s. But i  th t s ti
s
f th g  t 
mmuity
t  g, h  ivi  s  sit, d t ibu s giv  y t
th
disi

f th s
d, th  
f  tu  d
f  ti
s, f
udd u

th f
f G
d, d
bdi t
his i, is th st d d
f ight
t
hih Kigs d S
v ig st ts  ; vi
 ti

f hih is
g dd s vi
 ti

f th divi  .
XL. But t
t k 
s vi
f th subjt,  must
bs v th t
t u igi
, hih is th s m t   i
ds
f tim, sts u

f
u vidt d uiv s y k
dgd t uths. Th fi st
f hih
is th big d uity
f G
d,--th s
d, th t G
d is 
t y
f
th thigs, th t   b s, but
f  tu  t

subim t
b th

bjt
f hum  
 ti
,

f hum  sight,--th thi d is, th t ith
th y
f his
vid h g ds th vts
f this 
d, d
gu ts thm ith th m
st quit b d u ig judgmts,--th
f
u th is, th t h is th   t

f  thigs, x t himsf. Ad
ths f
u t uths  uf
dd d  id d
 i  qu  umb
f

mm dmts, th fi st
f hih  iy d s th uity
f G
d--th
s
d f
bids y  st ti
, by itig
im g, t
b m d
f

th t big, h
is ivisib t
m
t  y. T itus b s tstim
y t

th s i itu   tu 
f th Jish igi
: f
h s ys, th t "th
Js h v 
thig but mt  
 ti

f
 G
d, d thy 

k
u
 v y ttm t t
 st him ud th  
f hum  f
m,
s
f  ti

f his h vy  tu ."--F
m th thi d 
mm dmt
 ddu his k
dg
f  hum  t s ti
s, v
f
u v y
th
ughts; 
misi u
 hih th
big ti
 d s tity
f

ths is f
udd. F
G
d is itss v
f th s t dsigs

f th h t, s
th t v y s
m
th is    t
his justi
d his
 , f
th vidi ti

f t uth, d th uishmt
f
f sh

d.--Th f
u th 
mm dmt sts us ith  
ut
f th
  ti

f th 
d, t

mmm
t hih G
d
itd th s bb th,

mm dig it t
b
bs vd ith dg 
f v  b
v v y

th s  d istituti
. F
th vi
 ti

f y
th its, suh
s th
s s tig f
bidd m ts,  s ft t
th dis ti
 y
uishmt
f th  : but
ffs g ist th s bb th    it ;
b us, 
sid ig th  tu  d dsig
f its
igi, suh 
tm t
im id disbif, th t th 
d  s   td by G
d. N
 th
  ti

f th 
d by G
d ff
ds t it

f
f his g

dss,
isd
m, t ity d
 : d th fft
f this 
tm  tiv
k
dg is th
ff ig
f h

u , 
v, 
shi d
bdi t

G
d. S
th t A ist
t s ys th t th m , h
dis th t G
d
ught t

b h

u d,
ts 
vd, sh
ud b t ught t

u his 
,

t by  s
ig, but by uishmt. Ad, i 
th  , h
bs vs
th t s
m ti
s 

  t i
 si
s, but v  f

th m jsty
f G
d is quisit t  tims, d i   s.
Th t uth
f th
s 
tm  tiv
ii
s m y ud
ubtdy b
vd
f
m th  tu 
f thigs; th  st
f hih

fs is th vid

f ss, shig th xist
f thigs, hih  tu y  ds us t


sid th tim, h thy h d 
big.
But s   
t b t
ud st d ths gumts d
th s
f
th s m kid, it is suffiit t

bs v th t i  gs d 

ut is
f th 
d, ith v y f x ti
s, ths
ii
s h v
f
ud g   ti
 ith th
s h
  t

 i i thi
d igs, d igu
us i thi dsigs, t
im
s u

th s, d
ith m y, h
h d t

muh s g ity t
b divd thmsvs. But
h mid suh v ity
f  s, ust
ms, d
ii
s, th  is s

g   g mt u


it; th t g mt m y b ddud s


f, th t suh bif
s its
igi t
th imitiv gs
f
th 
d, f
m h it h s b d ivd t
us: h  
sid t


th t it h s v b  y futd, it is suffiit  s
 t

st bish
u f ith.
XLI. Th  is 
xus th f
 f
th jti

f th
s
ii
s,
v i  ss, h  th  is 
ituitiv s g ity t
dis
v 


fs,
t

m hd
d
s: s th   s
m y guids b
th i
 tu  d  s
 t
 d m t
th k
dg
f th
s t uths, d
s 
s
id gumts h v v b
dud t
st bish 
t y
bif. But s hum  uishmts f
m th subjt
f
u st
iqui y, it is ight t
m k distiti
 bt
ii
s thmsvs,
d th m 
f dvi tig f
m thm. Th bif i su m big,
d i th 
t
u
f his
vid
v hum  ff i s, is

f
th
s uiv s  tts t
b f
ud i  igi
s, hth t u

f s. Ad i  ity t
dy th big
f G
d, d t
dy th
it
s 
f his
vid i hum  ff i s, m
uts i its m


squs t
th s m thig. Ad it is f
this  s
 ths t


ii
s h v b is by uitd i  gs, d m
g v y
iviizd 
. C
squty  fid, th t i   g
v d

st ts, h
s
m  s h v b  td t
st i th
s, h
distu b

th
s
ii
s, hih h v  ys b g dd s th hif su
t

f s
i 
d ; d  
tm t, sh t
th
s
ii
s, h s
 ys b 
sid d s 
tm t sh t
s
ity itsf, hih it

squty h s ight t
uish.
XLII. Th  
th t uths 
t qu y sf-vidt, suh s ths,
th t th   
t m
 G
ds th 
; th t 
visib thig, ith
th 
d, 
th h vs, 
th su, 
th i is G
d; th t th

d, d th m tt
f hih it is f
md, h v 
t xistd f
m
 t ity, but   m d by G
d. S
th t  s th k
dg
f
ths t uths disfigu d, d m
st ti y
bit td m
g m y
 ti
s by th  s
f tim. Ad this might th m
  siy h ,
s th    
g 
visi
s m d t
s v th u ity
f
ths t uths, hih   
t 
sid d s ssti  t
th v y
xist
f  igi
. Th   idd giv t
th t 
, h

  ist utd i th  k
dg
f ths t uths, by th m
uths

f th
hts, by mi s s ith thi
 ys,
b
ught t

thi  s by th 
ts
f th m
st ud
ubtd tstim
y, th t  ,
th
ugh it x sss th g  tst bh

f th 
shi
f f s
g
ds, d
s 
t ifit th uishmt
f d th u
  
vitd
f
th t  im, but
y i tiu ist s, h  thy h v sdud

th s it
id
 t y,--
h  st t h s it
dud th 
shi

f uk
 G
ds,--
h  th t u 
shi
f G
d, d
bdi t

his  s h v b f
s k f
th 
shi
f th st s, hih St.
P u  s s vig th   tu  b
v th   t
, 
ff, hih
 s, f
s
m tim, uishd m
g th dsd ts
f Es u. Th
s
t

h

ff d thi hid  t
M

h, th t is, t
S tu ,  
uishd ith d th. Yt th C  its, d th ighb
u ig  ti
s,
h
h d 
g b suk it
th m
st d vd su  stiti
s,   
t

sigd by G
d t
immdi t uishmt, but   ft t
fi u th
m su 
f thi  ims. Ad th   
th  ti
s, h , i th
 gu g
f S i tu , G
d ikd t th tims
f this ig
. Wh 
m h v h d 
m s
f ivig t th k
dg
f t u G
d, s
thi su  stiti
s d 
s  xus b, s
h , i ds it
f
k
dg, thy h v difid D m
s, d vis, hih thy k t
b
suh, thi su  stiti
s  
t t
b  d 
s, but im itis.
Ad 
ss im i
us is th su
sd h
m g, th t is id t
G
d ith
th b

d
f i
t hum  vitims, d D ius kig
f th P si s,
d G
kig
f Sy us,  
mmdd f
bst iig f
m suh
tis. Put h if
ms us
f s
m b b i s, h

ud h v b
uishd by th R
m s f

ff ig hum  vitims t
th dity, h d
thy 
t  dd th tiquity
f th ust
m, hih  s dmittd s
 xus, th
ugh thy   st ity j
id 
t t
f

 th s m
ust
m i futu .
XLIII. F
m th kid
f vid
 hih Ch isti ity sts, it
is  i th t 
f
 sh
ud b usd ith  ti
s t

m
t its
 t . It is 
t m y by  tu  gumts it   g i sst;
f
it h s m d  dditi

f m y thigs t
 tu  igi
. Its
vid sts u
 th hist
y
f Ch ist's su ti
, d u

th mi s  f
md by himsf d his A
sts. S
th t it is
m tt
f f t
vd by th m
st udi b vid, d
f g  t
tiquity. Th f
 d
t i
f this kid  
t b th

ughy
ivd u
 th fi st h ig
f it, ith
ut th s t ssist 

f G
d:  ssist  
t giv s  d f
th m it
f 
ks; s

th t h v it is ithhd
ss 
i
usy bst
d; it is d
 f

 s
s, hih th
ugh just,  g y uk
 t
us, d th f


t uish b by hum  judgmts. F
it is th ust
m i th s  d
 itigs t
ssig th divi  su  s th  us
f thigs uk


t
us.
Th  is 
th  s

f 
ss ight, hih is th t Ch ist
big th uth

f   , i h v 

 b
ught t
mb 
his d
t i by th f
f hum  uishmts. N
is th  s

t   kd by th
bjti
 d  f
m th b
f th
m i g-su  , h  it is s id th mssg s  
mm dd t


m  th gusts t

m i. F
th t m, COMPEL, h  sigifis

thig m
 th    st t  ty, ss, i hih it is usd i

th ts
f th N Tst mt, im yig   st qust m d t

y
.
XLIX. But t

bst ut th t h s
f Ch isti ity by is d
 tis is ud
ubtdy 
t y t
 tu    d  s
: f

th d
t i
f Ch ist, t f
m  th 
u ti
s ddd by th
ivti
s
f m, 
t is 
thig hu tfu, but v y thig bfii 
t
s
ity. Th thig s  ks f
itsf, d v th
s h
 
st g s t
th d
t i itsf  
bigd t
k
dg th t uth

f this. Piy s ys th t th Ch isti s b
ud thmsvs by 
th t


mmit ith thft, 

bb y, 
t
vi
 t thi 
d. It  s

mm
 s yig "C ius Sius is g

d m , but h is Ch isti ."
N
idd   y d g b hdd f
m th s  dig
f
d
t is,  u td t
is i  g  t s tity
f m  s, d th
u st ii s
f
bdi t
 fu s
v igs. Phi
h s 
dd
b utifu s yig
f Augustus, h

bs vd th t th ssmbis
f th
Js   
t B h  i  vs,
mtigs t
distu b th ubi
 , but sh

s
f vi tu.
L. It sms ujust t
 sut ith uishmts th
s h
iv
th  
f Ch ist s t u, but t t i d
ubts

s
 s
m
xt  
its, t kig thm i  mbigu
us m ig
diff t f
m
th it Ch isti s i thi x   ti

f thm. A
it hih is

vd by h t h s b s id b
v, d by th it x m 
f th
Js. F
,
ssssig  , hih 
d thm t
ifit tm

uishmts, thy v x isd th t uth
ity u
 th S ddus,
h
did th d
t i
f su ti
: d
t i
f th g  tst
t uth, th
ugh but f ity div d i th t  , d ud ty i 
i ti

f 
ds d i umst s.
But if th  sh
ud b y ighty 
, th t dis ig judgs 
ud
 siy fut by    t
s  d uth
ity,
t
th
ii
s

f tiquity; h  t

it 
ud b ss y t
m k 
  f

ig ftd
ii
s, th t h v g
 u t
f
m  is b t
f
th hum  mid, d f
th z 
us tt hmt
f v y
 t
his

tts;  vi hih G  s ys is m
 diffiut t
b  di td
th  y 
stituti
  dis s.

CHAPTER XXI.
ON THE COMMUNICATION OF PUNISHMENT.
H
 ss
is  i b t
uishmt--S
v ig P is

St ts s b f
th mis
dut
f thi subjts, h thy
k
 it, d d

t d v
u t
vt it--S
v igs b
ud 
t
t

tt
ffdig subjts, but t
div thm u
uish
thm--Th ights
f su i ts b
g t
th uf
tu t d 
t

t
th guity--Su i ts m y b
ttd hi th iqui y

it
thi  s is sti dig--H
 f st ts  m b t

uishmt--A th diff t x ti
s st td--Chid  
t
s b f
th
ffs
f ts--Th m
 g
v mt
f
G
d i this s t 
sid d--Idividu s 
t s b f


ffs, t
hih thy h v 
t giv 
st--Hi s, h
 f
s b f
th ts
f thi st
s.
I. Th xt t
i
f iqui y  ts t
th 
mmui ti

f
uishmt, s ifitd u
 
m is, h
, i th t  ity,
 
t b s id t
b uishd f
th guit
f
th s, but f
thi

. Ad f
m h t h s b s id b
v u
 th 
ss sust id f
m
iju y, it m y b ud st

d h
 th  s
s, th t 
m ud this
ds i ti
. F
th t shi i 
ss, d th t shi i guit
 gu td by  y th s m ii s. Yt th
big ti
 t

 i 
ss d
s 
t  ys im y guit, x t h  th  h s b
y 
t
i
us m i, i hih  s v y d m g d s th ty,
h
h s
 si
d it, i b t
m k  ti
. S
th t  s
s

d ig th 
mmissi

f y ikd
h
sti t, givig th
quisit 
st t
it, su yig th gg ss
ith ssist ,


tti
,
, i y
th sh , t kig
f th  im, by givig

us, 
mmd ti
,
sst t
his t,
h thy h v
 t

f
bid th 
mmissi

f suh  t, by f
b ig t
x is thi
uth
ity,
by fusig t
ff
d th su
u , hih thy  b
ud
by th  
f  tu ,
by t  ty t
giv t
th iju d ty, by 
t
usig ith th
ffd th t

f dissu si
, hih thy h v
ight t
d
,
 sty by 
 ig h t thy
ught t
m k k
, i
 ths  ss, suh  s
s  uish b s 
m is, if thy
 
vitd
f th t dg 
f m i, hih 
stituts  im, d
m its uishmt:
its hih h v bf
 b disussd.
II. Th  s i b m d   by x m s. A ivi 
mmuity is

m
 b
ud th  y
th s
ity by  t
f idividu  mmb s,
x t th t t b d
 by its x ss 
st d uth
ity,
it h s
gtd t
dis v
 suh
dig. H it is f
m y sti u td
i m
st  t  tis th t 
ts
gg ssi
s  t
b s ibd
t
st t, x t th
s, hih  d
 i th  m
f th s
v ig,
d by  s
s tig x ssy ud th uth
ity
f his 
mmissi
.
S
f th is 
t s b f
th mis
dut
f his hid ,
m st f
th t
f his s v ts, 
u f
th ts
f th
s
ud him, uss th   s i y
f ths s
m 
iv ,


u gmt i
m
tig th t mis
dut,
th
s ts.
I th  s
f s
v ig's s
sibiity f
th ts
f his
subjts, th   t
thigs t
b 
sid d, hih qui  miut
iqui y, d m tu  dib ti
, d th
s  th f
b ,
d th 
u gmt

tti
, hih h h s sh t
thi
t sg ssi
s.
As t
f
b , it is  k
dgd
it, th t h h k
s
f
diquy, hih h ith f
bids 
uishs, h h is b
th
b d b
ud t
d
s
, h b
ms  ss
y t
th guit th 
f.
Ci
, i his s h g ist Pis
, s ys, "it m ks 
g  t diff 
s i y i 
su, hth h h sss th g
v mt by m
vig
ui
us  s, d m kig mishiv
us s hs,
suff s
th s t
d

th s m. If s v h s 
mmittd mu d ith th k
dg
f his
m st , th m st b
ms s b f
th ti  dd, s it  s
d
 ith his 
u ."

But, s  h v s id bf
, bsids th k
dg
f dd, t


stitut tii ti
 i th guit, th  s
 s
k
ig it,
must
ssss th
 t
vt it. Ad this is h t is m t by th
g  h s, th t th k
dg
f  im, h it is
d d t

b uishd, is t k i th ss
f f
b 

iv , d
it is su
sd th t th  s
, h

ught t
h v vtd it, did

t d
s
. I this   k
dg im is 
u 
f i, d

iv  
u 
f dsig. A m st th f
 is 
t b
ud by
th t
f s v, h
h s  imd his f d
m, d d
 y thig i
ds it
f his m st , b us th k
dg
f  im ith
ut biity
t
vt it, by dis
su 
s
m
th m s,  
t b 
st ud
it
 t
f guit. S
ts  b
ud by th ts
f hid ; but

y i  ss h  thy h v th hid  ud thi uth
ity. O
th
th h d, th
' by h vig thm i thi
 , thy might h v
vtd thi mis
dut, thy i 
t b s b f
it, uss
thy h d k
dg
f it s
. F
th 
ught t
b 
u 

f k
dg, d f
b 

u gmt t
iv
v y
 i
th guit
f 
th 's ti
s; i umst s 
f hih by ity

f  s
ig m y b id t
th 
ti
 bt s
v igs d
subjts: 
ti
 f
udd
 ii s b
th
f  tu  d ivi
 .
III. Th m tt th t ss iy 
ms xt ud 
sid ti

is th  s
f th
s, h
s  diquts f
m uishmt. It
 s bf

bs vd th t, 
dig t
th  
f  tu , 



ud ifit uishmt, but  s
 ti y f  f
m th guit

f th  im hih h  s g
ig t
uish. But si st bishd
g
v mts   f
md, it h s b sttd u, t
 v th

ffs
f idividu s, hih fft thi
 
mmuity, t
th
s
st ts thmsvs,
t
thi u s, t
uish
d
 thm t
thi dis ti
. But thy h v 
t th s m  y uth
ity,

dis ti
, s tig
ffs, hih fft s
ity t  g, d
hih
th id dt st ts
thi u s h v ight t
uish,
i th s m m  , s i v y 
ut y
u ti
s  
d f

 t i misdm 
s. Muh ss is y st t t ib ty t
ss
v
i y
f its subjts  ims fftig
th id dt st ts

s
v igs. O hih 
ut y s
v ig st t
i h s ight
t
qui  
th
 t
uish y
f its subjts
ffdig i th
b
v  md s t: ight ssti  t
th digity d su ity
f
 g
v mts.
I. But s it is 
t usu  f

 st t t

 th md f


f 
th t
t h t it
is ud th txt
f ifitig
uishmt u
 
ffd , it is ss y th t th
 , i
h
s kigd
m 
ffd sids, sh
ud u
 th 
m  it
f th
gg ivd ty, ith uish him itsf,
div him u t
th
dis ti

f th t ty. Ium b ist s
f suh dm ds t

div u
ffd s
u b
th i s  d d
f  hist
y. Thus
th
th Is its qui d th Bj mits t
div u
ffd s,
Jud. xx.--Ad th Phiistis dm dd
f th Hb s th su d
f
S ms
, s  imi , Jud. xv.--I th s m m  th G us m d
dm d th t th F bii sh
ud b su d d f
h vig f
ught g ist
thm. Sy t

, s S ust if
ms us, u gd B
hus t
div
u Jugu th , d by s
d
ig t
iv th R
m s f
m th bitt
ssity
f im i tig HIM f
his 

us 
dut i th s m
guit ith th t m
st ds  t vi i. Yt  ths ist s  t

b ud st

d 
t s st ity bidig 

S
v ig P i t

th tu  su d
f
ffd s, but 
ig thm th t  tiv
f
ith uishig
div ig thm u . F
it  s u
 this g
ud,
s   if
md, th t th E s m d  u
 th L d m
i s,

b us th  tt gtd t
uish thi subjts, h
h d


mmittd gg ssi
s u
 th t 
; th t is, thy h d ith
uishd 
div d thm u : f
th
big ti
 m y b t k ith
 y, th t big ft t
th h
i
f th gg ivd  s
,
 ti
,
i
d t
m k th s tisf ti
 th m
 
m t.
Th su d h  m t is 
thig m
 th  div ig u itiz

subjt t
th

f 
th st t t
did u
 his uishmt.
But this  missi
 ith givs 
t ks  y y ight, it
y
m
vs  im dimt t
th
suti

f ight. Wh f
 if th t

th 
 m k 
us
f th  mittd ight, th
ffd , h

h s b div d u , is i suh situ ti
, th t h ith MAY

m y NOT b uishd: ith
f hih m y h  i th  s
f m y

ffs. But th ight
f st t, s t
th j
ymt
f its

 s, d m y
th dv t gs, is 
t 
st by y tiu t
ith
ut f
m  d  d judgmt, uss i y  y it h s b
vi
usy  td, th t  t i ts,
 t i
missi
s, sh 
m
ut t
f
fitu 
f s
m tiu ights d ivigs. I
th s m m  , g

ds, if su d d, but 
t  td, i m i
th
 ty
f th f
m
 . But if th su d
f itiz
h s b  td, d, by s
m idt, th  s
 s
su d d
sh  ft  ds tu  h
m, h i 

g b itiz, x t
by s
m  t
f g . Wh t h s b s id
f uishig
givig u
gg ss
s, is 
t
y t
th
s, h
 ys h v b subjts

f th s
v ig, i h
s d
mii
s thy  
 f
ud, but t
th
s
s
, h
, ft th 
mmissi

f  im, h v fd t
s
m   f

fug.

. N
d
th s
muh t kd
f ights
f su i ts, d th

ivi
 b  tu 
f syums t   k th gumt th t h s b
dv d. F
th dv t gs
f suh
tti
  dsigd
y f

th
s, h
 th vitims
f um itd  suti
, 
t f
th
s
h
h v 
mmittd  ims iju i
us t
m kid, d dst utiv t

s
ity. Gyi us, th L d m
i , s m y b s i th xiii. b

k

f Di
d
us Siuus, s  kig
f th ights
f su i ts, s ys, th t
thy  
igi y it
dud, s m su s
f 
m ssi
 t
th
uf
tu t, d 
t s  f
m ii
us d  t

ffd s, h

h v 
thig but uishmt t
x t. Ad itt ft h s ys, h
suh m,
m td by m i,
ity h v ugd it
vis, thy
h v 
ight t
t k
f misf
tu
t
 th  m
f su i ts.
F
th t is ivig g td by th  s
f  tu  t
th i
t,
h
 b t d
 by th h d d
ssiv st
ks
f i f
tu.
But th fug
f 
m ssi
 is ithhd, h  v y i
f if
h s b m kd ith  uty d ijusti. Thus 
dig t
th t  ,
hih t ks
f th isd
m
f its divi uth
, syums  

t
th
s h
h d kid y
 by 
 s ig f
m thi h d:
s vs t

  
d  s
f fug, but dib t mu d  s,

th
s, h
h d distu bd th  fu
d
f th st t, f
ud 


tti
 v f
m th t
f G
d. Phi
, i x  iig this  
s ys, th t v th tm  ff
ds 
fug t
th im i
us.
Th m
 it
f th G ks td u
 th s m ii . It
is s id th t th Ch idi s fusd t
div u N u ius t
th
G i s, d th  s
 gd  s his h vig  d himsf
f
th h gs m d g ist him. Th   s m
g th Athi s  t
ddi td t
M y; it is mti
d by Ci
, P us i s, S vius, d
s
by Th
hius, d it is ds ibd t fu gth by St tius i
th xii. b

k
f his Thb is. Th
t x  is t
h t ds i ti

f
m it ff
dd sht : it  s, h s ys, t
th
s h
  d iv f
m
thi h
ms by th   mity
f  ,
st i d
f thi kigd
ms by

usu  s. T itus i th thi d b

k
f his A s, d 60th h t ,


b ts th ust
m, v iig i his tim m
g th itis
f
G ,
f m kig it  t
f igi
 t

tt
ffd s f
m th
uishmt du t
thi  ims. Suh
ffd s th f

ught ith
t
b uishd,
div d u ,
, t  st,
d d t
ithd .
P sus th M d
i  kig,  ig himsf t
M tius f
m th
h g
f s ig th
s, h
h d ttm td th if
f Eums;
s id, " s s

 s I  s isd by y
u
f thi big i M d
i , I

d d immdi t s h t
b m d f
thm,  m t
iy 
mm dig
thi  tu  b ishmt f
m my kigd
m."
Th ight
f dm dig th su d
uishmt
f  imi s th t
h v fd it

th kigd
ms, h s, i m
st ts
f Eu
, du ig
th st, d th immdi ty dig tu is, b g y
x isd i  ss, h  th  ims   suh s fftd th s fty

f th st t,
  ttdd ith 
t
i
us t
ity. It h s b
usu  t
ss
v , ith mutu  
iv ,  ims
f  if i
kid,
x t h  it h s b g d t
th 
t y by x ss t  ty. N

  it b 
 d th t h 
bb s d i ts h v g id t uy
f
mid b
 , it h s
ft b dmd  t
f hum 
iy b
th
i S
v ig P is, d St ts t
x is f
b  t
 ds thm,
th th  t
d iv thm t
g  t ts
f ds  ti
 by t  tig
thm ith  th ig
u , hih thy ds v.

I. If th t,
f hih fugs d su i ts  usd, is 
t

hibitd by th  
f  tu 

f  ti
s, th m tt must b
didd by th ivi  
f th 
ut y, f
m hih thy 
m. This
 s ivd
ii
 i it tims, s  fid f
m th  gu g

f Ashyus, i h
s T gdy
f th Su i ts, th Kig
f A g
s,
dd ssig umb
f th d ught s
f D  us,
 thi 
mig
f
m Egy t, s ys, "If th s
s
f Egy t x is 
t
u
v y
u,
m it iig th t thy  uth
isd t
d
s
by th  
f th st t,
s big th  st id by b

d, h
  sist thm? It is f

y
u t

v th t, 
dig t
th  s
f y
u 
ut y, thy h v 

uth
ity
v y
u."
II. d III. It h s
ft b b td t
i
f disussi
,
hth h
 
mmuity   b uishd f
mis
dut. Ad this is
th
   f
th t iqui y.
It  s sh i f
m t
f this t  tis, th t b
dy
iti
th
ugh it m y sm t
v y by sussi

f  mmb s, 
tius
th s m, s 
g s it t is its f
m. I hih  s it sms i b
t
uishmt 
ss th  idividu s. O th
th h d b
dis

iti sm t

ssss m y ivigs ui t
thmsvs, suh
s h vig 
mm
 t  su y, 
mm
 s ,  s, d
th simi
dv t gs. But th   s
m distiti
s, hih thy tiu y
d iv f
m th INDIIDUALS
f hih thy  
m
sd. Thus  s y
th t Uiv sitis   d,
G is
s b v, 
dig t
th
umb
f  d
g  t m, hih thy s tivy 
t i.
M it is distiti

f this kid, s big gift
f  tu  t

idividu s,
 idividu  qui mt, hih 
ubi b
dy,
OF ITSELF,   h v. S
th t u
 th d th
d tu 
f th
s
m it
i
us idividu s, th dg 
f m it, hih y ubi s
ity
d ivd f
m thi s, must b
m xtit. I th s m m  ,
th dbt
f uishmt hih is 
sid d s isig f
m s
m t
f
dm it, must  s ith th dbt
f th idividu  diquts.
A i  is justy 
mmdd f
su ig th vg  t
td u

th P si s by Ax d , t tim, h th
s, h
h d 
mmittd

th
igi  gg ssi
s
 th G ks, h d 
g b  id i thi

g vs. H sss ik st u
 th bu ig
f P s
is, s
t i ti
 f
h t th P si s h d d
 t Aths. Suh ts
f
t i ti
, ft  s
f y s, h v b vidi td by s
m
 it s, s  imit ti

f th s
, but u ig
g ss
f divi
justi. But  must mmb th t th  ys
f G
d  
t s
u  ys,

is th x is
f his justi t
b m su d by
u 
uss. F

if dsdts    im 
m it f
th ti
s
f thi FOREFATHERS,
ith is it ight thy sh
ud b uishd f
THEIR t sg ssi
s.
Th 
squs
f m it idd m y b t smittd ith
ut iju y, d
th f
 ith
ut ijusti; but it is 
t s
ith uishmts.
IX. H vig thus sh th t 
mmui ti

f uishmt is ss iy

td ith tii ti
 i guit, it m is t

sid
hth uishmt   b xtdd t
th
s, h
 
 y 
 d
i th  im. I
d t
ud st d this  y, d t
vt th
mist ks th t m y is f
m simi ity
f x ssi
, h  th 
is 
simi ity
f f ts, it i b ss y t
m k us
f s
m
 uti
s.
X. I th fi st   th  is diff  bt 
ss DIRECTLY

 si
d by y t, d
 sutig but INDIRECTLY f
m it.
N
 it m y b  d di t iju y t
d iv y

f h t
ui y b
gs t
him s his ight. A idi t iju y is th t
hih vts y
 f
m
ssssig h t h
th is 
ud h v
d
, by dst
yig th 
diti

m s, hih g v him suh
ight. As  x m , U i  s ys, "if y
 h s
d  i
his
 g
ud, by hih th subt 
us st  ms
f  t , th t

ud h v ssd t
th  ds
f 
th ,  ut
ff, h  
f ut
is im ut b t
th  s
 h
h s
y x isd his
 ight." Ad
i 
th  , h s ys, it m ks g  t diff , hth y

 di ty d
s  iju y,
is
y idi ty d uitti
 y
ist umt  i vtig 
th f
m  ig dv t gs, hih h

ud
th is h v j
yd. Ad it is bsu d, s ys P uus, 
th
g  uth
ity, f
m t
b  d ih bf
 thy
ssss th
m s
f big s
. Thus h th
 ty
f ts is f
fitd, it
is ft s  i
vi by thi hid ; th
ugh it  
t b

sid d s di t uishmt ifitd u
 thm, b us th t

 ty 
ud v h v b thi s, uss th ts h d t id
it t
thi  st b  th. O hih A hus h s m d just
bs v ti
,
i s yig, th t, by th uishmt
f th f th , hid  
s th t
hih 
ud h v 
m t
thm f
m him, but thigs, hih thy d

t
iv f
m him, suh s th gifts
f  tu ,
th
s d ivd f
m
y
th qu t , m i ut
uhd. Ci
 ts th t i this m 
th hid 
f Thmist
s   dud t
 t, 
d
s h thik
it ujust th t th hid 
f L idus sh
ud sh  th s m f t. Ad
h s ys th t it is  it ust
m, d th ivd us g
f 
st ts, th h dshi
f hih v thss  s g  ty s
ftd by th
 s
f R
m t  t  i
d. Thus h h
 
 is im i td
i th mis
dut
f th m j
ity, hih h
ds th  st tiv
h t
f th st t, d 
squty 
ss its ivi ib tis,
its f
tifi ti
s, d
th ivigs, th 
ss ffts i
t
idividu s, but
y i th
s thigs, hih thy 
ud 
t h v
j
yd, x t s b
gig t
th t 
mmuity.
XI. Bsids,  must
bs v, th t th
ff
f
 m  m y s
mtims

 si
 i
vi

ss t

th , d yt th t
ff m y 
t
b 
sid d s th immdi t  us
f th ti
, hih is g
udd

 th x is
f ight. This m y b x  id by  x m . Thus
if y
 h s g gd f

th 's dbt, h b igs himsf it

th dimm  md i th it
v b, th t big b
ud f
y

 is th xt st g t
ui; but it is MAN'S OWN PROMISE, d
NOT ANOTHER'S HAING INCURRED A DEBT, th t is th    us
f his

big ti
. F
s  s
, h
h s giv su ity f
u h s , is

t,
 y s  kig, b
ud by th PURCHASE, but by his
 PROMISE:
s
if y
 h s g gd t
b s
sib f
diqut, it is
his
 ENGAGEMENT, d 
t th ACT OF THAT DELINQUENT, hih   ts
his
big ti
. Ad h th i
vi
f th t kid hih y

iu s, must b m su d 
t by th diquy
f 
th , but by his


 t
t it
y suh v
ut y g gmt. I 
squ

f hih 

   giv su ty t
suff d th f

th ; b us 


 h s suh

v his
 if, s t
t k it  y himsf,

t
b b
ud t
f
fit it f

th . Th
ugh th it G ks d
R
m s th
ught
th is, d th f
 thy m it id th t su ty
might b ut t
d th f
y
, s m y b s i th  k

st
y
f D m
 d Pythi s, d h
st gs   f quty uishd i
this m  .
Wh t h s b s id
f if m y b id t
th imbs s
, hih 

m  h s ight t
t ith, x t f
th s v ti

f th h

b
dy. But if y
 h s g gd t
suff b ishmt, t
submit t

ui y fi,
y
th m s
f s tisfyig justi, y thig h
suff s
 this 
ut i 
t, st ity s  kig, b 
sid d s
PERSONAL uishmt, but s th  f
m 
f  g mt.
S
mthig ik this
u s i th ight, hih y

sssss
d dt
 
th 's i, b
th ith s t t
th ight
f
idividu s t
iv t
 ty, d t
th m
 xtsiv ight t

dmss
ssssd by st t. F
if y
 is d ivd
f suh
thig
ig t

th 's f ut, h  th xutiv
 d ivig th t
 s
, is 
t ifitig uishmt
 HIM, but
y x isig
i
ight.
XII. d XIII. H vig  id d
 ths distiti
s,  m y
bs v th t
it is im
ssib th t  i
t  s
 sh
ud suff f

th 's
 im. This d
s 
t
d f
m th  s
s giv by P uus, h

m it is th t uishmt is dsigd f
th f
m ti

f th

ffd . F
it sms
ssib th t  x m  m y b m d, xtdig
by
d th  s

f th  imi  himsf, h it ffts, i its

squs, th
s, h
  y  td t
him. S
th t it is 
t
f
th s k
f x m 
y th t uishmt is ifitd, but b us
th
big ti
 th t
iss f
m th dm it
f th
ffdig ty.
N
 v y dm it must b
f  s
   tu , s it
ds f
m
m 's
 i,
v hih h is su
sd t
x is  ft

t
u.
XI. I th   giv t
th Hb s, G
d th  ts t
vg th
im ity
f f th s u
 thi hid . But h h s s
v ig d
mii


v
u ivs d subst , s big his gift, hih h m y t k
 y f
m y
, hv h  ss, ith
ut ssigig his  s
s.
Th f
 if h thiks
 t
t k  y by m tu 
vi
t
d th th hid 
f Ah , S u, J
b
m
Ah b, h is x isig

v thm th ight
f s
v igty, s  s th t
f uishmt;
im
sig by th t fu x m  th m
 sv   ty u
 th
ts. F
if thy su viv thi hid , hih  s h t th divi
  h d m
st i vi, d th f
 did 
t xtd ths th  ts by
d
th tim
f g  t g d-hid ,  i
d t
hih th g
f m 
might  h, it is  t i th t ts 
ud b sv y uishd by
suh sight, th m
st ffitig
f y thy 
ud itss. O if thy
sh
ud 
t su viv suh  vt, t
di ud suh  hsi



ud b g  t   mity.
But it is
 t
m k th t x m s ik th
s  v m 
yd
by G
d, x t g ist  ims fftig his divi M jsty, s f s

shi ,  ju y
s  ig. Idd th
s th  ts
f divi vg 
 
t  ys f
d; s i y h  y xt
di y vi tu
shis i th h t s d 
dut
f th hid : s m y b s i
th xviii. h t
f th
hsy
f Ezki. Put h h s disussd
this t
i ith g  t 
qu i his b

k
 th m
t vg 
f
G
d.
As th G
s  s
 y uf
ds th futu  uishmts
f th ikd,
 th th  ts 
t id i th t  
v t t mi t i th
 s
s
f th
ffd s thmsvs. But th  ys
f
vid i
ths s ts  
t th u hih m   f

. F
G
d, v
ith
ut y f  t
 im, is th s
v ig 
d d dis
s
f
hum  if, 
mmissi
 hih m  is
y 
d t
xut g ist
th  t t
s
f  t i  ims. Wh f
 s th t s m divi  
f
bids ts t
b ut t
d th f
th
ffs
f hid , s

it xm ts hid  f
m th s m uishmt f
th ti
s
f thi
f th s: ity hih is g  ty 
mmdd by J
s hus d Phi
.
Th s m 
mmd ti
 is bst
d by Is
 ts u
 th  s
f Egy t;
d by Di
ysius
f H i  ssus u
 th
s
f R
m.
X. But if it is ujust i hum   s t
uish th mis
dut
f
ts i th  s
s
f thi hid , h
 muh m
 sv   s th
 
f th P si s d M d
i s xtdig th  tis f
 ims
g ist th st t t
v y b h
f th
ffd 's  tivs, i th
m
st m
t dg ,   su ssig 
th s i ig
u ?
XI. XII. d XIII. Wh t h s b s id s tig th uishmt

f hid  f
th
ffs
f thi f th s
f
f th s, m y b
id t
th  ti
 subsistig bt s
v igs d subjts. F

it is  ti
 s igig f
m th 
t t
f s
ity, hih m ks
th s
v ig th ssti  h d, if d s
u
f th t b
dy, i hih
his 
 f
m th mmb s. As th ivi 
mmuity th f
 ith its
s
v ig
h d f
ms but
 b
dy, th    b 
s ti

f
it sts, but h t ffts
 t must b judii 
s vi b
t
th h
.
XIX. Why sh
ud  hi , it h s b s
mtims skd, b b
ud by
th
dbts
f his st
, d 
t f th ffts
f his uishmt f

mis
dut? t
hih s m y b giv, th t th hi  sts
th  s

f th d sd 
t i his m its
dm its, hih 
u y  s
 , but i his
 ty;  tifii  m
d
f s vig
ub
k th h i
f sussi
 d dst.
XX. Ad h it f

s, th t if i dditi
 t
th dm it
f 

ff, y  g
uds
f
big ti
 sh
ud is 
td ith th
uishmt, thy must b dish gd 
t
 y s uishmt, but
s dbt. Thus th hi i b i b t
y th 
sts  dd by
judgmt ft 
tstd suit, hih is 
sid d i th ight
f

t t.

CHAPTER XXII.
ON THE UNJUST CAUSES OF WAR.

Diff s bt   d 

u b m
tivs--W t
i
us

ith
ut ith
f ths m
tivs--W s
f ud , ud th
m
st  usib txts, 
t justifi b--C uss ty,
but 
t  y just--Uss y dv t g--Dsi 
f btt
s
i--Dis
v y
f thigs b
gig t

th s--I ity
f th

igi 
 s--W 
t  ys justifi b ud th txt

f ss tig ib ty--O
f im
sig bfii  g
v mt
u
 
 g ist thi i--Em 
's tsi
s t

uiv s  m i  futd--P tsi
s
f th Chu h--Im  ft

big ti
s--Diff  bt  s
igi y ujust d th
s
ft  ds b
mig s
.
I. I f
m t
f this 
k, h  th justi
f   s
disussd, it  s
bs vd th t s
m  s   f
udd u
  
m
tivs d
th s
y u
 

u b txts. This distiti

 s fi st 
tid by P
ybius, h
 s th txts,
{proph e}, nd
he re l  ue, { 
 }. Thu Alex nder m de
w r upon D ru, under
he pre
ene o vengng
he ormer wrong done
y
he Per n
o
he Gree. Bu

he re l mo
ve o
h
old nd
en
erprng hero, w 
he e y qu
on o we l
h nd domnon,
whh
he exped
on o Xenophon nd Agel u h d opened
o h vew.
In
he  me m nner, dpu
e ou
S gun
um urnhed
he
C r
h gn n w
h COLOURABLE MOTIES or
he eond Pun w r, u
,
n REALITY,
hey ould no
roo
he ndgn
y o h vng onen
ed
o

re
y, whh
he Rom n h d ex
or
ed rom
hem
n un vour le
momen
; nd more epe lly 
her pr
 were revved y
her
reen
uee n Sp n. The re l  ue gned y Thuydde
or
he Peloponne n w r, were
he je loue en
er
ned y
he
L ed emon n o
he
hen growng power o
he A
hen n,
hough
he
qu rrel o
he Coryre n, Po
d en, nd o
her eond ry 

e were
m de
he o
enle re on.
II. There re ome who h ve ne
her o
enle re on, nor ju
 ue

o ple d or
her ho
l
e, n whh,  T 
u  y,
hey eng ge
rom
he pure love o en
erpre nd d nger. A dpo
on
o whh
Ar
o
le gve
he n me o ero
y. And n
he l 
oo o h
Nom he n E
h, he  ll 
loody ruel
y
o onver
rend
n
o eneme, whom you m y l ugh
er.
III. Though mo
power, when eng gng n w r, re derou
o olour
over
her re l mo
ve w
h ju
 le pre
ex
, ye
ome,
o
lly
dreg rdng uh me
hod o vnd
on, eem le
o gve no e

er
re on or
her ondu
,
h n wh

old y
he Rom n L wyer o
roer, who eng ed, wh
rgh
he h d
o
hng, whh he h d
ezed, repled, 
w  h own, e ue he h d
en 
n
o h
poeon? Ar
o
le n
he
hrd oo o h Rhe
or, pe ng o

he promo
er o w r, ,  
 no
unju
or neghourng
people
o e enl ved, nd 
hoe promo
er h ve no reg rd
o
he
rgh
 o unoendng n
on? Cero, n
he r
oo o h
Oe, pe  n
he  me 
r n, nd  ll "
he our ge, whh 
onpuou n d nger nd en
erpre,  devod o ju
e, olu
ely
undeervng o
he n me o v lour. I
hould r
her e ondered 
ru
l erene ou
r gng every prnple o hum n
y."
I. O
her m e ue o pre
ex
, whh
hough pl ule
r
gh
,
wll no
e r
he ex mn
on nd
e
o mor l re

ude, nd, when

rpped o
her dgue, uh pre
ex
 wll e ound r ugh
w
h

nju
e. In uh ho
l
e,  y Lvy, 
 no

r l o rgh
,
u
ome oje
o ere
nd unruly m
on, whh 
 
he he
prng. Mo
power, 
  d y Plu
rh, employ
he rel
ve

u
on o pe e nd w r,  urren
pee, or
he purh e o
wh
ever
hey deem expeden
.
By h vng eore ex mned nd e
lhed
he prnple o ju
nd
nee ry w r, we m y orm e

er de o wh
goe
o on

u
e

he nju
e o
he  me. A
he n
ure o
hng  e
een y
on
r 
, nd we judge o wh
 rooed y omp rng 
w
h wh

 
r gh
. Bu
or
he  e o perpu
y, 
wll e nee ry
o

re
upon
he le dng pon
.
I
w  hewn ove
h
pprehenon rom neghourng power re
no
uen
ground or w r. For
o u
horze ho
l
e 
deenve me ure,
hey mu
re rom
he nee
y, whh ju

pprehenon re
e; pprehenon no
only o
he power, u
o
he
n
en
on o ormd le 

e, nd uh pprehenon  moun

o mor l er
n
y. For whh re on
he opnon o
hoe  y no
me n
o e pproved o, who l y down  ju
ground o w r,
he
on
ru
on o or

on n neghourng oun
ry, w
h whom

here  no ex
ng
re
y
o proh
uh on
ru
on, or
he
eurng o 
rong hold, whh m y
ome u
ure perod prove
me n o nnoy ne. For  gu rd g n
uh pprehenon, every
power m y on
ru
, n 
 own
err
ory, 
rong wor, nd o
her
ml
ry eur
e o
he  me nd, w
hou
h vng reoure
o 
u l
w r. One  nno
u
dmre
he h r 
er, whh T 
u h  dr wn
o
he Ch u, nole nd hgh-pr
ed people o Germ ny, "who,
_he  y_, were derou o m n
nng
her gre
ne y ju
e,
r
her
h n y 
 o ungovern le r p 
y nd m
on--provong
no w r, nv dng no oun
re, polng no neghour
o ggr ndze

hemelve,--ye
, when nee
y promp
ed, le
o r e men w
h
rm n
her h nd
momen
' w rnng-- gre
popul
on w
h
numerou reed o hore
o orm well moun
ed  v lry-- nd, w
h ll

hee dv n
ge, upholdng
her repu

on n
he md
o pe e."

I.[55] Nor  n
he dv n
ge
o e g ned y w r e ever ple ded 
mo
ve o equ l wegh
nd ju
e w
h nee
y.
II. nd III. Ne
her  n
he dere o emgr
ng
o more
 vour le ol nd lm
e ju
y n

 upon neghourng
power. Th,  we re normed y T 
u, w  requen
 ue o w r
mong
he nen
Germ n.
IX. There  no le nju
e n e

ng up l m, under

he pre
ene
o newly dovered

le,
o wh
elong
o no
her.
Ne
her  n
he wedne, nd mpe
y, nor ny o
her n p 
y o

he orgn l owner ju

y uh l m. For
he

le nd rgh
y
dovery  n pply only
o oun
re nd pl e,
h
h ve no owner.
X. Ne
her mor l nor relgou vr
ue, nor ny n
elle
u l exellene
 requ
e
o orm good

le
o proper
y. Only where r e o
men  o de

u
e o re on 
o e n p le o exerng ny 

o ownerhp,
hey  n hold no proper
y, nor wll
he l w o h r
y
requre
h

hey hould h ve more
h n
he nee re o le. For

he rule o
he l w o n
on  n only e ppled
o
hoe, who re
 p le o pol
 l or ommer l n
eroure: u
no

o people
en
rely de

u
e o re on,
hough 
 m

er o ju
dou
,
whe
her ny uh 
o e ound.

I
w  n urd
y
hereore n
he Gree
o uppoe,
h
derene
o m nner, or neror
y o n
elle
m de
hoe, whom
hey were
ple ed
o  ll  r r n,
her n
ur l eneme. Bu

o
roou
rme 
rng

he very roo
nd ex
ene o oe
y,
he
ore
ure o proper
y enung rom
hene  que
on o deren

n
ure, elongng
o punhmen
, under
he he d o whh 
w 
dued.
XI. Bu
ne
her
he ndependene o ndvdu l, nor
h
o 

e,
 mo
ve
h
 n
ll
me ju
y reoure
o rm,  
ll peron INDISCRIMINATELY h d n
ur l rgh

o do o. For where
ler
y   d
o e n
ur l rgh
elongng
o ll men nd 

e,
y
h
expreon  under
ood rgh
o n
ure, n
eeden

o every
hum n olg
on or on
r 
. Bu
n
h
 e, ler
y  poen o
n neg
ve ene, nd no
y w y o on
r 

o ndependene,
he
me nng o whh ,
h
no one  y
he l w o n
ure doomed
o
erv
ude,
hough he  no
ordden y
h
l w
o en
er n
o uh
ond
on. For n
h ene no one  n e  lled ree,  n
ure
le ve hm no

he prvlege o hung h own ond
on:  Alu
u
per
nen
ly rem r, "
he
erm, reedom nd erv
ude re no
ounded
n
he prnple o n
ure, u
re n me uequen
ly ppled
o men
ordng
o
he dpo
on o or
une." And Ar
o
le dene
he
rel
on o m 
er nd erv n

o e
he reul
o pol
 l nd no

o n
ur l ppon
men
. Whenever
hereore
he ond
on o erv
ude,
e
her peron l or pol
 l, u
, rom l wul  ue, men hould
e on
en
ed w
h
h


e, ordng
o
he njun
on o
he
Apo
le, "Ar

hou  lled, eng erv n
, le
no

h
e n nxou
onern?"
XII. And
here  equ l nju
e n
he dere o redung, y ore
o rm, ny people
o 

e o erv
ude, under
he pre
ex
o

 eng
he ond
on or whh
hey re e
qu led y n
ure.
I
doe no
ollow
h
, e ue ny one  

ed or p r
ul r
ond
on, no
her h  rgh

o mpoe 
upon hm. For every
re on le re
ure ough

o e le
ree n
he hoe o wh
m y e
deemed ueul or prejud l
o hm, provded no
her h  no ju
rgh

o on
roul over hm.
The  e o hldren h  no onne
on w
h
he que
on, 
hey re
nee rly under
he dplne o o
her.
XIII. I
would  re h ve een nee ry
o reu
e
he oolh opnon
o ome, who h ve red
o
he Rom n Emperor domnon over
he
mo
remo
e nd unnown n
on,  B r
olu, deemed l wyer o
he
r
emnene, h d no
pronouned 
herey
o deny
hoe pre
enon.
Th opnon h  een ul
upon
he Rom n Emperor' ome
me h vng

yled hmel Soveregn o
he whole world;
erm whh 
w 
no
unuu l or m ny people
o pply
o
her own oun
ry. Thu n

he rp
ure we nd Jude requen
ly  lled
he whole nh 
ed
e r
h;
hereore when
he Jew, n
her prover l expreon,  lled
Jeru lem
he en
re o
he world, no
hng more 
o e mpled
h n

h

w  
u
ed n
he mddle o Jude .
A
o
he rgumen
n  vor o unver l domnon rom 
 eng o
ene l
o m nnd, 
m y e oerved
h
ll 
 dv n
ge re
oun
er l ned y 
ll gre
er d dv n
ge. For  hp m y e
ul

oo l rge
o e onvenen
ly m n ged, o n empre m y e
oo
ex
enve n popul
on nd
err
ory
o e dre
ed nd governed
y one he d. Bu
gr n
ng
he expedeny o unver l empre,
h

expedeny  nno
gve uh rgh
,   n e qured only y
re
y
or onque
. There were m ny pl e ormerly elongng
o
he Rom n
Empre, over whh
he Emperor h 
preen
no on
roul. For w r,

re
y, or eon h ve m de m ny h nge, y whh
he rgh
 o

err
ory h ve p ed
o o
her 

e or overegn prne, nd
he

nd rd o deren
ommun
e, whe
her ngdom or ommonwe l
h,
now w ve n pl e, whh
he Rom n E gle one overh dowed w
h h
wng. Thee re loe nd h nge,
h
h ve een experened y
o
her power no le
h n
h
, whh w  one m
re o
he world.
XI. Bu

here h ve een ome, who h ve er
ed
he rgh
 o
he
hurh over unnown p r
 o
he world,
hough
he Apo
le P ul
hmel h  exprely  d
h
Chr
 n were no

o judge
hoe
who were w
hou

he p le o
her own ommun
y. And
hough
he
rgh
o judgng, whh elonged
o
he Apo
le, mgh
n ome
 e pply
o worldly onern, ye
n 
 gener l n
ure 
w  o
ele
 l r
her
h n n e r
hly nd-- judgmen
no
exered
y re nd word, u
y
he word o God, propoed
o ll men nd
d p
ed
o
her peul r rum
ne-- judgmen
exered y
dpl yng or w
hholdng
he e l o dvne gr e,  
mgh
e
mo
expeden
--l 
ly, 
w  judgmen
exered n upern
ur l
punhmen
; n punhmen
 proeedng rom God, le
he punhmen

o An n , Elym , Hymen eu, nd o
her.
Chr
hmel,
he prng, rom whene ll
he power o
he hurh w 
derved, nd whoe le 
he model or
he hurh
o ollow,  d,
h ngdom w  no
o
h world,
h
, w  no
o
he  me n
ure,
w
h o
her ngdom, o
herwe, le
he re
o overegn, he would
h ve m n
ned h u
hor
y y
he power o
he word. For  he h d
ple ed
o  ll up
he d o Legon; he would h ve  lled up ho
 o
Angel nd no
o men. And every exere o h rgh
w  perormed
y
he nluene o dvne, nd no
o hum n power; even when he drove

he eller ou
o
he
emple. For
he ROD w 
he EMBLEM nd no

he
INSTRUMENT o dvne wr
h,  UNCTION w  one SIGN o he lng, nd
no

he HEALING POWER ITSELF. S
. Augu
n on
he xv Ch p
er o
S
. John, nd 36 ver. nv
e Soveregn Prne n
o
h ngdom, n

hee
erm, "He r, O Jew, nd Gen
le, he r, O e r
hly Soveregn, I
wll no
o
ru
your u
hor
y, or my ngdom  no
o
h world.
Be no
l rmed, le Herod, who
remled, when he he rd
h
Chr

w  orn, nd lew o m ny nnoen

hldren, hopng
o nlude
he
S vour n
h
 l m
y. H e r hewed 
el n ruel wr
h. Bu

my ngdom,  y Chr
,  no
o
h world. Thereore en
er
h
ngdom w
hou
e r. Come w
h  
h, nd provoe no

he ng
o
nger y your del y."
X. There   u
on
oo nee ry
o e gven, g n
dr wng

oo loe p r llel e
ween nen
nd modern
me. For 
 u

eldom
h
ny one  n ddue  e ex 
ly onorm le
o h
own rum
ne. To dr w uh pre
ex
 rom
he n
erpre

on o
prophey 
he hghe
preump
on. For no prophey
h
 ye

o
e ullled  n e unolded w
hou

he d o prophe
 pr
.
The
me even o even
,
h
re er
n, m y e pe our no
e.
Nor  
every pred
on, unle 
e omp ned w
h n expre
omm nd rom God,
h
 n ju
y reoure
o rm: ome
me ndeed
God rng h pred
ed degn
o
her ue y
he me n o wed
n
rumen
.
XI. A
he mpere
olg
on o h r
y, nd o
her vr
ue o
he
 me nd re no
ognz le n our
o ju
e, o ne
her  n
he
perorm ne o
hem e ompelled y ore o rm. For 
 no

he

mor l n
ure o du
y
h
 n enore 
 ulllmen
, u

here mu

e ome leg l rgh

n one o
he p r
e
o ex 

he olg
on. For

he mor l olg
on reeve n dd
on l wegh
rom uh rgh
.
Th olg
on
hereore mu
e un
ed
o
he ormer
o gve w r

he h r 
er o ju
w r. Thu peron who h  onerred  vour,
h  no
, 
r
ly pe ng, RIGHT
o dem nd re
urn, or
h
would
e onver
ng n 
o ndne n
o on
r 
.
XII. I
 nee ry
o oerve
h
w r m y e ju
n 
 orgn,
nd ye

he n
en
on o 
 u
hor m y eome unju
n
he oure
o 
 proeu
on. For ome o
her mo
ve, no
unl wul IN ITSELF,
m y 
u
e
hem more powerully
h n
he orgn l rgh
, or
he

nmen
o whh
he w r w  egun. I
 l ud le, or n
ne,

o m n
n n
on l honour; 
 l ud le
o purue pul or
prv
e n
ere
, nd ye

hoe oje
 m y no
orm
he ju
 le
ground o
he w r n que
on.
A w r m y gr du lly h nge 
 n
ure nd 
 oje
rom
he
proeu
on o rgh

o
he dere o eondng or uppor
ng
he
ggr ndzemen
o ome o
her power. Bu
uh mo
ve,
hough l m le,
when even onne
ed w
h ju
w r, do no
render
he w r ITSELF
unju
, nor nv ld
e 
 onque
.

CHAPTER XXIII.
ON DOUBTFUL CAUSES.
Orgn o mor l dou
--The d

e o onene,
hough erroneou,
no

o e vol
ed--Oppo
e opnon uppor
ed y rgumen
, or
y u
hor
y--In dou
ul nd mpor
n
m

er
he  er de o

he que
on
o e ollowed--In uh  e 
 rgh

o 
n
rom w r--Dpu
e e

led y onerene or r

r
on--Chr
 n
du
e--Whe
her ngle om
 llow le n order
o vod
w r--In  e o equ l dou

he l m o
he preen
poeor
o
e preerred--Where ne
her p r
y  n poeon, l m
o e
dvded--Whe
her w r  n e ju
on o
h de, expl ned y
d
n
on.
I. There  muh
ru
h n Ar
o
le' oerv
on
h
mor l re onng
 n never moun

o
he er
n
y o m
hem
 l demon
r
on.
Be ue n m
hem
 l re onng, ll
he gure re ondered
n
he 
r 
, purely y
hemelve, nd w
hou
rel
on
o
he
rum
ne o
me or pl e, o
h

here  no
hng
o w rp
he
judgmen
rom
he oje
mmed
ely under onder
on. Bede
he
gure n gener l orm dre
on
r 

o e h o
her. Thu, or
n
ne,
here  no n
ermed
e lne e
ween 
r gh
lne nd
urve.
Bu

 no
o n mor l, where
he le 
rum
ne v ry
he
uje
, nd dm
l

ude o n
erpre

on, e

lng
he pon

o
ru
h nd ju
e e
ween
wo ex
reme. So
h
e
ween wh

rgh
nd wh
 unl wul
here  mddle p e, where 
 e y
o
nlne
o
he one de, or
o
he o
her. Th o on n mgu
y
omewh
le
he dul
y o dedng
he pree momen
, where
he

wlgh
egn, nd where 
end. From hene Ar
o
le onlude
h


 ome
me dul

o de
ermne, e
ween
wo ex
reme, wh
lne

o ondu
ough

o e hoen or reje
ed.
II. Bu

mu
e l d down  nee ry prnple,
h
l
hough
n 
on m y n re l
y e ju
, ye

he p r
y dong 
, 
er
weghng every rum
ne,  nno
reonle
he 

o h
onene, he nur ome degree o gul
. "For wh
ever  no
o
 
h, _ y
he Apo
le_,  n;" where, y
he
erm  
h he me n
deler
e judgmen
o
he mnd. For God h  gven onene
jud l power
o e
he overegn gude o hum n 
on, y depng
whoe dmon
on
he mnd  
uped n
o ru
l h rdne. For

o
en h ppen
h
judgmen
 n pon
ou
no
hng er
n, u

he

e; nd when uh dou
 nd he

on  nno

 
orly
e le red up,
he rule o Cero   e one
o ollow, who  y,

h

 n exellen
njun
on, whh ord u
o do
hng o

he re

ude or mpropre
y o whh we en
er
n dou
.
Bu

h rule  nno
e ppled, where o
wo
hng, n
he hoe
o whh
here  equ l dou
,
he one mu
e done, n whh  e

h
mu
e ele
ed, whh eem
o e
he le 
unju
. For on ll
o on, where hoe  nno
e voded,
he le o
wo evl
ume
he ppe r ne o vr
ue.
III. Bu
n dou
ul  e, 
er ex mn
on,
he mnd eldom rem n
neu
er, u
nlne
o one de, or
he o
her, peru ded e
her y

he mer
 o
he  e, or y repe
or
he judgmen
o
hoe, who
h ve delvered n opnon upon
he que
on. Now
he mer
 o
he  e
re derved e
her rom
he  ue,
he ee
, or o
her onom
n

rum
ne.
I. To pprehend uh d
n
on properly, pr 
e nd pene
r
on
re nee ry, nd where men h ve no
n
hemelve  p 
y or

he 
ve exere o judgmen

ehove
hem
o ollow
he m xm
o o
her, who re d
nguhed y
her wdom nd experene.
For, n
he opnon o Ar
o
le,
hoe
hng re pro ly ju
, or

rue, whh eem o

o ll, or
o
he gre
er p r
o men o wor
h.
And
h 
he me
hod o judgng purued y Soveregn Prne, whoe
eng gemen
 n
he  r o le llow
hem u
l

le leure
or 
udy nd deler
on. Thu
he nen
Rom n never under
oo
w r,
ll
hey h d onul
ed
he  red ollege, e
lhed or

h
purpoe, nd
he Chr
 n Emperor  rely ever dd o w
hou

dvng w
h
he Bhop, n order
o e pprzed o ny
hng
heren

h
mgh
e
relgon.

. I
m y h ppen n m ny dpu
ed pon
,
h

he n
rn mer
 o

he  e, or
he opnon o
he le rned, re equ l on o
h de. When

h
h ppen, 
he m

er n duon re o no gre

mpor
ne,

here  no
hng
o l me n
he peron,
h
m e h hoe e
her
w y. Bu
n m

er o momen
, where
he lve o men re

e,
he
deon hould nlne
o
he  er de, ordng
o
he prover l
m xm, whh pronoune 
e

er
o qu

he gul
y
h n
o ondemn

he nnoen
.
I. W r
hen eng n oje
o uh wegh
y m gn
ude, n whh
he
nnoen
mu
o
en e nvolved n
he uerng o
he gul
y,
e
ween w verng opnon
he  l ne hould nlne n  vour o pe e.
There re
hree me
hod, y whh ndependen
n
on m y e

le
her
dpu
ed rgh
 w
hou
omng
o
he deon o
he word.

II. The r

me
hod 
h
o onerene. For, n
he word

o Cero, "
here eng
wo me
hod o dedng qu rrel,
he
one y duon nd
he o
her y ore,
he ormer, peul r
h r 
er
 o m n, nd
he l

er, o
he ru
e re
on: when

he r
o
hee me
hod  l, men re olged
o h ve reoure

o
he l

er." M rdonu, n
he Polyhymn o Herodo
u, l me

he Gre n, who, eng un

ed n one l ngu ge, mgh
e

le
her
qu rrel y meenger o pe e, y her ld, nd nego

on, r
her

h n y w r.

III. The o
her me
hod 
h
o omprome, whh
e pl e
e
ween
hoe, who h ve no ommon judge. Among nnumer le n
ne
o
h nd n nen
h
ory, we m y ele

h
gven y Xenophon
n h oun
o Cyru, where
h
prne
e
he ng o
he
Ind n or r
r
or e
ween hmel nd
he ng o Ayr . The
C r
h gn n n
her dpu
e w
h M n preer e

lemen
o

h nd eore deon o w r. Lvy

oo norm u
h

he Rom n

hemelve, n dpu
e w
h
he S mn
e, m de n ppe l
o
he
ommon lle o o
h.
The oe o dedng w r nd pu

ng n end
o
he on
en
on o
rme w  gned, ordng
o S
r o,
o
he Drud o
he G ul,
nd upon
he
e
mony o
he  me wr
er, 
ormed p r
o
he
pre
ly un
on mong
he Ier n.
Surely
hen 
 mode o
ermn
ng
her dpu
e,  l nng

her power, nd e

lng
her pre
enon wor
hy
o e dop
ed y
Chr
 n Kng nd S

e. For , n order
o vod
r l eore
judge who were 
r nger
o
he
rue relgon,
he Jew nd Chr
 n
ppon
ed r
r
or o
her own, nd 
w  pr 
e reommended
nd enjoned y S
. P ul, how muh more ough
uh pr 
e
o e
reommended nd enored,
o g n
he 
ll noler end o preven
ng

he  l m
e o w r.
Thee nd m ny o
her re on o no le mpor
ne mgh
e dv ned
or reommendng
o Chr
 n power gener l ongree or
he
dju
men
o
her v rou n
ere
, nd or ompellng
he
rer 
ory
o um

o equ
le
erm o pe e.
IX. A
hrd me
hod o
ermn
ng dpu
e, w
hou
ho
l
e, w 
y lo
, pr 
e ommended y Don Chryo
om n h peeh on
he
n
erpo
on o or
une n dre
ng  r, nd 
w  ommended
long eore hm y Solomon n
he xv. h p
er o h Prover.
X. Ne rly rel
ed
o
he l 
n med me
hod 
h
o ngle om
,
pr 
e reommended under
he de
h
y
he rque o
wo lve
qu rrel mgh
e deded, whh would o
herwe h ve o

he lood o

hou nd. In Lvy we nd Me

u ddreng Tullu n
he ollowng

erm, "le
u
ry ome me
hod o de
ermnng
o whom
he pre-emnene
h ll elong, w
hou
w 
ng
he lood o e h people." S
r o  y

w 
he pr 
e o
he nen
Gree, nd Aene  propoed 

o
Turnu, 
he mo
equ
le w y o e

lng
her pre
enon. I

dered
oo 
he u
om o
he nen
Fr n.
XI. Al
hough n dou
ul  e, o
h de re ound
o deve every
me n o vodng ho
l
e, ye

 du
y more numen
upon

he l m n

h n upon
he mmed
e poeor o wh
ever m y e
he
uje
o dpu
e. For 
 rule no
only o vl, u
o n
ur l
l w,
h
, where
he pre
enon re equ l,
hoe o
he poeor re

o e preerred.

To
he oregong rem r n dd
on l oerv
on m y e m de,
h

ny one, nowng h pre
enon
o e ju
,  nno
produe uen

proo
o onv

he n
ruder o nju
e, he  nno
l wully h ve
reoure
o rm, e ue he h  no OSTENSIBLE RIGHT, y whh he  n
ompel
he n
ruder
o relnquh
he poeon.
XII. Bu
where
he rgh
 mguou, nd ne
her p r
y h 
poeon,
he pre
ender, who reue
o dvde
he l m, m y
re on ly e h rged w
h nju
e.
XIII. From wh
h  een  d 

muh g

ed que
on, whe
her,
prnp l mover o w r,
here

here re d
n
on proper
o

he word JUST.

wll no
e dul

o e

le
w
h repe

o
hoe, who re
he
 n e ju
e on o
h de. For
e m de n
he v rou ep

on o

A
hng   d
o e ju
, e
her 
o 
  ue, or 
 ee
.
The  ue
oo m y e onned e
her
o ju
e n PARTICULAR
ep

on, or
hey m y e ex
ended o 
o nlude under
h

n me every nd o re


ude. Ag n, p r
ul r ep

on m y e
dvded n
o
wo nd, one rel
ng
o
he ACTION, nd
he o
her
o

he gen
.[56] An gen
m y e  d
o 
ju
ly, when, n wh
he
doe, he omm
 no re h o STRICT LAW,
hough h ondu
m y no
e
onorm le
o equ
y.
In PARTICULAR ep

on o
he word ju
e, w
h reg rd
o
m

er n dpu
e, 
 nno
n w r, ny more
h n n leg l
proeedng, pply
o o
h de. For
here  n e no mor l prnple,
omm ndng u, under
he  me rum
ne, o
h
o DO, nd
o ABSTAIN
rom p r
ul r 
on. I
m y h ppen ndeed
h
ne
her o
wo
ellgeren
power m y 
unju
ly. For no one  n e h rged w
h

ng unju
ly unle he now
h
he  dong o; u

here re
m ny, who re no
w re o
he n
ure, ex
en
, nd onequene o

her me ure. Thu n l w-u

, o
h p r
e m y nerely eleve

h

hey h ve ju
e on
her de. For m ny
hng o
h n l w nd
 
, whh would e
lh rgh
, m y e pe
he no
e o men.
In GENERAL ep

on, n 
on m y e  lled ju
, where
he
gen
 ree rom every nd o l me. Ye
n m ny  e n gen
m y
dev
e rom
he 
r
rule o leg l ju
e, nd e l le
o no
l me, when
h
dev
on  owng
o un vod le gnor ne,
here
h vng een ne
her
me nor oppor
un
y uen
or hm
o now

he u
ne, or perh p ex
ene o
he l w. So 
m y h ppen n
l w-u
,
h
o
h p r
e re ree no
only rom
he mpu

on
o nju
e, u
rom ll l me, epe lly where e
her o
hem 
l
g
ng m

er no
on h own, u
on no
her' oun
;  or
n
ne where gu rd n  
ng or h w rd, he would no
e
u
horzed n  ndonng even dou
ed rgh
. Ar
o
le  y
h
n
m

er o dpu
ed rgh
ne
her de  n e h rged w
h nju
e;
onorm ly
o whh opnon Qun
l n oerve
h
n uprgh

ple der m y e eng ged on e

her de o
he que
on. Ar
o
le
ur
her oerve
h
p ng ju
judgmen
 n mguou
erm,
gnyng
h
judge de
ermne e
her ordng
o
he 
r

le

er o
he l w, or ordng
o
he d

e o h own onene.
And, n no
her pl e, he h   d
h
gvng wrong judgmen

hrough
gnor ne  no 
o nju
e.
Bu
n m

er o w r nd pe e, where uh wegh

y nd v red
n
ere
 on ll de re onerned, 
would e dul

o o
n
judgmen
purely mp r
 l, nd 
r 
ed rom ll peron l mo
ve,

unle
here e
he mo
le r nd unden le evdene on
he pon
 n
que
on.
I we denomn
e
hng
o e ju
, rom 
 ee
n onerrng
er
n rgh
, n
h ene 
 pl n
h
n w r
here m y e
ju
e on o
h de. In
he  me m nner, en
ene no

r
ly
leg l, or poeon no
pere
ly ju
m y never
hele oner
er
n rgh
.

CHAPTER XXI.
PRECAUTIONS AGAINST RASHLY ENGAGING IN WAR, EEN UPON JUST GROUNDS.
Rel x
on o rgh
n order
o vod w r--p r
ul rly
pen l
e--Sel-preerv
on mo
ve or ore rng
ho
l
e--Pruden
 l rule n
he hoe o dv n
ge--Pe e
preer le
o
he ex
ermn
on o ho
le power--Fore r ne
pruden
n neror power--W r no

o e under
en, u
rom
nee
y.
I. Al
hough 
eem no

o  ll w
hn
he mmed
e provne o

re
e, en

led
he RIGHTS OF WAR,
o en
er n
o n nve
g
on o
o
her mor l du
e, whh
he rel
on o w r nd pe e prere, ye


m y no
e mproper lgh
ly
o
ouh upon er
n error, whh 

 nee ry
o ov
e, n order
o preven
ny one rom uppong,

h
, 
er e
lhng
he rgh
o w r, he  u
horzed, INSTANTLY
or
ALL TIMES,
o  rry h prnple n
o 
on, nd
o redue h

heory
o pr 
e. So  r rom
h, 
requen
ly h ppen
h


n 
o gre
er pe
y nd re

ude
o yeld rgh

h n
o enore

.
I
w  eore hewn, n 
 proper pl e how honour le 

o e
reg rdle o our own lve, where we  n preerve
he lve, nd
promo
e
he l 
ng wel re o o
her. A du
y
h
hould oper
e w
h
gre
er ore upon Chr
 n, who h ve eore
her eye on
nu lly

he ex mple o hm, who ded

o  ve u, whle we were eneme nd
ungodly. An ex mple whh  ll upon u, n
he mo
e
ng m nner,
no

o n
upon
he rgorou proeu
on o our ju
e
rgh
,
where 
 nno
e done u
y
he  l m
e, whh w r o on.
I rgumen
 nd mo
ve le
hee w n
ed u
hor
e, und ne o
u
hor
e mgh
e ddued or
her uppor
.
II. M ny re on mgh
e rough

o du de u rom urgng
he ull
nl
on o punhmen
. There  n ovou n
ne n
he ondu

o 
her, who onnve
m ny  ul
 n
her hldren. Bu
whoever,
 u
horzed
o punh no
her, ume
he h r 
er o overegn
ruler,
h
, o 
her; n lluon
o whh S
. Augu
n,
ddreng Coun
M rellnu,  y, "O Chr
 n Judge, ull
he
oe o pou 
her."
Some
me ndeed men re o rum
ned,
h

o relnquh rgh

eome no
only l ud le 
, u
de
o repe

o
h
l w,
whh omm nd u
o love our eneme: l w
o e repe
ed nd oeyed
no
only or 
 n
rn v lue, u
 eng preep
o
he gopel.
By
he  me l w, nd or
he  me re on, we re omm nded
o pr y or
nd
o promo
e
he wel re nd  e
y o Chr
 n Prne nd Kng,

e ue
her wel re nd  e
y re o een
 l
o
he order, pe e,
nd h ppne o oe
y.
III. W
h repe

o
he p rdon o oene omm

ed g n

ourelve, l

le need e  d,  
 nown
o e le dng l ue
n
he ode o Chr
 n' du
y,
o whh he re dly nd reely
um
, nowng
h
God or Chr
'  e h  orgven hm. Thu
reve led l w dd  n
on
o wh
w  nown y he
hen
o e n
m le preep
. Cero h  dr wn ne h r 
er o C e r, n whh
he ommend
he exellene o h memory
h
ould reolle
every

hng u
njure. We nd m ny nole ex mple o
h exellen

vr
ue n
he wr
ng o Moe nd n v rou o
her p r
 o
rp
ure. Thee, nd
hee mo
ve ALONE, when
hey  n  ely e
ompled w
h re uen

o eep
he word w
hn 
   rd. For

he de
o love nd ore r ne
o our eneme  n olg
on, whh

 honour le
o dh rge.
I. I
 o
en du
y, whh we owe
o our oun
ry nd ourelve,

o ore r h vng reoure

o rm. A
er
he ollege o her ld h d
pronouned w r
o e ju
we re normed y Plu
rh n
he le o
Num ,
h

he Sen
e ur
her deler
ed, whe
her 
w  expeden

o under
e 
. Aordng
o our S vour' e u
ul nd n
ru
ve
p r le, ng, when he  olged
o go
o w r w
h no
her ng,
hould r

down, n expreon mplyng n 
o deler
on,
nd onder w
hn hmel, whe
her, w
h
en
hou nd men he 
le
o enoun
er one who  omng g n
hm w
h
wen
y
me

h
numer: nd  he nd hmel unequ l
o
he on
e
, eore

he enemy h  en
ered h
err
ore he wll end n em y
o hm
oerng
erm o pe e.

. In ll  e o deler
on, no
only
he ul
m
e u

he
n
ermed
e oje
 le dng
o
he prnp l end re
o e
ondered. The n l oje
 lw y ome good, or
le 

he
ev on o ome evl, whh moun

o
he  me. The me n re never

o e ondered y THEMSELES, u

only 
hey h ve
endeny
o
he
propoed end. Whereore n ll  e o deler
on,
he propor
on,
whh
he me n nd
he end e r
o e h o
her, 
o e duly weghed,
y omp rng
hem
oge
her: mode o omp ron, n whh
here re

hree rule nee ry

o e oerved.
The r

hng, n mor l pon
o vew,
o e ondered , wh

endeny
he dered oje
h 
o produe good or evl; nd, 
he
ormer h 
he preponder ny, we re
hen
ler
y
o hue 
.--In

he eond pl e,  
ppe r dul

o dede, whe
her
he good
or
he evl predomn
e, we m y hue
he oje
, , n
he hoe
nd ue o our me n, we  n gve
urn
o  r,
h
m y
hrow

he preponder ne n
o
he  le o dv n
ge--or l 
ly 
he good
nd
he evl e r no propor
on
o e h o
her, nor
he me n, AT THE
FIRST IEW, ppe r dequ
e
o
he end, , n purung n oje
,

he
endeny
o good, omp red w
h
he
endeny
o evl e gre
er

h n
he evl 
el when omp red w
h
he good; or 
he good,
n omp ron o
he evl, e gre
er
h n
he
endeny
o evl, n
omp ron o
he
endeny
o good,[57] we m y dede n  vour o 
.
Cero h 
re
ed
hee 
rue pon
 n more popul r nd ple ng
m nner
h n 
r 
re onng would llow. Applyng ll
he e u
e
o eloquene
o elud
e mor l
ru
h, he  y, "

he hegh
o
olly nd preump
on UNNECESSARILY
o expoe ourelve
o d nger. In
enoun
erng  l m
e we mu
m

e
he ondu
o phy n who
ue gen
le remede w
h we ly on

u
on. Bu
n on

u
on

o 
ronger  
, epe lly, n vrulen
dorder,
hey mu

h ve reoure
o more powerul,
hough more d ngerou expeden
. In

he  me m nner, lul plo

would no

emp

o  e
he wnd
dre
ly, u
would
 ou
n order
o vod 
 ury."

I. An ex mple o evl,
h
ough
y ll pole me n
o e
voded,  urnhed y
he onul

on mong
he 

e o G ul,
who, ordng
o
he oun
o T 
u, deler
ed, whe
her
hey
hould m e hoe o ler
y or pe e. By ler
y  here me n
vl
ler
y,
h
,
he rgh
o governng
hemelve, nd rem nng
ndependen


e; nd y pe e  me n
uh pe e  would preven

he whole people rom eng ex

ermn
ed,  l m
y le
h
whh
eel
he Jew, when
her 
y w  eeged y T
u.
In uh  e re on 
el d

e
he hoe o pe e, 
he only
me n o preervng le, whh 
he mmed
e g
o God, nd
he
ound
on o every leng. So
h

he Almgh
y,  we re d n
h  red volume, deem 
ndne, when n
e d o de
royng
people, he perm

hem
o e redued
o l very. Thereore he
dmonhe
he Herew, y
he mou
h o h prophe
,
o urrender
o

he B ylon n, r
her
h n
o de y pe
lene nd  mne.
Wh
h  een  d o um

ng
o d dv n
ge, nd ome  l m
e
or
he preerv
on o le or ler
y, m y e ppled
o every oje

o de r v lue. A Ar
de  y, 
 mor l du
y n 
orm,
o
 ve
he hp y  
ng overo rd
he good, u
no

he rew.

II. In ex 
ng punhmen

 nee ry
o ue
he pre u
on o
vodng ho
l
e w
h power o equ l 
reng
h. For
o venge
wrong, or
o er
rgh
y ore o rm requre uperor
y o

reng
h. So
h
no
only prudene, u
reg rd or
her uje

wll
ll
me de
er ruler rom nvolvng
her people n
he
 l m
e o w r. A prnple o ju
e
oo,
he ole dre
re o
hum n  r, ndng overegn nd uje

o e h o
her y
her
mu
u l n
ere
, wll
e h
h leon o pre u
on. For rep r
on
mu
e looed or

he h nd o
hoe, who rng on
he  l m
e
o w n
on nd unnee ry w r. Lvy  ll
h
ju
, whh 
nee ry w r, nd 
 pou  ue, when no hope  le
, u
n
reoure
o rm.
III. I
 u
now nd
hen  ue o uh mperou nee
y
our, 
o dem nd
he deon o
he word, nd
h
, when, 
Floru  y,
he deer
on o rgh
wll e ollowed y  l m
e
 r more ruel,
h n
he ere
w r. Sene  y, "
h

 rgh

o mee
d nger, when equ l h rm would reul
rom queng n n
njury," nd n
h, he  uppor
ed y T 
u, who  ll "w r
h ppy exh nge or mer le nd neure pe e," nd
he  me
nm
ed wr
er n no
her pl e oerve,
h
" n oppreed people
m y reover
her ler
y y d rng en
erprze, nd,  dee
ed
hey
 nno
e redued
o gre
er uje
on
h n eore;" en
men
, w
h
whh Lvy ord, n n mng "pe e, when oupled w
h erv
ude,
 r more grevou  l m
y,
h n ll
he horror o w r." Bu

 no

o,  Cero  y, where dee

wll e

ended w
h prorp
on,
nd v
ory w
h ond ge.
IX. Ano
her nee ry pre u
on rel
e
o
he TIME, when 

proper
o under
e w r, whh depend upon due  lul
on,
whe
her
here re reoure nd 
reng
h uen

o uppor
our ju

pre
enon. Th  onorm le
o wh
w   d y Augu
u,
h
no
w r hould e under
en, u
where
he hope o dv n
ge ould e

hewn
o over l ne
he pprehenon o run. Spo Ar nu, nd
Luu Aemlu P ulu ued
o pe  n
erm no
n ppl le
o
h
uje
, or
hey  d "
w  never rgh

o
ry
he even
o 

le,
u
under ex
reme nee
y, or  vour le rum
ne."
The ove pre u
on re o gre
ue, where we hope y
he dre d nd
 me o our prep r
on
o omplh our oje
w
h l

le or no
d nger.

CHAPTER XX.
THE CAUSES OF UNDERTAKING WAR FOR OTHERS.
Soveregn m y eng ge n w r
o uppor

he rgh
 o
her
uje
--Whe
her n nnoen
uje
 n e delvered up
o
n enemy
o vod d nger--W r ju
ly under
en n uppor
o
oneder
e upon equ l, or unequ l
erm--For rend--For
ny men--Omon o
h du
y no
l m le, rom mo
ve o
el-preerv
on--Whe
her w r m y e ju
ly under
en n deene
o no
her' uje
, expl ned y d
n
on.
I. In pe ng o ellgeren
power, 
w  hewn
h

he l w o
n
ure u
hore
he er
on no
only o our own rgh
, u
o

hoe lo elongng

o o
her. The  ue
hereore, whh ju
y

he prnp l eng ged n w r, wll ju

y
hoe lo, who ord

ne
o o
her. Bu
whe
her ny one prede over n houehold,
or 

e,
he r
nd mo
nee ry  re 
he uppor
o h
dependen
 or uje
. For
he houehold orm u
one ody w
h
he
m 
er, nd
he people w
h
he overegn. So
he people o Ir el
under
he omm nd o Johu
oo up rm n uppor
o
he Geon
e,
whom
hey h d udued. Our ore
her,  d Cero
o
he Rom n,
o
en eng ged n w r
o uppor

he rgh
 o merh n
, whoe veel
h d een plundered. The  me Rom n who would reue
o
e rm or
people who were only lle, dd no
he

e
o er
y ore o
rm
he njured rgh
 o
he  me, when
hey e me
her uje
.
II. Ye

he  ue o ny uje
, l
hough 
m y e ju
 ue, doe
no
lw y nd overegn or ruler
o
e rm: u
only when 

 n e done w
hou
nonvenene
o ll, or
he gre
er p r
o
her
uje
. For
he n
ere
 o
he whole ommun
y, r
her
h n
hoe
o p r
ul r p r
, re
he prnp l oje
 o overegn'  re;
nd
he gre
er ny p r
,
he ne rer 
 l m nd pre
enon
pproxm
e
o
hoe o
he whole.
III. Some h ve m n
ned
he po
on,
h
 n enemy requre

he urrender o 
zen, however nnoen
,
he dem nd mu

unque
on ly e ompled w
h, 
he 

e 
oo eele
o re


. Th opnon  
rongly on
rover
ed y  quez, u
 we

end

o h me nng more

h n h word, we h ll nd 

o e
he dr

o h rgumen
,
h
uh 
zen ough
no

o e r hly  ndoned,
whle
here rem n ny pole hope o pro
e
ng hm. For 
 e n pon
, he llege
he ondu
o
he I
l n In n
ry, who,
upon reevng ur ne o pro
e
on rom C e r, deer
ed Pompey,
even eore he w  redued
o olu
e dep r: ondu
whh he
deervedly repro
e n
he 
ronge

erm.

Bu
whe
her n nnoen

zen m y e gven up n
o
he h nd o n
enemy
o vod mmnen
de
ru
on, whh would o
herwe  ll upon

he 

e,  pon

h
HAS BEEN ormerly, nd IS 
ll dpu
ed y

he le rned, ordng
o
he e u
ul  le, whh Demo
hene
old
o
he wolve, who dem nded o
he heep
he urrender o
he dog, 

he only
erm o pe e. The l wulne o
h  dened no
only y
 quez, u
y one, whoe opnon
h
wr
er ondemn,  e rng
ne r ppro h
o perdy. So
u hold 
 n e
lhed m xm,
h

uh 
zen  ound
o delver hmel up:
h  quez dene,
e ue
he n
ure o vl oe
y, whh every one h  en
ered n
o
or h own dv n
ge, requre no uh
hng.
No onluon  n e dr wn rom hene, exep

h

zen  no

ound
o
h y ny RIGHT STRICTLY SO CALLED, whle

he  me
me

he l w o h r
y wll no
uer hm
o 
o
herwe. For
here re
m ny du
e no
properly nluded n
he de o 
r
ju
e. Thee
re reg rded  
 o good wll,
he perorm ne o whh  no
only
rowned w
h pr e, u

he omon o
hem  nno
e pe enure.
Suh 
he omplexon o
he ollowng m xm,
h
every one hould
preer
he lve o n nnumer le nd nnoen
mul

ude
o h own
peron l nd prv
e wel re. Cero, n deendng Pulu Sex
u,
 y, "I I were
ng voy ge w
h my rend, nd h ppenng
o
mee
w
h lee
o pr
e,
hey
hre
ened
o n our l

le  r,
unle
he rew urrendered me 
he v
m
o ppe e
her ury,
I would ooner
hrow myel n
o
he deep,
h n uer my omp non
ou
o
her e
on
o me
o enoun
er ure de
h, or even mmnen

d nger."
Bu

er e
lhng
h pon
,
here rem n dou
, whe
her ny
one  n e COMPELLED
o do wh
he  BOUND
o do. So
u dene
h,
nd n uppor
o h rgumen
quo
e
he  e o rh m n, who,

hough ound rom mo

ve o h r
y
o upply
he w n
 o
he needy,
 nno
e ompelled
o do o. Bu

he
r n 
on o equ l w
h e h
o
her, mu
e regul
ed upon prnple very deren
rom
hoe

h
regul
e
he mu
u l rel
on o overegn nd uje
. For n
equ l  nno
ompel n equ l
o
he perorm ne o ny
hng, u
wh

he  
r
ly ound y l w
o perorm. Bu
uperor m y ompel n
neror
o
he perorm ne o OTHER du
e ede
hoe o PERFECT
OBLIGATIONS; or
h
 rgh
peul rly nd een
 lly elongng

o
he n
ure o uperor
y. Thereore er
n legl
ve provon
m y e m de, en 
ng
he perorm ne o uh du
e,  eem
o
p r
e o
he n
ure o enevolene. Phoon,  
 men
oned n
Plu
rh' lve,  d
h

he peron, whom Alex nder dem nded, h d
redued
he ommonwe l
h
o uh d
re,
h
 he dem nded even h
de re
rend Nole, he hould vo
e or delverng hm up.
I. Nex

o uje
, nd even upon n equ l oo
ng w
h
hem, 
o
l m o pro
e
on, re lle, n me nludng, n 
 onequene
nd ee
, o
h
hoe, who h ve ormed uordn
e onne
on w
h
no
her power, nd
hoe who h ve en
ered n
o eng gemen
 o mu
u l

ne. Ye
no uh omp 
  n nd e
her o
he p r
e
o
he
uppor
or proeu
on o unju
w r. And
h 
he re on, why
he
L ed emon n, eore
hey wen

o w r w
h
he A
hen n, le
ll

her lle
ler
y
o dede or
hemelve upon
he ju
e o

he qu rrel. To whh n dd

on l oerv
on m y e m de,
h
no
lly  ound
o 
n
he proeu
on o heme, whh ord no
pole prope
o h ppy
ermn
on. For
h would e dee
ng

he very end o ll ne, whh re on

r 
ed rom mo
ve o pul
dv n
ge, nd no
or p r
p
on n run. Bu
ny power 

olged
o deend n lly even g n

hoe, w
h whom 
 lre dy
onne
ed y u
ng
re
e, provded
hoe
re
e on
n no
expre ond
on proh
ng uh deene. Thu
he A
hen n mgh

h ve deended
he Coryr e n, IN A JUST CAUSE, even g n

he
Corn
h n,
her more nen
lle.

. A
hrd  e 
h
, where 
ne h  no
een exprely
promed
o rendly power, nd ye
 due on
he ore o
rendhp,  
 n e gven w
hou
nonvenene.
Upon
h prnple Ar h m
oo rm n deene o h nm n Lo
:
nd
he Rom n h rged
he An

e
o omm
no 
 o pr y upon

he Gree,  eng people o

he  me ndred w
h
he I
l n. I

w  no unuu l
hng w
h
he Rom n
o egn, or
le 

o
hre
en

o egn w r no
only n uppor
o lle,
o whom
hey were ound y

re
y, u
n uppor
o ny rendly power.

I. The l 
nd mo
ex
enve mo
ve 
he ommon
e o one COMMON
NATURE, whh lone  uen

o olge men
o 
e h o
her.
II. I
 que
on, whe
her one m n  ound
o pro
e
no
her, or
one people no
her people rom njury nd ggreon. Pl
o
hn
h

he ndvdu l or 

e no
deendng no
her rom n
ended volene
 deervng o punhmen
. A  e or whh provon w  m de y
he
l w o
he Egyp
 n.
Bu
n
he r
pl e 
 er
n
h
no one  ound
o gve

ne or pro
e
on, when 
wll e

ended w
h evden
d nger.
For m n' own le nd proper
y, nd 

e' own ex
ene nd
preerv
on re e
her
o
he ndvdu l, or
he 

e, oje
 o
gre
er v lue nd pror onder
on
h n
he wel re nd eur
y o
o
her ndvdu l or 

e.
Nor wll 

e or ndvdu l e ound
o r
her own  e
y, even
when
he ggreved or oppreed p r
y  nno
e releved u
y
he
de
ru
on o
he nv der or oppreor. For under ome rum
ne

 mpole ueully
o oppoe ruel
y nd oppreon,
he
punhmen
o whh mu
e le

o
he e
ern l judge o m nnd.

III. Though 
 rule e
lhed y
he l w o n
ure nd o
o l order, nd rule onrmed y ll
he reord o h
ory,
h

every overegn  upreme judge n h own ngdom nd over h own
uje
, n whoe dpu
e no oregn power  n ju
ly n
erere.
Ye
where Bur, Ph l r or Thr  n Domede provoe
her
people
o dep r nd re
ne y unhe rd o ruel
e, h vng

hemelve  ndoned ll
he l w o n
ure,
hey loe
he rgh
 o
ndependen
overegn, nd  n no longer l m
he prvlege o
he
l w o n
on. Thu Con
n
ne
oo up rm g n
M xen
u nd
Lnu, nd o
her Rom n emperor e
her
oo, or
hre
ened
o
e

hem g n

he Per n, 
hey dd no
de
rom pereu
ng
he
Chr
 n.
Adm

ng
h

would e r ugh
w
h
he gre
e
d nger 
uje
 were llowed
o redre grev ne y ore o rm, 

doe no
nee rly ollow
h
o
her power re proh
ed rom
gvng
hem 
ne when l ourng under grevou oppreon. For
whenever
he mpedmen

o ny 
on  o peron l n
ure, nd no

nheren
n
he 
on 
el, one peron m y perorm or no
her,
wh
he  nno
do or hmel, provded 
 n 
on y whh ome
nd erve m y e rendered. Thu gu rd n or ny o
her rend m y

under
e n 
on or w rd, whh he  n p 

ed rom dong
or hmel.
The mpedmen
, whh proh
 SUBJECT rom m ng re
ne, doe
no
depend upon
he n
ure o
he OCCASION, whh would oper
e equ lly
upon
he eelng o men, whe
her
hey were uje
 or no
, u

upon
he h r 
er o
he peron, who  nno

r ner
her n
ur l
lleg ne rom
her own overegn
o no
her. Bu

h prnple doe
no
nd
hoe, who re no

he lege-uje
 o
h
overegn or
power. Ther oppo
on
o hm or
he 

e m y ome
me e onne
ed
w
h
he deene o
he oppreed, nd  n never e on
rued n
o n

o
re on. Bu
pre
ex
 o
h
nd  nno
lw y e llowed,

hey m y o
en e ued 
he over o m
ou degn. Bu
rgh

doe no
nee rly loe 
 n
ure rom eng n
he h nd o wed
men. The e 
ll on
nue h nnel o l wul n
eroure,
hough
ome
me n vg
ed y pr
e, nd word re 
ll n
rumen
 o
deene,
hough ome
me welded y roer or  n.

BOOK III.

CHAPTER I.
WHAT IS LAWFUL IN WAR.
Wh
 l wul n w r--Gener l Rule derved rom
he
l w o n
ure--S
r
gem nd le--Arr ngemen
o
he
ollowng p r
--Fr
rule, ll
hng nee ry
o
he
end l wul--Rgh
reul
ng no
only rom
he orgn o
w r, u
rom  ue growng ou
o
he  me--Cer
n
onequene ju
 le,
hough no
orgn lly l wul--Wh

me ure re l wul g n

hoe who urnh n enemy w
h
upple--S
r
gem--Neg
ve--Po
ve--Some
me llow le
o
ue word n ene deren
rom
he gener l ep

on--A
le ordng
o
he
rue no
on o 
njurou
o
he rgh

o o
her--F lehood llow le n order
o deeve hldren or
m dmen--Any one ddreng no
her w
hou
n
en
on
o deeve,
no
nwer le or
he monep
on o
hrd peron--A peron
no
nwer le or
he wlul m
e o
hoe
o whom he
pe --The 

ou
hre
 o peron n u
hor
y--F
on
llow le n order
o  ve
he lve o
he nnoen
, or
o promo
e
o
her equ lly mpor
n
purpoe--Deep
on l wul g n
n
enemy, u
no
nludng prome, or o
h--To ore r ung

h prvlege n 
o genero
y nd Chr
 n mpl
y--No

llow le
o urge o
her
o wh
 unl wul or
hem, u
no
or
u
o do--Allow le
o ue
he erve o deer
er.
I. H vng, n
he preedng oo, ondered y wh
peron, nd or
wh
 ue, w r m y e ju
ly del red nd under
en,
he uje

nee rly le d
o n nqury n
o
he rum
ne, under whh w r
m y e under
en, n
o
he ex
en
,
o whh 
m y e  rred, nd
n
o
he m nner, n whh 
 rgh
 m y e enored. Now ll
hee
m

er m y e vewed n
he lgh
o prvlege reul
ng mply rom

he l w o n
ure nd o n
on, or 
he ee
 o ome pror


re
y or prome. Bu

he 
on, whh re u
hored y
he l w o
n
ure, re
hoe
h
re r
en

led
o

en
on.
II. In
he r
pl e,  
h  o on lly een oerved,
he me n
employed n
he puru
o ny oje
mu
, n gre
degree, derve

he omplexon o
her mor l h r 
er rom
he n
ure o
he end
o
whh
hey le d. I
 evden

hereore
h
we m y ju
ly v l
ourelve o
hoe me n, provded
hey e l wul, whh re nee ry

o
he

nmen
o ny rgh
. RIGHT n
h pl e me n wh


r
ly o  lled, gnyng
he mor l power o 
on, whh ny one
 memer o oe
y poee. On whh oun
, peron,  he h 
no o
her me n o  vng h le,  ju
ed n ung ny orle
me n o repellng n

,
hough he who m e 
,  or n
ne,
older n 

le, n dong o,  gul

y o no rme. For
h 
rgh
reul
ng no
properly rom
he rme o no
her, u
rom
he
prvlege o el-deene, whh n
ure gr n

o every one. Bede,
 ny one h  SURE nd UNDOUBTED ground
o pprehend mmnen
d nger
rom ny
hng elongng
o no
her, he m y eze 
w
hou
ny reg rd

o
he gul
or nnoene o
h
owner. Ye
he doe no
y
h

ezure eome
he propre
or o 
. For
h
 no
nee ry
o
he
end he h  n vew. He m y DETAIN 
 pre u
on ry me ure,
ll
he  n o
n 
 
ory ur ne o eur
y.
Upon
he  me prnple ny one h  n
ur l rgh

o eze wh

elong
o hm, nd  unl wully de
ned y no
her: or, 
h

mpr 
 le, he m y eze ome
hng o equ l v lue, whh  ne rly

he  me  reoverng de
. Reovere o
h nd e
lh
proper
y n
he
hng o rel med; whh 
he only me
hod o
re
orng
he equ l
y nd rep rng
he re he o vol
ed ju
e.
So
oo when punhmen
 l wul nd ju
, ll
he me n olu
ely
nee ry
o enore 
 exeu
on re lo l wul nd ju
, nd every


h
orm p r
o
he punhmen
, uh  de
royng n enemy'
proper
y nd oun
ry y re or ny o
her w y,  ll w
hn
he lm

o ju
e propor
on le
o
he oene.
III. In
he eond pl e, 
 gener lly nown
h

 no

he
ORIGIN only o ju
w r whh 
o e vewed 
he prnp l oure
o m ny o our rgh
, u

here m y e  ue growng ou
o
h
w r
whh m y gve r
h
o dd
on l rgh
. A n proeedng
l w,

he en
ene o
he our
m y gve
o
he ueul l
g n
o
her
rgh
 ede
hoe elongng
o
he orgn l m

er o dpu
e. So

hoe who jon our eneme, e

her  lle or uje
, gve u
rgh
o deendng ourelve g n
THEM lo. So
oo n
on
eng gng n n unju
w r,
he nju
e o whh he now nd ough

o now, eome l le

o m e good ll
he expene nd loe
nurred, e ue he h  een gul
y o o onng
hem. In
he
 me m nner
hoe power, who eome uxl re n w r under
en
w
hou
ny re on le ground, on
r 
degree o gul
nd render

hemelve l le
o punhmen
n propor
on
o
he nju
e o
her
me ure. Pl
o pprove o w r ondu
ed o  r, 
o ompel
he
ggreor
o ndemny
he njured nd
he nnoen
.
I. In
he
hrd pl e, n ndvdu l or ellgeren
power m y, n
he
proeu
on o l wul oje
, do m ny
hng, whh were no
n
he
on
empl
on o
he orgn l degn, nd whh n THEMSELES 
would
no
e l wul
o do. Thu n order
o o
n wh
elong
o u, when

 mpole
o reover
he pe
hng, we m y
e more
h n
our due, under ond
on o rep yng wh
ever  ove
he re l v lue.
For
he  me re on 
 l wul
o

 hp m nned y pr

e, or
houe ouped y roer, l
hough n
h
hp, or
h
houe
here

m y e m ny nnoen
peron, whoe lve re end ngered y uh

.
Bu
we h ve h d requen
o on
o rem r,
h
wh
 onorm le

o rgh

en n 
 
r
e
ene  no
lw y l wul n mor l
pon
o vew. For
here re m ny n
ne, n whh
he l w o
h r
y wll no
llow u
o n
upon our rgh
w
h
he u
mo

rgour. A re on or whh 

wll e nee ry
o gu rd g n

hng, whh  ll no
w
hn
he orgn l purpoe o n 
on, nd

he h ppenng o whh mgh

e oreeen: unle ndeed
he 
on
h 
endeny
o produe dv n
ge,
h
wll  r ou
wegh
he
onequene o ny den
l  l m
y, nd
he pprehenon o evl
re y no me n
o e pu
n ompe

on w
h
he ure hope o
ueul ue. Bu

o de
ermne n uh  e requre no ordn ry
pene
r
on nd dre
on. Bu
wherever
here  ny dou
, 

lw y
he  er w y
o dede n  vour o no
her' n
ere
,
h n

o ollow
he en
o our own nln
on. "Suer
he
re
o grow,
_ y our dvne
e her_, le 
n roo
ng up
he
re you roo
up

he whe
lo."
The gener l de
ru
on, whh
he Almgh
y, n rgh
o h upreme
M je
y, h  ome
me dereed nd exeu
ed,  no
rule, whh we
 n preume
o ollow. He h  no
nve
ed men, n
he exere o
power, w
h
hoe
r nenden
overegn rgh
. Ye
he hmel,
no
w
h
ndng
he unh nge le n
ure o h overegn wll, w 
nlned
o p re
he mo
wed 
e, 
en rgh
eou peron
ould e ound
heren. Ex mple le
hee m y urnh u w
h rule

o dede, how  r
he rgh
 o w r g n
n enemy m y e exered
or rel xed.

. I
requen
ly our  m

er o nqury, how  r we re
u
hored
o 
g n

hoe, who re ne
her eneme, nor wh
o
e
hough
o, u
who upply our eneme w
h er
n r
le. For we
now
h

 pon
, whh on ormer nd reen
o on h  een
on
e
ed w
h
he gre
e
nmo
y; ome whng
o enore w
h
ll m gn ry rgour
he rgh
 o w r, nd o
her 
ndng up or
he
reedom o ommere.
In
he r
pl e, d
n
on mu
e m de e
ween
he ommod
e

hemelve. For
here re ome, uh  rm or n
ne, whh re
only o ue n w r;
here re o
her g n, whh re o no ue n
w r, u
only dmn
er
o luxury; u

here re ome r
le, uh
 money, provon, hp nd n v l 
ore, whh re o ue
ll

me o
h n pe e nd w r.
A
o onveyng r
le o
he r
nd, 
 evden

h
ny
one mu
e r ned  n enemy, who upple n enemy w
h
he me n
o proeu
ng ho
l
e. Ag n

he onvey ne o ommod
e o

he eond nd, no ju

ompl n
 n e m de.--And 
o r
le o

he
hrd l , rom
her eng o dou
ul nd, d
n
on
mu
e m de e
ween
he
me o w r nd pe e. For  power  nno

deend 
el, u
y n
erep
ng
he upple en

o n enemy,
nee
y wll ju
y uh 
ep, u
upon ond
on o m ng
re
or
on, unle
here e ome dd
on l re on
o
he on
r ry.
Bu

he onvey ne o good
o n enemy
end
o o
ru
ny
ellgeren
power n
he proeu
on o l wul rgh
, nd
he peron
o onveyng
hem poee
he me n o nowng 
; 
h
power, or
n
ne,  eegng
own, or lo dng por
, n expe

on o
peedy urrender nd pe e,
he peron, who urnhe
he enemy
w
h upple, nd
he me n o prolonged re
ne, wll e gul
y
o n ggreon nd njury
ow rd
h
power. He wll nur
he

 me gul
,  peron would do y 
ng de
or
o e pe rom
pron, nd
herey
o der ud h red
or. H good m y e
en y
w y o ndemn
y, nd n dh rge o
he de
. I
he peron h  no

ye
omm

ed
he njury, u
only n
ended
o do o,
he ggreved
power wll h ve rgh

o de
n h good, n order
o ompel hm
o
gve u
ure eur
y, e
her y pu

ng n
o h h nd ho
ge, or
pledge; or ndeed n ny o
her w y. Bu

here re evden
proo
o nju
e n n enemy' ondu

he peron who uppor
 hm n uh
 e, y urnhng hm w
h uour, wll e gul
y no
 rely o
vl njury, u
h gvng 
ne wll moun

o rme 
enormou,  
would e
o reue rmn l n
he very  e o
he
judge. And on
h
oun

he njured power m y proeed g n
hm 
rmn l, nd punh hm y on
on o h good.
Thee re
he re on, whh ndue ellgeren
power
o ue
m ne
oe,  n ppe l
o o
her 

e, upon
he ju
e o
her
 ue, nd
her pro le hope o ul
m
e ue. Th que
on h 
een n
rodued under
he r
le, whh reer
o
he l w o n
ure,
 h
ory upple u w
h no preeden

o dedue 
 e
lhmen

rom
he volun
ry l w o n
on.
We re normed y Polyu, n h r
oo,
h

he C r
h gn n
ezed ome o
he Rom n, who were  rryng upple
o
her eneme,

hough
hey 
erw rd g ve
hem up, upon
he dem nd o
he Rom n.
Plu
rh  y
h
when Deme
ru h d nve
ed A

 , nd
en
he
neghourng
own o Eleu nd Rh mnu, he ordered
he m 
er nd
plo
o hp,

emp
ng
o onvey provon n
o A
hen,
o e
h nged,  he degned
o redue
h

y y  mne:
h 
o
rgour de
erred o
her rom dong
he  me, nd y
h
me n he m de
hmel m 
er o
he C
y.

I. W r, or
he

nmen
o
her oje
, 
 nno
e dened,
mu
employ ore nd
error 
her mo
proper gen
. Bu
dou

 ome
me en
er
ned, whe
her 
r
gem m y e l wully ued n
w r. The gener l ene o m nnd eem
o h ve pproved o uh
mode o w r re. For Homer ommend h hero, Ulye, no le or
h l
y n ml
ry 
r
gem,
h n or h wdom. Xenophon, who
w  phloopher  well  older nd h
or n, h   d,
h

no
hng  n e more ueul n w r
h n well-
med 
r
gem, w
h
whom Br d , n Thuydde gree, del rng 

o e
he me
hod rom
whh m ny gre
gener l h ve derved
he mo
rll n
repu

on.
And n Plu
rh, Agel u m n
n,
h
deevng n enemy  o
h
ju
nd l wul. The u
hor
y o Polyu m y e dded
o
hoe
lre dy n med; or he
hn,
h

hew gre
er
len
n gener l

o v l hmel o ome  vour le oppor

un
y
o employ 
r
gem,

h n
o g n n open 

le. Th opnon o poe

, h
or n, nd
phloopher  uppor
ed y
h
o Theolog n. For Augu
n h 
 d
h
, n
he proeu
on o ju
w r,
he ju
e o
he  ue
 no w y e
ed y
he

nmen
o
he end, whe
her
he oje

e omplhed y 
r
gem or open ore, nd Chryo
om, n h
e u
ul l

le
re
e on
he pre
ly oe, oerve,
h

he
hghe
pr e re e
owed on
hoe gener l, who h ve pr 
ed
ueul 
r
gem. Ye

here  one rum
ne, upon whh
he
deon o
h que
on
urn more
h n upon ny opnon even o
he
hghe
u
hor
y, nd
h
, whe
her 
r
gem ough

o e r ned 
one o
hoe evl, whh re proh
ed under
he m xm OF NOT DOING
EIL, THAT GOOD MAY ENSUE, or
o e reoned  one o
hoe 
on,
whh,
hough evl IN THEMSELES, m y e o moded y p r
ul r
o on, 
o loe
her rmn l
y n onder
on o
he good,

o whh
hey le d.

II. There  one nd o 

r
gem, 
 proper
o rem r, o
neg
ve, nd no
her o po
ve nd. The word 
r
gem, upon
he
u
hor
y o L eo,
en n neg
ve ene, nlude uh 
on,
 h ve no
hng rmn l n
hem,
hough  lul
ed
o deeve, where
ny one, or n
ne, ue degree o dmul
on or one lmen
,
n order
o deend h own proper
y or
h
o o
her.[58] So
h

undou
edly
here  ome
hng o h rhne n
he opnon o Cero,
who  y
here  no ene o le,
h
wll llow e
her mul
on,
or dmul
on
o e pr 
ed. For  you re no
ound
o dloe

o o
her ll
h
you e
her now or n
end; 
ollow
h
, on
er
n o on, ome 
 o dmul
on,
h
, o one lmen

m y e l wul. Th 
len
, whh Cero, n m ny p r
 o h
wr
ng, nowledge
h

 olu
ely nee ry or 

emen

o poe. The h

ory o Jerem h, n
he xxxv
h h p
er o h
prophey, urnhe rem r le n
ne o
h nd. For when
h

prophe
w  n
errog
ed y
he ng, repe
ng
he even
o
he
ege, he pruden
ly, n ompl ne w
h
he ng' order, one led

he re l m

er rom
he nole, gnng deren
,
hough no

 le re on or
he onerene, whh he h d h d. In
he  me m nner,
Ar h m  lled S r h, h 
er, n ppell
on ued  ml rly


h

me
o deno
e ne r rel
on y lood, one lng
he
rum
ne o her eng h we.
III. A 
r
gem o po
ve nd, when pr 
ed n 
on, 
 lled en
, nd when ued n onver
on 
reeve
he n me o
le or  lehood. A d
n
on  m de y ome, e
ween
hee
wo
nd o 
r
gem, who  y,
h
word re gn o our de , u


on re no
o. Bu

here  more o
ru
h n
he oppo
e opnon,

h
word o
hemelve un omp ned y
he n
en
on o
he pe er,
gny no
hng more
h n
he n r
ul
e re would do o ny one
l ourng under gre, or ny o
her p on: whh ound ome under

he denomn
on o 
on, r
her
h n o peeh. Bu
hould 
e
 d
h
eng le
o onvey
o o
her
he onep
on o h mnd,
y word d p
ed
o
he purpoe,  peul r g
o n
ure, y whh
m n  d
nguhed rom o
her p r
 o
he nm
ed re
on,
he

ru
h o
h  nno
e dened.
To whh we m y dd
h
uh ommun
on m y e m de no
only y
word, u
y gn or ge
ure, le
hoe ued
o
he dum; 

m e no derene, whe

her
hoe gn or ge
ure h ve ny n
ur l
onne
on w
h
he
hng
hey re n
ended
o gny, or whe
her
uh onne
on  only gned
o
hem y u
om. Equv len

o
uh gn or ge
ure  h ndwr
ng, whh m y e ondered, 
dum l ngu ge, dervng 
 ore no
merely rom
he word ued, nd

he p r
ul r orm o
he le

er, u
rom
he re l n
en
on o

he wr
er,
o e g
hered rom
hene:--
o e g
hered e
her rom

he reeml ne e
ween
he h r 
er nd
he n
en
on,  n
he
Egyp
 n heroglyph, or rom pure  ny,  mong
he Chnee.
Here lewe no
her d
n
on  nee ry
o e ppled n
he
 me m nner,  w  done eore, n order
o remove ll mgu
y n
ung
he
erm o THE LAW OF NATIONS. For 
w 
here  d,
h

he
l w e
lhed y ndependen
nd ep r
e 

e, whe
her or no

hoe l w mpled ny mu
u l olg
on, were denomn
ed
he LAW
OF NATIONS.[59] So
h
word, ge
ure, nd gn, m de ue o
o
onvey me nng, mply n olg
on, n ll
he peron onerned,
o
reeve nd employ
hem n
her ommon ep

on. Bu

he employmen

o OTHER MEANS, omng under NONE OF THOSE DESCRIPTIONS,  nno

e
on
rued n
o vol
on o ny o l on
r 
, l
hough ome m y

e deeved
herey. I

he REAL NATURE o
he 
on
h
 here
poen o, nd no

he ACCIDENTAL rum
ne

endng
hem: uh

on or n
ne,  o on no mhe; or 
hey do o,
here
 no gul
, where
here  no
re herou degn.
We h ve n n
ne o
he ormer nd n
he ondu
o our S vour,
who, on
he w y
o Emm u, pre
ended
o
he dple,
h
he w 
gong ur
her; here w  h rmle 
r
gem, unle we n
erpre

he
word,  expreve o h n
en
on
o h ve gone ur
her,  he h d
no
een preven
ed y
her eor
 nd en
re
e
o de
n hm. And
n no
her p r
o
he  red h
ory 
  d,
h
he n
ended

o h ve p ed y
he Apo
le on
he e ,
h
, he n
ended
o
h ve done 
, h d he no
een o e rne
ly mpor
uned y
hem
o go
n
o
he hp. There  no
her n
ne
oo n
he ondu
o P ul,
who rumed Tmo
hy,
hough he new
he Jew would onlude rom

hene,
h

he ordn ne o rumon, whh n re l
y h d een
olhed, w  
ll ndng upon
he deend n
 o Ir el, nd
h

P ul nd Tmo
hy were o
he  me opnon. Where  P ul h d no uh
n
en
on, u
only hoped, y
h
me n,
o open or hmel nd
Tmo
hy w y
o more  ml r n
eroure w
h
he Jew. Ne
her ould
n ordn ne o
h
nd, when
he dvne olg
on w  repe led, ny
longer e deemed o uh mpor
ne, nor ould
he evl o
empor ry
error, reul
ng rom
hene, nd 
erw rd
o e orre
ed, e
reg rded  equv len

o
he oppor
un
y, whh P ul
hough

o g n,
o m ng 
onduve
o
he n
rodu
on o Chr
 n
ru
h.
The Gree F
her h ve gven
he n me o ECONOMY, or MANAGEMENT

o 
r
gem o
h nd. On
h uje

here  n dmr le
en
men
n Clemen
o Alex ndr , who, n pe ng o good m n,
 y
h
"he wll do m ny
hng or
he ene
o h neghour
lone, whh he would no
o
herwe h ve under
en."
One o
hee 
r
gem w  pr 
ed y
he Rom n, who, durng
he

me
h

hey were eeged n
he C p
ol,
hrew ome lo ve o
re d n
o
he enemy'  mp,
h

mgh
no
e uppoed
hey were
preed y  mne. The egned lgh
, whh Johu ordered h people

o m e,
o 
hm n h degn upon A, ord n n
ne o

r
gem o
he eond nd;
he enung mhe o whh m y e
ondered,  ome o
he ee
 o l wul w r. The ORIGINAL DESIGN
o
h
pre
ended lgh
doe no

ll e

he que
on. The
enemy
oo 
or proo o e r; nd he w 
ler
y
o do o,
w
hou
de rrng
he o
her o h rgh

o m rh
h w y, or
h
,
w
h n eler
ed or re
rded mo
on, w
h hew o our ge, or n
ppe r ne o e r,  he mgh
judge 
mo
expeden
.
H
ory urnhe u w
h nnumer le ex mple o deep
on pr 
ed
w
h ue upon n enemy, y umng h rm, engn, olour, or
unorm; ll whh m y e ju
ed upon
he  me prnple. For ll

hee re 
on, whh ny one m y v l hmel o
h ple ure,
y dep r
ng rom
he uu l oure o h ml
ry y
em. For uh
pon
 o dplne nd y
em depend upon
he wll nd  ny o
he
ml
ry omm nder n e h 

e, r
her
h n upon ny nv r le
u
om, equ lly ndng upon ll n
on.
IX. Thoe gn, y whh
he d ly n
eroure o le  m n
ned,
orm uje
o more wegh
y duon, w
h whh
he onder
on
o le or  lehood  nee rly n
erwoven.
All 
r
gem o
h nd re o dre
vol
on o ll mor l
prnple, o
h n
her n
ure nd onequene,
h
lmo
every

p ge o
he reve led wll o God del re
her ondemn
on. Solomon
dere rgh
eou,
h
, good m n,  one, who hold every
 le word n de
e

on, depre
ng
he le 
ppe r ne o
deep
on: nd
he Apo
le' njun
on ord w
h
hee en
men
,
n
ru
ng h dple no

o le
o one no
her.
Nor  
n
he hgh 
nd rd o pere
on lone, whh
he dvne
reord preen
,
h
uh reommend
on o  r, open, nd nere
de lng 
o e ound. I

he
heme o pr e w
h poe
 nd
phloopher, nd
he ngry hero o
he Gre n poe
del re,
h

he de
e

he m n,  n nern l eng, who u

er one
hng w
h
h
ongue, whle he one l no
her n h he r
. Bu
m ng ome
llow ne or poe
 
on--we nd even
he gr ve, oer, nd
dernng, S
gr
e derng  lehood,  vle, nd omn le
reuge, nd p n
ng
ru
h  lovely oje
,
h
mu
ex
or

he
w rme
pr e.
Thee re ll gre
nd hgh u
hor
e n  vour o open de lng.
Ye

here re n me o no le wegh
, o
h mong  red nd pro ne
wr
er, whoe opnon re vnd
on o 
r
gem, when ued upon
PROPER o on. One wr
er pe  o  e, where 
r
gem m y e
ued, even or
he ene
o
he peron, on whom 
 pr 
ed, nd
ddue
he n
ne o phy n, who, y me n o deep
on,
over me
he perverene o p
en
, nd wrough
 lu
ry ure.
X. To reonle uh v re
y o dord n
opnon, 
m y e
nee ry
o deve ome w y o ex mnng  lehood o
h n 
 more
ex
enve, nd more onned ep

on. Nor  pe ng n un
ru
h,
UNAWARES,
o e ondered n
he n
ure o le, u

he  lehood,
whh ome w
hn
he lm
 here dened, 
he KNOWN nd DELIBERATE
UTTERANCE o ny
hng on
r ry
o our re l onv
on, n
en
on, nd
under
ndng.
Word, or gn, mpor
ng
he  me me nng  word, re gener lly

en or onep

on o
he mnd, ye

 no le or ny m n
o
u

er  lehood, whh he eleve

o e
rue; u

he prop g
on
o
ru
h, whh ny one eleve
o e  le, IN HIM moun

o
le. There mu
e n
he ue o
he word
hereore n INTENTION
o
deeve, n order
o on

u
e  lehood n
he proper nd ommon
ep

on. Conequen
ly, when ny one ngle word, or
he whole

enour o doure, dm

 o more gn
on
h n one, e
her
y
he ue o ome popul r phr e, ome
erm o r
, or n
ellgle
gure o peeh, n
h
 e 
he pe er' n
en
on orrepond
w
h ny one o
hoe me nng, he  nno
e h rged w
h ung
 lehood, l
hough 
 pole
h
he rer m y
e h word n
very deren
ene. I

rue
h
ung uh n mguou me
hod
o pe ng on ALL OCCASIONS  no

o e pproved o,
hough
here
re p r
ul r rum
ne under whh 
m y e reonled w
h
honour nd ju
e. In ommun
ng nowledge, or n
ne,
here
 no h rm n ung me
phor, n rony, or n hyperole, gure o
peeh,
endng e
her
o dorn or
o elud
e uje
. There re
 e
oo, where y
h dou
ul mode o expreon 
m y e proper

o vod n urgen
nd mper
nen
que
on. There  n n
ne o

he ormer nd n our S vour'  yng,

h
"our rend L z ru
leepe
h," where
he dple under
ood hm,   he were pe ng
o
he rerehng re
o n ordn ry leep: nd when he poe o
re
orng
he
emple, whh he me n
h own ody, he new
h

he
Jew ppled wh
he  d
o
he MATERIAL EDIFICE o
he Temple. In
he
 me m nner he requen
ly ddreed
he mul

ude n p r le, whh

hey ould no
under
nd y  rely he rng, w
hou

h
dol
y

o mnd, nd

en
on, whh
he uje
requred. Pro ne h
ory

oo urnhe u w
h n ex mple o
he eond nd, n
he ondu

o 
ellu, who,  T 
u norm u, g ve N ru dou
ul nd
mguou nwer, n order
o vod h urgen
que
on;  ny
expl
del r
on mgh
h ve een

ended w
h d nger.
On
he o
her h nd, 
m y h ppen
o e no
only enur le, u
even
wed
o ue uh m nner o pe ng, where e
her
he honour o God
or
he wel re o m nnd  onerned, or ndeed ny m

er, whh
dem nd expl
vow l, nd open de lng. Thu n on
r 
 every

hng nee ry
o
her ulllmen
ough

o e ully dloed
o

hoe onerned. There  n ppo

e expreon o Cero, who  y,

h
every degree o deep
on ough

o e  nhed rom ll on
r 
,
nd
here  n
he old A
hen n L w prover, onorm le
o
h,
whh  y,
here mu
e no
hng, u
open de lng n m re
.
XI. In 
r
ne o peeh uh mgu
y  exluded rom
he no
on
o le. The ommon no
on o le
hereore  ome
hng poen,
wr

en, m red, or n
m
ed, whh  nno
e under
ood, u
n
ene deren
rom
he re l me nng o
he pe er. Bu
le, n

h 
r
er ep

on, h vng ome
hng unl wul n 
 very
n
ure, nee rly requre
h
d
n
on hould e m de e
ween

nd
h
l

ude o expreon lre dy expl ned. And 
h
ep

on e properly ondered,
le 
ordng
o
he opnon
prev lng n ll n
on, 
eem,
h
no o
her expl n
on o 

nee ry
o e gven, exep

h

 vol
on o
he ex
ng
nd perm nen
rgh
 o
he peron,
o whom doure, or p r
ul r
gn, re dre
ed. I
 vol
on o
he rgh
 o ANOTHER; or

 evden
,
h
no one  n u

er  lehood w
h vew
o mpoe
upon hmel. The rgh
 here poen o re peul rly onne
ed w
h

h uje
. They mply
h
ler
y o judgmen
, whh men re
under
ood, y nd o

greemen
,
o owe
o e h o
her n
her
mu
u l n
eroure. For
h, nd
h lone 
h
mu
u l olg
on,
whh men n
ended
o n
rodue,  oon 
hey eg n
o ue peeh,
or o
her gn o equ l mpor
. For w
hou
uh n olg
on
he
nven
on o
hoe gn would h ve een pere
ly nug
ory. I

requ
e
oo,
h


he
me doure  m de, uh rgh
or
olg
on hould rem n n ull ore.
A rgh
m y ndeed h ve ex
ed nd 
erw rd h ve eome oole
e,
owng
o
he re or ourrene o ome new rgh
: whh 
he  e
w
h de
,
h
m y e rele ed y qu

ne, or non-perorm ne o

ond
on. I
  r
her requ
e,
o on

u
e IOLATION OF THIS
RIGHT,
h

he enung njury hould mmed
ely e

he PERSON
ADDRESSED:  n on
r 
,
here  n e no nju
e, u
wh
e

one o
he p r
e, or peron onerned.
And perh p under
he he d o
h rgh
, 
m y no
e mproper
o
gn pl e
o
h
TRUE SPEAKING, whh Pl
o, ollowng Smonde,
l e w
h ju
e, n order
o orm more 
rng on
r 
w
h

h
 lehood, o o
en proh
ed n Srp
ure, y
he n me o  le
w
ne
o, or g n
, our neghour, nd whh Augu
n, n denng
le,  ll n n
en
on
o deeve. Cero lo n h oe l y
down
ru
h, 
he   o ju
e.
The rgh

o dovery o
he whole
ru
h m y e relnquhed y
he
expre onen
o
he peron, who re eng ged n
re
y:
he one
m y del re h n
en
on no

o dloe er
n pon
, nd
he o
her
m y llow o
h reerve. There m y e lo

preump
on,
h

here re ju
re on or uh reerve whh m y perh p e nee ry

ou
o reg rd
o
he rgh
 o
hrd peron: rgh
 whh, n
he
ommon judgmen
o ll oer men, m y e uen

o oun
er l ne
ny olg
on n e
her o
he peron eng ged n
he
re
y
o m e
ull dloure o h vew nd en
men
.--Thee prnple,
duly ondered, wll upply m ny nerene
o reonle ny eemng
on
r d
on n
he opnon,
h
h ve een dv ned.
XII. In
he r
pl e, m ny
hng m y e  d
o m dmen, or
hldren,
he LITERAL MEANING o whh m y no
e
rue, w
hou

nurrng
he gul
o wlul  lehood. A pr 
e whh eem
o e
llowed y
he ommon ene o ll m nnd. Qun
l n, pe ng o
he
ge o puerl
y,  y, 
 perod o le, when m ny ueul
ru
h
m y e
ugh
n
he dre o 
on.--Ano
her re on gven ,
h

 hldren nd m dmen poe no pere

power o judgng, mpo
on
o
h
nd  n do no njury
o
her rgh
, n uh repe
.
XIII. Seondly, when onver
on  ddreed
o ny one, who  no

herey deeved, l
hough
hrd peron, no
mmed
ely ddreed,
m y moneve
he m

er,
here  no wlul  lehood n
he  e.
No WILFUL FALSEHOOD
ow rd
he peron ddreed: e ue he eel no
gre
er njury rom
hene,
h n n n
ellgen
he rer would do rom

he re
l o  le, or
he ue o me
phor, rony, or hyperole
n peeh. I
 nno
e  d
h
n njury  done
o
he peron,
who den
lly nd urorly he r m

er, nd moneve 
:
or eng no w y onerned,
here  no olg
on due
o hm. A
he moneve
hng ddreed
o ANOTHER, nd no

o HIMSELF,
he mu

e upon h own he d ll
he onequene o
he m
e.
For, properly pe ng,
he doure, WITH RESPECT TO HIM,  no
doure, u
n nexpreve ound
h
m y gny one
hng  well
 no
her. So
h

here w  no
hng wrong n
he ondu
o C
o
he
Cenor, who m de  le prome o 
ne
o h oneder
e, nor
n
h
o Fl u, who normed o
her
h
Aemlu h d
en
he
enemy' 
y y 
orm, l
hough
he enemy were deeved y 
. Plu
rh
men
on n n
ne o
he  me nd n
he le o Agel u. Here no
ommun
on w  m de
o
he enemy, nd
he prejude he u
ned w 
n den
l
hng no w y unl wul n 
el, e
her
o e whed or
or proured.
XI. In
he
hrd pl e, whenever 
 er
n
h

he peron, on
whom deep
on  pr 
ed, dover
h

he n
en
o 
w 
o
do hm erve; he wll no
eel 
 grev ne, nor  n 
ome
under
he 
r
denomn
on o le or  lehood. I
wll e no
more n INJURY,
h n 
would e THEFT n ny one, preumng upon n
owner' onen
,
o
e ome
hng elongng
o
h
owner, n order

o onver


o h ue n very ene l w y. For n  e o
no
orou er
n
y, PRESUMPTION m y e
en or expre onen
.
Bu

 evden

h
no m n would CONSENT
o reeve n INJURY.
From hene 
ppe r,
h
peron  gul
y o no
re hery, who
ue unounded or 

ou mo
ve
o onole rend n d
re,
 Arr dd
o P e
u upon
he de
h o h on, o whh
here 
n oun
n Plny' Ep
le, or n gener l, who n perlou

u
on hould v l hmel o  le n
ellgene,
o enour ge h

roop, y whh perh p v

ory mgh
e g ned.
I
m y e oerved lewe,
h

he njury done
o
he reedom o
judgmen
, n uh  e, o le onequene, e ue 
 u

momen
ry, nd
he re l  
 oon dovered.
X. There  our
h  e, whh e r ne r n
y
o
hoe

 ove men
oned, nd
h
, when ny one, poeng pre-emnen

u
hor
y, order no
her, n uordn
e  p 
y,
o exeu
e ome
deve or 
r
gem, onduve e
her
o h ndvdu l, or
o
he
pul wel re. Whh Pl
o eem
o h ve h d p r
ul rly n vew,
n llowng
hoe n u
hor
y
o v l
hemelve o pre
ex
, or

r
gem. The  me wr
er  very orre
n h no
on o no
m ng
uh deve h r 
er
 o
h
u
hor
y, whh elong
o
he
upreme eng. For ll uh deve, however ju
 le
hey m y e n
CERTAIN CASES, 
rongly e
r y
h
mpere
on, whh  nep r le
rom ll hum n y
em.
The 
r
gem, whh Joeph employed
o o
n ur
her dovere
w
hou
m ng hmel nown
o h re
hren,  muh ommended y
Phlo,  m r o gre
poly, when, on
r ry
o
he onv
on
nd eelng o h own mnd, he ued
hem o eng pe, nd

erw rd h rged
hem w
h
he
. I
w  y 
r
gem o
he  me
nd,
h
Solomon g ve proo o h npred wdom, when he ued
he
FICTITIOUS
hre
o dvdng
he lvng hld n order
o dover
he
re l mo
her.
XI. The 
h  e, whh llow 
r
gem
o e pr 
ed, 

h
, where 
m y e
he ONLY me n o  vng
he le o n nnoen

peron, o o
nng ome oje
o equ l mpor
ne, or o dver
ng
no
her rom
he perpe
r
on o ome horrd degn. The he
hen
poe
h  gven e u
ul llu
r
on o
h n h pr e o
Hypermne
r , whoe ondu
he  ll " plendd 
r
gem, ennolng

he vrgn
o ll po
er
y."
XII. I
 evden

h
m ny wr
er o nowledged wdom, nd oer
judgmen
, h ve  rred
he pon
 r
her
h n h  een done n
h

re
e, n llowng
he ue o  le repreen

on
o n enemy. In
 e, where pul eneme re onerned,
hey m n
n,
h


l wul
o dev
e rom
hoe 
r
rule o vowng nd dlong
ll our n
en
on, whh
hey prere, on ll o
her o on. Suh

he opnon o Pl
o nd Xenophon mong
he Gree, o Phlo mong

he Jew, nd Chryo
om mong Chr
 n. I
m y no
perh p e m

o 
e, n
h pl e,
he me ge en
y
he men o J eh Gle d

o
he Ammon
e, y whom
hey were eeged, nd lo
h
o
he
prophe
Elh , nd

he  me
me
o men
on
he ondu
o  leru
L evnu, who o 
ed o h vng lled Pyrrhu.
The
hrd,
he our
h nd 
h oerv
on ove m de, m y e
llu
r
ed rom wh
  d y Eu
r
u, Arhhop o Ne, "An
le nd uprgh
ounellor  no
olged
o dloe
he whole

ru
h: or
here m y e o on, when 
m y e nee ry or hm
o
reommend
he me n o deevng n enemy, or
o employ ome 
r
gem

ow rd rend, where 

m y
urn
o h dv n
ge."
XIII. Wh
h  een  d o  le pe ng mu
e under
ood 
ppled
o rm
ve del r
on, whh  n e prejud l
o no
peron, u
pul eneme: 
 n y no me n e
en
o nlude
prome. For prome oner upon
he peron,
o whom
hey re m de,
peul r rgh

o l m
her ull perorm ne. And
h  rule,
whh mu

e pl e, even e
ween pul eneme; rule
o whh
ex
ng ho
l
e re no
llowed
o orm n exep
on. I

m xm proper
o e enored n TACIT,  well  n EXPRESS greemen
:
 when p rley or onerene  dem nded,
here  lw y n IMPLIED
prome,
h
o
h de h ll

end 
w
h pere
 e
y. Bu

hee
re pon
 reerved or
he duon o no
her p r
o
h
re
e.

XIX. I
wll e nee ry
o repe
n oerv
on m de eore, w
h
repe

o o
h, o
h o
he rm
ve nd promory nd, where

w  m n
ned
h

hey exlude ll exep
on, ll men
l
reerv
on
ow rd
he peron,
o whom
hey re m de, eng reg rded
no
merely  olemn
r n 
on w
h
h
ndvdu l, u


ed 
ppe l
o God. Suh n ppe l
o
he upreme eng dem nd
he
perorm ne o n o
h, even  
g ve
he ndvdu l no rgh

o
he
 me.
A

he  me
me 
w  oerved,
h
worn del r
on  no
le
one o ny o
her nd, where n ppl
on o
erm deren
rom

her uu l me nng m y upply

he pe er w
h n exue or ev dng

her mpor
. Bu

ru
h requre every del r
on nd prome
o e
m de n
erm, whh 
 uppoed
h
every m n o n
egr
y nd
le r judgmen
wll under
nd, purnng

he mpou
hough
,
h

men m y e deeved y o
h,  hldren re y
oy nd
rle.
XX. Some n
on nd ndvdu l ndeed h ve reje
ed
he ue o
hoe

r
gem, whh even
he l w o n
ure llow
o e employed 
me n o el-deene g n
n enemy. Bu

hey dd o, no
rom ny
opnon o
her unl wulne, u
rom nole lo
ne o mnd,
nd rom ondene n
her own 
reng
h. Ael n h  preerved
 yng o Py
h gor , "
h

here re
wo
hng, n whh m n
ppro he ne re

o God, n lw y pe ng
he
ru
h, nd dong good

o o
her." Ar
o
le, omewhere n h E
h,  ll pe ng
ru
h,

he reedom o gre
oul, nd Plu
rh  y,
h
 lehood 
he
qu l
on o l ve. Bu
n dherene
o
ru
h, n mpl
y o
he r
,  no

he only du
y requred o Chr
 n, n
h repe
,

hey re omm nded

o 
n rom ll v n doure,  h vng or

her ex mple hm, n whoe mou

h
here w  ound no gule.
XXI. W
h repe

o
he 
on o men,
here  no
her rule whh
m y properly ome under
h he d, nd
h
,
he unl wulne o
urgng or peru dng ny one
o do n unl wul 
. For n
ne, no
uje
h  rgh

o l
h h nd g n
h overegn,
o delver
up
own w
hou
pul u
hor
y, or
o depol h neghour o h
good. I
would e unl wul
hen
o enour ge
he uje
o n enemy,
 long  he on
nue h uje
,
o do ny o
hee 
. For
he
peron, who urge no
her
o do wed 
, m e hmel p r
ner
n h gul
. Nor  n 
e reeved  ju
nwer,
h
urgng
uje

o
he perpe
r
on o uh deed  no
hng more
h n
employng
he l wul me n o de
royng n enemy. For
hough 
m y
e nee ry nd ju

o de
roy hm,  pole, ye

h
 no

he
w y, n whh 
hould e done. Augu
n h  well oerved,
h


m e no derene whe

her ny one hould omm
rme hmel, or
employ no
her  h n
rumen
.
Bu
employng
he pon
neou oer o deer
er  no
on
r ry
o

he l w o w r, nd  very deren

on rom
h
o edung
uje
rom h lleg ne.
[Illu
r
on: _WAR AND PEACE_

_Th  ron
pee
o L
n ed
on o Gro
u' De Jure Bell
 P , pulhed
Am
erd m n 1670. I
 n
ended
o e
ymol l o W r nd Pe e 
ng under
he dre
on Ju
e,

hee
hree gure ormng
he en
r l group._

CHAPTER II.
IN WHAT MANNER THE LAW OF NATIONS RENDERS THE PROPERTY OF SUBJECTS
ANSWERABLE FOR THE DEBTS OF SOEREIGNS. THE NATURE OF REPRISALS.
No one u
n her ound y
he 
o no
her--Proper
y o uje

nwer le or
he de
 o overegn, ordng
o
he l w
o N
on--C p
ure o peron nd proper
y 
er 
 
on
reued y
he ggreor--Repr l--Peron l  e
y o
uje
--D
n
on m de y
he l w o N
on n
h repe
.
I. The rgh
 rung rom
he l w o N
on re
he pon
 nex

o
e ondered, whh m y e reerred e
her
o w r n GENERAL, or
o

hoe o PARTICULAR derp

on.
W r n GENERAL re
hoe, whh properly r
ome under no
e.
By
he LITERAL l w o n
ure, no one  ound y
he 
on o
no
her, exep

he peron, who ueed
o h proper
y. For
he
n
rodu
on nd e
lhmen
o proper
y n
rodued nd e
lhed
lo
he power o
r nerrng 
w
h ll 
 numr ne. The
Emperor Zeno however pronoune 
repugn n

o n
ur l ju
e or
one m n
o e mole
ed or
he de
 o no
her. A prnple, whh
g ve re
o
he d
n
on n
he Rom n l w,
h

he we ould
no
e ued or her hu nd, nor
he hu nd or h we, nor on
or h 
her, nor 
her or mo
her or
her on. Nor,  Ulp n
le rly 

e 
, ould ndvdu l e nwer le or
he de
 o

he ommun
y, nd more epe lly 
h
ommun
y e poeed o
proper
y. Indeed 
h
were no

he  e ndvdu l ould only
e olged
o on
ru
e
her due propor
on,  memer o
h

ommun
y.
Sene  y, " ny one lend money
o my oun
ry, I m no

o e
ondered  h de
or, nor
o
e
he de
upon myel,
hough I m
ound
o p y my due propor
on o 
." There w  pe l provon
m de n
he Rom n l w,
h
one pe  n
hould no
e ound or
he
de
 o no
her, nd 
 l d down  rule,
h

he good o
one peron h ll no
e d
r ned or
he de
 o no
her, even 

hey e pul de

; nd n Ju
n n' Novel, pledge or o
her re
ordden, nd
he  ue gned or 
, e ue 
 unre on le

h
one peron hould nur
he de
, nd no
her e ound
o
he
p ymen
o 
, n ex 
on
o whh
he n me o ODIOUS  gven. Kng
Theodor C odor,  ll 
hong lene or one m n
o e
de
ned  pledge or no
her.
II. Al
hough n
he preedng oerv
on
here m y e gre
de l o

ru
h, ye

 pole, nd ndeed ppe r 
u lly
o e
he  e,

h

he volun
ry l w o n
on n
rodued
he pr 
e o renderng
ll
he orpore l, nd norpore l proper
y, elongng
o
he uje

o ny 

e or overegn, l le
o
he de
, whh
h


e or
overegn m y h ve nurred, e
her peron lly, or y reung
o m e
uh rep r
on,  m y e due or
he njure nd ggreon, whh

hey h ve omm

ed.
Ye

h  pr 
e, whh no
hng u
nee
y ould ju
y; or,
on ny o
her ground, 
would e openng door
o nnumer le 
 o
w n
on ggreon nd nju
e g n
ndvdu l. A
he proper
y o



e nd overegn  nno
o
en o e ly  ll n
o n enemy' h nd,

h
elongng
o ndvdu l, who re more numerou, nd whoe
proper
y  onequen
ly more expoed. So
h
rgh
 o
h nd re

o e reoned mong
hoe, whh Ju
n n  y, re
he oprng o

ern nee
y,
he  l m
e o men drvng
hem
o
he ue o uh
me n.
Bu

hough pr 
e le
h owe 
 n
rodu
on
o NECESSITY, 

 no
o  r
v r ne w
h
he l w o n
ure, 
o exlude CUSTOM
nd TACIT greemen
rom h vng ome h re n 
 e
lhmen
. For we
nd
h
ure
e re ound y no o
her
e, u

h
lone o h vng
gven
her onen
. Bede, 
mgh
e ly e uppoed,
h


w 
he e
me
hod o redre g n

he uje
 o no
her 

e,
where
he ggreved peron ould no
o e ly proeu
e
her rgh
,
or o
n ndemn
e,
he l m or njure o 
r nger eng u

l

le under
ood, nd perh p 
ll le reg rded n oregn l nd.
Suje
, eng
hu l le
o
he lo o
her proper
y,
ondu
o
her ellow uje
, or y
h
o
he 

e,
ome
me eel 
h rdhp, whle on o
her o on, 

prove
her gre
e
eur
y g n
ggreon rom
he
no
her power.

y
he
mgh

would
uje
 o

Th

h w  reeved u
om ppe r no
only rom
he regul r
w r,  rred on y one 

e g n
no
her,
he rule oerved n
whh re o
en n med n
he m ne
oe ued on uh o on:

he orm o whh m y e een n

he r
oo o Lvy, where 

 d, "I del re w r g n

he nen
n
on o
he L
n, nd
lewe g n

he repe
ve ndvdu l"; nd
he  me wr
er, n
h
hr
y r
oo, norm u,
h
, upon
he que
on eng pu

o
he people,
hey were ed, whe
her 
w 
her ple ure
h

w r hould e del red g n

Phlp, nd g n

he M edon n,
h uje
.--Bu

he  me u
om lo prev led, even eore
he
ommenemen
o 
u l nd open ho
l
e e
ween
wo 

e, when
mu
u l 
 o ggreon y
he uje
 o e h power ould e
reg rded  no
hng u

he eve, nd prelude
o del r
on o w r.
The word ued y Agel u
o Ph rn  zu wll erve
o elud
e

h pon
: he  d; "Whle we were rend
o
he ng o Per , we

re
ed hm nd h uje
 n rendly m nner: now we re eneme,
you  n expe
no
hng rom u u
ho
l
e. Thereore, Ph rn  zu,
whle you hue
o on
nue v  l
o
he Kng, we wound hm
hrough
your de."
III. The A
hen n h d me
hod omewh
le
h o eeng redre,
whh
hey  lled { ndrolps }, sezure of men's persons,
whch w s l d down n the Attc l w n the followng terms, "f n
one h s been murdered n foregn countr, the ne rest rel tves
of the dece sed re uthorzed to seze n three subjects of th t
countr, but not more th n three, tll the perpetr tors of the deed be
punshed, or t le st delvered up to the h nds of justce for th t
purpose."
In ths c se we fnd th t the person l lbert of subjects, whch m 
be consdered s knd of ncorpore l rght, ncludng the rght of
resdng where the ple se, or dong wh tever the m  thnk proper, s
m de nswer ble for the debt of the st te, who s bound to punsh the
crmn l cts of her subjects: so th t the subject suffers constr nt,
tll the st te h s dsch rged the debt, whch t s bound to p ; nd
b the p ment of ths debt s me nt the punshment of the gult. For
lthough the Egpt ns, s we le rn from Dodorus Sculus, m nt ned

th t nether the person, nor lbert of n one ought to be bound or

constr ned for debt, there s nothng n t repugn nt to the l w
of n ture, nd b the pr ctce not onl of the Greeks, but of other
n tons, the opposte opnon seems to h ve been est blshed.
Arstocr tes, who w s contempor r wth Demosthenes h d m de moton
for decree, th t f n one klled Ch rdemus, t mght be l wful
to seze hm, wherever he w s to be found, nd th t n one, who
ttempted to rescue th t person, should be deemed n enem. Demosthenes
fnds f ult wth m n p rts of ths decree. For n the frst pl ce,
Arstocr tes h d omtted m kng proper dstncton between murder nd
l wful puttng to de th, the l tter of whch s n ct of justce:
n the next pl ce, he h s s d nothng of brngng the person to
regul r tr l: besdes, t w s not the persons, mong whom the murder
h d been commtted, but those who fterw rds receved the murderer,
th t were to be decl red enemes. Demosthenes s s, th t "the regul r
l w prescrbes, th t f the persons n whose dstrct murder h s
been commtted, nether punsh, nor delver up the perpetr tor of the
crme, three of ther people sh ll be l ble to be sezed. But ths
decree, llowng the persons n whose dstrct t h s been commtted to
esc pe wth mpunt, not even n mng THEM, p sses sentence upon those,
who n conformt to the common l ws of hum nt h ve receved the
fugtve, f the do not delver hm up, whch would be bre ch of the
protecton due to suppl nt."
The fourth pont, n whch he bl mes Arstocr tes, s for h vng
c rred m tters to the extremtes of open nd ctu l w r, n c se,
where the l w onl uthorzed the sezure nd detenton of p rtcul r
persons. Of these rguments, the frst, the second, nd the fourth,
re b no me ns desttute of weght. But the thrd rgument, unless t
be confned entrel to the crcumst nce of ccdent l de th, or th t
necess rl occ soned b defendng one's self, m  be reg rded more
s n or torc l floursh th n just nd sold re son. For the l w of
n tons extends the prvleges, nd ch r cter of suppl nts to those
onl, who h ve left ther countr on ccount of msfortune, nd not
owng to crmes. Indeed f the l w of n tons m de no such dstncton,
the persons, mong whom crme h s been commtted, nd who m  be
suspected of h vng counten nced the deed, nd those who b rel refuse
to punsh or delver up the gult fugtve, would be upon n equ l
footng s to rght. So th t t w s ether USAGE, whch GRADUALLY
ntroduced the bove nterpret ton of th t l w, to whch Demosthenes
ppe ls, or t w s fterw rds more EXPRESSLY ESTABLISHED, n order
to vod such c vls. For no one c n den the truth of one of these
postons who h s ttended to the observ ton of Julus Pollux, th t
"the sezure nd det nder of persons c n be enforced, whenever power
c nnot obt n the surrender of fugtve murderers, whch the dem nd.
In ths c se the ggreved power or ndvdu l m  seze nd det n n
three of the people belongng to the st te, whch refuses to m ke th t
surrender."
It s upon the s me prncple th t n power m  det n the subjects of
nother st te, n order to procure the rele se of n subjects of her
own, unjustl sezed, nd mprsoned b th t st te.
IV. Another method of obt nng redress for n vol ton of persons,
or propert s b h vng recourse to wh t, n modern l ngu ge, re
c lled REPRISALS, whch the S xons nd Angles denomn ted WITHERNAM,
nd to whch the French g ve the n me of LETTERS OF MARQUE, nd those
were usu ll obt ned from the crown.

V. It s gener ll understood th t recourse m  be h d to ths method

of redress not onl g nst foregn ggressor, but lso g nst
debtor, f justce c nnot be obt ned n due tme: but n NOTORIOUS
c ses, whch dmt of no doubt, ths rght m  be enforced even beond
the strct letter of the l w. For even n DOUBTFUL m tters, the
presumpton wll lw s be n f vour of judges pponted b publc
uthort. For t s unlkel th t the should GREATLY, or WANTONLY
exceed ther power; espec ll when, f so nclned, the h ve not the
s me me ns of enforcng ther decrees g nst foregners, s g nst
ther fellow subjects. Indeed even n dsputes between subjects of
the s me countr, the c nnot nnul just debt. PAULUS, the L wer,
s s th t REAL DEBTOR, though dsch rged, owng to some nform lt
or n blt of the l w to enforce p ment, stll rem ns debtor
ccordng to the l w of n ture.
And when, n consequence of judc l sentence, credtor, under
pretext of sezng hs own propert, h d t ken from debtor somethng
whch dd not belong to hm though t w s n hs possesson: upon the
dsch rge of the debt, doubt rsng whether the thng should be
restored to the debtor, Sc evol m nt ned th t t cert nl ought to
be restored.
There s dfference between the two c ses. For subjects, AS SUCH,
c nnot m ke n volent resst nce to the executon of sentence,
whch the m  not deem s tsf ctor, nor c n the prosecute n rght
n opposton to the l w. FOREIGNERS m  use volent me ns to enforce
rght: tho' the re not justfed n usng such me ns, whle there s
n possblt of obt nng redress n leg l, nd pe ce ble m nner.
It s on such grounds th t reprs ls re m de upon the persons nd
propert of the subjects, belongng to power, who refuses to gr nt
redress nd rep r ton for njures nd ggressons. It s pr ctce
not lter ll en cted b the l w of n ture, but gener ll receved
through custom. It s pr ctce too of the gre test ntqut: for n
the eleventh book of the Il d, we fnd Nestor gvng n ccount of
the reprs ls, whch he h d m de upon the Epe n n ton, from whom he
took gre t number of c ttle, s s tsf cton for prze whch hs
f ther Neleus h d won t the El n g mes; nd for debts due to m n
prv te subjects of the Pl n kngdom. Out of ths boot the kng
h vng selected hs own due, equt bl dvded the rest mong the other
credtors.
VI. It h s been receved opnon wth m n n tons, th t reprs ls
mght be m de even upon the LIVES of nnocent subjects, owng to the
rght, whch t w s supposed th t ever one h d over hs own lfe,
nd whch mght be tr nsferred from the ndvdu l to the st te. A
doctrne, whch, s t w s proved n the frst book of ths tre tse,
c n never be reconcled ether to sound relgon or mor lt. Indeed
person m  ACCIDENTALLY, though not INTENTIONALLY be klled b us
n ttemptng to prevent hm from volentl obstructng us n the
prosecuton of l wful rght. Yet f such n ccdent l c l mt could
be foreseen, the l w of ch rt, settng so pre-emnent v lue upon
the lfe of m n, would n such c se prescrbe the forbe r nce of our
rght.
VII. But on ths, s well s other ponts, we must t ke c re not to
confound the n tur l nd fund ment l l w of n tons, wth the cvl nd
conventon l l w of p rtcul r st tes.
B the l w of n tons ll the perm nent subjects, both n tves nd

settlers, of n offendng st te or soveregn re l ble to suffer

reprs ls: but the s me rule does not bnd those, who re p ssng
through countr, or onl resdng n t for tme. For such
reprs ls re knd of pledges, lke publc burdens, m de nswer ble
for the publc debts, from whch foregners, beng tempor r resdents,
though owng obedence to the l ws, re tot ll exempt.
In the s me m nner, Amb ss dors, but not those sent from n enem to
our enemes, nd ther propert, re exempt from such condtons b the
l w of n tons. B the CIVIL LAW too of m n countres n excepton s
m de n f vour of women nd chldren, of men of letters, nd those who
re tr vellng for the purposes of tr de. But b the l w of NATIONS
the goods of ll re l ble to reprs ls, s w s the c se t Athens,
respectng the sezure of persons. In m n pl ces, b the cvl l w,
the rght of m kng reprs ls s obt ned of the soveregn, nd n
others, of the judges.
B the l w of n tons the propert of ll c ptures s devoted to
dsch rge the debt, nd defr  the expenses ncurred, the rem nder of
whch, fter due s tsf cton obt ned, nd pe ce concluded, should
be restored. B the cvl l w the persons nterested re summoned
to ppe r, the propert s sold b publc uthort, nd the mone,
ccrung from thence, dvded mong ll who re enttled to sh re of
the s me. But these nd other ponts of the s me knd re to be le rned
from cvl ns, who re convers nt n such m tters, nd p rtcul rl
from B rtolus, who h s wrtten upon reprs ls. Ths subject m  be
closed wth one observ ton, th t wll n some me sure tend to soften
the rgour of ths stern, but necess r rght, nd th t observ ton
s, th t such s b not dsch rgng debt, or gr ntng redress, h ve
occ soned reprs ls to be m de, re bound, n justce nd honour, to
m ke good the losses of those, who h ve thereb suffered.

CHAPTER III.
ON JUST OR SOLEMN WAR ACCORDING TO THE LAW OF NATIONS ON DECLARATIONS
OF WAR.
Solemn w r, ccordng to the L w of N tons between dfferent
st tes--A people, though eng ged n unjust w r, to be
dstngushed from pr tes nd robbers--Ch nge n the condton
of bellgerents--Form l w r c n be m de b the Soveregn power
lone--Decl r ton of w r--The L w of N ture, L w of N tons,
respectng the s me--Decl r ton, condton l, bsolute--Forms of
decl r ton ntroduced b the cvl l w--W r decl red g nst
Soveregn ncludes hs subjects, nd lles--The re son wh lles
re ncluded--Decl r tons, wh necess r to est blsh cert n
effects--Whether ctu l w rf re mmed tel follows decl r ton,
consdered--Whether the vol ton of n Amb ss dor's rghts to be
just ground of w r.
I. In the frst book of ths tre tse t w s observed, th t ccordng
to the best wrters, w r s defned to be just, not on ccount of the
CAUSES solel, n whch t orgn tes, nor on ccount of the MAGNITUDE
of ts objects, but from cert n, pecul r, effects of rght, wth
whch t s ttended.

But to wh t knd of w r such n ppell ton most dul belongs wll be

best understood b consderng the defnton, whch the Rom n L wers
h ve gven of PUBLIC or NATIONAL enem. "Those, _s s Pomponus_, re
PUBLIC nd LAWFUL ENEMIES, wth whose STATE our own s eng ged n w r:
but enemes of ever other descrpton, come under the denomn ton of
pr tes nd robbers." Wth th t opnon Ulp n entrel ccords, m kng
n ddton l observ ton, th t "f n one be t ken b robbers, s he
s not l wful prsoner of w r, he c nnot cl m of hs own st te the
rght of postlmnum. But f he be t ken prsoner b publc enem of
the st te, beng consdered s prsoner of w r, he s enttled b the
rght of postlmnum to be restored to hs former condton."
These opnons re supported b th t of P ulus, who m nt ns, th t
persons c ptured b pr tes stll contnue free, th t s, re not to
be consdered s prsoners, for whom n exch nge m  be dem nded. So
th t b the opnon of the Rom n L wers t s evdent, th t no w r
s consdered to be l wful, regul r, nd form l, except th t whch s
begun nd c rred on b the soveregn power of e ch countr. Ccero, n
hs fourth Phlppc, descrbes " publc nd uthorsed enem to be
the person, who possesses the cvl nd mlt r powers of the st te,
who c n comm nd the tre sur, nd the servces of the people n support
of hs me sures, nd who, s occ sons offer, h s power to conclude
tre tes of pe ce nd mt."
II. A st te, though t m  commt some ct of ggresson, or njustce,
does not thereb lose ts poltc l c p ct, nor c n b nd of pr tes
or robbers ever become st te, lthough the m  preserve mong
themselves th t degree of subordn ton, whch s bsolutel necess r
to the subsstence of ll socet. For wth the l tter, the commsson
of crme s the SOLE bond of unon, where s the former, though not
lw s free from bl me, but occ son ll dev tng from the l ws of
n ture, whch n m n c ses h ve been n gre t me sure oblter ted,
stll regul te ther conduct b the tre tes, whch the h ve m de,
nd cert n customs th t h ve been est blshed, beng unted mong
themselves for the mutu l support of l wful rghts, nd connected wth
foregn st tes b known rules of st ndng polt.
The Schol st, upon Thucddes, rem rks th t the Greeks, t the tme
when pr c w s reckoned l wful, forebore commttng m ss cres, or
nghtl depred tons, nd c rrng off the oxen th t were necess r
for the plough. We re nformed b Str bo, th t other n tons too, who
lved b plunder, fter the h d returned home from ther pred tor
vo ges, sent mess ges to the owners, whom the h d plundered, to know
f the would redeem the c ptures t f r prce.
In mor ls, the whole sstem often derves ts n me from some one of the
prncp l p rts, s Ccero rem rks, n the ffth book of hs BOUNDS
of GOOD nd EVIL, nd G len observes th t mxture s often c lled
b the n me of ts chef ngredent. So th t Ccero s not ltogether
correct n s ng, th t st te s not merel dse sed, but entrel
destroed, b the njustce of ts component nd le dng members. For
morbd bod s stll bod, nd st te, though dre dfull dse sed,
s stll poltc l beng, s long s ts l ws nd trbun ls nd other
necess r p rts of ts consttuton rem n, to dmnster justce nd
gve redress to foregners, no less th n to prv te subjects n ther
ctons g nst e ch other.
There s be utful observ ton n Don Chrsostom, who comp res the
l w of st te, p rtcul rl th t br nch of t rel tng to the l w of
n tons, to the bod nm ted b the soul, upon the dep rture of whch

the corpore l fr me becomes m ss of lfeless cl : n the s me m nner

poltc l socet c nnot subsst wthout the gudng nd controulng
prncple of l w. Arstdes, encour gng the Rhod ns to h rmon,
observes, th t even under tr nnc l government m n good l ws m  be
found.
These re ponts, whch m  be cle red up b ex mples. Thus Ulp n
m nt ns th t those who re c ptured b pr tes c nnot be consdered
s prsoners of w r: but f c ptured b the Germ ns, for nst nce,
or n n ton l enem, the lose ther lbert for tme. But the
Germ ns, s we re nformed b C es r, thought cts of plunder, f
commtted n foregn terrtor, no dsgr ce. T ctus s s th t the
C tt ns, noble r ce of people n Germ n, nd the G r m nt ns were
ddcted to the s me h bts of plunder, et stll ret ned ther r nk
mong st tes.--Such s the dfference between n ton l nd poltc l
bod, nd b nd of men untng together SOLELY FOR THE COMMISSION OF
CRIMES.
III. A ch nge m  occur not onl n the stu tons of ndvdu ls, s
n those of Jephth h, Ars ces, nd Vr tus, who, from beng le ders
of volunt r b nds, bec me l wful comm nders; but the s me h s lso
h ppened wth respect to whole communtes, whch beng orgn ll
composed of nothng but freebooters h ve, b the gr du l course nd
ch nges of tme, rsen to the r nk nd dgnt of st tes.
IV. Wh t h s been s d wth respect to the rght of m kng form l nd
l wful w r, beng vested n the soveregn power lone, ncludes those
who h ve n sh re n the soveregn power, s the dfferent communtes
formng the St tes Gener l of m n commonwe lths. The s me rule wll
hold good of those, who re not SUBJECTS of superor st te, but
joned to t n confeder c b n unequ l tre t: nnumer ble nst nces
of whch re to be found n hstor. Ths w s the c se between the
Rom ns nd ther lles, the Volsc ns, the L tns, nd the Sp n rds:
nd ll whom we re d of beng eng ged n w rs, whch were consdered s
l wful nd just.
V. But to m ke w r just, ccordng to ths me nng, t must not onl
be c rred on b the soveregn uthort on both sdes, but t must
lso be dul nd form ll decl red, nd decl red n such m nner, s
to be known to e ch of the bellgerent powers. Ccero, n the frst
book of hs offces, ponts out "the equt of the rules prescrbed
b the Rom n L w for the decl r ton of w r, from whence t m  be
concluded th t no w r s regul r or just, but such s s undert ken to
compel resttuton, nd to procure ndemnt for njures, nd th t too
ccomp ned wth form l decl r ton." Lv lso n the s me m nner
deems n observ nce of these rules requste to form the ch r cterstc
of just w r. And descrbng n ncurson of the Ac rn n ns nto
Attc , nd ther r v gng the countr, he s s th t "those cts of
rrt ton ended n decl r ton of JUST nd REGULAR w r on both
sdes."
VI. In order to underst nd ll these ponts cle rl respectng the
decl r ton of w r, n ccur te dstncton must be m de between the
prncples, whch re founded on the l w of n ture tself, nd those,
whch, though not derved mmed tel from th t source, re stll found
to be just: t wll be necess r lso to ex mne, wh t s requred b
the l w of n tons tow rds obt nng, IN WAR, ll the consequences,
prvleges nd effects of th t l w, nd, t the s me tme, to
nvestg te the consequences nd rghts rsng from the pecul r l ws
nd customs of p rtcul r n tons.

To repel force, or to punsh delnquent, the l w of n ture requres

no decl r ton. And, s Thucddes rel tes, Sthenel d s, one of the
Ephor, m nt ns th t "where we h ve been njured, not b WORDS, but
b ACTIONS, the m tter c nnot be decded b WORDS nd FORMS." And
Ael n, fter Pl to, observes th t t s not the decl r ton of the
Her ld, but the voce nd l w of n ture, whch procl m w r, undert ken
to repel force. Hence Don Chrsostom, n ddressng the Ncomed ns,
s s th t m n w rs re begun wthout n decl r ton.
Upon the s me ground Lv condemns the conduct of Menppus, gener l
belongng to Antochus for h vng klled some Rom n ctzens before
n decl r ton of w r h d been m de, or even before sword h d
been dr wn, or drop of blood splt, to shew th t hostltes
were ntended. B ths objecton he proves th t ether form l
decl r ton, or some ct ndc tve of hostltes w s deemed requste
to justf ctu l w rf re.
Nether, f we follow the l w of n ture, s there n more occ son for
notce or decl r ton, where n owner ntends to l  h nds upon HIS
OWN PROPERTY. But whenever one thng s t ken n return for nother,
or the propert of debtor s sezed for the recover of debt, nd,
espec ll, f n one ntends sezng the propert of those, who re
subjects to the debtor, form l dem nd must be m de, s proof th t
recourse to such securt s the onl me ns left of obt nng redress
nd s tsf cton. Such dem nd s necess r bec use th t s not
PRIMARY nd ORIGINAL rght, but SECONDARY rght, SUBSTITUTED n the
pl ce of the prm r nd orgn l, b the rtfc l rules of cvl l w.
In the s me m nner to justf n tt ck upon soveregn power for the
ggressons nd debts of ts subjects, prevous remonstr nce, nd
proper dem nd of justce must be m de to th t power. For t s onl b
refusng to punsh the gult, or to gr nt ndemnt to the njured,
th t st tes or soveregns c n be mplc ted n the msconduct of ther
subjects.[60] But even where the l w of n ture does not drectl
prescrbe th t such remonstr nce or dem nd should be m de, et the
common prncples of hum nt nd equt wll recommend the[61] use
of n me ns, th t m  prevent recourse to the c l mtes of w r. The
comm ndment gven b God to the Hebrews, to send mess ge of pe ce to
n st te or ct, before the beg n n ntended tt ck, w s desgned
s spec l comm nd to th t people, et some h ve confounded t wth
the gener l l w of n tons. For t w s not ANY knd of pe ce th t w s
me nt b th t njuncton, but onl such pe ce s mposed terms of
SUBJECTION nd TRIBUTE. We re nformed b Xenophon, th t when Crus
went nto the countr of the Armen ns, he sent messengers to the kng,
to dem nd the trbute nd number of troops, whch h d been stpul ted
b tre t.
But to obt n the pecul r rghts nd consequences resultng from the
l w of n tons, decl r ton of w r b one of the p rtes, t le st,
f not b both, s bsolutel requste n ll c ses.
VII. Those decl r tons re ether condton l or bsolute. A
condton l decl r ton s th t whch s coupled wth dem nd of
resttuton or redress. Under the n me of resttuton, the FECIAL LAW
of Rome, th t s the LAW RESPECTING DECLARATIONS OF WAR, comprehended
not onl the cl ms, whch OWNERSHIP est blshed, but the prosecuton
of EVERY rght rsng from crmn l or cvl c uses.
Hence the decl r tons were couched n terms, requrng restor ton,

s tsf cton, or surrender. Here, b the term, surrender, the p rt

ppe led to s understood to h ve the opton ether of punshng the
offender, hmself, or delverng hm up to the ggreved person. Ths
m nner of dem ndng resttuton s, ccordng to the testmon of
Pln, c lled CLARIGATION, th t s, LOUD nd FORMAL DEMAND. Lv
gves us n ex mple of condton l nd qu lfed decl r ton, wheren
the ggreved power denounces " determned resoluton to prosecute
her rghts wth the utmost volence, f the ggressor wll not m ke
rep r ton nd tonement for the njur he h s done." T ctus lso
rel tes the subst nce of dsp tch sent to C ecn b Germ ncus,
wheren he decl res, th t "f the rngle ders of the mutnous nd
rebellous legons re not mmed tel punshed, he wll dv nce wth
hs rm, nd put the whole to the sword."
An ABSOLUTE decl r ton of w r s ssued, where n power h s lre d
begun hostltes, or commtted cts whch c ll for exempl r
punshment. Sometmes ndeed condton l, s followed b n bsolute
w r, though n such c se the l tter s not ctu ll necess r, but
onl confrm ton of the former. Ths g ve rse to the form, whch
s s, " n ppe l s hereb m de g nst such people, s unjust nd
refusng to gr nt redress." There s nother form lso purportng,
th t "the prncp l her ld of the Rom n ctzens h s m de known to the
prncp l her ld of the ncent L tns, nd to the L tn people, th t
redress s dem nded of them b just nd l wful w r, on ccount of ll
the dsputes whch the h ve refused to settle, nd the ndemntes
whch the h ve been bound to gr nt, nd h ve refused; nd th t ths
s the onl me ns rem nng to recover ll th t h s been unjustl
det ned." There s lso thrd mode of decl r ton, whch runs n
the followng tenour; "Snce the ncent people of the L tns h ve
commtted ggressons g nst the people of Rome, the people of Rome,
wth the dvce nd consent of the sen te, decl re w r g nst them,
nd n the n me of the sen te nd people of Rome ther purpose s thus
publshed."
But th t n c se of RENEWED w rs such decl r ton s not bsolutel
necess r, ppe rs from the crcumst nce of ts beng m de n due form
t the ne rest g rrson, nd not PERSONALLY to the offender hmself,
ccordng to the nswer gven b the her lds, when the were consulted
n the c se of Phlp of M cedon, nd fterw rds respectng Antochus.
Where s decl r ton for the FIRST tme should be m de to the enem
hmself. Indeed n the w r g nst Prrhus the decl r ton w s m de
to one of hs solders, n the Fl mn n Crcus, where, s Servus
observes n hs notes on the sxth book of the Aened, he w s comm nded
to purch se pece of ground, s h ndle for dspute. A proof lso
th t IN SOME CASES decl r ton s superfluous m  be t ken from the
crcumst nce th t w r s frequentl decl red b BOTH SIDES, whch w s
done b the Corcr e ns nd Cornth ns n the Peloponnes n w r,
though decl r ton b one of the p rtes would h ve been suffcent.
VIII. As to the use of the c duceum, or st ff wth the fgure of two
sn kes twsted round t, whch mb ss dors c rred, when the sued
for pe ce, t w s ceremon pecul r to the GREEKS, nd not derved
from the GENERAL l w of n tons. The ROMANS n the s me m nner h d
p rtcul r customs, such s usng verv n n formng ll nces,
throwng blood spe r, s decl r ton of w r, renouncng ll
former frendshp nd ll nce t the expr ton of thrt d s, fter
s tsf cton h d been dem nded nd refused, nd g n throwng nother
spe r. None of these PECULIAR customs ought to be confounded wth the
GENERAL l w of n tons. For Arnobus nforms us, th t n hs tme m n
of them h d f llen nto dsuse, nd even n the tme of V rro some of

them were omtted. The thrd Punc w r ndeed w s not decl red tll the
moment of ts ctu l commencement.
IX. A decl r ton of w r, m de g nst soveregn, ncludes not onl
hs own subjects, but ll who re lkel to become hs ssoc tes, s
thereb the m ke themselves ccessores n the w r. And ths s wh t
the modern l wers me n, when the s  th t, n bddng def nce to
Prnce, we bd def nce to ll hs ssoc tes. For the gve the
n me of def nce to decl r ton of w r. B whch s understood the
w r c rred on wth the power g nst whom t h s been decl red. Thus
upon w r beng decl red g nst Antochus, there w s no occ son for
sep r te decl r ton g nst the Aetol ns, who h d openl joned
Antochus. For, s the her lds n ther nswer justl observed, the
Aetol ns h d, b th t ct, volunt rl brought w r upon themselves.
X. But f fter the concluson of such w r t should be deemed
expedent to tt ck n other n ton or kng for h vng furnshed
supples nd ssst nce tow rds th t w r, new decl r ton of w r
wll be necess r. For th t n ton or kng s then to be consdered,
not s n ccessor, but s prncp l enem. And therefore t w s
wth re son s d, th t the w r of M nlus g nst the G l t ns, nd
th t of C es r g nst Arovstus, were not just w rs ccordng to the
l w of n tons. For w r w s m de upon them not s ccessores, but s
prncp ls. So th t for ths purpose, s the l w of n tons would h ve
requred decl r ton, n the s me m nner the Rom n l w would h ve
requred new order of the Sen te.
For on the moton beng m de for the w r wth Antochus, the queston
w s lso put, whether t should not t the s me tme be m de wth hs
dherents. The s me rule lso beng observed g nst Kng Perseus, t
must be understood, s ncludng the dherents durng ll the tme th t
w r wth those prnces contnued; nd mplc tng ll, who n re lt
g ve them support.
XI. The re son wh decl r ton s necess r to consttute wh t s
deemed, ccordng to the l w of n tons, just w r, s not th t whch
some wrters ssgn. For the llege th t t s to prevent ever
ppe r nce of cl ndestne nd tre cherous de lng: n openness, whch
m  be dgnfed wth the n me of m gn nmt, r ther th n enttled
m tter of rght. On ths pont, we re nformed th t some n tons h ve
gone so f r, s to settle nd m ke known the ver tme nd pl ce of
gener l eng gement.
But w vng ll conjecture, more s tsf ctor re son m  be found n
the necesst th t t should be known for CERTAIN, th t w r s not
the PRIVATE undert kng of bold ADVENTURERS, but m de nd s nctoned
b the PUBLIC nd SOVEREIGN uthort on both sdes; so th t t s
ttended wth the effects of bndng ll the subjects of the respectve
st tes;-- nd t s ccomp ned lso wth other consequences nd rghts,
whch do not belong to w rs g nst pr tes, nd to cvl w rs.
XII. There s much truth ndeed n the observ tons, whch some h ve
m de, nd whch the h ve produced ex mples to confrm, th t even n
w rs of ths knd ll c ptures become the l wful prze of the c ptors.
Yet ths s onl p rt ll true, nd th t too, ccordng to the l w
of n ture, nd not ccordng to the volunt r l w of n tons. For the
l tter onl m kes provson to secure the rghts of n tons, s WHOLE
communtes, nd not of those, who, s n cvl w rs, form but ONE PART
of n ton.

The s me wrters re mst ken too n the supposton th t defensve

w rs requre no decl r ton. For t s no less necess r to shew b
w  of vndc ton th t t s defensve w r, nd t the s me tme
b publc decl r ton to gve t the ch r cter of n ton l nd
l wful w r, n order to est blsh those rghts nd consequences, th t
h ve been lre d mentoned, nd whch wll here fter be more full
expl ned.
XIII. The m nt n nother poston lso, whch s b no me ns
true, nd th t s, th t power ought not IMMEDIATELY to follow up
decl r ton of w r wth ctu l hostltes, s Crus dd to the
Armen ns, nd the Rom ns to the C rth gn ns. For the l w of n tons
requres the nterventon of no DEFINITE tme between the decl r ton
nd the commencement of w r.
There m  ndeed be some c ses, where n tur l justce wll render such
del  proper. Thus, for nst nce, where rep r ton for njur, or
the punshment of ggressors s dem nded, t s but re son ble to w t
tll t c n be known, whether the just dem nd wll be compled wth or
rejected.
XIV. In order to est blsh the s me consequences, decl r ton wll
be equ ll necess r too, where the rghts of Amb ss dors h ve been
vol ted. Yet t wll be suffcent for t to be m de n the m nner,
n whch t m  be done wth the gre test s fet. As n m n other
m tters, n pl ces whch fford no securt, s tsf cton s dem nded
b denunc ton or summons.

CHAPTER IV.
ON THE RIGHT OF KILLING AN ENEMY IN LAWFUL WAR, AND COMMITTING OTHER
ACTS OF HOSTILITY.
Gener l expl n ton of the effects of form l w r--Dstncton between
l wful nd nnocent mpunt--Mert of the l tter--Ex mples
dded to expl n t--Gener l effects of former w r consdered
wth respect to l wful mpunt--The re son of ther
ntroducton--Hstorc l testmones--B ths rght ll persons,
found wthn n enem's terrtor, objects of hostlt--Also ll
gong thther before the w r--The subjects of n enem l ble to
be sezed everwhere, except protected b the l ws of neutr l
terrtor--C se of women nd chldren--C se of prsoners--Of those
whose volunt r offer of surrender s rejected--Uncondton l
surrender--Ret l ton--Obstn te defence--Host ges.
I. Servus n hs comment on the p ss ge of Vrgl, where th t poet
s s th t w r "wll uthorse mutu l cts of destructon nd r pne,"
n tr cng the fec l or her ld's l w to Ancus M rtus, nd even beond
hm to stll more remote perod, rem rks th t, "f ever the persons
or propert of subjects, belongng to the Rom n st te, were sezed
nd c rred off b n other n ton, the prncp l Her ld, or Kng t
rms went out wth the s cred mnsters, who presded t the m kng of
solemn tre tes, nd proceedng to the verge of the terrtores of the
offendng n ton, decl red wth loud voce the c use of the w r, nd
the refus l of th t n ton ether to restore wh t h d been sezed, or

to delver up the ggressors to justce. After ths he threw spe r to

ndc te th t w r nd ll ts consequences were from th t moment begun."
The comment tor h d prevousl observed th t the ncents g ve the n me
of r pne to ever ct of hostlt even where there w s no ct of
plunder commtted; nd the lkewse c lled ever knd of resttuton
s tsf cton.
B ths expl n ton we le rn th t whenever w r s procl med between
two st tes or soveregns, t s ccomp ned wth cert n rghts or
consequences, whch do not NECESSARILY belong to w r tself. And ths
s perfectl conform ble to the ex mples from the Rom n L wers, whch
h ve been before produced.
II. But t wll be proper to consder how f r the l wfulness, whch
Vrgl spe ks of, extends. For the term l wful sometmes mples
wh tever s just nd pous n ll respects, lthough the pursut of
dfferent course m  perh ps be more l ud ble: ccordng to the
expresson of St. P ul, who s s, " ll thngs re l wful to me, but
ll thngs re not expedent." Ulp n s spe kng of seller, who, t
the expr ton of cert n perod, s not nswer ble for the s fet
of goods, whch buer h s neglected to t ke w , s s he, wll et
thnk hmself bound n EQUITY to preserve them wth ll m gn ble
c re. On some occ sons when t s s d, th t men m  LAWFULLY do
thng, the expresson onl me ns th t dong such ct wll not subject
them to hum n nd leg l pen ltes, but t b no me ns ndc tes
th t the cton s strctl conform ble to the rule of relgon nd
mor lt. Thus mong the L ced emon ns nd Egpt ns ste lng w s
llowed: n ndulgence th t b no me ns took w  the GUILT of theft.
Ccero n the ffth of hs Tuscul n questons, spe kng of Cnn ,
be utfull nd justl ponts out ths buse of the word, LAWFUL. "He
seems to me, _s s he_, wretched m n ndeed for h vng done those
cts, nd for h vng been n stu ton, where the mght be thought
l wful. It c n never be l wful for n m n to do wrong: but we f ll
nto gre t mst ke n the use of th t word: for we consder thng
to be l wful, whch n one m  do wth mpunt." Ths s the me nng,
n whch the term s gener ll understood, s the s me or tor, n
ddressng the judges n beh lf of R brus Posthumus, observes, "t
behoves ou to consder, wh t s becomng our ch r cter, nd not wh t
the rgour of the l w llows ou to nflct. For f ou consult the
full extent of our uthort, ou m  m ke w  wth n ctzen ou
ple se."
In the s me m nner legsl tors, s t w s proved n former book of
ths tre tse, re not ccount ble, n ther legsl tve c p ct, to
n hum n trbun l, for the l ws, whch the m ke, et the c nnot, n
mor l pont of vew, v l themselves of ths tr nscendent power to
en ct thng th t s evdentl unjust. In ths sense we often meet
wth dstncton m de between wh t s proper or rght, nd wh t s
l wful. Thus Ccero, n hs speech for Mlo, m kes the LAW OF NATURE
the st nd rd of wh t s RIGHT, nd LEGAL AUTHORITY, the st nd rd of
wh t s l wful.
III. Thus qu lfed, the nno nce of n enem, ether n hs person or
propert, s l wful. Ths rght extends not onl to the power eng ged
n just w r, nd who n her hostltes confnes herself wthn
the pr ctce est blshed b the l w of n ture, but e ch sde wthout
dstncton h s rght to emplo the s me me ns of nno nce. So th t
n one t ken n rms, even n nother's terrtor, c nnot be tre ted

 s robber, m lef ctor, or murderer, nor c n even th t neutr l power,

n whose terrtor he s t ken, tre t hm s n enem, for beng found
n rms.
IV. Ths prncple w s est blshed b n tons to prevent others from
nterferng n ther dsputes, or gvng the l w to them respectng the
rghts of w r. Besdes, f ths were not the c se, neutr l powers would
frequentl be nvolved n the w rs of others. A re son whch the people
of M rselles urged n the dspute between C es r nd Pompe. The
lleged th t the h d nether suffcent judgment to determne on whch
sde justce l , nor, f the could determne, h d the strength to
gve effect to ther decsons.
A spect tor ndeed s but ll qu lfed to judge, how f r, even n
the most just w r, self-defence, the tt nment of ndemnt, or the
punshment of n ggressor, m  be c rred. These re ponts, whch,
on m n, f not most, occ sons must be left to the conscence nd
dscreton of the bellgerents themselves: mode f r prefer ble to
th t of ppe lng to the med ton, nd decson of dsnterested
nd neutr l powers. Lv h s gven n ddress of the Ach e ns to the
sen te, n whch the sk, "how ther v lng themselves of the rghts
of w r c n ever be f rl c lled n queston, or m de subject of
dscusson?"
Besdes the mpunt ttendng cert n ctons done n w r, the
cquston of terrtor b the rght of conquest s nother topc of
consder ton, whch wll here fter be ex mned.
V. The l wfulness of njurng or destrong the person of publc
enem s supported b the testmon of m n of the best wrters, both
poets, mor lsts, nd hstor ns. In one of the tr gedes of Eurpdes,
there s proverb, whch s s, th t "to kll publc enem, or n
enem n w r s no murder." Therefore the custom of the ncent
Greeks, whch rendered t unl wful nd mpous to use the s me b th,
or to p rt ke of the s me festvtes nd s cred rtes wth person
who h d klled nother n tme of pe ce, dd not extend to n one who
h d klled publc enem n w r. Kllng n enem s ndeed everwhere
c lled rght of w r. "The rghts of w r, _s s M rcellus n Lv_,
support me n ll th t I h ve done g nst the enem." And the s me
hstor n gves the ddress of Alcon to the S guntnes, where he s s,
"You ought to be r these h rdshps, r ther th n suffer our own bodes
to be m ngled, nd our wves nd chldren to be sezed nd dr gged
w  before our ees." Ccero n hs speech n defence of M rcellus
p sses hgh encomum upon the clemenc of C es r, who, "b the l ws
of w r nd the rghts of vctor, mght h ve put to de th ll, whom
he h d sp red nd protected." And C es r observes to the Edu ns, th t
"t w s n ct of kndness n HIM, to sp re those whom the l ws of w r
would h ve uthorsed hm to put to de th."
But the rghts of w r, for whch these wrters ple d, could not
PERFECTLY JUSTIFY the puttng prsoners to de th, but could onl gr nt
IMPUNITY to those who v led themselves of the b rb rous custom. There
s wde dfference however between ctons lke these, nd destrong
n enem b proper me ns of hostlt. For, s T ctus s s, "n the
lesure hours of pe ce the merts nd demerts of ever c se m  be
ex mned nd weghed, but, n the tumult nd confuson of w r, the
nnocent must f ll wth the gult": nd the s me wrter, n nother
pl ce, observes, th t "there re m n ctons, whch the prncples
of hum nt c nnot ENTIRELY pprove, but whch the polc of w r
requres." And t s n ths, nd no other sense th t Luc n h s s d,

"the complexon of rght m  be ssgned to wh t s wrong."

VI. Ths rght of m kng l wful wh t s done n w r s of gre t extent.
For n the frst pl ce t comprses, n the number of enemes, not onl
those who ctu ll be r rms, or who re mmed tel subjects of the
bellgerent power, but even ll who re wthn the hostle terrtores,
s ppe rs from the form gven b Lv, who s s, th t "w r s decl red
g nst the soveregn, nd ll wthn hs jursdcton." For whch
ver good re son m  be ssgned; bec use d nger s to be pprehended
even from THEM, whch, n contnued nd regul r w r, est blshes the
rght now under dscusson.
Reprs ls do not come ex ctl under the s me rule. For lke t xes,
the were ntroduced for the dsch rge of publc debts, for no p rt
of whch tempor r resdents, or foregners re nswer ble. Therefore
B ldus s rght n hs observ ton, th t, fter w r s ctu ll begun,
much gre ter l ttude s llowed, th n n the b re rght of m kng
reprs ls. So th t wh t s s d of foregners, who enter nto n
enem's countr, nd resde there, fter w r s vowedl decl red nd
begun, s undoubtedl true.
VII. But persons, who h d gone to resde there before the w r w s
begun, seem b the l w of n tons to be ncluded n the number of
enemes, unless wthn re son ble tme the chuse to wthdr w. So
th t the Corcr e ns, when gong to besege Epd mnus, g ve le ve to
ll str ngers to wthdr w, denouncng th t the would otherwse be
tre ted s enemes.
VIII. But the persons of n tur l-born subjects, who owe perm nent
lleg nce to hostle power m , ccordng to the l w of n tons, be
tt cked, or sezed, wherever the re found. For whenever, s t w s
s d before, w r s decl red g nst n power, t s t the s me tme
decl red g nst ll the subjects of th t power. And the l w of n tons
uthorses us to tt ck n enem n ever pl ce: An opnon supported
b most leg l uthortes: thus M rc n s s "th t deserters m  be
klled n the s me m nner s enemes, wherever the re found." The
m  be l wfull klled there, or n ther own countr, n the enem's
countr, n countr belongng to no one, or on the se . But s to
the unl wfulness of kllng, or volentl molestng them n neutr l
terrtor, ths protecton does not result from n person l prvleges
of THEIR OWN, but from the rghts of the SOVEREIGN of th t countr.
For ll cvl socetes h d n undoubted rght to est blsh t s
st ndng m xm th t no volence should be offered to n person wthn
ther terrtores, nor n punshment nflcted but b due process of
l w. For where trbun ls ret n ther uthort n full vgour, to tr
the merts of ever offence, nd, fter mp rt l nqur, to cqut
the nnocent, or condemn the gult, the power of the sword must be
restr ned from nflctng promscuous de th.
Lv mentons the crcumst nce of seven C rth gn n g lles rdng
t nchor n port belongng to Sph x, who w s then t pe ce wth
the C rth gn ns nd Rom ns. Scpo rrved t th t tme, wth two
g lles, whch mght h ve been tt cked nd sunk b the C rth gn ns,
before the could enter the port: brsk wnd rsng c rred them n,
before the C rth gn ns could wegh nchor; but out of respect to the
kng's uthort the durst not tt ck the Rom ns n hs h rbour.
IX. But to return to the subject, whch s, to decde how f r the
power of l wfull destrong n enem, nd ll th t belong to hm,
extends. An extent of whch we m  form some concepton from the ver

crcumst nce, th t even women nd chldren re frequentl subject to

the c l mtes nd ds sters of w r. There s no occ son to llege
n ths pl ce, s n ex mple, the conduct of the Hebrews, who slew
the women nd chldren of the Heshbontes, nd who were comm nded to
execute venge nce upon the C n ntes, nd upon ll, who were nvolved
n the s me gult. Those ex mples, where God MANIFESTLY nterposes hs
comm nds, re not to be dr wn nto precedent for uthorsng ctons
of the SAME knd on DIFFERENT occ sons. For the supreme nd dsposng
power of God c n never properl be comp red wth th t, whch men re
llowed to exercse over e ch other. The Ps lmst's expresson of the
B blon n chldren beng d shed g nst the stones s much stronger
proof of the custom commonl prev lng mong n tons, n the use of
vctor, to whch the l ngu ge of Homer be rs close resembl nce,
where the poet s s, th t "n the cruel r ge of w r, even the bodes of
nf nt-chldren were d shed g nst the ground." Thucddes rel tes,
th t when Mc lessus w s c ptured b the Thr c ns, the put ll,
even women nd chldren to the sword. Arr n rel tes the s me of
the M cedon ns, when the took the ct of Thebes. And Germ ncus
C es r, ccordng to the ccount of T ctus, l d w ste whole c ntons
of the M rs ns, people of Germ n, wth fre nd sword, to whch
the hstor n dds, "wthout sp rng ether ge or sex." The Jewsh
women nd chldren too were exposed b Ttus, to be torn to peces b
wld be sts t publc spect cle. Yet nether of those gener ls were
thought defcent n hum nt, so much h d custom reconcled the mnds
of men to ths b rb rous us ge. So th t the m ss cre of the ged, lke
th t of Pr m b Prrhus, s no w  surprsng.
X. The rght of puttng prsoners of w r to de th, w s so gener ll
receved m xm, th t the Rom n S trst h s founded n d ge upon
t, nd s d, "th t when ou c n sell prsoner for sl ve, t would
be bsurd to kll hm." Words whch mpl the full power of dong so,
f the c ptor thought proper. The comment tors ndeed ssgn the ct
of s vng, s the derv ton of the L tn word, _servus_, sl ve.
Thus Thucddes spe ks of the prsoners t ken t Epd mnus, nd klled
b the Corcr e ns, nd H nnb l s reported to h ve m ss cred fve
thous nd prsoners t once. Nor w s ths power lmted b the l w of
n tons to n p rtcul r tme, though t w s controuled b gre ter
restrctons n some pl ces, th n n others.
XI. Besdes m n ex mples occur of suppl nts, beng klled. Both
ncent poets nd hstor ns rel te such ctons, s ordn r
pr ctces, uthorsed b the l ws of w r. Augustn commends the Goths
for sp rng suppl nts, who h d fled to churches for refuge, nd dds
b w  of comment, th t "the deemed t unl wful to v l themselves of
the power, whch h d usu ll been llowed b the l ws of w r."
Nor dd those who offered to surrender lw s experence the lent
nd merc, whch the sought thereb. T ctus rel tes, th t when the
ct of Uspes w s nvested, the beseged sent deput ton wth offers
of n mmed te surrender, nd of no less th n ten thous nd sl ves,
on condton th t the free-born should rem n unhurt. The terms were
rejected--A proof th t such rejecton w s thought conform ble to the
rghts of w r.
XII. But even fter n uncondton l surrender, we fnd th t those, who
h d c ptul ted were sometmes put to the sword. In ths m nner the
prnces of Pomet were tre ted b the Rom ns, the S mntes b Sll ,
the Numd ns nd Vercngetorx b C es r. It w s lmost st ndng
pr ctce wth the Rom ns to crown ther trumphs wth the de th of
n enem's gener ls, whether m de prsoners ctu ll n the feld,

or b c ptul ton. Ccero notces ths custom n hs ffth speech

g nst Verres. Lv m  be consulted on ths pont n m n p rts of
hs hstor, p rtcul rl n the twent-eghth book: nd T ctus lso
n the 12th book of hs Ann ls. The l tter wrter, n the frst book
of hs HISTORY, rel tes th t G lb ordered ever tenth m n of those,
whom he h d, upon ther e rnest supplc ton, dmtted to surrender,
to be behe ded: nd C ecn , fter the c ptul ton of Aventcum,
punshed Julus Alpnus, one of the le dng men, wth de th, s
chef promoter of the w r, le vng the rest to the merc or cruelt of
Vtellus.
XIII. Hstor ns sometmes ccount for ths rght of puttng enemes
to de th, espec ll prsoners, or suppl nts, ether on the score
of ret l ton, or for obstn te resst nce. These m  sometmes be
the re l, but c nnot be the JUSTIFIABLE motves of such proceedngs.
For the l w of ret l ton, strctl nd properl so c lled, must be
drectl enforced upon the person of the delnquent hmself. Where s,
n w r, wh t s c lled ret l ton frequentl redounds to the run of
those, who re no w  mplc ted n the bl me. The gener l consequences
of w r re thus descrbed b Dodorus Sculus, "the could not be
gnor nt, _s s he_, h vng le rnt from experence, th t ll beng
nvolved n the common fortune of w r, the re l ble on both sdes n
defe t, to suffer the s me c l mtes, whch the themselves would h ve
nflcted upon the conquered p rt."
But s the Ne polt ns repl to Bels rus, n Procopus, no one c n be
thought deservng of punshment for resolute dherence to the sde
on whch he s eng ged, espec ll when ctu ted b n tur l nd just
motves n hs choce of th t sde. So f r from ncurrng gult b such
resoluton, t s on the other h nd more crmn l for n one to
desert hs post: nd so t w s judged b the mlt r l ws of ncent
Rome. Lv s s, t w s c pt l offence, for whch no fe r of d nger
could be ple ded s n excuse. So th t n the rgd pplc ton of
ths rght, OWING TO ITS IMPORTANCE, ever one s left to use hs own
dscreton, nd there m  be tmes nd crcumst nces, n whch the l w
of n tons wll justf ts full exerton.
XIV. The s me rght w s exercsed upon host ges lso, not onl upon
those who h d bound themselves, s t were, b conventon, but even
upon those, who h d been delvered up b others. Two hundred nd fft
host ges were once m ss cred b the Thess l ns, nd the Volsc Aurunc
to the mount of three hundred b the Rom ns. It s to be observed
th t chldren were sometmes gven, s host ges, whch we fnd w s
done b the P rth ns, nd b Smon, who w s one of the M cc bees. And
n the tmes of Porsen t w s usu l to delver women, s host ges:
pr ctce, whch, s T ctus nforms us, w s followed b the Germ ns.
XV. As the l w of n tons permts m n thngs, n the m nner bove
expl ned, whch re not permtted b the l w of n ture, so t
prohbts some thngs whch the l w of n ture llows. Thus spes, f
dscovered nd t ken, re usu ll tre ted wth the utmost severt. Yet
there s no doubt, but the l w of n tons llows n one to send spes,
s Moses dd to the l nd of promse, of whom Joshu w s one.
Persons of th t descrpton m  sometmes be LAWFULLY emploed b
those, who re eng ged n n EVIDENTLY just w r. Others too, who h ve
not such evdent proofs of the justce of ther c use, m  ple d the
rghts of w r s vndc ton for emplong such persons.
But f n re to be found, who dsd n to v l themselves of such

 prvlege, or opportunt, no rgument ether FOR, or AGAINST the

LAWFULNESS of emplong spes c n be dr wn from ther conduct, whch
proceeds r ther from nobleness of mnd, nd confdence n open
strength, th n from n decded opnon upon the subject.

CHAPTER V.
ON THE RIGHT TO LAY WASTE AN ENEMY'S COUNTRY, AND CARRY OFF HIS EFFECTS.
An enem's propert m  be w sted nd plundered--Thngs deemed s cred,
how f r exempted--Str t gem, how f r permtted.
I. Ccero, n the thrd book of hs offces, h s s d th t there s
nothng repugn nt to the LAW OF NATURE n spolng the effects of n
enem, whom b the s me l w we re uthorzed to kll. Wherefore t s
not surprsng th t the s me thngs should be llowed b the LAW OF
NATIONS. Polbus, for ths re son, n the ffth book of hs hstor,
m nt ns, th t the l ws of w r uthorse the destructon of n enem's
forts, h rbours, nd fleets, the sezure of hs men, or c rrng off
the produce of hs countr, nd ever thng of th t descrpton. And we
fnd from Lv th t there re cert n rghts of w r, b whch n enem
must expect to suffer the c l mtes, whch he s llowed to nflct,
such s the burnng of corn, the destructon of houses, nd the plunder
of men nd c ttle. Almost ever p ge of hstor bounds n ex mples
of entre ctes beng destroed, w lls levelled to the ground, nd
even whole countres w sted b fre nd sword. Even n c ses of
surrender, towns h ve sometmes been destroed, whle the nh bt nts
were sp red-- n ex mple of whch s gven b T ctus, n the t kng of
Art x t b the Rom ns; the nh bt nts opened ther g tes nd were
sp red, but the town w s devoted to the fl mes.
II. Nor does the l w of n tons, n tself, consdered p rt from other
dutes, whch wll be mentoned here fter, m ke n exempton n f vour
of thngs deemed s cred. For when pl ces re t ken b n enem, ll
thngs wthout excepton, whether s cred or not, must f ll s crfce.
For whch t s ssgned s re son, th t thngs whch re c lled
s cred, re not ctu ll excepted from ll hum n uses, but re knd
of publc propert, c lled s cred ndeed from the gener l purposes, to
whch the re more mmed tel devoted. And s proof of ths, t s
usu l, when one n ton surrenders to nother st te or soveregn, to
surrender, long wth other rghts, ever thng of s cred knd, s
ppe rs b the form cted from Lv n former p rt of ths tre tse.
And therefore Ulp n s s, th t the publc h ve propert n s cred
thngs. Conform bl to whch T ctus s s, th t "n the It l n towns
ll the temples, the m ges of the Gods, nd ever thng connected
wth relgon belonged of rght to the Rom n people." For ths re son
n ton, s the L wers, P ulus nd Venuleus openl m nt n, m ,
under ch nge of crcumst nces, convert to secul r uses thngs, th t
h ve before been consecr ted: nd n overrulng necesst m  justf
the h nd, whch h s formerl consecr ted the object n emplong t s
one of the resources nd nstruments of w r. A thng whch Percles
once dd under pledge of m kng resttuton: M go dd the s me n
Sp n, nd the Rom ns n the Mthrd tc w r. We re d of the s me
ctons done b Sll , Pompe, C es r, nd others. Plut rch n hs lfe
of Tberus Gr cchus s s th t nothng s so s cred nd nvol ble,

 s dvne offerngs: et no one c n hnder these from beng removed

or ppled to other purposes t the ple sure of the st te. Thus Lv
mentons the orn ments of the temples, whch M rcellus brought from
Sr cuse to Rome, s cqustons m de b the rght of w r.
III. Wh t h s been s d of s cred thngs nd edfces pples lso to
nother knd of solemn f brcs, nd those re sepulchr l structures,
whch m  be consdered not merel s repostores of the de d, but s
monuments belongng to the lvng, whether f mles or st tes. For ths
re son Pomponus h s s d, th t these, lke ll other s cred pl ces,
when t ken b n enem m  lose ther nvol blt, nd P ulus s of
the s me opnon, observng th t we re not restr ned b n relgous
scruple from usng the sepulchres of n enem: for the stones, t ken
from thence, m  be ppled to n other purpose. But ths rght does
not uthorse w nton nsult, offered to the shes of the de d. For th t
would be vol ton of the solemn rghts of bur l, whch, s t w s
shewn n precedng p rt of ths work, were ntroduced nd est blshed
b the l w of n tons.
IV. Here t m  be brefl observed, th t, ccordng to the l w of
n tons n thng, belongng to n enem, m  be t ken not onl b open
force, but b str t gem, provded t be un ccomp ned wth tre cher.

CHAPTER VI.
ON THE ACQUISITION OF TERRITORY AND PROPERTY BY RIGHT OF CONQUEST.
L w of n ture wth respect to the cquston of thngs c ptured
n w r--L w of n tons on the s me subject--In wh t c ses the
l w of n tons confrms the c pture of thngs move ble--L nds
cqured b conquest--L wful prze c nnot be m de of thngs not
belongng to n enem--Goods found on bo rd n enem's shps--L w
of n tons uthorses the m kng prze of wh t n enem h s t ken
from others n w r--Soveregns m  cqure possesson nd domnon
through those emploed b them--Acts of hostlt dvded nto
publc nd prv te--Terrtor m  be cqured b soveregn or
people--Prv te nd publc c ptures expl ned--Dscreton r
power of gener ls n ths respect--Przes belong ether to the
tre sur, or to those, who t ke them--Pl ces sometmes gven up
to be plundered b the solder--Dfferent methods of dvdng
spols--Pecul ton, porton of the spols sometmes gven
to lles, who h ve supported the w r--Sometmes gven up to
subjects--Ths llustr ted b ex mples--Utlt of the bove
pr ctces--Whether thngs t ken wthout the terrtor of ether of
the bellgerent powers c n be cqured b the rghts of w r--In
wh t m nner ths rght pecul rl pples to solemn w rs.
I. Besdes the mpunt llowed to men for cert n ctons, whch
h ve been mentoned before, there re other consequences nd effects,
pecul r to the l w of n tons, ttendng solemn nd form l w r. The
l w of n ture ndeed uthorses our m kng such cqustons n just
w r, s m  be deemed n equv lent for debt, whch c nnot otherwse
be obt ned, or s m  nflct loss upon the ggressor, provded t
be wthn the bounds of re son ble punshment. Accordng to ths rght,
s we fnd n the fourteenth ch pter of Geness, Abr h m devoted to God
tenth p rt of the spols, whch he h d t ken from the fve kngs:

 nd the nspred wrter n the seventh ch pter of hs Epstle to the

Hebrews gves the s me nterpret ton of ths p ss ge. In the s me
m nner the Greeks too, the C rth gn ns, nd the Rom ns, devoted
tenth porton of the spols of w r to ther detes. J cob, n m kng
p rtcul r bequest to Joseph bove hs brethren, s s, "I h ve gven
to thee one porton bove th brethren, whch I took out of the h nd
of the Amorte wth m sword, nd wth m bow." In ths pl ce, the
expresson, I TOOK, s used ccordng to the prophetc stle, where
n event, th t wll for cert n t ke pl ce, s spoken of n the p st
tme, nd n cton s here ttrbuted to J cob, whch some of hs
descend nts were to perform, supposng the progentor nd hs chldren
to be the s me person.
Nor s t upon conjecture lone th t such rght s founded, but the
dvne l w gver hmself pronounces sentence g nst ct th t h s
rejected the offers of pe ce, nd fterw rds been t ken b storm, th t
he gves ll her spols to the conqueror.
II. But ccordng to the l w of n tons, not onl the person, who m kes
w r upon just grounds; but n one wh tever, eng ged n regul r nd
form l w r, becomes bsolute propretor of ever thng whch he t kes
from the enem: so th t ll n tons respect hs ttle, nd the ttle
of ll, who derve through hm ther cl m to such possessons. Whch,
s to ll foregn rel tons, consttutes the true de of domnon.
For, s Crus, n Xenophon observes, when the ct of n enem s
t ken, ever thng th t s t ken theren becomes l wful prze to the
conquerors; nd Pl to, n hs tre tse on l ws sserts the s me. Ccero
n hs speech g nst Rullus s s th t Mtlene belonged to the Rom n
people b the l ws of w r, nd the rght of conquest; nd, n the frst
book of hs offces, he observes, th t some thngs become the prv te
propert of those, who t ke possesson of them, when unoccuped, or
of those, who m ke conquest of them n w r.--Theophlus, n hs
Greek nsttutes, c lls the one the n tur l mode of cquston, nd
Arstotle denomn tes the other the n tur l w  of cquston b the
sword, wthout reg rdng n other re son, but the b re f ct, from
whch the rght rses. Thus Nerv , the son, s P ulus the l wer
rel tes, s d th t propert rose from n tur l possesson, some tr ces
of whch stll rem n respectng wld nm ls t ken ether upon the
se , or upon the l nd, or brds flng n the r. It s seen lso n
thngs t ken n w r, ll whch mmed tel become the propert of the
frst c ptors. Now thngs re consdered s t ken from n enem, when
t ken from hs subjects.
Thus Derclldes rgues, n Xenophon, th t s Ph rn b zus w s n enem
to the L ced emon ns, ever thng belongng to M n , who w s hs
subject, mght be sezed b the l ws of w r.
III. But n ths queston upon the rghts of w r n tons h ve decded,
th t person s understood to h ve m de c pture, when he det ns
thng n such m nner, th t the owner h s b ndoned ll prob ble
hopes of recoverng t, or, s Pomponus, spe kng on the s me subject,
s s, when thng h s esc ped beond pursut. Ths t kes pl ce wth
respect to move ble thngs n such m nner, th t the re s d to be
t ken, when the re c rred wthn the terrtores of the enem, or
pl ces belongng to hm. For thng s lost n the s me m nner s t
s recovered b postlmnum. It s s d to be recovered whenever t
returns wthn the terrtores of ts owner's soveregn, th t s, nto
pl ces, of whch he s m ster. P ulus ndeed h s expressl s d, th t
power or st te h s lost subject, when he h s gone, or been c rred
out of the terrtores of th t power: nd Pomponus defnes prsoner

of w r to be n enem, whom the troops of some other bellgerent power

h ve t ken nd c rred nto one of ther own pl ces; for before he s
c rred nto those pl ces, he contnues stll subject of the enem.
The l w of n tons, n these respects, tre ted persons nd thngs n
the s me m nner. From whence t s e s to underst nd, wh t s me nt,
when n nother pl ce t s s d th t thngs t ken from n enem
mmed tel become the l wful prze of the c ptors, but onl upon
the condton of those thngs contnung n ther possesson for
re son ble nd cert n tme. Consequentl t s pl n, th t shps nd
other thngs t ken t se c nnot be consdered s re ll the propert
of the c ptors, tll the h ve been c rred nto some of ther ports,
or to some pl ce where ther whole fleet s st toned. For n th t c se
ll hope of recover seems to h ve v nshed. B l te regul ton mong
the Europe n powers, t h s been m de n est blshed m xm of the l w
of n tons, th t c ptures sh ll be deemed good nd l wful, whch h ve
contnued n the enem's possesson for the sp ce of twent-four hours.
IV. L nds re not understood to become l wful possesson nd bsolute
conquest from the moment the re nv ded. For lthough t s true,
th t n rm t kes mmed te nd volent possesson of the countr
whch t h s nv ded, et th t c n onl be consdered s tempor r
possesson, un ccomp ned wth n of the rghts nd consequences
lluded to n ths work, tll t h s been r tfed nd secured b some
dur ble me ns, b cesson, or tre t. For ths re son, the l nd wthout
the g tes of Rome, where H nnb l enc mped, w s so f r from beng
judged entrel lost, th t t w s sold for the s me prce th t t would
h ve been sold for before th t perod.
Now l nd wll be consdered s completel conquered, when t s
nclosed or secured b perm nent fortfc tons, so th t no other
st te or soveregn c n h ve free ccess to t, wthout frst m kng
themselves m sters of those fortfc tons. On ths ccount Fl ccus,
the Scl n, ssgns no mprob ble conjecture for the orgn of the
word terrtor, bec use the enem s DETERRED from enterng t. At
le st there s s much prob blt n ths conjecture, s n th t of
V rro, who derves t from the word _terendo_, tre dng the sol.
Frontnus deduces t from _terr _, the e rth, nd Pomponus from the
TERROR of judc l uthort exercsed n e ch countr. Xenophon
however n hs book on trbutes, seems to ccord wth the frst of
these opnons: for he s s, th t n tme of w r the possesson of
countr s kept b w lls, strong holds, nd b rrers.
V. It s cle r pont too, th t for n thng to become prze or
conquest b the rght of w r, t must belong to n enem. For thngs,
wthn n enem's terrtor, for nst nce, n n of hs towns or
g rrsons, c nnot be cqured s propert b the l ws of w r, f
the owners of those thngs re nether subjects nor confeder tes of
the enem. It s observed n one of the speeches of Aeschnes, th t
Phlp, though t w r wth the Amphpolt ns, could not l wfull
t ke possesson of Amphpols, s conquest, t beng ct, whch
belonged to the Athen ns. For s the enem s lkel to derve no
ssst nce n the w r, from thngs whch nether belong to hmself,
nor to confeder te, no just re son c n be ssgned for t kng them,
nd the rght of m kng thngs ch nge ther owners b force s of too
odous n ture to dmt of n extenson.
VI. The observ ton usu ll m de, th t ll thngs on bo rd n enem's
shps re to be deemed n enem's goods, ought not to be receved s
STANDING nd ACKNOWLEDGED rule of the l w of n tons, but onl s

m xm, ndc tng the strong presumpton th t both goods nd vessel

belong to the s me owner, unless cle r proof to the contr r c n be
brought. The St tes Gener l of Holl nd m de such decson n the
e r 1338, t tme when the w r wth the H nse-towns r ged wth the
gre test volence, nd the decson consequentl p ssed nto l w.
VII. Accordng to the l w of n tons t s undoubtedl true, th t
thngs t ken from n enem whch h d been c ptured b hm c nnot be
cl med b those, to whom the belonged before the were n the enem's
possesson, nd who h d lost them n w r. Bec use the l w of n tons
ssgned them to the enem b the frst c pture, nd then to the
person, who took them from hm b the second.
Upon ths prncple mong others, Jephth h defends hmself g nst the
Ammontes, bec use b the l ws of w r the h d lost the l nd, whch
the cl med, n the s me m nner, s nother p rt h d been tr nsferred
from the Mo btes to the Amortes, nd from the Amortes to the
Hebrews. Thus D vd too cl ms nd dvdes s hs own, wh t he hmself
h d t ken from the Am lektes, nd the Am lektes, before hm, from the
Phlstnes.
Ttus L rgus, s we re nformed b Donsus of H lc rn ssus, when
the Volsc ns l d cl m to some possessons, whch the h d formerl
held, delvered t s hs opnon n the Rom n Sen te, th t "the Rom ns
were the f r nd just owners of wh t the h d g ned b the rght of
conquest, nor ought the to be so we k s to b ndon the fruts of
ther v lour. For not onl the people of th t d , but ther postert
lso h d rght to sh re of those possessons: so th t to b ndon
them would be tre tng themselves lke enemes."
VIII. nd IX. One gre t pont, whch the l w of n tons desgned to
est blsh, w s th t the effects or possessons of one enem should be
consdered b nother, s thngs h vng no owner.
Thngs, belongng to no one, bec me the propert of those, who fnd or
t ke them, both of those, who, lke soveregn powers, emplo others n
such servce, nd of those, who t ke them wth ther own h nds.
Thus not onl sl ves, or the mmed te members of m n's household,
but ll, who eng ge themselves, n w , n the servce of others, m 
be s d to cqure for ther emploers ll the propert, whch the
t ke or g n, even n those thngs, whch pp rentl le n common to
ll men, such s pe rls, fsh, or fowl.
Modestnus h s justl s d, "th t wh tever s n tur ll g ned, lke
possesson, we m  cqure through the me ns of n one we chuse to
emplo," nd, upon the s me prncple, P ulus observes, th t "n ever
cquston, the exerton of mnd nd bod must concur; the former
purel our own, nd the l tter, ether our own, or th t of nother.
In the s me m nner possesson m  be t ken for us b n ttorne,
gu rd n, or trustee, provded the do t on our ccount nd n our
n me." The re son of whch s, bec use one m n m  n tur ll be the
volunt r nstrument of nother, wth the consent of th t other.
So th t the dstncton m de between persons n servle nd free
condton, s to the cquston of propert, s dstncton onl of
the cvl l w, nd pplc ble to ts rules of tr nsferrng, cqurng,
nd confrmng, propert. And et the emperor Severus fterw rds
ppled these rules to the n tur l cquston of thngs, not onl from
motves of utlt, but, s he vowed hmself, from motves of equt
nd justce. So th t, p rt from ll uthort of the cvl l w, t s

 n est blshed m xm th t wh t n one c n do for hmself, he c n do

through me ns of nother, nd dong such cts b nother s the s me s
dong them hmself.
X. A dstncton must be m de between ctons n w r, th t re
re ll of PUBLIC NATURE, nd the cts of INDIVIDUALS, occ soned
b publc w r: b the l tter, ndvdu ls cqure n bsolute nd
drect propert, n the thngs, whch the t ke, nd b the former,
the st te m kes those cqustons. Upon ths prncple of the l w of
n tons Scpo tre ted wth M snss , st tng th t s t w s under
the uspces of the Rom n people, th t Sph x w s conquered nd t ken
prsoner, hmself, hs wfe, hs kngdom, hs terrtor, hs towns,
nd subjects nh btng those towns, n short, ever thng belongng
to hm bec me l wful prze to the Rom n people. In the s me m nner,
Antochus the Gre t m nt ned th t Coelo-Sr belonged to Seleucus,
nd not to Ptolem, bec use Seleucus h d been the prncp l n the w r,
to whch Ptolem h d contrbuted hs ssst nce. In the ffth book of
Polbus, there s n ccount of the m tter.
XI. Thngs mmove ble re gener ll t ken b some publc ct, such s
m rchng n rm nto the countr, or pl cng g rrsons there. So th t,
s Pomponus h s s d, "l nds t ken from the enem become the propert
of the st te, nd form no p rt of the boot belongng to the ndvdu l
c ptors." Thus mong the Hebrews nd L ced emon ns, l nds th t were
m de conquest, were dvded b lot. The Rom ns too ether ret ned
conquered l nds to let them out for rent, sometmes le vng sm ll
porton to the ncent possessor, or dvded them mong colonsts,
whom the sent out, or m de them trbut r; nnumer ble nst nces of
whch we meet wth n ther hstores, ther l ws, nd tre tes on the
dme surements of l nds.
XII. But thngs move ble, whether n nm te, or lvng, re t ken
ether s connected or unconnected wth the publc servce. When
unconnected wth the publc servce, the become the propert of the
ndvdu l c ptors.[62]
Reference m  here be m de to the rem rk of Celsus, th t "enem's
goods found mong us do not belong to the st te, but to the pror
occup nt." B whch re me nt thngs found mong us t the bre kng out
of w r. For the s me w s observed of persons, when, under the s me
crcumst nces, the were consdered s goods t ken.
On ths subject there s rem rk ble p ss ge n Trphonnus. "Those
persons, _s s he_, who h ve gone nto foregn countr n tme of
pe ce, upon the sudden bre kng out of w r, re m de sl ves b those,
mong whom t s ther msfortune to be found, beng consdered s
enemes."
XIII. Wh t h s been s d upon the l w of n tons, llowng ndvdu ls
to cqure propert b t kng t from n enem, must be understood s
me nng the l w of n tons, pror to the regul tons of cvl l ws
upon th t pont. For the c pture of n enem's goods whch t frst
ppe r to resemble thngs n common, whch n one m  seze, s now,
lke th t of wld brds or be sts, subject to lmt ton b the l ws
of ever st te, beng n some c ses ssgned to the soveregn, nd n
others, belongng to the c ptors. It m  n some countres, ndeed, be
ntroduced s rule of l w for the whole of n enem's goods found
there to be confsc ted.
XIV. The c se s ver dfferent respectng wh t n one t kes n

 ctu l eng gements. For there ever ndvdu l be rs the ch r cter of

hs countr, ctng n her ste d, nd supportng her rghts. Through
the exertons of those ndvdu ls, the st te cqures both propert
nd domnon, wth power, ccordng to the prncples of cvlzed
countres, of conferrng them on whom she ple ses.
Ths s not pr ctce of modern d te, but one prev lng mong the
most free nd ndependent n tons of remote ntqut. The poets,
nd hstor ns of those d s, descrbe the hero, fter the he t, the
burden, nd d ngers of the d , c rrng hs spols to the common
stock, to be dvded b the Gener l mong the rm, fter ret nng hs
proper sh re to hmself.
XXIII.[63] It s observed b leg l uthortes to be custom, whch
h s slentl g ned ground, for ether lles or subjects, who eng ge
n w r, wthout p , nd t ther own rsque nd expence, to be
rew rded wth the c ptures th t the m ke.
The re son, wh lles h ve such prvlege, s evdent. Bec use one
ll s n tur ll bound to nother to rep r the losses, whch he h s
sust ned b enterng nto mutu l greement to support common
c use. Besdes t seldom h ppens, th t servces re gven wthout some
consder ton n return.
Quntl n, pplng the s me re sonng to nother c se, lleges th t
t s but just for or tors nd dvoc tes, who devote ther whole
tme nd t lents to the busness of others, to be requted for ther
servces: s thereb the preclude themselves from cqurng g n n
n other w .
It s most lkel therefore th t some dv nt ge g ned from the enem
s lw s expected, s compens ton for the loss nd rsque ncurred,
unless there s evdence to the contr r from some ntecedent tre t,
n whch there s n express stpul ton for gr tutous ssst nce nd
servces.
XXIV. Such cl m to sh re of the spols s not equ ll evdent,
where SUBJECTS ONLY re concerned. For the st te h s RIGHT TO THEIR
SERVICES. Stll where ALL re not eng ged n rms, but onl SOME,
those, who gve up ther tme to the c llng of solders, nd expose
ther lves to ts h z rds, h ve rght to be rew rded nd supported
b the bod poltc:-- nd s compens ton for ths loss of tme, nd
ths person l d nger, t s but re son ble the should h ve sh re of
the spols.
Wth respect to lles there s n ex mple n the Rom n tre t, n
whch the L tns re dmtted to n equ l sh re of the spol, n those
w rs, whch were c rred on under the uspces of the Rom n people.
Thus n the w r, whch the Aetol ns c rred on wth the ssst nce
of the Rom ns, the l nds nd ctes were ceded to the Aetol ns, nd
the prsoners nd move ble effects were gven to the Rom ns. After
the defe t of kng Ptolem, Demetrus g ve p rt of the spols to the
Athen ns. Ambrose, n spe kng of the expedton of Abr h m, shews the
equt of ths pr ctce. He sserts th t t w s but just for those, who
h d sssted hm s p rtners n the d nger, to sh re n the przes,
whch were ther due rew rd.
As to wh t were the prvleges of subjects n these respects, we h ve
proof n the conduct of the Hebrews, mong whom t w s usu l for h lf

of the spols to be gven to those, who were eng ged n b ttle. In

the s me m nner the solders of Alex nder were llowed to ppropr te
to themselves wh tever the took from ndvdu ls, except th t t w s
usu l for consder ble porton to be set p rt for the kng. So th t
t w s m de subject of ccus ton g nst those t Arbel , who were
s d to h ve entered nto conspr c for securng to themselves ever
thng th t w s t ken, wthout contrbutng due proporton of t to
the tre sur.
But ndvdu ls were not llowed n the s me m nner to ppropr te to
themselves the publc propert of n enem, th t s, such s belonged
to the st te. Thus when the M cedon ns m de themselves m sters of the
c mp of D rus t the rver Pr mus, nd ever thng w s gven up to
plunder, the sp red the ro l p vlon, n conformt to n ncent
custom, " ccordng to whch, _ s Curtus observes_, t w s lw s
reserved s the properest pl ce, n whch the vctorous prnce could
be receved."
There w s custom somewh t lke ths mong the Hebrews who lw s
pl ced the crown of the v nqushed kng upon the he d of the conqueror,
nd ssgned to hm ever thng th t w s t ken, belongng to the ro l
household. We re d of the s me conduct n Ch rles the gre t, who, upon
conquerng the Hung r ns, g ve up the prv te propert s plunder to
the solders, reservng for the ro l use ll the publc tre sures.
Some thngs ndeed re too nconsder ble to be m de publc propert.
It s gener ll receved m xm for such thngs to belong to the
ndvdu l c ptors.[64]
Ths w s the pr ctce n the ncent tmes of the Rom n republc. A
prvlege not unlke ths s sometmes gven to se men, who serve for
p . It s wh t the French c ll spols, or pll ge, ncludng ll
we rng pp rel, nd ll gold nd slver under the v lue of ten crowns.
On ths pont dfferent customs prev l n dfferent countres. In
Sp n sometmes ffth, nd sometmes thrd w s llowed to the
solders, nd t others h lf w s reserved for the crown. On some
occ sons, seventh or tenth p rt w s llowed to the gener l, nd
the rest belonged to the c ptors, except shps of w r, whch belong
entrel to the crown.--Sometmes dvson w s m de n proporton to
the h z rd nd expence: whch w s the c se mong the It l ns, where
the thrd p rt of the prze w s ssgned to the owner of the vctorous
vessel, nother thrd to those who h d merch ndse on bo rd, nd the
rem nng thrd to the comb t nts.
In some c ses t h ppens th t prv te dventurers re not llowed the
whole of ther c ptures, cert n porton of whch must go to the
st te or to those, who h ve receved gr nt of such przes from the
st te. Thus n Sp n, f n tme of w r shps re ftted out b prv te
persons, one p rt of the c ptures, whch the m ke belongs to the
crown, nd nother to the Lord Hgh Admr l. So lkewse n Fr nce, nd
Holl nd, the tenth p rt of prze belonged to the Admr l, ffth
lso beng prevousl deducted for the use of the st te. But b l nd
t s custom r upon the t kng of towns, nd n b ttles, for ever
one to keep the przes whch he t kes. But n excursons, ever thng
t ken becomes the common stock of ll eng ged, beng fterw rds dvded
mongst them ccordng to ther respectve r nks.
XXV. As consequence deducble from the bove postons, t m  be
observed, th t f people not eng ged n w r be m de med tors n

doubtful m tter respectng thngs c ptured n w r, the c use must be

djudged n f vour of hm, who h s on hs sde the l ws nd customs of
the countr, whch he h s espoused. But f no such rght c n be proved,
the prze must be djudged to the st te, r ther th n to the ndvdu l
c ptor.--The m xm ndeed of Quntl n c n never be dmtted, th t
the l ws of w r c n never be enforced n m tters, th t m  be decded
b judc l uthort; nd th t, on the other h nd, wh tever h s been
g ned b rms c n be m nt ned b force of rms lone.
XXVI. It w s observed n former p rt of ths ch pter, th t thngs,
NOT BELONGING to n enem, c nnot be t ken, lthough found wth hm.
For ths s nether conson nt to n tur l justce, nor ntroduced b
the l w of n tons. But f n those thngs the enem h d n rght
connected wth possesson, such s the rght of pledge, retenton or
servce, th t would not obstruct the power of the c ptors.
It s dsputed pont, both s to persons nd thngs, whether the c n
be l wfull t ken n the terrtor of power t w r wth nether of
the bellgerents. In reg rd ONLY to the l w of n tons, s f r s t
llows us to kll n enem wherever he s found, the PLACE h s nothng
to do wth the queston. But consderng the rghts of the soveregn,
to whom th t terrtor belongs, he undoubtedl h s rght to forbd
the sezure of persons, or the c pture of thngs wthn hs own
domnons: nd m  dem nd s tsf cton for the vol ton of th t rght.
In the s me m nner, though be sts, th t re wld b n ture, become the
propert of those, who t ke them, stll n owner m  forbd n one to
commt tresp ss upon hs l nds n order to t ke them.

CHAPTER VII.
ON THE RIGHT OVER PRISONERS OF WAR.
B the l w of n tons, sl ver the result of beng t ken n solemn
w r--The s me condton extends to the descend nts of those
t ken--The power over them--Even ncorpore l thngs m  be g ned
b the rghts of w r--Re son of ths--Ths rght not prev lent to
the s me extent mong Chrst n powers of the present d --The
substtute used n pl ce of ths rght.
I. B the l w of n ture, n ts prm ev l st te; p rt from hum n
nsttutons nd customs, no men c n be sl ves: nd t s n ths sense
th t leg l wrters m nt n the opnon th t sl ver s repugn nt to
n ture. Yet n former p rt of ths tre tse, t w s shewn th t there
s nothng repugn nt to n tur l justce, n dervng the orgn of
servtude from hum n ctons, whether founded upon comp ct or crme.
But the l w of n tons now under consder ton s of wder extent both
n ts uthort over persons, nd ts effects. For, s to persons,
not onl those, who surrender ther rghts, or eng ge themselves
to servtude, re consdered n the lght of sl ves, but ll, who
re t ken prsoners n publc nd solemn w r, come under the s me
descrpton from the tme th t the re c rred nto the pl ces, of
whch the enem s m ster.
Nor s the commsson of crme requste to reduce them to ths
condton, but the f te of ll s lke, who re unfortun tel t ken

wthn the terrtores of n enem, upon the bre kng out of w r.

II. nd III. In ncent tmes, whle sl ver w s permtted to exst,
the offsprng, born durng c ptvt or servtude, contnued n the
s me condton s the p rents.--The consequences of such rules were of
wde extent;--there w s no cruelt, whch m sters mght not nflct
upon ther sl ves;--there w s no servce, the perform nce of whch the
mght not compel;--the power even of lfe nd de th w s n ther h nds.
However the Rom n l ws t length set bounds to such w nton power, t
le st to the exercse of t wthn the Rom n terrtores.
Ever thng too, found upon the prsoner's person, bec me l wful
prze to the c ptor. For s Justn n observes, one who w s entrel n
the power of nother could h ve no propert of hs own.
IV. nd V. Incorpore l rghts, g ned b the enem, long wth the
person so c ptured, c nnot be consdered n the lght of prm r nd
orgn l cqustons. And there re some rghts so purel person l
n ther n ture, th t the c nnot be lost even b c ptvt, nor the
dutes tt ched thereto ever be relnqushed. Of such n ture w s the
p tern l rght mong the Rom ns. For rghts of ths knd c nnot exst
but mmed tel wth the person to whom the orgn ll belonged.
All these rghts to przes, whch were ntroduced b the l w of
n tons, were ntended s n nducement to c ptors to refr n from
the cruel rgour of puttng prsoners to de th; s the mght hope
to derve some dv nt ge from sp rng nd s vng them. From hence
Pomponus deduces the orgn of the word, SERVUS, or SLAVE, beng one,
who mght h ve been put to de th, but from motves of nterest or
hum nt h d been s ved.
VI. (beng the IX. of the orgn l.) It h s long been m xm,
unvers ll receved mong the powers of Chrstendom, th t prsoners
of w r c nnot be m de sl ves, so s to be sold, or compelled to the
h rdshps nd l bour tt ched to sl ver. And the h ve wth good
re son embr ced the l tter prncple. As t would be nconsstent wth
ever precept of the l w of ch rt, for men to refuse b ndonng
cruel rght, unless the mght be llowed to substtute nother, of
gre t, though somewh t nferor rgour, n ts pl ce.
And ths, s Gregor s nforms us, bec me tr dton r prncple
mong ll who professed one common relgon; nor w s t confned
to those, who lved under the uthort of the Rom n empre, but
prev led mong the Thess l ns, the Illr ns, the Trb ll ns, nd
Bulg r ns.--Though such n bolton of sl ver, nd mtg ton of
c ptvt m  be consdered s of trv l mport, et the were effects
produced b the ntroducton of the Chrst n relgon, espec ll upon
recollecton th t Socr tes tred, but wthout effect, to prev l upon
the Greeks to forbe r m kng sl ves of e ch other.
In ths respect the M homet ns ct tow rds e ch other n the s me
m nner s Chrst ns do. Though t s stll the pr ctce mong
Chrst n powers to det n prsoners of w r, tll ther r nsom be p d,
the mount of whch depends upon the wll of the Conqueror, unless
t h s been settled b express tre t. The rght of det nng such
prsoners h s sometmes been llowed to the ndvdu ls, who took them,
except where the prsoners were person ges of extr ordn r r nk, who
were lw s consdered s prsoners of w r to the st te.

CHAPTER VIII.
ON EMPIRE OVER THE CONQUERED.
Cvl nd soveregn jursdcton cqured b conquest--Effects
of such cquston--Absolute power or mxed power g ned
b conquest--Incorpore l rghts cqured n the s me
m nner--Thess l n bond consdered.
I. If ndvdu ls c n reduce e ch other to subjecton, t s not
surprsng th t st tes c n do the s me, nd b ths me ns cqure
cvl, bsolute, or mxed, domnon. So th t, n the l ngu ge of
Tertull n, vctor h s often been the found ton of domnon, nd t
often h ppens, s Quntl n rem rks, th t the bound res of st tes nd
kngdoms, of n tons nd ctes, c n onl be settled b the l ws of w r.
Quntus Curtus rel tes of Alex nder, th t he s d, t w s for
conquerors to dct te l ws, whch the conquered were bound to receve.
Ths h s lw s been gener l opnon nd rule, thus Arovstus, n
C es r, l d t down s n ndubt ble rght of w r, for the conqueror
to mpose wh tever terms he ple sed upon the conquered, nor dd he
suppose the Rom n people would llow n one to nterpose wth them n
the dscreton r use of ths rght.
B conquest, prnce succeeds to ll the rghts of the conquered
soveregn or st te; nd f t be commonwe lth, he cqures ll the
rghts nd prvleges, whch the people possessed. He g ns the s me
rght, whch the st te h d before, to len te the possessons, or to
tr nsmt them f he chuses to hs descend nts, b whch me ns the wll
become p trmon l terrtor.
II. The rght of conquest m  go even beond ths. A st te m  hereb
lose ts poltc l exstence, so f r s to form n ppend ge to nother
power, whch w s the c se wth the Rom n provnces: or f kng
eng ged n w r g nst st te, t hs own expence, h s reduced t to
complete subjecton, hs uthort over t becomes n bsolute, r ther
th n lmted soveregnt. It c n no longer be c lled n ndependent
st te, but, b the rght of conquest, forms n ntegr l p rt of the
prnce's mmed te domnons. Xenophon n dr wng the ch r cter of
Agesl us, commends hm for requrng no other servces nd obedence
of the ctes he h d conquered, th n wh t s usu ll p d b subjects
to ther l wful soveregns.
III. From hence t wll be e s to underst nd wh t s me nt b mxed
government, composed p rtl of cvl, nd p rtl of bsolute power;--t
s government, where subjecton s unted wth some degree of
person l lbert.
We sometmes re d of n tons, th t h ve been so f r subdued, s to be
deprved of the use of ll w rlke rms, beng llowed to ret n no
nstruments of ron, but the mplements of husb ndr; nd of others,
th t h ve been compelled to ch nge ther n ton l customs nd l ngu ge.
IV. St tes s well s ndvdu ls m  lose ther propert b the l ws
of w r: nd even volunt r surrender s n re lt nothng more
th n gvng up wh t mght h ve been t ken b force. For s Lv s s,
where ll thngs submt to the power of rms, the conqueror m  mpose

wh tever terms, nd ex ct wh tever fnes he ple ses. Thus the Rom n

people b the vctores of Pompe cqured ll the terrtores, whch
Mthrd tes h d g ned b conquest.
The ncorpore l rghts too, belongng to one st te, m  p ss to nother
b the rghts of conquest. Upon the t kng of Alb , the Rom ns ret ned
ll the rghts belongng to th t ct. From hence t follows, th t the
Thess l ns were rele sed from the oblg ton of p ng sum of mone,
whch the owed to the Theb ns; Alex nder, upon the t kng of Thebes,
h vng, s conqueror, forgven the debt. Nor s the rgument used b
Quntl n n f vour of the Theb ns, t ll convncng: he m nt ns
th t nothng but wh t s of t ngble n ture c n p ss b rght of
conquest, cl ss of thngs to whch ncorpore l rghts c n never be
reduced: nd th t there s m ter l dfference between nhert nce
nd vctor, the former of whch m  conve ncorpore l rghts, but the
l tter c n gve nothng except thngs of sold nd vsble subst nce.
But on the other h nd t m  be justl s d, th t whoever s m ster of
the persons, s m ster lso of ll the rghts nd thngs, whch re
vested n those persons, who re n th t c se consdered s h vng
nothng of ther own. Indeed f n one should le ve to conquered
people ther rghts, s st te, stll there re some thngs belongng
to th t st te, whch he mght ppropr te to hmself. For t s n hs
own power to determne, to wh t extent hs generost, or the exerton
of hs rght sh ll go. C es r mt ted the conduct of Alex nder, n
forgvng the Drr ch ns debt, whch the owed to some one of the
opposte p rt. But the knd of w r, n whch C es r w s eng ged does
not f ll wthn the rules of the l w of n tons.

CHAPTER IX.
OF THE RIGHT OF POSTLIMINIUM.
Orgn of the term, postlmnum--Where t t kes effect--Cert n
thngs recover ble thereb--In wh t c ses the rght of postlmnum
prev ls n pe ce, s well s w r--Wh t rghts re recover ble,
nd wh t rghts not recover ble--When people s not enttled
to the rght of postlmnum--Extent of cvl l w n these
c ses--Deserters--R nsomed prsoners--Subjects--L nds recovered b
rght of postlmnum--Dstncton formerl observed wth respect
to mov ble thngs--Modern pr ctce.
I. The professors of l w n former ges h ve gven no more s tsf ctor
ccount of the rghts of postlmnum, th n the h ve done of those,
respectng thngs t ken from the enem. The subject h s been more
ccur tel h ndled b the ncent Rom ns, but often stll wth
consder ble degree of confuson, so th t re der c nnot e sl
dstngush, wh t p rt the ssgn to the provnce of the l w of
n tons, nd wh t p rt to the cvl l w of Rome.
Amdst gre t v ret of opnons, upon the me nng of the word,
postlmnum, th t of Sc evol seems the most n tur l, who derves t
from the word _post_, sgnfng return fter c ptvt, nd _lmen_
the bound r or entr nce of the house, or from _lmes_, publc
bound r. Thus the ncents c lled exle or b nshment, _elmnum_,
th t s, sendng n one out of the bound res of the countr.

II. Postlmnum therefore, ccordng to ts orgn l sgnfc ton,

me ns the rght, ccrung to n one n consequence of hs return
home from c ptvt. Pomponus defnes the rght of postlmnum to
t ke pl ce the moment n one enters town or g rrson, of whch hs
soveregn s m ster; but ccordng to P ulus he must h ve entered
wthn the terrtores of hs own countr before he c n be enttled to
th t rght.
Upon ths prncple n tons h ve, n gener l, gone so f r, s to llow
the rght of postlmnum to t ke pl ce, where n person, or ndeed
n thng, comng wthn the prvleges of postlmnum, h ve rrved
wthn the terrtor of frendl or lled power.
B the term frends, or lles, used n ths pl ce, re not smpl
me nt, those who re t pe ce wth nother power, but those who re
eng ged n the s me w r, nd n common c use wth th t power. So th t
ll, who h ve come nto the terrtores of such powers, re protected
under the pledge of publc f th. For t m kes no dfference wth
respect to persons or thngs, whether the re n the terrtores of
those powers, or n ther own.
In the terrtor of frendl power, who s not eng ged n the s me
c use wth ether of two bellgerent p rtes, prsoners of w r do not
ch nge ther condton, unless t h s been greed to the contr r
b express tre t; s n the second tre t between the Rom ns nd
C rth gn ns, t w s stpul ted th t f n prsoners, t ken b the
C rth gn ns from powers frendl to the Rom ns, should come nto
ports subject to the Rom n people, ther lbert mght be cl med:
nd th t powers frendl to the C rth gn ns should enjo the s me
prvlege. For ths re son, the Rom n prsoners t ken n the second
Punc w r, when sent nto Greece, h d not the rght of postlmnum
there, the Greeks beng entrel neutr l, consequentl the could not
be rele sed, tll the were r nsomed.
III. Accordng to the l ngu ge of the ncent Rom ns, even free men
mght be restored b the rght of postlmnum.
G llus lus, n the frst book of hs expl n ton of l w-terms,
defnes person restored to hs orgn l stu ton b the rght of
postlmnum, to be one, who h d gone from hs own countr, n free
condton, to nother, nd returned to hs own n consequence of such
rght. B the rght of postlmnum sl ve lso who h s f llen nto
the h nds of n enem, upon hs rele se from thence, returns to the
servce of hs former m ster.
As to the l w of postlmnum, horses, mules, nd shps re consdered
n the s me lght s sl ves. And wh tever dv nt ge ths l w gves n
one n recoverng persons or thngs from n enem, the enem n hs
turn h s equ l dv nt ge from the s me l w.
But modern l wers h ve m de dstncton between two knds of
postlmnum, b one of whch, persons returned to ther former
condton, nd b the other, thngs re recovered.
IV. The rght of postlmnum m  extend to those, who re sezed nd
det ned n n enem's countr upon the bre kng out of w r. For though
durng the contnu nce of th t w r, there m  be re son for det nng
them, n order to we ken the enem's strength, et, upon the concluson
of pe ce, no such motve nd pretence c n be devsed for ther

rele se beng refused or del ed. It s settled pont therefore th t

upon pe ce beng m de, prsoners of the bove descrpton lw s obt n
ther lbert, ther cl m to t beng unvers ll cknowledged.
Wth respect to other knds of prsoners, ever one used wh t he wshed
to be thought hs rght, except where fxed rules were prescrbed b
tre t. And for the s me re son, nether sl ves, nor thngs t ken n
w r re restored upon pe ce, except express stpul tons be m de to
th t purpose. A conqueror too, n gener l, wshes to h ve t beleved
th t he h d rght to m ke such cquston; nd ndeed the dep rture
from such rule mght gve rse to w rs wthout end.
V. nd VI. A prsoner of w r, upon hs rele se, nd return to hs
own countr, s enttled to ll hs prvleges THERE, nd ndeed to
everthng ether corpore l, or ncorpore l, whch he mght h ve before
possessed n NEUTRAL STATE, t the tme of hs c ptvt. For f such
st te, n order to preserve her neutr lt, consdered hs c ptvt
s m tter of rght on the p rt of the enem, so lso, n order to
shew her mp rt lt, she c nnot l wfull brdge hs rght to n
thng he m  recl m upon hs rele se. The controul therefore, whch
the person, to whom the prsoner belonged b the rght of w r, h d
over hs effects, w s not bsolutel uncondton l: for he mght lose
t, even g nst hs wll, whenever the prsoner c me g n under the
protecton, or wthn the terrtores, of hs own soveregn. Along wth
the prsoner therefore he would lose everthng, whch w s consdered
s n ppend ge to hs person.
In c ses where effects t ken n w r h ve been len ted, queston
rses, whether the l w of n tons confrms the ttle, nd secures the
possesson of the person, who h s derved or purch sed them from hm,
who w s m ster of them b the rghts of w r, b h vng the prsoner
n hs custod t the tme of len ton, or whether such thngs re
recover ble; supposng the thngs to be n neutr l terrtor.
A dstncton seems proper to be m de between thngs recover ble b
postlmnum, nd thngs excepted from th t rght: so th t ever
len ton of the former must be qu lfed nd condton l, but th t
of the l tter m  be bsolute. B thngs len ted m  be understood
even those, of whch gft h s been m de, or to whch the owner h s
relnqushed ever cl m.
VII. Upon n one's returnng to hs former condton b the l w of
postlmnum, ll hs rghts re restored s full, s f he h d never
been n the h nds nd power of the enem.
VIII. The c se of those however, who h ve been conquered b the rms of
n enem, nd h ve surrendered themselves, forms n excepton to ths
rule; bec use eng gements of th t knd must be v ld, nd honour bl
dhered to ccordng to the l w of postlmnum. So th t durng the
tme of truce, the rght of postlmnum c nnot be cl med.
But where surrender h s been m de wthout n express or postve
conventon the rght of postlmnum exsts n ll ts force.
IX. Wh t h s been s d of ndvdu ls pples to n tons: so th t
free people, who h ve been subjug ted, upon beng delvered from the
oke of the enem b the power of ther lles, wll recover ther
former condton.
But f the whole popul ton th t consttuted st te h s been

dspersed, the people c n no longer be consdered s the s me: nor does

the l w of n tons n such c se enforce the rght of postlmnum
for the restor ton of ll effects formerl belongng to th t people.
For s the dentt of shp, or n other m ter l object, c n
onl be scert ned b the perm nent unon of ts orgn l p rts: so
n ton c n no longer be reg rded s the s me, when ever pecul r
ch r cterstc belongng to t s eff ced.
The st te of S guntum therefore w s no longer judged to be the s me,
when t w s restored to ts ncent possessors, t the expr ton of
eght e rs: nor could Thebes n longer be deemed the orgn l ct,
s ts nh bt nts h d been sold b Alex nder for sl ves. From hence t
s evdent, th t the Theb ns could not, b the rght of postlmnum,
recover the sum of mone, whch the Thess l ns h d owed them: nd th t
for two re sons: bec use, n the frst pl ce, the were new people;
nd, secondl, bec use Alex nder t the tme th t he w s bsolute
m ster of the ct h d rght, f he thought proper, to relnqush the
cl m to th t debt, whch he h d ctu ll done. Besdes, debt s not
n the number of thngs recover ble b the rght of postlmnum.
The rules, respectng st te, re not much unlke those l d down b
the ncent Rom n l w, whch m de m rr ge dssoluble te, so th t t
could not be restored b the rght of postlmnum: but new consent,
nd new contr ct were necess r.
X. B the Rom n cvl l w deserters were excluded from the rght of
postlmnum.
XI. nd XII. It s pont of much mport nce to the subject, nd t
w s before decl red n the ffrm tve, th t n tons, whch h ve been
under foregn oke, recover ther former condton, even though ther
delver nce h s not been effected b ther former soveregn, but b
some ll. It s settled rule, where there s no express tre t to
the contr r. At the s me tme t s but re son ble th t such ll be
ndemnfed for the expences ncurred n ccomplshng th t delver nce.
XIII. Among thngs wthn the rght of postlmnum, l nds n
p rtcul r ttr ct our ttenton. For, s Pomponus observes, upon the
expulson of n enem l nds n tur ll revert to ther former m sters.
And n ths sense expulson s understood to t ke pl ce from the tme
th t hs free nd open ccess to terrtor s entrel cut off.
Thus the L ced emon ns, fter t kng Aegn from the Athen ns,
restored t to ts ncent owners. Justn n nd other emperors
restored to the hers of the ncent possessors of the l nds, whch
h d been recovered from the Goths nd V nd ls, stll reservng g nst
those owners ll prescrptve rghts, whch the Rom n l ws h d
ntroduced.
The prvleges belongng to l nds tt ch to ever rght lso connected
wth the sol. For relgous or consecr ted pl ces, th t h d been t ken
b n enem, when recovered returned, s Pomponus h s s d, to ther
former condton.
Upon the s me prncple t w s provded b l w n Sp n, th t
provnces, nd ll other heredt r jursdctons, p rtcul rl supreme
jursdctons, should return to the orgn l possessors b the rght of
postlmnum; nd those of n nferor knd, f recl med wthn the
sp ce of four e rs. Except th t ct dels lost b w r lw s belonged
to the crown, n wh tever m nner the were recovered.

XIV. On the contr r gener l opnon prev ls, th t move ble

propert, whch consttutes p rt of l wful prze, s not recover ble
b the rght of postlmnum. So th t thngs cqured b purch se,
wherever the re found, contnue the propert of the purch ser. Nor
h s the orgn l owner rght to cl m them, when found n neutr l
st te, or even c rred nto hs own terrtor.
Thngs useful n w r, s we fnd, were formerl n excepton to ths
rule: n excepton, whch seems to h ve been f voured b the l w of
n tons n order to nduce men the more re dl to provde them, n
the hopes of recoverng them, f lost. And ths ndulgence w s the
more e sl gr nted, s most n tons, t th t perod, n ll ther
customs, seem to h ve h d n ee to st te of w rf re.--Among the
thngs, comng under ths descrpton, shps of w r, nd merch nt-shps
re reckoned, but nether g lles, nor ple sure-bo ts: mules lso re
enumer ted; but onl such s re used to c rr b gg ge: horses nd
m res too; but onl such s re broken n to obe the brdle. And these
re thngs, the bequest of whch the Rom n l w confrmed, nd whch
mght come nto the dvson of n nhert nce.
Arms nd clo thng ndeed re useful n w r, but stll the were not
recover ble b the rght of postlmnum; bec use the l ws were b no
me ns nclned to f vour those, who lost ether n w r: nd such
loss w s deemed dsgr ce, s we fnd from m n p rts of hstor. And
n ths respect, dstncton w s m de between solder's rms nd
hs horse: bec use the l tter mght e sl bre k loose, nd f ll nto
n enem's h nds wthout n f ult of hs rder. Ths dstncton n
move ble thngs seems to h ve prev led n the western p rts of Europe,
under the Goths, even s f r down s to the tmes of Boetus. For n
expl nng the Topcs of Ccero, he spe ks of ths rght, s gener l
custom of hs d .
XV. But n l ter tmes, f not before, ths dstncton seems to h ve
been bolshed. For ll ntellgent wrters spe k of move ble effects
s not recover ble b the rght of postlmnum, nd t h s evdentl
been decded so, n m n pl ces, wth respect to shps.
XVI. The rght of postlmnum s qute unnecess r, before the thngs
t ken h ve been c rred nto some pl ce of whch the enem s m ster,
lthough the m  be n hs possesson: for the h ve not et ch nged
ther owner, b the l w of n tons. And, ccordng to the opnons of
Ulp n nd J volenus, the l w of postlmnum s no less superfluous,
where goods h ve been t ken b robbers nd pr tes, bec use the l w
of n tons does not llow THEIR possesson of the goods to conve n
ch nge, or rght of propert to THEM.
Upon ths ground, the Athen ns wshed to consder Phlp, s
RESTORING, nd not GIVING them H lonesus, of whch the h d been robbed
b pr tes, from whom he h d t ken t g n. For thngs t ken b
pr tes m  be recl med, wherever the re found; except th t NATURAL
JUSTICE requres th t the person, who h s g ned them out of ther
h nds, t hs own expence, should be ndemnfed, n proporton to wh t
the owner hmself would wllngl h ve spent for ther recover.
XVII. But dfferent m xm m  be est blshed b the CIVIL LAW. Thus
b the l w of Sp n, shps t ken from pr tes become the l wful prze
of the c ptors: whch m  seem h rdshp upon the orgn l owners;
but n some c ses ndvdu l nterest must be s crfced to the publc
good: espec ll where the d nger nd dffcult of ret kng the shps

s so gre t.[65] But such l w wll not prevent foregners from

ssertng ther cl ms.
XVIII. It w s r ther surprsng m xm n the Rom n l w, whch
est blshed the rght of postlmnum, not onl between hostle powers,
but between ll foregn st tes, nd, n some c ses, between those, who
were members of the Rom n empre. But ths w s onl vestge of the
rude nd p stor l ges, before socet w s perfectl formed. So th t
even between n tons, who were not eng ged n publc w r wth e ch
other, knd of lcence resemblng th t of w r prev led.
In order to prevent such lcence from proceedng to ll the
c l mtes nd sl ughter of w r, the l ws of c ptvt were ntroduced:
nd, s consequence of ths, postlmnum took pl ce, whch mght be
consdered s gre t step tow rds the form ton of equ l tre tes,
from the rules of whch pr tes nd robbers were excluded, nd whch
ndeed the themselves despsed.
XIX. In our tmes, the rght of m kng prsoners, except n w r, h s
been bolshed not onl mong Chrst n st tes, but even mong the
gre ter p rt of M homet ns, those b nds of socet, whch n ture
desgned to est blsh mongst men, beng n some me sure restored.
But the ncent l w of n tons seems stll n force g nst n rude
or b rb rous people, who, wthout n decl r ton or c use of w r,
consder ll m nknd s enemes. A decson h s l tel been m de n the
prncp l ch mber of the p rl ment of P rs, decl rng ll effects
belongng to the subjects of Fr nce, nd t ken b the Algernes,
people lw s eng ged n pred tor nd m rtme w rf re wth ll other
countres, f ret ken, to belong to the c ptors.--At the s me tme t
w s decded, th t, n the present d , shps re not reckoned mong
thngs recover ble b the rght of postlmnum.

CHAPTER XI.[66]
THE RIGHT OF KILLING ENEMIES, IN JUST WAR, TO BE TEMPERED WITH
MODERATION AND HUMANITY.
In wh t c ses strct justce llows the destructon of n
enem--Dstncton between msfortune nd gult--Between prncp ls
nd ccessores n w r--Dstncton between unw rr nt ble nd
excus ble grounds of promotng w r--Sometmes rght nd l ud ble to
forbe r punshng n nveter te enem--Ever possble prec uton
requste to sp re the nnocent--Espec ll chldren, women, nd
the ged, except the h ve commtted trocous cts--Clergmen, men
of letters, husb ndmen, merch nts, prsoners--Condton l surrender
not to be rejected--Uncondton l surrender--Exceptons to the
bove rules, some of them consdered, nd refuted--Delnquents when
numerous to be sp red--Host ges to be sp red--Unnecess r effuson
of blood to be voded.
I. nd II. Ccero, n the frst book of hs offces, h s fnel
observed, th t "some dutes re to be observed even tow rds those, from
whom ou h ve receved n njur. For even venge nce nd punshment
h ve ther due bounds." And t the s me tme he extols those ncent
perods n the Rom n government, when the events of w r were mld, nd

m rked wth no unnecess r cruelt.

The expl n tons gven n the frst ch pter of ths book wll pont
out the c ses, where the destructon of n enem s one of the rghts
of l wful w r, ccordng to the prncples of strct nd ntern l
justce, nd where t s not so. For the de th of n enem m  proceed
ether from n ccdent l c l mt, or from the fxed purpose of hs
destructon.
No one c n be justl klled b desgn, except b w  of leg l
punshment, or to defend our lves, nd preserve our propert, when t
c nnot be effected wthout hs destructon. For lthough n s crfcng
the lfe of m n to the preserv ton of persh ble possessons, there
m  be nothng repugn nt to strct justce, t s b no me ns conson nt
to the l w of ch rt.
But to justf punshment of th t knd, the person put to de th must
h ve commtted crme, nd such crme too, s ever equt ble judge
would deem worth of de th. Ponts, whch t s unnecess r to dscuss
n further, s the h ve been so full expl ned n the ch pter on
punshments.
III. In spe kng of the c l mtes of w r, s punshment, t s
proper to m ke dstncton between msfortune nd njur. For
people m  sometmes be eng ged n w r g nst ther wll, where the
c nnot be justl ch rged wth entert nng hostle ntentons.
Upon ths subject, Velleus P terculus observes th t "to bl me the
Athen ns for revoltng, t the tme the were beseged b Sll ,
betr s tot l gnor nce of hstor. For the Athen ns lw s
contnued so ste d n ther tt chment to the Rom ns, th t ther
fdelt bec me proverb l expresson. Yet ther stu ton t th t
tme excused ther conduct, overpowered b the rms of Mthrd tes,
the were oblged to submt to foe wthn, whle the h d to sust n
sege from ther frends wthout."
IV. nd V. Between complete njures nd pure msfortunes there m  be
sometmes mddle knd of ctons, p rt kng of the n ture of both,
whch c n nether be s d to be done wth known nd wlful ntenton,
nor et excused under colour of gnor nce nd w nt of ncln ton. Acts
of pure msfortune nether mert punshment, nor oblge the p rt to
m ke rep r ton for the loss occ soned. Hence m n p rts of hstor
suppl us wth dstnctons th t re m de between those who re the
uthors of w r, nd prncp ls n t, nd those who re oblged to
follow others, s ccessores n the s me.
VI. But respectng the uthors of w r, dstncton s to be m de
lso, s to the motves nd c uses of w r: some of whch though not
ctu ll just, we r n ppe r nce of justce, th t m  mpose upon
the well me nng. The wrter to Herennus l s t down s the most
equt ble vndc ton of njur, where the p rt commttng t, h s
nether been ctu ted b revenge, nor cruelt; but b the dct tes of
dut nd n uprght ze l.
Ccero, n the frst book of hs offces, dvses the sp rng of those,
who h ve commtted no cts of troct nd cruelt n w r, nd th t
w rs, undert ken to m nt n n ton l honour, should be conducted upon
prncples of moder ton. And, n one of hs letters, dvertng to the
w r between Pompe nd C es r, he descrbes the struggle between those
two llustrous men, s nvolved n so much obscurt of motves nd

c uses, th t m n were perplexed n decdng whch sde to embr ce. In

hs speech too for M rcellus, he rem rks th t such uncert nt mght be
ttended wth error, but could never be ch rged wth gult.
VII. Such forbe r nce n w r s not onl trbute to justce, t
s trbute to hum nt, t s trbute to moder ton, t s
trbute to gre tness of soul. It w s n ths moder ton, s s S llust,
the found ton of Rom n gre tness w s l d. T ctus descrbes hs
countrmen s people no less rem rk ble for ther cour ge n the
feld, th n for ther hum nt to the v nqushed nd suppl nt.
On ths subject, there s brll nt p ss ge n the fourth book
to Herennus, where t s s d, "It w s n dmr ble resoluton of
our ncestors, never to deprve c ptve prnce of hs lfe. For
t would be trul vol ton of common justce to buse, b w nton
cruelt nd rgour, the power over those, whom fortune h s put nto
our h nds, b reducng them from the hgh condton, n whch she h d
pl ced them before; ther former enmt s forgotten. Bec use t s
the ch r cterstc of br ver to esteem opponents s enemes, whle
contendng for vctor, nd to tre t them s men, when conquered,
n order to soften the c l mtes of w r, nd mprove the terms nd
rel tons of pe ce. But t m  be sked, f the enem now tre ted wth
ths ndulgence would h ve shewn the s me lent hmself. To whch
repl m  be m de, th t he s not n object of mt ton n wh t he
WOULD h ve done, so much s n wh t he OUGHT to h ve done."
VIII. Though there m  be crcumst nces, n whch bsolute justce wll
not condemn the s crfce of lves n w r, et hum nt wll requre
th t the gre test prec uton should be used g nst nvolvng the
nnocent n d nger, except n c ses of extreme urgenc nd utlt.
IX. After est blshng these gener l prncples, t wll not be
dffcult to decde upon p rtcul r c ses. Senec s s, th t "n the
c l mtes of w r chldren re exempted nd sp red, on the score
of ther ge, nd women from respect to ther sex." In the w rs of
the Hebrews, even fter the offers of pe ce h ve been rejected, God
comm nds the women nd chldren to be sp red.
Thus when the Nnevtes were thre tened wth utter destructon, on
ccount of ther grevous crmes, mtg ton of the sentence w s
llowed, n comp sson to the m n thous nds, who were of n ge
nc p ble of m kng dstncton between rght nd wrong.
If God, from whose supreme gft the lfe of m n proceeds, nd on whose
supreme dspos l t depends, prescrbes to hmself rule lke ths,
t s surel ncumbent upon men, who h ve no commsson, but for the
welf re nd preserv ton of the lves of men, to ct b the s me rule.
Thus ge nd sex re equ ll sp red, except where the l tter h ve
dep rted from ths prvlege b t kng rms, or performng the p rt of
men.
X. The s me rule m  be l d down too wth respect to m les, whose
modes of lfe re entrel remote from the use of rms. And n the
frst cl ss of ths descrpton m  be pl ced the mnsters of
relgon, who, mong ll n tons, from tmes of the most remote
ntqut h ve been exempted from be rng rms.--Thus, s m  be seen
n s cred hstor, the Phlstnes, beng enemes of the Jews, forbore
dong h rm to the comp n of prophets, th t w s t G b : nd D vd fled
wth S muel to nother pl ce, whch the presence of prophetc comp n
protected from ll molest ton nd njur.

Plut rch rel tes of the Cret ns, th t when ll order mong them w s
entrel broken b ther cvl brols, the bst ned from offerng
volence to n member of the presthood, or to those emploed n the
s cred rtes belongng to the de d. From hence the Greeks c me to
denote GENERAL MASSACRE b the proverb l expresson of NO ONE BEING
LEFT TO CARRY FIRE TO THE ALTAR.
Equ ll prvleged wth the hol presthood re those, who devote
ther lves to the pursut of letters, nd other studes benefc l to
m nknd.
XI. Dodorus bestows n encomum upon the Ind ns, who, n ll ther
w rs wth e ch other, forbore destrong or even hurtng those emploed
n husb ndr, s beng the common benef ctors of ll. Plut rch rel tes
the s me of the ncent Cornth ns nd Meg rens ns, nd Crus sent
mess ge to the kng of Assr to nform hm th t he w s wllng to
vod molestng ll who were emploed n tllng the ground.
XII. To the bove c t logue of those exempted from sh rng n the
c l mtes of w r, m  be dded merch nts, not onl those resdng for
tme n the enem's countr, but even hs n tur l-born, nd regul r
subjects: rts ns too, nd ll others re ncluded; whose subsstence
depends upon cultv tng the rts of pe ce.
XIII. nd XIV. More cvlzed m nners h vng bolshed the b rb rous
pr ctce of puttng prsoners to de th, for the s me re son, the
surrender of those, who stpul te for the preserv ton of ther lves
ether n b ttle, or n sege, s not to be rejected.
The Rom ns, when nvestng towns, lw s ccepted offers of
c ptul ton, f m de before the b tterng r m h d touched the w lls.
C es r g ve notce to the Atu tc, th t he would s ve ther ct,
f the surrendered, before the b tterng r m w s brought up. And n
modern tmes t s the usu l pr ctce, before shells re thrown, or
mnes sprung, to summon pl ces to surrender, whch re thought un ble
to hold out-- nd where pl ces re stronger, such summons s gener ll
sent, before the stormng s m de.
XV. nd XVI. Ag nst these prncples of n tur l l w nd equt n
objecton s sometmes derved from the necesst of ret l ton,
or strkng terror, n c ses of obstn te resst nce. But such n
objecton s b no me ns just. For fter pl ce h s surrendered, nd
there s no d nger to be pprehended from the prsoners, there s
nothng to justf the further effuson of blood.--Such rgour w s
sometmes pr ctsed, where there were n enormous cts of njustce,
or n vol ton of f th; t w s pr ctsed lso upon deserters, f
t ken.
Sometmes, where ver mport nt dv nt ges m  ttend strkng
terror, b preventng the s me crmes n future from beng commtted,
t m  be proper to exercse the rght of rgour n ts full extent.
But n obstn te resst nce, whch c n be consdered s nothng but the
f thful dsch rge of trust, c n never come wthn the descrpton of
such delnquences, s justf extreme rgour.
XVII. Where delnquences ndeed re such s deserve
number of offenders s ver gre t, t s usu l, from
to dep rt n some degree from the rght of enforcng
of the l w: the uthort for so dong s founded on

de th, but the

motves of merc,
the whole power
the ex mple of

God hmself, who comm nded such offers of pe ce to be m de to the

C n ntes, nd ther neghbours, the most wcked of n people upon
the f ce of the e rth, s mght sp re ther lves upon the condton of
ther becomng trbut res.
XVIII. From the opnons dv nced nd m nt ned bove, t wll not
be dffcult to g ther the prncples of the l w of n ture respectng
host ges.
At the tme, when t w s gener l opnon th t ever one h d the s me
rght over hs lfe, s over hs propert, nd th t rght, ether b
express or mpled consent w s tr nsferred from ndvdu ls to the
st te, t s not surprsng th t we should re d of host ges, though
h rmless nd nnocent s ndvdu ls, beng punshed for the offences
of the st te: nd, n ths c se, the consent of the st te to such
regul ton mples th t of ndvdu ls, who h ve orgn ll resgned
ther own wll to th t of the publc; n whom, fter such resgn ton,
t ndubt bl vested.
But when the d -sprng rose upon the world, men, obt nng cle rer
vews of the extent of ther power, found th t God, n gvng m n
domnon over the whole e rth, reserved to hmself the supreme dspos l
of hs lfe, so th t m n c nnot resgn to n one the rght over hs
own lfe or th t of nother.
XIX. B w  of concluson to ths subject t m  be observed, th t ll
ctons no w  conducve to obt n contested rght, or to brng the
w r to termn ton, but c lcul ted merel to dspl  the strength
of ether sde re tot ll repugn nt to the dutes of Chrst n nd
to the prncples of hum nt. So th t t behoves Chrst n prnces
to prohbt ll unnecess r effuson of blood, s the must render n
ccount of ther soveregn commsson to hm, b whose uthort, nd
n whose ste d, the be r the sword.

CHAPTER XII.
ON MODERATION IN DESPOILING AN ENEMY'S COUNTRY.
L wfulness of despolng n enem's countr--Forbe r nce of usng
ths rght, where thngs m  be useful to ourselves, nd out of
n enem's power--Forbe r nce n the hopes of speed conquest, or
where thngs re not mmed tel necess r to support n enem,
nd d hm n m nt nng the w r--Buldngs for the purposes
of relgon not to be w ntonl destroed--Adv nt ges of ths
moder ton.
I. One of the three followng c ses s requste to justf n one
n destrong wh t BELONGS to nother: there must be ether such
necesst, s t the orgn l nsttuton of propert mght be supposed
to form n excepton, s f for nst nce n one should throw the
sword of nother nto rver, to prevent m dm n from usng t to
hs destructon: stll ccordng to the true prncples m nt ned n
former p rt of ths work he wll be bound to rep r the loss:[67]
or there must be some debt, rsng from the non-perform nce of n
eng gement, where the w ste commtted s consdered s s tsf cton
for th t debt: or there must h ve been some ggressons, for whch such

destructon s onl n dequ te punshment.

Now, drvng off some of our c ttle, or burnng few of our houses,
c n never be ple ded s suffcent nd justf ble motve for l ng
w ste the whole of n enem's kngdom. Polbus s w ths n ts proper
lght, observng, th t venge nce n w r should not be c rred to ts
extreme, nor extend n further th n w s necess r to m ke n ggressor
tone justl for hs offence. And t s upon these motves, nd wthn
these lmts lone, th t punshment c n be nflcted. But except where
prompted to t b motves of gre t utlt, t s foll, nd worse th n
foll, w ntonl to hurt nother.
But upon dul nd mp rt ll weghng the m tter, such cts re
oftener reg rded n n odous lght, th n consdered s the dct tes of
prudent nd necess r counsels. For the most urgent nd justf ble
motves re seldom of long contnu nce, nd re often succeeded b
weghter motves of more hum ne descrpton.
II. It m  be possble, under some crcumst nces, to det n wh t
belongs to n enem so s to prevent hs dervng dv nt ge from t,
n whch c se t would be n unnecess r nd w nton ct to destro t.
And to such crcumst nces the dvne l w h s n ee, n orderng wld
trees to be m de use of for the constructon of works n sege, whle
frut-trees, nd ever thng necess r for the support of m n, ought,
f possble, to be sp red.
III. Where there s n expect ton lso of speed vctor nd conquest,
prudence wll dct te to gener l or comm nder of n knd the
necesst of forbe rng from ll cts of destructon, b uthorsng
nd commttng whch he would onl be njurng those possessons, th t
re lkel to come nto the h nds of hs own st te or soveregn. Thus,
s we re nformed b Plut rch, when Phlp h d overrun Thess l,
destrong nd plunderng the whole countr, Fl mnus ordered hs
troops to m rch n regul r m nner, s through ceded countr whch
h d become ther own.
IV. In the next pl ce, t s unnecess r to destro n enem's countr,
when he h s other sources, from whch he c n dr w hs supples, s
for nst nce, the se or n djonng terrtor. Archd mus, n
Thucddes, ttemptng to dssu de the L ced emon ns from w r wth
the Athen ns, sks them, wh t object the propose to themselves b
such w r? he sks them f the suppose th t Attc c n e sl be l d
w ste owng to the dv nt ge, whch ther troops h ve n superort
nd numbers? but, s s he, the h ve other domnons to furnsh
them wth supples, nd the c n v l themselves lso of m rtme
mport tons. So th t under such crcumst nces, t s best to le ve
grculture unmolested, even on the fronters of e ch sde: pr ctce
l tel followed n the w rs of the low countres, where contrbutons
were p d to both p rtes, n return for such protecton.
V. There re some thngs of such n ture, s to contrbute, no w ,
to the support nd prolong ton of w r: thngs whch re son tself
requres to be sp red even durng the he t nd contnu nce of w r.
Polbus c lls t brut l r ge nd m dness to destro thngs, the
destructon of whch does not n the le st tend to mp r n enem's
strength, nor to ncre se th t of the destroer: Such re Portcos,
Temples, st tues, nd ll other eleg nt works nd monuments of rt.
Ccero commends M rcellus for sp rng the publc nd prv te edfces
of Sr cuse, s f he h d come wth hs rm to protect THEM, r ther
th n to t ke the pl ce b storm.

VI. As ths rule of moder ton s observed tow rds other orn ment l
works of rt, for the re sons before st ted, there s stll gre ter
re son, wh t should be obeed n respect to thngs devoted to the
purposes of relgon. For lthough such thngs, or edfces, beng the
propert of the st te m , ccordng to the l w of n tons, be wth
mpunt demolshed, et s the contrbute nothng to ggr v te the
c l mtes, or ret rd the successes of w r, t s m rk of reverence
to dvne thngs to sp re them, nd ll th t s connected therewth:
nd more espec ll should ths rule be dhered to mong n tons,
worshppng the s me God ccordng to the s me fund ment l l ws,
lthough dfferng from e ch other b slght sh des of v r ton n
ther rghts nd opnons. Thucddes s s th t t w s l w mong the
Greeks of hs tme, n ll ther nv sons of e ch other's terrtores,
to forbe r touchng the edfces of relgon: nd Lv lkewse
observes th t, upon the destructon of Alb b the Rom ns, the temples
of the Gods were sp red.
VII. Wh t h s been s d of the s cred edfces of relgon pples lso
to monuments r sed n honour of the de d, unnecess rl to dsturb
whose shes n ther repose bespe ks tot l dsreg rd to the l ws nd
tes of our common hum nt.
VIII. Although t does not f ll wthn the provnce of ths tre tse
to nqure nto the utlt of w r n ll ts v rous br nches, but
onl to regul te ts pr ctces b confnng them wthn due nd
l wful bounds; et t wll not be mproper to observe th t rules nd
pr ctces derve much of ther mert from the utlt, wth whch the
re ttended. So th t one gre t qu lt, to recommend the moder ton
bove lluded to, wll be found n ts preventng the enem from beng
drven to those resources, whch men never f l, t l st, of fndng
n desp r. It s just rem rk m de b some Theolog ns, th t ll
CHRISTIAN prnces nd rulers, who wsh to be found SUCH n the sght
of God s well s th t of men, wll deem t dut to nterpose ther
uthort to prevent or to suppress ll UNNECESSARY volence n the
t kng of towns: for cts of rgour c n never be c rred to n extreme
wthout nvolvng gre t numbers of the nnocent n run. And pr ctces
of th t knd, besdes beng no w  conducve to the termn ton of w r,
re tot ll repugn nt to ever prncple of Chrst nt nd justce.

CHAPTER XIII.
ON MODERATION IN MAKING CAPTURES IN WAR.
Effects belongng to the subjects of n enem, nd t ken det ned
s pledge or debt--Not to be t ken b w  of punshment for
nother's offence--The debt or oblg ton, rsng from st te of
w r, llustr ted b ex mples--Forbe r nce n the exercse of such
rght from prncples of hum nt.
I. The c pture of n enem's goods, even n JUST WAR, s not, n ALL
CASES, perfectl justf ble, nor s the c ptor lw s exempt from the
tes of resttuton. For strctl spe kng, ccordng to the rules of
pure justce, t s not l wful to seze or det n goods except to the
ex ct mount of the debt whch the enem h s ncurred. Indeed goods m 
be det ned beond th t, s necess r pledge of securt, but stll

upon the condton of beng restored, s soon s the d nger h s ce sed:

RESTORED EITHER LITERALLY, OR BY SOME PROPER COMPENSATION BEING MADE.
Here then s rght of c pture, whch confers no rght of propert or
cquston. But when n thng m  become due to us, ether from
pen lt or the non-perform nce of n eng gement, n both c ses rght
to n enem's goods, f the c n be t ken, s cqured. B the l tter
knd of debt not onl the effects of the debtor hmself, but those,
belongng to hs subjects, m  ccordng to the prncples ntroduced
b the l w of n tons be t ken s securt.
Ths rght of the l w of n tons s ver dfferent from th t
est blshed n mpunt lone, or dependng upon the extern l force
of judc l uthort. For s b our prv te consent the person wth
whom we contr ct cqures not onl n extern l nd leg l rght over
our propert, but n ntern l rght, proceedng from conscence, so he
cqures the s me rght b knd of common consent, whch vrtu ll
comprehends the consent of ndvdu ls, n whch sense the l w s
c lled the common comp ct or coven nt of the st te.
And n tr ns ctons of ths knd t s most lkel th t n tons
pprovng of such rule, ntroduced l w, whch mght not onl
prevent gre ter evls, but lso en ble ever one to tt n hs own
rght.
II. But n the other knd of debt rsng from pen lt, or punshment,
t does not ppe r, th t n tons consented to the est blshment of
n such rght over the effects of subjects. For bndng the propert
of one m n for the offence of nother s knd of odous ct, nd
therefore ought not to be extended f rther th n the l w ppe rs to h ve
ctu ll decreed. Nor s the dv nt ge derved from the l tter, b n
me ns equ l to th t ttendng the former knd of debt. For wh t s due
to us from d m ge, or the non-perform nce of tre t m  be consdered
s p rt of our effects, but t s not so wth the oblg ton to
punshment, whch s purel of person l n ture, therefore no loss s
ncurred b relnqushng ths rght.
Nor s the rgument n the le st we kened b wh t w s s d before[68]
respectng the Athen n l w. For there t w s m nt ned th t subjects
were not bound to suffer, bec use the st te w s men ble to punshment,
but n order to compel the st te to do wh t she ought to do, n
brngng the gult to punshment: debt rsng from dut, nd
rel tng to oblg tons of the former knd, r ther th n to those of
the l tter. For there s dfference between beng oblged to punsh
nother nd beng one's self men ble to punshment: tho' the l tter
m  frequentl rse from the neglect of dong the former, but stll
there s the s me dstncton between them, s between c use nd effect.
The goods of subjects c n onl be t ken b w  of reprs l n return
for other goods t ken b the enem; but the c n never be t ken s
punshment for the neglect of brngng offenders to justce. The
delnquents themselves, n the number of whom m  be reckoned those,
who h ve neglected to dsch rge ther dut n ths respect, must nswer
for such offences.
III. The goods of subjects m  be t ken, nd propert cqured
theren, not onl n order to obt n p ment of the ORIGINAL debt,
whch occ soned the w r, but of OTHER debts lso, to whch the s me
w r m  h ve gven brth. And n ths sense the words of those re
to be t ken, who m nt n, th t c ptures n w r re not perfect

compens ton for the prncp l debt, but onl used s me ns to

enforce s tsf cton for the d m ges sust ned from ggressons.
Thus the Rom ns, n ther dspute wth Antochus, s rel ted b Lv,
thought t but rght for th t kng to m ke rep r ton for ll the
expenses ncurred n the w r, whch he h d occ soned. Indeed n
terms, th t m  be justl mposed upon the conquered m  justl be
enforced b w r.
IV. The rght of sezng the goods of the nnocent subject of n
enem seems to h ve been ntroduced, n order to compel the orgn l
ggressor, or debtor to gr nt redress for the njur he h d done: nd
lthough hs f llng on the nnocent m  be no w  repugn nt to wh t s
leg ll rght, t s n some me sure dep rture from the prncples
of hum nt. On the other h nd, hstor, espec ll the Rom n hstor,
bounds n ex mples of hum nt, where l nds h ve been restored to
conquered enem, upon condton of ther belongng to the STATE, nd
becomng subject to the p ment of trbute.

CHAPTER XV.[69]
ON MODERATION IN ACQUIRING DOMINION.
How f r ntern l justce permts us to cqure domnon--Moder ton,
n the use of ths rght over the conquered,
l ud ble--Incorpor tng them wth the conquerors--Allowng them
to ret n ther domnons--Pl cng g rrsons theren--Imposng
trbutes or other burdens--Utlt of such moder ton--Ch nge n
the form of conquered government--The conquered permtted to
ret n some p rt of ther former lbertes--Espec ll n m tters
of relgon--Clemenc to be shewn.
I. Th t equt nd moder ton tow rds ndvdu ls, whch re so hghl
extolled, re stll more deservng of dmr ton, when exercsed
tow rds n tons nd kngdoms; where njustce would be ttended wth
more sgn l c l mtes, nd moder ton wth more benefc l effects.
In just w r the rght of domnon over people, nd the soveregn
power, whch th t people possess, m  be cqured s well s n
other rght. But the cl ms to such rght ought b no me ns to be
prosecuted beond ndemnt for ggresson, nd securt g nst future
evls.
But ths motve, so necess r to be observed, espec ll n ll
tre tes of pe ce, s well s n the use of vctor, s often
confounded wth others. In other ponts soveregn prnce or st te m 
relnqush cl m from prncple of moder ton, but where the future
securt of ther subjects s concerned, t s n ct of cruelt r ther
th n of moder ton to rel x too f r n f vour of conquered enem.
II. Arstotle h s, more th n once, s d, th t w r s undert ken for
the s ke of pe ce, nd tol endured n order to obt n rest. And n
the s me m nner, Ccero h s observed, th t men go to w r, th t the
m  lve n pe ce wthout molest ton nd njur. W r too, s we re
nstructed b the te chers of true relgon, m  be m de, to remove
ever thng th t nterrupts, nd st nds n the w  of pe ce.

In the prmtve ges, s we fnd from hstor, w rs n gener l were

m de to preserve terrtores r ther th n to extend them. And n
dev ton from ths rule w s thought unl wful: thus the prophet Amos
reproves the Ammontes for ther love of m kng conquests.
III. The prudent moder ton of the ncent Rom ns ppro ches ne rl to
ths model of prmtve nnocence. For lthough the m de conquests,
the mtg ted the f te of the conquered b ncorpor tng them wth
themselves.
IV. Another m rk of moder ton n the use of vctor s le vng to
conquered kngs, or n tons the domnons, whch the LAWFULLY held
before.
Polbus hghl extols the mert nd wsdom of Antgonus, who, h vng
Sp rt n hs power, llowed the nh bt nts to ret n ther n ton l
polt nd freedom.
V. Sometmes ndeed conqueror, though llowng subjug ted people
to ret n ther domnon nd soveregnt, must provde for hs own
securt, b pl cng g rrsons n ther countr.
VI. Contrbutons too re frequentl mposed nd leved, not so much
b w  of ndemnt for expences ncurred, s for future securt
between the conqueror, nd the conquered countr. Upon the s me
prncple, s w s before[70] observed, n expl nng the n ture of
unequ l tre tes, condtons m  be mposed lso requrng conquered
power to delver up cert n number of her shps nd forts, nd to
reduce her troops to lmted number.
VII. But le vng to conquered powers p rt or the whole of ther
domnons s not onl sometmes n ct of justce nd hum nt, but
n ct of sound polc lso. Among other of Num 's nsttutons, hs
m nner of celebr tng the rtes of TERMINUS, the DEITY OF BOUNDARIES,
s much commended; for he prohbted the use of blood n those
ceremones, s n ntm ton th t nothng w s more conducve to the
pe ce nd h rmon of the world, th n for ever n ton to confne
herself wthn her proper bounds.
In conformt to whch m xm Florus observes, th t t s more e s to
m ke conquests th n to keep them. To whch rule Pl to, n hs thrd
book of L ws, d pts the proverb l expresson of Hesod, th t HALF IS
BETTER THAN THE WHOLE.
VIII. The L ced emon ns nd the Athen ns ncentl cl med no f rther
domnon over conquered ctes nd st tes, th n purel wshng them to
dopt forms of government lke ther own, the L ced emon ns lvng
under n rstocr tc, nd the Athen ns under democr tc sstem. But
whether such ch nges were conducve to conqueror's securt, t s
not to our present purpose to ex mne.
IX. If t s not perfectl s fe to forbe r exercsng ANY domnon over
conquered enem, the m tter m  be so regul ted s to le ve hm some
porton of hs former soveregnt nd power. Thus mong the Jews the
sceptre rem ned wth the S nhedrm, even fter Archel us w s deprved
of hs kngdom; nd Alex nder n m n c ses llowed D rus to rem n
soveregn over others, whle he requred of hm submsson to hmself.
X. Even though conquered power w s deprved of ll soveregnt,
she mght be llowed to ret n some of her l ws, prvleges, nd

m gstr ces of nferor mport nce. Thus, Pln, n hs letters,

nforms us, th t n the proconsul r provnce of Bthn , the ct of
Ap m e w s llowed to regul te the form of her government t her own
ple sure, nd, n other pl ces, the Bthn ns were permtted to ret n
ther own m gstr tes, nd ther own sen te.
XI. Ths ndulgence ought to be shewn to ever people, espec ll n
ther tt chment to the relgon of ther foref thers, of whch the
should never be deprved but wth ther own consent nd convcton. An
ndulgence, whch Agrpp n hs ddress to C us, s cted b Phlo
n the ccount of hs emb ss, pproves of, s hghl gr teful to the
conquered people, nd b no me ns prejudc l to the conqueror. At the
s me tme conqueror wll t ke c re th t erroneous opnons do not
prev l to the prejudce nd overthrow of true relgon, s w s done b
Const ntne upon hs crushng the p rt of Lcnus, nd fterw rds b
the Fr nks nd other kngs.

CHAPTER XVI.
ON MODERATION WITH RESPECT TO THINGS EXCLUDED FROM THE RIGHT OF
POSTLIMINIUM BY THE LAW OF NATIONS.
Intern l justce requres the resttuton of thngs t ken from others
b n enem n unjust w r--Deductons m de--Subjects nd countres,
f unjustl sezed b n enem, to be restored to ther orgn l
soveregn--The tme, when the oblg ton to restore them expres,
defned--Wh t s to be done n doubtful c ses.
I. How f r thngs t ken n just w r become the propert of the c ptors
h s been expl ned before. From whch deducton must be m de of
thngs recover ble b the rght postlmnum, those beng no c ptures
t ll.
But thngs, t ken n unjust w r, re to be restored, not onl b those,
who h ve t ken them, but b others lso nto whose h nds the m  h ve
b n me ns f llen. For, s the Rom n l wers s , no one c n conve
to nother gre ter rght th n he hmself possesses. The orgn l
c ptor h d no just ttle to n propert theren, nether c n the
person, dervng hs ttle through hm, est blsh n better cl m.--A
SECOND or THIRD possessor m  h ve cqured propert theren, whch
the l w presumes he h s rght to, tll the contr r be shewn, nd
for whch n cton m  be m nt ned. Yet t s rght of whch he
c nnot honestl v l hmself g nst the re l owner, from whom t w s
unjustl t ken.
II. nd III. Therefore such thngs re to be restored to those, from
whom the were t ken, whch we fnd n ncent tmes w s often done.
Lv n rel tng the defe t of the Volsc ns nd Aequ b Rom n
Consul, s s th t the boot w s exposed n publc pl ce, for the
sp ce of three d s, th t ever one, comng to recognse wh t belonged
to hm, mght t ke t w .[71]
But f n one h s become possessed of such thng b purch se, t
m  be sked, f he c n ch rge the person from whom t w s orgn ll
t ken, wth the prce whch he h s p d for t? Accordng to the
prncples before[72] l d down, he cert nl m  ch rge s much to the

person losng t, s the repossesson of thng, whch he desp red of

ever recoverng, s worth.
The hstor of Abr h m seems pplc ble to ths subject, when he
returned from hs vctor over the fve kngs. Beng m n of noble nd
ex lted pet, he would ppropr te nothng to hmself, but consderng
the thngs ret ken, s hs own rght, n recompence for hs l bour nd
d nger, he devoted tenth p rt to God, fter deductng the necess r
expences, nd dvded cert n porton mong hs comp nons.
IV. As THINGS re to be restored to ther orgn l owners, so SUBJECTS
re to be restored to ther former l wful soveregns.
V. The perod lso, when the oblg ton to resttuton expres, s
often subject of nqur. But ths s queston, when rsng
between subjects of the s me kngdom, whch must be settled b the
muncp l l ws of th t countr: but when the contendng p rtes re
the subjects of foregn powers, the m tter c n onl be decded upon
conjecture of the tme suffcent to consttute presumed derelcton
of propert.
VI. But where the rght of w r s doubtful, t wll be s fest to follow
the conduct of Ar tus of Scon, n dvsng the new possessors n some
me sure to prefer t kng sum mone n leu of the possesson, nd
recommendng the s me m xm to the orgn l owners, to prefer sum of
mone, f the could obt n t, equv lent to the recover of ther
rght.

CHAPTER XVII.
RESPECTING THOSE WHO ARE NEUTRAL IN WAR.
Nothng to be t ken belongng to neutr ls, but under crcumst nces of
extreme necesst, nd wth n ntenton to p  the full prce of
t--Conduct of neutr l powers tow rds bellgerents.
I. It m  ppe r superfluous to spe k of neutr l powers, g nst whom
no rghts of w r c n exst. But s w r, under the ple of necesst,
occ sons m n ggressons to be commtted g nst them, espec ll
when borderng upon the se t of ts oper tons, t m  be necess r
brefl to repe t former sserton, th t nothng short of extreme
exgenc c n gve one power rght over wh t belongs to nother no w 
nvolved n the w r. The c se too s equ ll cle r th t no emergenc
c n justf n one n t kng nd pplng to hs own use wh t the
owner st nds n equ l need of hmself. But even where the emergenc c n
be pl nl proved, nothng c n justf us n t kng or pplng the
propert of nother to our use, beond the IMMEDIATE DEMANDS OF THAT
emergenc. Where the CUSTODY of thng, b securng t, s suffcent
for the purpose, the USE nd CONSUMPTION of t s bsolutel unl wful.
If the USE of t s necess r, t must not be ABUSED: nd f the entre
ABUSE of t be requste, the full v lue should be p d.
II. Ag n, ccordng to wh t w s s d n precedng p rt of ths book,
t s the dut of those, who profess neutr lt n w r to do nothng
tow rds ncre sng the strength of p rt m nt nng n unjust
c use, nor to mpede the me sures of power eng ged n just nd

rghteous c use. But n doubtful c ses, the ought to shew themselves

mp rt l to both sdes, nd to gve no succour to beseged pl ces, but
should llow the troops of e ch to m rch through the countr, nd to
purch se for ge, nd other supples. The Corcr e ns, n Thucddes,
s  th t f the Athen ns ntend to rem n neuter, the ought ether
to prohbt the Cornth ns from enlstng men n the terrtor of
Attc , or to gve THEM the s me prvlege. The Rom ns objected to the
conduct of Phlp kng of M cedon, ch rgng hm wth double vol ton
of tre tes, both b njurng the lles of the Rom n people, nd
ssstng the enem wth supples of men nd mone.

CHAPTER XIX.[73]
ON GOOD FAITH BETWEEN ENEMIES.
Good f th due to enemes of ever descrpton--Due even to pr tes,
nd others of the s me knd, n ll tre tes wth them--A promse
gven to them, bndng, when not extorted b fe r--O ths to be
nvol bl observed--The l w of n tons does not llow fe r to
be lleged s n excepton to the bove rules--Good f th to be
observed even to tre cherous enem--Ths oblg ton ce ses, where
one of the p rtes vol tes hs eng gements--Or refuses just
compens ton--Even where the oblg ton rose from dfferent
contr ct--From loss occ soned--Or from pen lt--Applc ton of
these prncples to w r.
I. It w s before s d th t the number nd extent of ctons, l wful
n w r, m  be consdered ether upon ther own ntrnsc merts, or
s rsng out of some ntecedent eng gement. The former pont h vng
before been full expl ned, ths s the proper pl ce for dscussng
the l tter, whch comprehends the good f th of enemes tow rds e ch
other.
Ccero, n hs ffth book on the bounds of good nd evl, h s well
observed th t ever one must pprove nd commend dsposton to
dhere f thfull to our eng gements not onl from dsnterested
motves, but n some c ses even n opposton to our own nterest. And
Augustne s s th t t s rght to m nt n the pledge of f th gven
to n enem, for under the ch r cter of enemes men do not lose ther
rght to the fulflment of promse, rght whch ever one possessed
of re son s c p ble of. It s the power of re son nd speech from
whch the oblg ton of promses sprngs. Nor s t to be supposed
th t, bec use t s l wful to deceve n enem on some occ sons, the
s me rule wll uthorse vol ton of f th n eng gements. For the
oblg ton to spe k the truth rses from c uses ntecedent n ther
exstence to n st te of w rf re, nd the re c uses whch st te
of w rf re m  render t necess r to ch nge or brdge. But promse
confers new rght of tself. A dstncton whch dd not esc pe the
notce of Arstotle, who, n spe kng of truth, s s th t he does not
consder truth nd sncert n eng gements, wth rel ton to justce
or njustce, but s belongng to nother cl ss of vrtues.
II. As to eng gements wth pr tes, we m  observe, th t Pompe n
gre t me sure concluded the dsputes wth them b tre t, sp rng ther
lves, nd llowng them pl ces to resde n, on condton of ther
b ndonng ther former w  of lfe. The l w of n tons ndeed h s not

est blshed the s me mode of communc ton wth them, s mong regul r
enemes n just nd l wful w r: but stll the ver crcumst nce of
ther beng MEN, enttles them to those prvleges whch re s nctoned
b the l w of n ture, mong whch the observ nce of eng gements s one.
III. Let us consder f more specous rgument th n Ccero's m  not
be devsed on ths subject.--In the frst pl ce t m  be st ted th t
trocous m lef ctors, formng no p rt of st te, m  be punshed b
n one wh tever, ccordng to the l w of n ture. For those, who m  be
punshed wth de th, m  upon the s me prncple be deprved of ther
propert nd ll ther rghts. And mong rghts m  be enumer ted the
rght of requrng fulflment of promses nd eng gements: the gult
m  therefore be deprved of ths rght b w  of pen lt. In repl to
whch t m  be s d, ths wll cert nl be the c se, f the person
s tre ted wth, but not s m lef ctor: for the ver ct of tre tng
wth hm shews th t he s not consdered n longer n th t lght, but
s one enttled to ll the rghts of tre t, the crmn l p rt of hs
ch r cter not beng t ken nto the ccount, ll pen ltes on th t score
beng, s t were remtted. For ever ct of tre t must be nterpreted
so s to vod bsurdt.
IV. An objecton to tre tng wth pr tes upon prncples of good f th
s deduced from ther c llng, whch s to extort terms b fe r. Now
where promse h s been extorted, the promsor s rele sed from hs
eng gement, s h vng unjustl sust ned d m ge, b n ct repugn nt
to the n ture of hum n lbert, nd to the n ture of hum n cton,
whch ought to be free.
Ths, t must be dmtted, m  sometmes h ppen, but does not ppl to
ll promses m de to pr tes. For to m ke the person, to whom promse
h s been gven, l ble to rele se the eng gement, the promser hmself
must h ve been forced to gve the promse under mpressons of unjust
fe r. So th t f n one h s promsed r nsom n order to redeem
frend from c ptvt, he wll be bound b hs promse. For n ths
c se there w s no mpresson of fe r, s he c me volunt rl to m ke
the contr ct.
V. A promse too m de through the compulson of fe r wll be bndng,
where t h s been r tfed b the solemn s ncton of n o th: for n
th t c se t s not onl one m n m kng n eng gement to fellow
cre ture, but bndng hmself to God b the most solemn ppe l:
g nst whch nether fe r nor n other motve c n form n excepton.
Yet the her of promser s not bound b n such oblg ton:
bec use nhert nces p ss ccordng to the rules of hum n ntercourse
est blshed t the orgn l nsttuton of propert: but the dvne
rght to the fulflment of o ths, s such, s not ncluded n these.
From the bove rguments concluson m  be deduced, th t f n one
vol tes pledge gven to such n enem ether upon o th or wthout
o th, he wll not on th t ccount be l ble to punshment mong other
n tons, bec use from the gener l horror whch pr c exctes, n tons
h ve thought proper to p ss over wthout notce the vol ton of rules
of f th tow rds them.
XI.[74] Solemn w r, sgnfng such s s procl med nd begun on
both sdes b uthort of the soveregn or st te, mong ts m n
other leg l rghts, ncludes lso th t of gvng v ldt to ever
promse, whch m  be conducve to ts termn ton, so th t f ether
p rt, through n ll-grounded fe r of further c l mtes, h s, even
g nst hs wll, m de promses unf vour ble, or cceded to terms
ds dv nt geous to hmself, such n eng gement wll be bndng. For

the l w of n tons llows bellgerent powers to l rm e ch other, f

possble, nto submsson upon the most unequ l terms, n the s me
m nner, s t gves s ncton to m n thngs not strctl equt ble
ccordng to n tur l nd muncp l l w. For f such pr ctce h d not
been est blshed, w rs, whch re so frequent, could never h ve been
brought to concluson, n object so much for the nterest of m nknd.
These re the rghts of w r whch Ccero s s ought to be nvol bl
preserved wth n enem: for n enem not onl ret ns hs n tur l
rghts n w r, but cert n other rghts orgn tng n the consent
of n tons. Yet t does not follow from hence th t n one, who h s
extorted such promse n unjust w r, c n, consstentl wth pet
nd the dutes of good m n, ret n wh t he h s so receved, nor c n
he compel nother to st nd to such eng gements, whether upon o th, or
not. For the n tur l nd ntern l njustce of such promse lw s
rem ns the s me, nor c n the njustce be removed or ltered, tll t
h s receved new nd free concurrence from the p rt, b whom t w s
gven.
XII. The onl mpressons of fe r, th t c n be l wfull nspred n
regul r w r, re those whch re pproved of b the l w of n tons.
Thus no one c n v l hmself of promse, extorted from n mb ss dor
under mpressons of fe r excted b the sezng of hs person.
XIII. nd XIV. There re two c ses, n whch person m  not perform
hs eng gement or promse, wthout beng gult of tre cher: nd those
re, where the condtons h ve not been fulflled, or some compens ton
h s been m de. For n one nd the s me tre t ll the cl uses seem
connected wth e ch other, s knd of condton expressng the
ntenton of one p rt to fulfl hs eng gement, f the other sh ll
do the s me. Therefore Tullus, n replng to the Alb ns nvokes
destructon upon the he d of th t people who frst rejected the just
cl ms of mb ss dors dem ndng resttuton, wshng th t ll the
c l mtes of w r mght f ll upon them. For, s s Ulp n, he sh ll no
longer be held s confeder te, who h s renounced tre t, owng to
some condton, on whch t w s m de, not beng fulflled. For whch
re son, wherever t s ntended otherwse, t s usu ll st ted n
express terms, th t the vol ton of n p rtcul r cl use sh ll not
nnul the whole tre t.
XV. The orgn of compens ton w s expl ned n the second book of ths
tre tse,[75] where t w s s d to be the power nd rght of recevng
n equv lent, for some thng belongng to us, whch s n the h nds
of nother, or n thng due to us, whch we c nnot otherwse obt n:
nd much more then h ve we rght on the s me ccount to det n n
thng whch s ALREADY IN OUR POWER, whether t be of corpore l or n
ncorpore l knd. So th t we re not oblged to perform promse, f
t be no more th n equv lent to thng of ours whch the other p rt
det ns. Senec , n hs sxth book ON BENEFITS, s s th t credtor
often becomes under n oblg ton to hs debtor, f he t kes more th n
n equv lent for hs debt. For though t m  be gr nted th t he h s
lent mone, et f b such lo n he h s obt ned the possesson of
l nds, whch he never bought, he ch nges stu tons wth hs debtor,
nd becomes debtor n hs turn.
XVI. It wll be the s me, f one of the contr ctng p rtes owes
s much, or more, from some other eng gement: nd the debt c nnot
otherwse be obt ned, th n b t kng dv nt ge of the present
contr ct, though t h s no connecton wth the former debt. But n
LEGAL pont of vew, ll ctons re perfectl dstnct, nor c n ther

forms, ther grounds, or ther subst nce be confounded; but cert n

c ses re confned to cert n l ws, to whch t s necess r nv r bl
to dhere: one l w c nnot be mxed wth nother, but ever one n the
prosecuton of rght must tre d upon nv r ble nd be ten ground.
But the l w of n tons does not reg rd such dstnctons, t llows us
to tr nsgress them where there s no other me ns of obt nng our rght.
XVII. nd XVIII. The s me m  be s d too, where the p rt ex ctng
promse, h s not contr cted n debt b eng gement, but h s done n
njur to the promser. And wh tever s due b w  of punshment m  be
b l nced g nst promse.
XIX. If whle l w-sut s dependng, the p rtes enter nto n
greement of n knd, ether to p  the costs, or to m ke good other
d m ges, the c nnot v l themselves both of ths greement, nd cl m
further compens ton for the orgn l m tter n dspute. In the s me
m nner, f durng the contnu nce of w r the bellgerents negot te
for concluson of the orgn l dspute, the re supposed thereb
to settle ever c use of hostlt, nor c n the n further v l
themselves of the rghts of w r, so s to enjo both the dv nt ges of
them, nd of negot ton, t the s me tme. For f ths were the c se,
no tre tes could ever be enforced wth cert nt.
It m  be sked, of wh t n ture re the thngs for whch promse of
compens ton should be gven? In nswer to whch t m  be observed,
th t such promse or eng gement m  be m de n leu of some other
oblg ton ncurred durng the course of w r: s for nst nce, where
the bre ch of truce h s been commtted, the rghts of n mb ss dor
vol ted, or n other cton done, repugn nt to the prncples
est blshed b the l w of n tons mong bellgerent powers.
Stll t must be observed th t the p rtes, n m kng compens ton,
should bst n wth the utmost c uton from nfrngng upon the rghts
of thrd person, espec ll where ths c n be done wthout b ndonng
the prncples of the l w of n tons, whch m kes the effects of
subjects nswer ble for the debts of the st te. Besdes t s the m rk
of dgnfed mnd to dhere to eng gements even fter recevng n
njur. On whch ccount the Ind n s ge J rch s commended th t kng,
who on sust nng n njur from neghbourng nd confeder te power,
s d he should not thnk hmself rele sed from hs sworn eng gements,
whch were solemn cts, th t no njustce on the p rt of nother could
repe l.
Almost ll questons rel tng to pledges of f th gven b one
bellgerent power to nother, m  be solved upon the prncples before
l d down, n expl nng the n ture nd force of promses n gener l;
of o ths, tre tes, nd conventons, nd lso n expl nng the rghts
of the oblg tons of kngs, nd the method of nterpretng doubtful
ponts. But n order to remove ever doubt nd dffcult, perh ps
bref dscusson of the most usu l nd pr ctc l topcs of negot ton
wll not be deemed tedous.

CHAPTER XX.
ON THE PUBLIC FAITH, BY WHICH WAR IS CONCLUDED; COMPRISING TREATIES OF
PEACE, AND THE NATURE OF ARBITRATION, SURRENDER HOSTAGES, PLEDGES.

In mon rches the power of m kng pe ce ro l prerog tve--In

rstocr ces nd democr ces, ths rght belongs to gre ter
number of persons--In wh t m nner the publc domnons or
n p rt of them m  be len ted--How f r pe ce concluded
b the kng bnds the st te, or hs successors--Propert of
ndvdu ls ceded for the beneft of the st te t the tme of
m kng pe ce--Indemnt to those ndvdu ls--Losses sust ned
n w r--No dstncton between thngs cqured ccordng to the
l w of n tons nd the cvl l w--Tr ns ctons of the soveregn
wth foregn n tons deemed v ld from motves of publc
utlt--Gener l rule of nterpretng the terms of pe ce--In
doubtful c ses the former st te of thngs supposed to be contnued
b tre t of pe ce--Thngs restored to the st te the were
n before the w r--Independent st tes, volunt rl jonng
one of the bellgerent powers c nnot cl m ndemnt of the
other--Gener l mnest--Prv te debts subsstng before the w r
not ncluded theren--Restor ton of c ptures--Rules respectng
such restor tons--Dubous ponts to be nterpreted to the
prejudce of the p rt dct tng the terms--Dstncton between
new c uses of w r, nd the bre ch of pe ce--Rupture b n ct
contr r to the terms of pe ce n gener l--Infr cton of tre t
b lles or subjects--Vol ton of p rtcul r tre t--He ds
of tre tes--Pen ltes nnexed--Un vod ble mpedments to the
fulflment of tre t--Pe ce contnued t the opton of the
njured p rt--Rel tons of mt--How f r recevng subjects
nd exles m  be consdered s bre ch thereof--Vctor--W r
concluded b rbtr ton--Arbtr tors bound b rules of strct
justce--Absolute, nd condton l surrender--Host ges c n be
det ned for no other th n the express c use for whch the were
gven--Rele sed b the de th of the p rt for whom the were
gven--Oblg ton of pledges--Rght of redeemng them lost.
I. Good f th, ether expressed or mpled, must be the found ton
of ever tre t between hostle powers. And g n the f th th t s
expressed s ether of publc or prv te n ture, nd the pledges
gven ether b the soveregn, or nferor uthortes n st tes
consttute the publc f th. It s, b such pledges gven on the p rt
of the soveregn power lone, th t pe ce c n be concluded, or the
rghts of w r enforced. In the termn ton of ever w r, ether the
prncp l, or ccessor c uses re to be consdered. Tre tes re n
gener l reg rded s the prncp l nstrument, b whch w rs re ended,
nd the med ton, or decson of thrd person or power s deemed
second r or ccessor me ns.
II. The person, who h s uthort to begn w r, s the onl one to
whom the rght of m kng pe ce c n properl belong, ccordng to the
gener l m xm, th t ever one s the best judge n the m n gement of
hs own ff rs. From hence t follows, th t publc w r c n be m de b
the soveregn power lone on e ch sde: rght whch n ever kngl
government s ver justl vested n the crown.
III. nd IV. In popul r or rstocr tc forms of government, the
rght of m kng w r, or concludng pe ce, s gener ll lodged n some
publc councl or bod, where m jort of voces m  form tre tes,
conventons, or resolutons, whch wll be bndng upon the dssentent
p rt of such councl. And ll who re bound b pe ce, whether
pprovng t or not re enttled to ts benefts.
V. In ex mnng those objects, whch form the most m ter l p rt of

tre tes, we m  observe, th t kngdoms re not so much p trmon,

whch m  be len ted t ple sure, s trust, pl ced n the h nds of
the soveregn for the beneft of hs people. Indeed kngs themselves
re w re of ths, even before the crown descends upon ther he ds, nd
the receve t upon condton of dherng to such s cred oblg tons.
Nor c n such len tons ever be m de, so s to be ttended wth
consequences lke those of prv te contr cts, or to render the goods
nd effects of subjects nswer ble for such eng gements. For f th t
were the c se, the fund ment l l ws of the kngdom, prohbtng such
len tons, would be of no effect.
To render the len ton of the whole publc domnon v ld, the
consent of the consttuted uthortes of the st te s requste.
And ndeed to confrm the tr nsfer of n p rtcul r porton, the
consent of the whole bod s well s of th t p rtcul r member wll
be necess r: for otherwse such len ton would be lke the volent
sep r ton of lmb from the n tur l bod.
A whole people m  n c se of extreme necesst tr nsfer themselves
to the domnon of nother, rght whch undoubtedl w s reserved t
the orgn l form ton of socet.
Nether s there n thng to prevent kng from len tng hs
p trmon l nd prv te possessons. Yet there m  be p rts of the
ro l domnon, whch the soveregn c nnot len te from the crown,
espec ll, f he h s receved t upon condton of m kng no person l
ppropr ton of n thng belongng thereto.
There re two w s n whch the possessons of the crown m  become
the p trmon of the kng, ether s sep r ble or nsep r ble p rts of
the kngdom. In the l tter c se the c n onl be tr nsferred wth the
kngdom tself, but n the former, the m  be len ted b themselves.
And where the crown s not p trmon l nd heredt r, the restrctons
upon the soveregn n ths respect re much gre ter.
VI. A n ton nd kng's successors re bound b hs eng gements,
n proporton to the power, whch he derves from the consttuton,
of m kng such eng gements. For though ths power m  not be
bsolutel unlmted, et t ought not to be clogged wth unnecess r
restrctons. It should be such s m  en ble hm to exercse hs
dscreton nd judgment on proper occ sons for the beneft of hs
people.
The c se wll be dfferent, where kng's power over hs subjects s
lke th t of m ster over hs household, more th n of soveregn
over hs st te, s where he h s entrel subjug ted people, or where
hs controul over ther propert s bsolute. Thus Ph r oh purch sed
ll the l nd n Egpt, nd others h ve dmtted str ngers nto ther
terrtores llowng them to hold l nds upon such condtons. For here,
there s nother rght n ddton to th t of soveregn, nd t s
rght, whch soveregnt lone wthout conquest could never h ve
conferred.
VII. The rght of soveregns to dspose of the effects of ndvdu ls,
n order to m ke pe ce, s often dsputed pont, nor c n the
exercse ths rght over the propert of subjects n n other m nner
th n s soveregns.[76]
The propert of subjects s so f r under the emnent controul of the

st te, th t the st te or the soveregn who represents t, c n use

th t propert, or destro t, or len te t, NOT ONLY IN CASES OF
EXTREME NECESSITY, whch sometmes llow ndvdu ls the lbert of
nfrngng upon the propert of others, but on ll OCCASIONS, where
the publc good s concerned, to whch the orgn l fr mers of socet
ntended th t prv te nterests should gve w . But when th t s the
c se, t s to be observed, the st te s bound to rep r the losses of
ndvdu ls, t the publc expence, n d of whch the sufferers h ve
contrbuted ther due proporton. Nor wll the st te, though un ble to
rep r the losses for the present, be fn ll rele sed from the debt,
but whenever she possesses the me ns of rep rng the d m ges, the
dorm nt cl m nd oblg ton wll be revved.
VIII. There must be some hest ton n dmttng the opnon of
Ferdn nd V squez, who m nt ns th t the st te s not bound to rep r
the losses, whch re occ soned to ndvdu ls n the course of w r,
s those re ccdents permtted b the rghts of w r.
For those rghts reg rd the rel ton of foregn st tes nd enemes to
e ch other, but be r no reference to the dsputes of subjects mong
themselves, who, beng unted n the s me c use, ought to sh re the
common losses, whch h ppen to them n supportng the prvleges of
ther socet. It s rule lkewse est blshed b the cvl l w, th t
no cton c n be brought g nst the st te for the losses sust ned n
w r, s ever one s thereb nduced to defend hs own propert wth
more e rnestness nd sprt.[77]
IX. Some m ke dstncton between the propert whch subjects re
enttled to from the l w of n tons nd th t whch the possess b the
uthort of the cvl l w, llowng the kng more extensve controul
over the l tter, even to the power of t kng t wthout c use or
compens ton, whch s not the c se wth propert of the former knd.
But ths s n mproper dstncton. For wh tever m  be the orgn of
propert, t s lw s ttended wth pecul r effects ccordng to the
l w of n ture: so th t t c nnot be t ken w  for n other re sons
th n those nherent n the n ture of propert tself, or derved from
some ct of the owners.
X. The prohbton respectng the propert of ndvdu ls beng gven
up, except for some publc dv nt ge, s m tter restng entrel
between soveregn nd hs subjects, nd compens ton for losses s
n ff r between the st te nd ndvdu ls. But n ll tr ns ctons
between kng nd foregners, the ct of the kng s suffcent to
gve them NATIONAL v ldt, not onl out of respect to hs person l
dgnt, but ccordng to the l w of n tons, whch renders the effects
of subjects responsble for the cts of the soveregn.
XI. In nterpretng tre tes of pe ce, f vour ble crcumst nces
re lw s to be t ken n ther utmost l ttude, nd unf vour ble
crcumst nces to be lmted s strctl s possble.[78]
Reg rdng purel the l w of n ture, the most f vour ble constructon
s th t, whereb ever one s restored to hs own propert nd
possessons. Therefore where the rtcles of tre t re mbguous,
the constructon should go so f r, s to gr nt the p rt, who h s
evdentl justce on hs sde, the object for whch he went to w r, nd
lkewse ndemnt for the losses whch he h s sust ned.
But t s not llow ble th t ether p rt should g n more th n n
ndemnt, or dem nd n thng b w  of punshment, whch s of n

odous n ture.
As n m kng pe ce, t sc rcel ever h ppens th t ether p rt wll
cknowledge the njustce of hs c use, or of hs cl ms, such
constructon must be gven, s wll equ lze the pretensons of e ch
sde, whch m  be ccomplshed, ether b restorng the dsputed
possessons to ther former stu ton, or b le vng them n the st te,
to whch the w r h s reduced them.
XII. Of these two methods, n doubtful c se, the l tter s preferred,
s beng the more e sl djusted, nd occ sonng no further ch nge.
From hence the rght of postlmnum belongs to such prsoners, s re
expressl ncluded n the tre t. Nether re deserters to be gven up,
unless t be so greed. For b the l ws of w r n power s llowed to
receve deserters, nd even to enlst them n hs own rm.
B such greement other thngs rem n n the h nds of the possessors,
b whch s not me nt cvl, but n tur l possesson: for n w r
BARE POSSESSION s suffcent, nor s n other knd looked for.
And l nds re s d to be so possessed, when nclosed or defended b
fortfc tons, for tempor r occup ton b n enc mpment s not
reg rded n ths c se. Hence Demosthenes n hs speech for Ctesphon,
s s th t Phlp w s nxous to m ke hmself m ster of ll the pl ces
he could seze, s he knew th t upon the concluson of pe ce, he
should ret n them.
Incorpore l rghts c nnot be held but b the occup ton of the thngs
wth whch the re connected; s for nst nce, the servces of l nds,
or through me ns of the persons, to whom the belong: but the holders
of such rghts lose them, when n enem h s become m ster of the
countr.
XIII. In th t other mode of tre t, whereb possesson, th t h s been
dsturbed n the course of w r, s restored, t s proper to observe
th t the l st possesson, mmed tel before the w r beg n, s th t,
whch s lw s me nt, so th t the ndvdu ls then unjustl ejected,
m  h ve recourse to l w, ether to obt n possesson b provson l
decree, or to m ke good ther cl m.
XIV. If n ndependent people VOLUNTARILY nd SPONTANEOUSLY pl ce
themselves under the controul nd protecton of one of the bellgerent
powers, such people c nnot be ncluded mong those enttled to
resttuton, whch onl belongs to those who h ve suffered losses b
volence, through fe r, or n l wful str t gem of w r. Thus when
pe ce w s m de mong the Grec n st tes, the Theb ns ret ned Pl t e ,
observng th t the nether owed ther possesson of t to volence,
nor tre cher, but to the free surrender of those, to whom t belonged.
XV. Unless there s n express stpul ton to the contr r, t s
understood th t, n ll tre tes of pe ce, there s n mpled ssent
th t no ctons re to be brought for losses occ soned b the
ccdent l c l mtes of w r, ether to st tes or ndvdu ls. For
those re n tur l consequences of st te of hostltes: nd t s
supposed th t n doubtful c ses, no bellgerent would consent to be
convcted of njustce.
XVI. The debts, owng to ndvdu ls, t the begnnng of w r, re
not to be thought thereb dsch rged. For the re not thngs cqured
b the l ws of w r: for w r onl prevents the cl m to them from beng
prosecuted, but b no me ns rele ses the oblg ton. So th t when the

mpedment of w r s removed, such debts ret n ther orgn l force.

For though t ought not to be presumed th t n one should e sl
be deprved of rght subsstng before the w r, et ths s to be
understood of the rghts rsng out of the found ton of propert,
whereb communt nd equ lt of goods w s bolshed. For st tes nd
governments, s s Ccero, were orgn ll nd prncp ll desgned to
preserve to ever one the possesson of hs own propert.
XVII. The rght to cl m l nds or goods of n knd, b w  of
PUNISHMENT, s not of equ l force wth the bove rules. For n
tr ns ctons nd tre tes of th t knd between kngs nd soveregn
st tes, ll cl ms of th t knd seem nd ndeed ought to be
relnqushed, otherwse pe ce would be no pe ce, f the old nd
orgn l c uses of the w r were llowed to rem n nd be revved. And
the most l tent nd remote c uses re supposed to be ncluded n the
most GENERAL TERMS, n tre tes of pe ce, whereb the re sunk n
oblvon.
XVIII. The rghts of ndvdu ls to pen ltes re not supposed to be
b ndoned, restng entrel upon dfferent grounds: bec use the m 
be decded b leg l trbun ls wthout ppe lng to the sword. Yet
s our rghts of ths sort re not of the s me knd wth those of
bsolute propert, nd s pen ltes h ve lw s somethng odous n
ther n ture, n f nt verb l conjecture wll be thought suffcent
presumpton of ther beng remtted.
XIX. The objecton m de g nst t kng w  n rghts, th t exsted
before the w r, pples chefl to the rghts of INDIVIDUALS. For
where the words of tre t suppl n prob ble conjecture, t s
most n tur l to suppose th t KINGS nd NATIONS h ve more re dl
relnqushed cert n rghts, espec ll n m tters, where those rghts
re not cle rl nd full scert ned. So th t, gvng the most
f vour ble constructon to ther conduct, the re supposed to h ve
been nm ted wth the noble desre of rootng up nd destrong ll
the seeds of w r.
XX. All c ptures, m de fter tre t s fnshed, must evdentl be
restored. For the tre t puts n end to ll the rghts of w r.
XXI. But n tre tes rel tng to the restor ton of thngs t ken
n w r, more extensve nterpret ton must be gven, where the
dv nt ges re mutu l th n where the nclne onl to one sde.[79]
In the next pl ce ll the p rts of tre t rel tng to persons re to
be nterpreted more f vour bl th n those rel tng to thngs: nd mong
those rel tng to thngs, prort s gven to l nds before move ble
effects, nd lso mong these, such s re n the h nds of the st te
re held n more consder ton th n the possessons of ndvdu ls. And
g n, mong thngs n the possesson of ndvdu ls, those re more
f voured whch re held under benefc l ttle, th n those whch re
lo ded wth ncumbr nces, s thngs held b mone p ments, or b dower.
XXII. The person, to whom n thng s ceded b tre t of pe ce,
s enttled to the produce nd fruts of t, from the tme of such
cesson, nd not f rther b ck: pont m nt ned b Augustus C es r n
opposton to Sextus Pompe, who, upon Peloponnesus beng ceded to hm,
cl med lso the trbutes nd revenues, th t were due for former e rs.
XXIII. The n mes of countres re to be t ken ccordng to the us ge of
the present tme, not so much ccordng to the popul r ccept ton, s

to th t of men of scence, b whom those subjects re gener ll tre ted

of.
XXIV. These rules lso re of frequent use, whenever there s
reference to n ntecedent, or to n ncent tre t. For n th t c se
the qu ltes nd condtons of the l tter tre t re consdered
s repetton of those expressed n the former.--And the person
contr ctng s to be consdered s h vng re ll performed hs p rt of
the eng gement, whch he cert nl would h ve done, h d he not been
prevented b the p rt wth whom he s eng ged n dspute.
XXV. Wh t some llege n excuse for short del  n the executon of
tre t s not to be dmtted s true, except some unforeseen necesst
h s occ soned the mpedment. For though some of the c non-l ws m 
f vour such ple , th t s not surprsng, consderng the re fr med
solel wth the vew of promotng ch rt mong Chrst ns. But n ths
queston rel tng to the nterpret ton of tre tes, t s not so much
our busness to l  down wh t s best nd properest for ever one to
do, nor even to st te wh t relgon nd pet requre, s to consder
wh t ever one m  be compelled b leg l uthort to do.
XXVI. In doubtful m tters t s usu l for n nterpret ton to be gven
more prejudc l to the p rt who h s dct ted the terms, th n to the
other, bec use n gener l he s the more powerful: n the s me m nner,
n expl nng the terms of b rg n, constructon s gener ll gven
g nst the seller: s he m  bl me hmself for not h vng spoken more
cle rl, nd openl. Where s the other, comprehendng the terms n more
me nngs th n one, mght f rl select th t most f vour ble to hmself.
XXVII. It s m tter of frequent dspute wh t consttutes the bre ch
of pe ce. For t s not the s me thng to bre k pe ce, s to
furnsh new grounds nd c uses of w r. There s gre t dfference
between these thngs, both s to the pen lt ncurred b the ggressor,
nd s to the ggreved p rt beng, n other respects, rele sed from
hs eng gements.
There re three w s, n whch
somethng contr r to the ver
vol ton of the EXPRESS terms
contr r to the EFFECTS, whch

pe ce m  be broken,--ether b dong
essence of ALL pe ce,--or somethng n
of PARTICULAR pe ce,--or somethng
re ntended to rse from ever pe ce.

XXVIII. A thng s done contr r to the ver essence of ll pe ce,

when hostle ggressons re commtted wthout n new grounds of w r.
But where n specous pretext c n be ssgned for t kng rms, t s
better t should be supposed purel n ct of njustce, th n n ct of
njustce ccomp ned wth perfd. It s h rdl necess r to quote the
words of Thucddes, who s s, "t s not the p rt, who repels force
b rms, but the power who frst m kes the tt ck, th t vol tes
pe ce."
H vng l d down these rules, t rem ns to be consdered, who re the
AGGRESSORS, nd who re the AGGRIEVED PERSONS, n the bre kng of
pe ce.
XXIX. There re some, who thnk th t pe ce s broken, when even
those, who h ve been lles do n of these thngs. Nor ndeed c n t
be dened, th t such n greement MAY be m de, for one ll to become
l ble to punshment for the ctons of nother, nd for pe ce to be
deemed r tfed nd perm nent onl upon condtons, p rtl rbtr r,
nd p rtl c su l.

But t s h rdl credble, unless there s the cle rest evdence of t,
th t pe ce s ever concluded upon such terms. For t s contr r to
ll rule, nd repugn nt to the common wshes of those, who m ke pe ce.
Therefore those, who h ve commtted hostle ggressons, wthout the
ssst nce of others, wll be deemed bre kers of the pe ce, g nst
whom lone the njured p rt wll h ve rght to t ke rms.
XXX. If subjects h ve commtted n ct of hostlt wthout uthort
nd commsson from the st te, t wll form proper subject of
nqur, whether the st te c n be judged responsble for the cts of
ndvdu ls: to consttute whch responsblt, t s evdent th t
knowledge of the f ct, power to punsh t, nd h vng neglected to do
so, re requste.
A form l notce gven to the soveregn of the offendng subjects s
supposed to mount to knowledge of the f ct, nd t s presumed th t
ever soveregn s ble to controul nd punsh hs own subjects, unless
there be some defect n hs uthort: nd l pse of tme, beond wh t
s usu ll t ken for the punshment of cvl offences n ever countr,
m  be construed nto wlful neglect. And such neglect mounts to
s ncton of the offence.
XXXI. It s lkewse frequentl m de subject of nqur, whether
st te s nswer ble for the conduct of n of her people, who do not
t ke rms b her uthort, but serve n the rmes of some other
power eng ged n w r. The Certes, n Lv, cle r themselves upon ths
prncple, th t t w s not b ther uthort ther people bore rms.
And t s well-founded opnon th t no such permsson ought to be
deemed s gven, unless t ppe r from prob ble re sons th t t w s
ntended t should be gr nted: thng sometmes done, ccordng to
the ex mple of the ncent Aetol ns, who thought the h d rght to
deprve ever plunderer of hs spols. A custom the force of whch
Polbus expresses n the followng words, "when other powers, frends
nd lles of the Aetol ns, re t w r wth e ch other, the Aetol ns
m  nevertheless serve n the rmes on ether sde, destrong nd
spolng ther respectve countres."
XXXII. Ag n, pe ce ought to be deemed broken, not onl b n ct of
volence done to the bod poltc tself, but to n of the subjects,
wthout new grounds of w r. For pe ce s m de wth vew to the
securt of ever ndvdu l subject: s the st te n m kng pe ce cts
for the whole, nd for ll ts p rts.
Indeed even f new grounds of w r should rse, ever one m , durng
the contnu nce of pe ce, defend hmself nd hs propert. For t s
n tur l rght to repel force b force: rght whch t c nnot e sl
be supposed th t those, who re upon footng of equ lt h ve ever
renounced.
But to pr ctse revenge, or use volence n recoverng thngs t ken
w  wll not be l wful, except where justce s dened. Justce m 
dmt of some del : but the other method dem nds prompt executon, nd
therefore should not be undert ken but n extreme emergenc. But f
the subjects of n countr persst n course of unform crme, nd
ggresson, repugn nt to ll n tur l nd cvl l w, n def nce of the
uthort of ther own government, so th t the h nd of justce c nnot
re ch them, t wll be l wful for n one to deprve them of ther
spols, nd to exercse upon them the s me rgour, s f the were
delvered up to punshment. But to tt ck other nnocent persons on

th t ccount s drect vol ton of pe ce.

XXXIII. An ct of volence lso offered to lles, consttutes
bre ch of the pe ce, but the must be such lles s re comprehended
n the tre t.
The s me rule holds good, even f the lles themselves h ve not m de
the tre t, but others h ve done so on ther beh lf: snce t s
evdent th t those lles reg rded the pe ce s r tfed nd v ld. For
the re looked upon s enemes, tll t s cert n the h ve consented
to the r tfc ton.
Other lles, or connectons, who re nether subjects nor n med n
the tre t of pe ce, form dstnct cl ss, to whom n volence done
c nnot be construed nto n ct of bre kng the pe ce. Yet t does not
follow th t w r m  not be undert ken on such n ccount, but then t
wll be w r restng entrel upon new grounds.
XXXIV. A pe ce s broken b dong n thng contr r to the express
terms of t; nd b ths s lkewse me nt the non-perform nce of
eng gements.
XXXV. Nor c n we dmt of n dstncton between rtcles of gre ter
or mnor mport nce.
For ALL the rtcles of tre t re of suffcent m gntude to requre
observ nce, though Chrst n ch rt m  overlook the bre ch of them
upon due cknowledgement. But to provde gre ter securt for the
contnu nce of pe ce, proper cl uses wll be nnexed to the mnor
rtcles, st tng th t n thng done g nst them sh ll not be deemed
n nfr cton of the tre t: or th t med ton sh ll be dopted n
preference to h vng recourse to rms.
XXXVI. Ths seems to h ve been pl nl done n tre tes, where n
spec l pen lt w s nnexed. A tre t ndeed m  be m de upon, terms
llowng the njured p rt hs opton ether of en ctng the pen lt,
or recedng from hs eng gement: but the n ture of the busness r ther
requres the method of med ton. It s evdent nd proved from the
uthort of hstor, th t one of the p rtes, who h s not fulflled
hs eng gement, owng to the neglect of the other to do so, s b
no me ns gult of bre kng the pe ce: s hs oblg ton w s onl
condton l.
XXXVII. If there s n un vod ble necesst to prevent one p rt
from fulfllng hs eng gement, s for nst nce, f thng h s been
destroed, or c rred off, b whch the restor ton of t h s become
mpossble, pe ce sh ll not thereb be deemed broken, the contnu nce
of t not dependng upon CASUAL condtons. But the other p rt m 
h ve hs opton, ether to prefer w tng, f there s n re son to
hope th t the eng gement m  be fulflled t some future perod, or
to receve n equv lent, or to be rele sed, on hs sde from some
correspondng rtcle of the tre t.
XXXVIII. It s honour ble, nd l ud ble to m nt n pe ce, even fter
t h s been vol ted b the other p rt: s Scpo dd, fter the m n
tre cherous cts of the C rth gn ns. For no one c n rele se hmself
from n oblg ton b ctng contr r to hs eng gements. And though t
m  be further s d th t the pe ce s broken b such n ct, et the
bre ch ought to be t ken n f vour of the nnocent p rt, f he thnks
proper to v l hmself of t.

XXXIX. L stl, pe ce s broken b the vol ton of n spec l nd

express cl use n the tre t.
XL. In the s me m nner, those powers, who commt unfrendl cts, re
gult of bre kng th t pe ce, whch w s m de solel upon condton
of mc ble rel tons beng preserved. For wh t, n other c ses, the
dutes of frendshp lone would requre, must here be performed b the
l w of tre t.
And t s to tre tes of ths knd th t m n ponts m  be referred,
whch re dscussed b leg l wrters, rel tng to njures done
wthout force of rms, nd to the offences of nsults. Accordng to
ths prncple, Tull h s observed, th t n offence commtted fter
reconcl ton s not to be mputed to neglect, but to wlful
vol ton, not to mprudence, but to tre cher.
But here t s necess r, f possble, to exclude from the ccount
ever ch rge of n odous knd. So th t n njur done to rel ton
or subject of the person, wth whom tre t of pe ce h s been m de,
s not to be deemed the s me, s one done to hmself, unless there re
evdent proofs th t, through them, n tt ck upon hm w s ntended. And
n nv son of nother's rghts s often to be scrbed to new motves
of r p ct, r ther th n to those of tre cher.
Atrocous men ces, wthout n new grounds of offence, re repugn nt
to ll terms of mt. An one m  ssume ths thre tenng posture, b
erectng new fortfc tons n hs terrtor, s me ns of nno nce
r ther th n offence, b r sng n unusu l number of forces: when t s
evdent th t these prep r tons c n be desgned g nst no one, but the
power wth whom he h s concluded pe ce.
XLI. Nor s t contr r to the rel tons of mt to receve ndvdu l
subjects, who wsh to remove from the domnons of one power to those
of nother. For th t s not onl prncple of n tur l lbert, but
f vour ble to the gener l ntercourse of m nknd. On the s me grounds
refuge gven to exles m  be justfed. But t s not l wful to
receve whole towns, or gre t bodes, formng n ntegr l p rt of the
st te. Nor s t more llow ble to receve those, who re bound to the
servce of ther own st te b o th or other eng gement.
XLVI.[80] There re two knds of rbtr ton, the one of such n ture
th t t must be obeed whether the decson be just or unjust, whch,
Proculus s s, s observed when, fter compromse, recourse s h d to
rbtr ton.
The other knd of rbtr ton s where m tter ought to be left to
the decson of person, n whose ntegrt confdence m  be pl ced,
of whch Celsus h s gven us n ex mple n hs nswer, where he s s,
"though freedm n h s sworn, th t he wll do ll the servces,
whch hs p tron m  djudge, the wll of the p tron ought not to be
r tfed, unless hs determn ton be just."
Ths nterpret ton of n o th, though conform ble to the Rom n l ws,
s b no me ns consstent wth the smplct of l ngu ge consdered b
tself. For the justce of the c se rem ns the s me, n wh tever w 
n rbter s chosen, whether t be to reconcle contendng p rtes,
ch r cter, n whch we fnd the Athen ns ctng between the Rhod ns
nd Demetrus, or to m ke n bsolute decree.

Although the cvl l w m  decde upon the conduct of such rbters to

whom compromse s referred, so s to llow of n ppe l from ther
decrees, or of compl nts g nst ther njustce, ths c n never t ke
pl ce between kngs nd n tons. For here there s no superor power,
th t c n ether rvet or rel x the bonds of n eng gement. The decree
therefore of such rbters must be fn l nd wthout ppe l.
XLVII. Wth respect to the offce of n rbter or med tor, t s
proper to nqure, whether the person h s been pponted n the
ch r cter of judge, or wth powers more extensve nd dscreton r
th n leg l powers. Arstotle s s th t " n equt ble nd moder te m n
wll h ve recourse to rbtr ton r ther th n to strct l w, ADDING
AS A REASON, bec use n rbtr tor m  consder the equt of the
c se, where s judge s bound b the letter of the l w. Therefore
rbtr ton w s ntroduced to gve equt ts due weght."
Equt does not sgnf n ths pl ce, s t does elsewhere, th t
p rt of justce, whch gves strct nterpret ton of the gener l
expressons of the l w, ccordng to the ntenton of the l w-gver.
For th t s left to the judge. But t ncludes ever thng, whch t
s more proper to do th n to omt, even beond wh t s requred b the
express rules of justce.--Such knd of rbtr ton beng common mong
ndvdu ls nd subjects of the s me empre, t s recommended b St.
P ul s pr ctce pecul rl proper for Chrst ns. Yet n doubtful
c ses t ought not to be presumed th t such extensve powers re
gr nted. For where there s n obscurt t brdges ths l ttude
of decson: nd espec ll n contested m tters, between ndependent
soveregns, who, h vng no common judge, re supposed to bnd the
med tors, nd rbtr tors, whom the chuse, b the strctest rules of
l w.
XLVIII. It s to be observed th t rbtr tors chosen b n tons or
soveregn prnces m  decde upon the m tter n dspute, but not confer
possesson, whch s m tter th t c n onl be decded b est blshed
rules of cvl l w, for b the l w of n tons the rght of possesson
follows the rght of propert. Therefore whle c use s pendng, no
nnov ton ought to be m de, both to prevent p rt lt nd prejudce,
nd bec use, fter possesson h s been gven, recover s dffcult.
Lv n hs ccount of some dsputed ponts between the people of
C rth ge nd M snss s s, "the Amb ss dors dd not ch nge the rght
of possesson."
XLIX. There s nother knd of rbtr ton, whch t kes pl ce, when n
one m kes n bsolute surrender of hmself nd ll hs rghts to n
enem or foregn power. But stll dstncton ought to be m de, even
here, between the bounds of rght nd wrong, lmtng the submsson of
the v nqushed, on the one h nd, nd the uthort of the conqueror, on
the other, to cert n degree.
For there re p rtcul r dutes, whch ought to be observed n the
exercse of EVERY rght. T kng the rght of the conqueror n ts
lter l me nng nd full extent, t s true th t he s enttled to
mpose ANY terms upon the conquered, who s now pl ced, b the extern l
l ws of w r, n stu ton to be deprved of ever thng, even
person l lbert or lfe, much more then, of ll hs propert, ether
of publc or prv te knd.
L. The frst object of conqueror should be to vod commttng
n ct of njustce, or usng n rgour, except the demerts nd
troct of the enem requre t; to t ke nothng but b w  of l wful

punshment. Observng these bounds, s f r s securt llows, t

s lw s l ud ble to nclne to moder ton nd clemenc. Sometmes
even crcumst nces m  requre such lne of conduct, nd the best
concluson of n w r s th t, whch reconcles ll contendng cl ms
b f r djustment, nd gener l mnest. The moder ton nd
clemenc to whch the v nqushed ppe l, re b no me ns n bolton
but onl mtg ton of the conqueror's bsolute rght.
LI. There re condton l surrenders, reservng to the ndvdu ls,
cert n person l prvleges, nd rem ns of ther propert, nd to the
st te, cert n p rts of ts consttuton.
LII. Host ges nd pledges m  be consdered s n ppend ge to
tre tes. And some of those host ges re volunt r surrender, nd
others gven b uthort of the st te s securt. For the soveregn
h s the s me power over the persons nd ctons of hs subjects, s
over ther propert. But the st te or ts ruler wll be bound to
recompense ndvdu ls or ther rel tves for n nconvenences the
m  sust n.
LIII. Though the l w of n tons m  n ts lter l rgour llow of
puttng host ges to de th, t c n never conscentousl be enforced,
but where the h ve commtted crmes deservng of c pt l punshment.
Nether c n the be m de sl ves. Indeed the l w of n tons permts
them to le ve ther propert to ther hers, lthough b the Rom n l w
provson w s m de for confsc tng t to the st te.
LIV. If t should be sked whether host ges m  l wfull m ke ther
esc pe: t m  be nswered n the neg tve, espec ll f, t frst, or
fterw rds, the h ve pledged ther f th to rem n, upon condton of
beng prsoners t l rge. But t does not ppe r th t st tes so much
ntended to mpose h rdshp upon ther subjects b forbddng ther
esc pe, s to gve the enem securt for the perform nce of ther
eng gements.
LV. The oblg ton of host ges s of n odous n ture, s beng
unfrendl to person l lbert, nd rsng from the ct of nother.
Therefore strct nterpret ton must be gven to such eng gements,
so th t host ges delvered on one ccount c nnot be det ned on n
other, nor for n contr ct, where host ges re not requred. But f
n nother c se there h s been n vol ton of good f th, or n
debt contr cted, host ges m  be det ned, not s host ges, but n
the c p ct of subjects, whom the l w of n tons m kes l ble to be
sezed nd det ned for the cts of ther soveregns. To gu rd g nst
whch, provson m  be m de b ddton l cl uses for the restor ton
of host ges, whenever the eng gement for whch the were delvered h s
been fulflled.
LVI. Whoever h s been delvered s host ge for other prsoners, or
for the redempton of other host ges, wll n tur ll be rele sed upon
the de th of those persons. For b de th the rght of the pledge s
extngushed n the s me m nner s b the r nsom of prsoner. And
therefore, ccordng to Ulp n, s PERSONAL debt s confned to hm,
who h s contr cted t, so one person, beng substtuted for nother,
c nnot be det ned n longer th n whle the oblg ton of th t other
contnues.
LVII. The decson, whether host ges c n be det ned upon the de th of
the soveregn, b whom the were delvered, must depend upon the n ture
of the eng gements, whch he h s m de. If the re PERSONAL, the

contnue n force onl durng hs n tur l lfe, but f the re wh t

re c lled REAL or more PERMANENT tre tes, the p ss wth ll ther
consequences to hs successors. For ACCESSORY rtcles c nnot uthorse
n dev ton from the GENERAL rule of nterpretng the fund ment l nd
prncp l ponts of tre t, but the ccessor rtcles themselves
ought r ther to be expl ned n conformt to those gener l rules.
LVIII. A cursor observ ton m  be m de, th t host ges re sometmes
consdered, not s ppend ges, but s formng the prncp l p rt of n
eng gement, where n one s bound not for hmself, but for nother,
nd, n c se of non-perform nce, beng oblged to p  d m ges, hs
host ges or suretes re nswer ble n hs ste d.--There s not onl
some thng of h rshness, but even njustce n the opnon th t
host ges m  be bound for the conduct of nother even wthout ther own
consent.
LIX. Pledges h ve some ch r cterstcs n common wth host ges, nd
some pecul r to themselves. It s common ch r cterstc of both to
be det ned for somethng else th t s due, except where publc f th
s gven, nd provson m de to the contr r. Pledges m  be det ned
wth gre ter l ttude th n host ges; whch s one of ther pecul r
ch r cterstcs, there beng less of odum n the former c se th n n
the l tter: THINGS beng of n ture more proper for detenton th n
PERSONS.
LX. No tme c n b r the redempton of pledge, whenever the eng gement
for whch t w s gven s fulflled. For t s never to be presumed
th t eng gements proceed from new c uses, when old nd known c uses
c n be ssgned. If debtor therefore h s forborne to redeem pledge,
we m  stll suppose th t he h s not b ndoned hs orgn l eng gement,
unless there be cle r proof to the contr r: s f, for nst nce,
though desrous of redeemng t, he h s been prevented, or suffered
sp ce of tme to el pse unnotced, th t would be requste to mpl hs
consent.

CHAPTER XXI.
ON FAITH DURING THE CONTINUANCE OF WAR, ON TRUCES, SAFE-CONDUCTS, AND
THE REDEMPTION OF PRISONERS.
Truces of n ntermed te denomn ton between pe ce nd w r--Orgn
of the word--New decl r ton of w r not necess r fter
truce--Tme from whence truce nd ll ts correspondent
oblg tons nd prvleges commence--A retre t m  be m de, or
fortfc tons rep red durng truce--Dstncton respectng
the occupng of pl ces--The c se of person prevented from
m kng hs retre t, nd t ken n the enem's terrtores t
the expr ton of truce, consdered--Express terms nd
consequences of truce--Bre ch of truce b one p rt justfes
renew l of w r b the other--Pen lt nnexed--Truce broken
b the cts of ndvdu ls--Rghts belongng to s fe-conducts
wthout truce--Persons n mlt r c p ct how f r
llowed the beneft of s fe-conduct--Prvleges of goods
rsng from thence--Attend nts of the person protected b
s fe-conduct--S fe-conduct does not expre upon the de th of
the gr ntor--S fe-conduct gven to contnue durng the ple sure
of the gr ntor--Protecton thereof extendng beond hs own

terrtor--Redempton of prsoners f voured, nd not to be

prohbted b l w.
I. nd II. In the mdst of w r there re cert n ponts gener ll
conceded b the bellgerent powers to e ch other, whch T ctus
nd Vrgl c ll the ntercourse of w r, nd whch comprehend
truces, s fe-conducts, nd the redempton of prsoners.--Truces re
conventons, b whch, even durng the contnu nce of w r, hostltes
on e ch sde ce se for tme. DURING THE CONTINUANCE OF WAR; for, s
Ccero s s, n hs eghth Phlppc, between pe ce nd w r there s
no medum. B w r s me nt st te of ff rs, whch m  exst even
whle ts oper tons re not contnued. Therefore, s Gellus h s s d,
pe ce nd truce re not the s me, for the w r stll contnues,
though fghtng m  ce se. So th t n greement, deemed v ld n the
tme of w r, wll be v ld lso durng truce, unless t evdentl
ppe rs th t t s not the st te of ff rs, whch s consdered, but
the commsson of p rtcul r cts of hostlt. On the other h nd, n
thng, greed to, to be done, when pe ce sh ll be m de, c nnot t ke
pl ce n consequence of truce. There s no unform nd nv r ble
perod fxed for the contnu nce of truce, t m  be m de for
n tme, even for twent, or thrt e rs, of whch there re m n
nst nces n ncent hstor. A truce, though repose from w r, does
not mount to pe ce, therefore hstor ns re correct n s ng th t
pe ce h s often been refused, when truce h s been gr nted.
III. After truce new decl r ton of w r s not necess r.
For upon the remov l of tempor r mpedment, the st te of w rf re
revves n full force, whch h s onl been lulled sleep, but not
extngushed. Yet we re d n Lv, th t t w s the opnon of the
her lds' college, th t fter the expr ton of truce w r ought
to be decl red. But the ncent Rom ns onl me nt to shew b those
superfluous prec utons, how much the loved pe ce, nd upon wh t just
grounds the were dr gged nto w r.
IV. The tme, gener ll ssgned for the contnu nce of truce, s
ether some unnterrupted perod, of HUNDRED DAYS, for nst nce, or
sp ce lmted b some rtfc l bound r of tme, s the C lends of
M rch. In the former c se, the c lcul ton s to be m de ccordng to
the n tur l moton of tme: where s ll cvl comput tons depend upon
the l ws nd customs of e ch countr. In the other c se t s gener ll
m de m tter of doubt, whether n n mng n p rtcul r d , month or
e r, for the expr ton of truce, th t p rtcul r d , month, or
e r, re comprehended n the term of the truce, or excluded from t.
In n tur l thngs there re two knds of bound res, one of whch forms
n nsep r ble p rt of the thngs themselves, s the skn does of the
bod, nd the other onl djons them, s rver djons the l nd,
whch t bounds or w shes. In ether of these w s volunt r bound res
m  be pponted. But t seems more n tur l for bound r to be
t ken s p rt of the thng tself. Arstotle defnes the extremt
of nthng to be ts bound r: me nng to whch gener l custom
conforms:--thus f n one h s s d th t thng s to be done before
the d  of hs de th, the d  on whch he ctu ll des s to be t ken
nto the ccount s formng p rt of the term. Spurnn h d pprsed
C es r of hs d nger, whch could not extend beond the Ides of M rch.
Beng ccosted, respectng the m tter, on the ver d , he s d, the
Ides of M rch re come, but not p ssed. Such n nterpret ton s the
more proper where the prolong ton of tme s of f vour ble n ture,

 s t s n truces, whch re c lcul ted to suspend the effuson of

hum n blood.
The d , FROM whch n me sure of tme s s d to begn, c nnot be
t ken nto the ccount; bec use the word, FROM, used on th t occ son,
mples sep r ton nd not conjuncton.
V. It s to be observed th t truces, nd eng gements of th t knd
mmed tel bnd the contr ctng p rtes themselves from the ver
moment the re concluded. But the subjects on ether sde re onl
bound from the tme th t those eng gements h ve receved the form
of l w, for whch publc notce nd the regul r promulg ton re
necess r. Upon ths beng done the mmed tel derve ther uthort
to bnd the subjects. But f notce thereof h s onl been gven n one
pl ce, the observ nce of them c nnot be enforced through the whole
domnons of the respectve soveregns t one moment, but suffcent
tme must be llowed for the due promulg ton of them to be m de n
ever p rt. Therefore f n the me ntme the subjects on ether sde
h ve commtted n nfr cton of the truce, the sh ll be exempt from
punshment, but the contr ctng p rtes themselves sh ll be oblged to
rep r the d m ges.
VI. The ver defnton of truce mples wh t ctons re l wful, nd
wh t re unl wful durng the contnu nce of t. All cts of hostlt
re unl wful ether g nst the persons or goods of n enem. For ever
ct of volence durng truce s contr r to the l w of n tons.
Even thngs belongng to n enem, whch b n ccdent h ve f llen
nto our h nds, lthough the h d been ours before, must be restored.
Bec use the h d become thers b th t extern l rght ccordng to
whch such thngs re djudged. And ths s wh t P ulus the l wer
s s, th t durng the tme of truce the l w of postlmnum c nnot
exst, bec use to consttute the l w of postlmnum there must be the
prevous rght of m kng c ptures n w r, whch ce ses upon the m kng
of truce.
Ether p rt m  go to or return from, n p rtcul r pl ce, but
wthout n w rlke pp r tus or force, th t m  prove me ns of
nno nce, or be ttended wth n d nger. Ths s observed b Servus
on th t p ss ge of Vrgl, where the poet s s, "the L tns mngled
wth ther foes wth mpunt," where he rel tes lso th t upon
truce beng m de between Porsenn nd the Rom ns durng sege, when
the g mes of the crcus were celebr tng, the gener ls of the enem
entered the ct, contented n the lsts, nd were m n of them crowned
s conquerors.
VII. To wthdr w f rther nto the countr wth n rm, whch we fnd
from Lv th t Phlp dd, s no w  contr r to the ntenton nd
prncples of truce: nether s t n bre ch of t to rep r the
w lls of pl ce, or to r se new forces, unless t h s been prohbted
b spec l greement.
VIII. To corrupt n enem's g rrsons, n order to seze upon the
pl ces whch he holds, s undoubtedl bre ch of the sprt nd letter
of n truce. For no such dv nt ge c n justl be g ned but b the
l ws of w r. The s me rule s to be l d down respectng the revolt
of subjects to n enem. In the fourth book of Thucddes, Br sd s
receved the ct of Mend , th t revolted from the Athen ns to the
L ced emon ns durng truce, nd excused hs conduct upon the ple of
the Athen ns h vng done the s me.

Ether of the bellgerent powers m  t ke possesson of pl ces th t

h ve been deserted: f the h ve been REALLY deserted b the former
owner wth the ntenton never to occup them g n, but not merel
bec use the h ve been left ungu rded, ether BEFORE, or AFTER, the
m kng of truce. For the former owner's rght of domnon theren
stll rem nng renders nother's possesson of them unjust. Whch s
complete refut ton of the c vl of Bels rus g nst the Goths, who
sezed upon some pl ces durng truce, under pretext of ther beng
left wthout g rrsons.
IX. It s m de subject of nqur, whether n one beng prevented b
n unforeseen ccdent from m kng hs retre t, nd beng t ken wthn
the enem's terrtores, t the expr ton of truce, h s rght to
return. Consderng the extern l l w of n tons he s undoubtedl upon
the s me footng s one, who, h vng gone nto foregn countr must,
upon the sudden bre kng out of w r, be det ned there s n enem
tll the return of pe ce. Nor s there n thng contr r to strct
justce n ths; s the goods nd persons of enemes re bound for the
debt of the st te, nd m  be sezed for p ment. Nor h s such one
more re son to compl n th n nnumer ble other nnocent persons, on
whose he ds the c l mtes of w r h ve f llen. Nor s there occ son
to refer to the c se, whch Ccero h s lleged, n hs second book ON
INVENTION, of shp of w r drven b the volence of the wnd nto
port, where b l w t w s l ble to confsc ton. For n the former
c se the unforeseen ccdent must do w  ll de of punshment,
nd n the l tter, the rght of confsc ton must be suspended for
tme. Yet there c n be no doubt but there s more of generost nd
kndness n rele sng such person th n n nsstng upon the rght of
det nng hm.
X. The express n ture of conventon renders some thngs unl wful
durng truce, s for nst nce, f t s gr nted onl n order to
bur the de d, nether p rt wll h ve rght to dep rt from those
condtons. Thus f sege s suspended b truce, nd nothng more
th n such suspenson s thereb gr nted; the beseged c nnot l wfull
v l hmself of t, to conve fresh supples of troops nd stores nto
the pl ce. For such conventons ought not to prove benefc l to one
p rt, to the prejudce of the other, who gr nts them. Sometmes t s
stpul ted th t no one sh ll be llowed to p ss to nd fro. Sometmes
the prohbton extends to persons nd not to goods. In whch c se,
f n one, n protectng hs goods, hurts n enem, the ct wll not
consttute bre ch of the truce. For s t s l wful th t ether p rt
should defend hs propert, n ccdent l crcumst nce c nnot be deemed
n nfrngement of th t person l securt, whch w s the prncp l
object provded for b the truce.
XI. If the f th of truce s broken b one of the p rtes, the
other who s thereb njured, wll undoubtedl h ve rght to renew
hostltes wthout n form l decl r ton. For ever rtcle n
tre t cont ns n mpled condton of mutu l observ nce. Indeed we
m  fnd n hstor nst nces of those, who h ve dhered to truce
tll ts expr ton, notwthst ndng bre ch on the other sde. But on
the other h nd there re numerous nst nces of hostltes commenced
g nst those, who h ve broken ther conventons: v r ton, whch
proves th t t s t the opton of the njured p rt to use or not to
use hs rght of renewng w r upon the bre ch of truce.
XII. It s evdent th t, f the stpul ted pen lt s dem nded of the
ggressor, nd p d b hm, the other p rt c n no longer m nt n hs
rght of renewng the w r. For the p ment of the pen lt restores

ever thng to ts orgn l footng. And on the other h nd, renew l
of hostltes mples n ntenton of the njured p rt to b ndon the
pen lt, snce he h s h d hs opton.
XIII. A truce s not broken b the cts of ndvdu ls, unless the
re s nctoned b the uthort of the soveregn, whch s gener ll
supposed to be gven, where the delnquents re nether punshed nor
delvered up, nor resttuton s m de of goods t ken w .
XIV. The rghts belongng to s fe-conduct re prvlege dstnct
from the n ture of truce, nd our nterpret ton of them must be
guded b the rules l d down respectng prvleges.
Such prvlege, to be perfect, must be nether njurous to thrd
person, nor prejudc l to the gver. Therefore n expl nng the
terms, n whch t s couched, gre ter l ttude of nterpret ton
m  be llowed, espec ll where the p rt sung for t receves no
beneft, but r ther confers one, nd stll more so where the dv nt ge,
ccrung to the ndvdu l from thence, redounds lso to the publc
beneft of the st te.
Therefore the lter l nterpret ton, whch the words m  be r, ought
to be rejected, unless otherwse some bsurdt would follow, or there
s ever re son to suppose th t such lter l nterpret ton s most
conform ble to the wll nd ntenton of the p rtes concerned. In the
s me m nner, on the other h nd, gre ter l ttude of nterpret ton
m  be llowed, n order to vod the s me pprehended bsurdt, or
to compl more full wth the most urgent nd forcble conjectures
respectng the wll of the contr ctng p rtes.
XV. Hence we m  nfer th t s fe-conduct, gr nted to SOLDIERS,
ncludes not onl those of n INTERMEDIATE RANK, but the HIGHEST
COMMANDERS. For th t s sgnfc ton strctl nd properl
uthorsed b the words themselves, lthough the MAY be t ken n
more LIMITED me nng. So the term clergmen ncludes those of epscop l
s well s those of nferor r nk, nd b those servng on bo rd
fleet, we me n not onl s lors, but ll persons found there, who h ve
t ken the mlt r o th.
XVI. Where free p ss ge s gr nted, lbert to return s evdentl
mpled, not from the lter l force of the expressons themselves, but
to vod the bsurdt whch would follow the gr nt of prvlege,
th t could never be m de use of. And b the lbert of comng nd
gong s me nt s fe p ss ge tll the person rrves n pl ce of
perfect securt. From hence the good f th of Alex nder w s mpe ched,
who ordered those to be murdered on the w , whom he h d llowed to
dep rt.
An one m  be llowed to go w  wthout beng llowed to return.
But no power c n properl refuse dmttng n one, to whom he h s
gr nted le ve to come, nd on the other h nd, hs dmsson mples
such le ve to h ve been gven. GOING AWAY nd RETURNING re ndeed
ver dfferent, nor c n n constructon of l ngu ge gve them the s me
me nng. If there be n mst ke, lthough t m  confer no rght, t
exempts the p rt from ll pen ltes.--A person permtted to come sh ll
onl come ONCE, but not SECOND TIME, unless the ddton l menton of
some tme m  suppl room to thnk otherwse.
XVII. A son sh res the f te of hs f ther, nd wfe of her husb nd
no f rther th n s to the rght of resdng, for men resde wth ther

f mles, but n gener l undert ke publc mssons wthout them.

Yet one or two serv nts, though not expressl n med, re gener ll
understood to be ncluded n s fe-conduct, espec ll where t would
be mproper for the person to go wthout such ttend nts. For ever
necess r consequence s understood to go long wth n prvlege th t
s gven.
XVIII. In the s me m nner no other effects re ncluded n
s fe-conduct, but such s re usu ll t ken on journe.
XIX. The n me of ttend nts, expressed n s fe-conduct, gr nted to
n one, wll not llow hm to extend the protecton of t to men
of trocous nd crmn l ch r cters, such s pr tes, robbers, nd
deserters. And the COUNTRY of the ttend nts beng n med shews th t the
protecton c nnot extend to those of nother n ton.
XX. The prvleges of s fe-conduct do not, n doubtful c ses, expre
upon the demse of the soveregn who gr nted t, ccordng to wh t w s
s d n former p rt of ths tre tse on the n ture of f vours gr nted
b kngs nd soveregn prnces.
XXI. It h s often been dsputed pont, wh t s me nt b the
expresson used n s fe-conduct, th t t sh ll contnue durng the
PLEASURE OF THE GRANTOR. But there seems most re son nd truth n the
opnon of those, who m nt n th t the prvlege sh ll contnue, tll
the gr ntor m ke some new decl r ton of hs wll to the contr r.
Bec use, n doubtful c ses, f vour s presumed to contnue, tll
the rght, whch t conves, s ccomplshed. But not so, where ll
possblt of WILL n the gr ntor h s ce sed, whch h ppens b hs
de th. For upon the de th of the person ll presumpton of hs WILL
contnung must ce se: s n ccdent v nshes when the subst nce s
destroed.
XXII. The prvlege of s fe-conduct protects the person, to whom t
s gven, even beond the terrtores of the gr ntor: bec use t s
gven s protecton g nst the rghts of w r, whch re not confned
to hs terrtor.
XXIII. The redempton of prsoners s much f voured, p rtcul rl mong
Chrst n st tes, to whom the dvne l w pecul rl recommends t s
knd of merc. L ct ntus c lls the redempton of prsoners gre t nd
splendd offce of justce.

CHAPTER XXII.
ON THE FAITH ON THOSE INVESTED WITH SUBORDINATE POWERS IN WAR.
Comm nders--Extent of ther eng gements n bndng the
soveregn--Exceedng ther commsson--The opposte p rt bound b
such eng gements--Power of comm nders n w r, or of m gstr tes
wth respect to those under ther uthort--Gener ls c nnot m ke
pe ce, but m  conclude truce--Extent of ther uthort n
gr ntng protecton to persons nd propert--Such eng gements to be
strctl nterpreted--Interpret ton of c ptul tons ccepted b
gener ls--Prec utons necess r tll the ple sure of the soveregn
be known--Promse to surrender town.

I. Ulp n reckons the greements, entered nto between the gener ls of

opposte rmes durng the course of w r, mong publc conventons.
So th t fter expl nng the n ture of the f th pledged b soveregn
powers to e ch other, t wll be proper to m ke short nqur nto
the n ture of eng gements m de b subordn te uthortes; whether
those uthortes be r ne r ppro ch to supreme power, s comm nders
n chef, or re removed to gre ter dst nce from t. C es r m kes
the followng dstncton between them, observng th t the offces of
comm nder nd deput re ver dfferent; the l tter beng oblged to
ct ccordng to prescrbed rules, nd the former h vng unqu lfed
dscreton n m tters of the hghest mport nce.
II. The eng gements of those nvested wth such subordn te powers re
to be consdered n double pont of vew, whether the re bndng
upon the soveregn, or onl upon themselves. The former of these
ponts h s been lre d settled n former p rt of ths tre tse,
where t w s shewn th t person s bound b the me sures of n gent,
whom he h s pponted to ct n hs n me, whether hs ntentons h ve
been expressl n med, or re onl to be g thered from the n ture
of the emploment. For whoever gves nother commsson, gves
hm long wth t ever thng n hs power th t s necess r to the
executon of t. So th t there re two w s, n whch persons ctng
wth subordn te powers m  bnd ther prncp ls b ther conduct,
nd th t s, b dong wh t s prob bl thought to be cont ned n
ther commsson, or p rt from th t, b ctng ccordng to spec l
nstructons, gener ll known, t le st to those, wth whom the tre t.
III. There re other modes too, n whch soveregn m  be bound
b the prevous ct of hs mnster; but not n such m nner s to
suppose the oblg ton owes ts EXISTENCE to th t cton, whch onl
gves occ son to ts fulflment. And there re two w s, n whch ths
m  h ppen, ether b the consent of the soveregn, or b the ver
n ture of the thng tself. Hs consent ppe rs b hs r tfc ton of
the ct, ether expressed or mpled, nd th t s, where soveregn
h s known nd suffered thng to be done, whch c n be ccounted for
upon no other motve but th t of pprov l nd consent.
The ver n ture nd oblg ton of ll contr cts mpl th t one p rt
s not to g n dv nt ge b the loss of nother. Or f dv nt ge
s expected from contr ct, the contr ct must be fulflled or the
dv nt ge b ndoned. And n ths sense, nd no other, the proverb l
expresson, th t wh tever s benefc l s v ld, s to be understood.
On the other h nd ch rge of njustce m  f rl be brought g nst
those, who condemn n eng gement, et ret n the dv nt ges, whch the
could not h ve h d wthout t.
IV. It s necess r to repe t n observ ton m de before, th t
soveregn, who h s gven commsson to nother, s bound b the
conduct of th t person, even though he m  h ve cted contr r to hs
secret nstructons, provded he h s not gone beond the lmts of hs
ostensble, nd publc commsson.
Ths w s prncple of equt, whch the Rom n Pr etor observed n
ctons brought g nst emploers for the conduct of ther gents
or f ctors. An emploer could not be m de nswer ble for n ct or
me sure of hs f ctor, but such s w s mmed tel connected wth the
busness, n whch he emploed hm. Nor could HE be consdered s n
pponted gent, wth WHOM the publc were pprsed, b due notce, to

m ke no contr ct--If such notce w s gven, wthout h vng come to the

knowledge of the contr ctng p rtes, the emploer w s bound b the
conduct of the gent. If n one chuses to m ke contr ct on cert n
condtons, or through the nterventon of thrd person, t s rght
nd necess r for th t person to observe the p rtcul r condtons on
whch he s emploed.
From hence t follows th t kngs nd n tons re more or less bound
b the conventons of ther comm nders n proporton s ther l ws,
condtons, nd customs, re more or less known. If the me nng of
ther ntentons s not evdent, conjecture m  suppl the pl ce of
evdence, s t s n tur l to suppose th t n one emploed would be
nvested wth full powers suffcent to execute hs commsson.
A person ctng n subordn te c p ct, f he h s exceeded the
powers of hs commsson wll be bound to m ke rep r ton, f he c nnot
fulfl hs eng gement, unless he s prevented from dong so b some
well known l w.
But f he h s been gult of tre cher lso, n pretendng to gre ter
powers th n he re ll possessed, he wll be bound to rep r the njur,
whch he h s WILFULLY done, nd to suffer punshment correspondng
wth hs offence. For the frst of these offences, hs propert s
nswer ble, nd on f lure of th t, hs person l lbert: nd n
the l tter c se, hs person or propert, or both must be nswer ble
ccordng to the m gntude of the crme.
V. As soveregn or hs mnster s lw s bound b ever contr ct, t
s cert n the other p rt wll lso be bound b the eng gement: nor
c n t be deemed mperfect. For n ths respect there s comp r tve
equ lt between soveregn nd subordn te powers.
VI. It s necess r to consder too wh t re the powers of subordn te
uthortes over those bene th them. Nor s there n doubt th t
gener l m  bnd the rm, nd m gstr te, the nh bt nts of pl ce
b those ctons, whch re usu ll done b comm nders, or m gstr tes,
otherwse ther consent would be necess r.
On the other h nd, n eng gements purel benefc l, the dv nt ge
sh ll be on the sde of the nferor: for th t s condton
comprehended n the ver n ture of power.--Where there s n
burdensome condton nnexed t sh ll not extend beond the usu l
lmts n whch uthort s exercsed; or f t does, t sh ll be t
the opton of the nferor to ccept or refuse th t condton.
VII. As to the c uses nd consequences of w r, t s not wthn the
provnce of gener l to decde them. For concludng nd conductng
w r re ver dfferent thngs, nd rest upon dstnct knds of
uthort.
VIII. nd IX. As to gr ntng truces, t s power whch belongs not
onl to comm nders n chef, but lso to nferor comm nders. And the
m  gr nt them for themselves, nd the forces mmed tel under ther
comm nd, to pl ces whch the re besegng or block dng: but the do
not thereb bnd other p rts of the rm. Gener ls h ve no rght to
cede n tons, domnons, or n knd of conquests m de n w r. The
m  relnqush n thng of whch complete conquest h s not been
m de: for towns frequentl surrender on condton of the nh bt nts
beng sp red, nd llowed to ret n ther lbert nd propert: c ses,
n whch there s no tme for consultng the wll nd ple sure of the

soveregn. In the s me m nner, nd upon the s me prncple ths rght

s llowed to subordn te comm nders, f t f lls wthn the n ture of
ther commsson.
X. As comm nders, n ll such eng gements, re ctng n the n me of
others, ther resolutons must not be nterpreted so strctl s to
bnd ther soveregns to gre ter oblg tons th n the ntended to
ncur, nor t the s me tme to prove prejudc l to the comm nders
themselves for h vng done ther dut.
XI. An bsolute surrender mples th t the p rt so c ptul tng
submts to the ple sure nd dscreton of the conqueror.
XII. In ncent conventons prec uton w s usu ll dded, th t the
would be r tfed, f pproved of b the Rom n people. So th t f
no r tfc ton ensued, the gener l w s bound no further th n to be
nswer ble for n dv nt ge th t mght h ve ccrued to hmself.
XIII. Comm nders h vng promsed to surrender town, m  dsmss the
g rrson.

CHAPTER XXIV.[81]
ON TACIT FAITH.
T ct f th--Ex mple of n desrng to be t ken under the protecton
of kng or n ton--Impled n the dem nd or gr nt of
conference--Allow ble for the p rt seekng t to promote hs own
nterest thereb provded he uses no tre cher--Me nng of mute
sgns llowed b custom.
I. Both publc, prv te, nd mxed, conventons dmt of t ct consent,
whch s llowed b custom. For n wh tever m nner consent s ndc ted
nd ccepted t h s the power of conveng rght. And, s t h s
been frequentl observed n the course of ths tre tse, there re
other sgns of consent besdes words nd letters: some of them ndeed
n tur ll rsng out of the cton tself.
II. An ex mple of such t ct greement m  be found n the c se of
person comng from n enem, or foregn countr, nd surrenderng
hmself to the good f th of nother kng or people. For such one
t ctl bnds hmself to do nothng njurous or tre cherous to th t
st te, where he seeks protecton, pont whch s beond ll doubt.
III. In the s me m nner, person who gr nts or requests conference,
gves t ct promse, th t he wll do nothng prejudc l to the
p rtes, who ttend t. Lv pronounces n njur done to n enem,
under the pretext of holdng conference, vol ton of the l w of
n tons.
IV. But such t ct promse, to t ke no dv nt ge of p rle or
conference, s not to be c rred f rther th n wh t h s been s d.
Provded ll njur nd njustce re voded, t s reckoned l wful
str t gem, for n one to v l hmself of p rle n order to dr w
off the enem's ttenton from hs mlt r projects, nd to promote
hs own. The devce, b whch Asdrub l extrc ted hs rm from the

Auset n n forests, w s of ths knd, nd b the s me me ns Scpo

Afrc nus, the elder, g ned perfect knowledge of Sph x's c mp.
Both these crcumst nces re rel ted b Lv.
V. There re cert n mute sgns, dervng ll ther force nd me nng
from custom; such s the fllets, nd br nches of olve formerl used:
mong the M cedon ns pkes erected, nd mong the Rom ns shelds
pl ced upon the he d, were sgns of suppl nt surrender oblgng the
p rt to l  down hs rms. In the present d  whte fl g s sgn
of sung for p rle. Therefore ll these methods h ve the force of
express decl r tons.

CHAPTER XXV.
CONCLUSION.
Admontons to the observ nce of good f th--Pe ce lw s to be kept
n vew n the mdst of w r--Pe ce benefc l to the conquered--To
the conqueror--And to be chosen n c ses where the ssue s
doubtful--To be relgousl observed--Pr er--Concluson of the
work.
I. Here seems to be the proper pl ce to brng ths work to
concluson, wthout n the le st presumng th t ever thng h s been
s d, whch mght be s d on the subject: but suffcent h s been
produced to l  found ton, on whch nother, f he ple ses, m 
r se more noble nd extensve edfce, n ddton nd mprovement
th t wll provoke no je lous, but r ther be enttled to th nks.
Before entrel dsmssng the subject, t m  be necess r to observe,
th t, s n l ng down the true motves nd c uses, th t lone wll
justf w r, ever possble prec uton t the s me tme w s t ken
to st te the re sons for whch t should be voded; so now few
dmontons wll not be deemed superfluous, n order to pont out
the me ns of preservng good f th n w r, nd m nt nng pe ce,
fter w r s brought to termn ton, nd mong other re sons for
preservng good f th the desre of keepng lve the hope of pe ce,
even n the mdst of w r, s not the le st mport nt. For good f th,
n the l ngu ge of Ccero, s not onl the prncp l hold b whch
ll governments re bound together, but s the ke-stone b whch the
l rger socet of n tons s unted. Destro ths, s s Arstotle, nd
ou destro the ntercourse of m nknd.
In ever other br nch of justce there s somethng of obscurt, but
the bond of f th s cle r n tself, nd s used ndeed to do w 
the obscurt of ll tr ns ctons. The observ nce of ths s m tter
of conscence wth ll l wful kngs nd soveregn prnces, nd s the
b ss of th t reput ton b whch the honour nd dgnt of ther
crowns re m nt ned wth foregn n tons.
II. In the ver he t of w r the gre test securt nd expect ton of
dvne support must be n the un b ted desre, nd nv r ble prospect
of pe ce, s the onl end for whch hostltes c n be l wfull begun.
So th t n the prosecuton of w r we must never c rr the r ge of t so
f r, s to unle rn the n ture nd dspostons of men.

III. These nd these lone would be suffcent motves for the

termn ton of w r, nd the cultv ton of pe ce. But p rt from ll
consder tons of hum nt, the INTERESTS of m nknd would nevt bl
le d us to the s me pont. In the frst pl ce t s d ngerous to
prolong contest wth more powerful enem. In such c se some
s crfces should be m de for the s ke of pe ce, s n storm goods
re sometmes thrown overbo rd to prevent gre ter c l mt, nd to
s ve the vessel nd the crew.
IV. Even for the stronger p rt, when flushed wth vctor, pe ce s
s fer expedent, th n the most extensve successes. For there s
the boldness of desp r to be pprehended from v nqushed enem,
d ngerous s the bte of ferocous nm l n the p ngs of de th.
V. If ndeed both p rtes re upon n equ l footng, t s the opnon
of C es r, th t t s the most f vour ble moment for m kng pe ce, when
e ch p rt h s confdence n tself.
VI. On wh tever terms pe ce s m de, t must be bsolutel kept. From
the s credness of the f th pledged n the eng gement, nd ever
thng must be c utousl voded, not onl s vourng of tre cher,
but th t m  tend to w ken nd nfl me nmost. For wh t Ccero
h s s d of prv te frendshps m  wth equ l propret be ppled
to publc eng gements of ths knd, whch re ll to be relgousl
nd f thfull observed, espec ll where w r nd enmt h ve ended n
pe ce nd reconcl ton.
VII. And m  God, to whom lone t belongs to dspose the ffectons
nd desres of soveregn prnces nd kngs, nscrbe these prncples
upon ther he rts nd mnds, th t the m  lw s remember th t the
noblest offce, n whch m n c n be eng ged, s the government of men,
who re the prncp l objects of the dvne c re.

INDEX
Ab ndoned propert, ttle to, 107, 111.
Accept nce: Necesst of, n promse to conve rght, 139.
Acceptl ton, 111.
Accessores to crmes, 197, 257.
Accomplces, punshment of, 256.
Acqustons: Of propert n w r, 334 _et seq._, 346.
Of domnon, 379.
Actons t l w: Stpul tons s to, n tre tes, 390.
Admr lt, 146.
Affrm tons, 164, 165.
Agenc, 339, 412.

Agents: Acts of, bndng on prncp l, 138, 139, 412.

Agreements: Spec l nd exclusve, 101.
Between ctzens of dfferent countres, 136.
Alex ndrnus, Clemens, 52.
Alen ton: Of thngs b rght of w r, 353, 389.
Of publc domnon, 386.
All nces: Between st tes, p rtnershps, 146.
Unequ l, 158, 170.
Alles: Ad to, 173.
Word construed, 183.
C uses justfng p rtcp ton of, n w r, 285, 287.
Rew rds to, 341.
Amb ss dors: Promses of, bndng, 139.
R tfc ton of tre tes m de b, 167.
Invol blt of, 202, 204.
Must be dul ccredted, 202.
Soveregn st tes m  send, 203.
Refus l to receve, 204.
Exemptons, 205, 209, 210, 211, 313.
Punshment of, for crmes, 208.
P ss ge through foregn st tes, 209.
Sute nd person l effects of, 211.
House of, s slum, 211.
Debts contr cted b, 212.
Ambrose, 54.
Androncus, 24.
Antonnus, M rcus, 66.
Antonnus, Pus, 112.
Apttude, 19.
Arbter, offce of, 398.
Arbtr ton, 84, 276, 397.
Arcfnum, 106.
Arstotle, 19, 20, 22, 24, 61, 62, 64, 76, 118, 120, 190, 218, 251,
268.
Aslum, rght of, 260.
Augustne, 58, 74.
Aurelus, M rcus, 52, 68.
B rber c, 173, 392.
Bl ckstone's Comment res, 29, 61, 86, 100, 136, 154, 155, 156, 177,

182--_notes_.
Bodes poltc, prvleges of, 262.
Bound r, rvers s, 107.
Bre ch of pe ce, 395.
Bur l, rght of, 213 _et seq._
Burke, Edmund, 282 _note_.
C duceum, use of, 320.
C es r, Julus, 59.
C ptures n w r, 334, 369.
Ttle to, 335, 336, 338.
Thngs mmov ble, 339.
Thngs mov ble, 340.
Restor ton of, 392.
C rgo, n enem's shps, ttle to, 337.
C ssus, 60, 74.
C to, 59, 77.
C uses of w r, justf ble, 85.
Chrogr ph r, 173.
Chrsostom, Do, 25.
Ccero, 18, 23, 24, 31, 34, 35, 60, 68, 78, 86, 89, 92, 137, 191, 208,
214, 215, 268, 283, 317, 379.
Cvl l w: Rel ton of, to l w of n ture, 91.
And nterpret ton of tre tes, 194.
Przes t ken from Pr tes, 357.
Rght of postlmnum under, 357.
Cl rg ton, 319.
Commerce, tre tes of, 169, 170.
Commssons: Spec l, of mb ss dor, 167.
V r tons from, 188.
Common rght to ctons, 99.
Common rght to thngs, 99.
Communt of goods, 86.
Of l nds, 88.
Compens ton, defned, 382.
Compromse: As method of settlng n ton l dsputes, 276.

Condton l surrender, 400.

Conference: To settle dsputes of n tons, 276.
Conqueror, rghts of, 399.
Conquest, rghts resultng from, 348, 399.
Consent to conventons, 415.
Consder ton of contr cts, 136, 138.
Const ntne, 53, 54.
Contr cts: Expressed nd mpled, 100, 145.
Between ctzens of dfferent countres, 136.
Consder ton for, 136, 137.
Of gents, 137.
Exch nge, 145, 146.
Revoc ton of, 145.
Of s le, 146, 151.
Mxed, 147.
Equ lt n, 148.
Lettng nd hrng, 153.
Fr udulent, 199.
Of soveregns, 387, 413.
Contrbutons leved for future securt, 373.
Conventons: Publc nd prv te, 166.
Publc, dvson of, 167.
Requrng r tfc ton, 167, 174, 412, 414.
Power to m ke, n mon rches, 168.
Restng n l w of n ture, 168.
Of commerce nd mt, 169.
Of pe ce, 170.
Oblg tons of negot tor, 174.
Truces, 403.
M de b subordn tes, 411.
T ct consent to, 415.
Corpore l rghts, 85.
Countres, n mes of, 392.
Credtors, person l, 173.
Crmes: Prncp ls nd ccessores, 197, 198, 257.
And msdeme nors, 241.
D m ges, 196, 197, 199, 200, 388.
Debts, ndvdu l, effect of w r upon, 391.
Decepton, nnocent, 302.
Decl r ton of w r, 318, 321.
After truce, not necess r, 404.

Defense: A justf ble c use of w r, 75.

Rght of, 395.
Dem nd of resttuton, 319.
Demosthenes, 74, 81, 170, 240, 310.
Deserters: Not enttled to rght of postlmnum, 355, 390.
Dct tor, soveregn power of, 72.
Donsus, 61, 74, 98, 163.
Dsputes of n tons, methods of settlement, 276.
Dvded nd ssgned l nd, 106.
Domnon, cquston of, 372.
Dur ton of truces, 404.
Dutes: Rght to mpose, on goods n tr nst, 97.
Dut of ctzen to prevent w r, 286.
Elmnum, 351.
Enemes: Furnshng d to, 293-321.
Publc, 314.
Kllng of, 325, 327, 359.
Foregn resdents m  become, 327.
Propert of, rght to destro, 332, 365, 366.
Forbe r nce tow rd, 373.
Good f th between, 379.
Eng gements, 167.
Of soveregns or st tes, 387.
Epctetus, 22.
Equt: A speces of justce, 190.
In nterpretng tre tes, 191.
In m tters of rbtr ton, 398.
Eurpdes, 22, 78.
Exch nge, contr cts of, 145.
Extr dton, 258, 259.
F ctors: Acts of, bnd merch nts, when, 139, 412.
F cult, defnton of, 19.
F lsehood, dscussed, 299 _et seq._
Fec l l w of Rome, 319.

Feder l Unon, 62, 121.

Fer e n tur e, 86.
Rghts of soveregn s to, 91.
Fshng, common rght, 101.
Florentnus, 19, 35.
Foregn resdents, rghts of, 98, 327.
Free p ss ge through countres, rght of, 95, 97.
Permsson frst sked, 96.
Funer l rtes, 214.
G len, 33, 62.
Good f th, found ton of ll tre tes, 385, 417.
Goods n enem's shps, ttle to, 337.
Government: Ch nge of form of, effect upon debts, 121.
Effects on tre tes, 185.
Mxed, 349.
Governments, est blshed for wh t, 68.
Gregor of Tours, 69.
Gu r nt of perform nce b nother, 143.
Her cltus, 24.
Hermogen nus, 36.
Herodotus, 66, 68.
Hesod, 23, 24, 68.
Hrng, 153.
Homcde, excus ble, 29.
Host ges: Rght to kll, 330, 364.
Append ges to tre tes, 400.
Immunt of Amb ss dors, 202.
Incorpore l rghts, 85, 309, 346.
Of st te lost b conquest, 349.
Indemnt: A justf ble c use for w r, 75.
Injunctons, 170.

Injures to propert: Robber, 81.

Redress for, 311.
Amountng to bre ch of pe ce, 397.
Insur nce, contr ct of, 156, 157.
Interest, l wfulness of, 154, 156.
Interpret ton: Of l ws, 136.
Of promses, 137.
Of tre tes, 176 _et seq._
Words, t ken n common ccept ton, 177.
Words of rt, 177, 181.
Obscure words, 178.
Prob ble consequences, 179.
Context, 179.
Motve, 180.
Alles, construed, 183.
Absurd condtons, 188.
And l w of n tons, 194.
Of pe ce, 389, 392, 401.
N mes of countres, 392.
Josephus, 35, 50.
Justf ble c uses of w r, 73, 75, 85, 247, 285.
Justn n, 58.
Kngs, ccount blt of, 69.
Not ll m de b the people, 67.
L ct ntus, 23, 74.
L kes, when propert, 90.
L nds: Three-fold dvson of, 106.
When consdered s t ken possesson of, n w r, 336, 339.
Postlmnum rghts of, 355.
W ste, 90, 91.
L w: B ss of, 136.
Fec l, of Rome, 319.
L wful w r, 18, 31, 278, 324.
L w of N tons, 23.
How proved, 25, 101.
Volunt r, 158.
And nterpret ton of tre tes, 194.
Use of term, 296.
Postve, 297.
Rght to destro propert of enem under, 332.
Respectng c ptures n w r, 334, 336, 338.
L w of n ture, 22, 79,
Rel ton to cvl l w, 91.

Cvl customs not p rt of, 248.

Ignor nce of, excus ble, 248.
As to thngs c ptured n w r, 334.
L ws: Interpret ton of, 136.
Power to repe l, 238.
Letters of m rque nd reprs l, 278, 311.
Lettng nd hrng, 153.
Le, wh t s , 299.
Lv, 64, 73, 78, 114, 167, 170, 206, 317, 332.
Losses of ndvdu ls n w r, 388.
Lot, s method of settlng n ton l dsputes, 277.
M rque nd reprs l, letters of, 278, 311.
Med ton, 84.
Med tor, offce of, 398.
Mone, v r tons n v lue, 153.
Monopol, 101, 152.
Mor l dstnctons, s to cts, 274 _et seq._
Mos c L w, 26-28.
Not bndng upon Chrst ns, 29.
Mutus, Quntus, 36.
N tons, l w of, 23.
Volunt r, 158.
Unon of, rghts contnue, 121.
Restor ton of conquered, 354, 355, 390.
N tur l Rght, 21.
N ture, l w of, un lter ble, 22.
Proof of exstence of, 24.
N v l ssoc tons: Apportonment of losses, 158.
Necesst, ppropr ton of propert under, 92, 93.
Negot ton of tre tes, true b ss for, 385.
Neutr l sol: Rght of bellgerent to, 93.
C ptures on, 344.
Goods, 337.
Neutr ls, rghts nd dutes, 377.

O ths: S nctt of, 160 _et seq._

Me nng of, 161.
V ldt nd form of, 162.
Effect nd subst nce of, 163, 381.
Authort of soveregn over, 164.
Oblg tons: Arsng from propert, 123.
Imperfect, 134.
Resultng from njur, 195.
Enforcng perform nce of, 287.
Promses, 131, 135.
Occup nc, ttle b, 90.
Occup tor l nds, 106.
Offenses g nst socet, punshment of, 258.
Orgen, 49.
Ovd, 32.
P rdons, l wfulness of, 236, 238.
P rle, sgn of, 416.
P rtnershps, 146.
Tr dng--proporton of profts nd losses, 157.
P ulus, 21.
Pe ce: The object of w rs, 379.
Tre tes of, 385.
Who m  m ke, 386.
Interpret ton of, 389.
Bre ch of, 393.
Preserv ton of, 417.
Pen l st tutes, constructon of, 181.
Pen ltes: Remtted, 391.
Spec l, 396.
P ment of, effect on w rs, 408.
Perform nce of contr ct, gu r nt for, 143.
Pr c, soveregn nswer ble for, 200.
Pr tes, tre tment of, 380.
Pl to, 75, 93, 224, 226, 229.
Pledges: Append ges to tre tes, 400.
Redempton of, 401.
Pln, 36, 254.
Plut rch, 23, 24, 66, 93, 221, 226, 227, 235.

Polbus, 23, 73, 208.

Pomponus, 159.
Ponds, when propert, 90.
Porphr, 24.
Possesson: Unnterrupted, tr nsfers propert, 114.
Of propert, t concluson of w r, 390.
Rght of, 399.
Posthumous rghts to propert, 114.
Postlmnum: Defnton of, 169, 331.
Rght of, 314, 336, 351, 354, 390, 405.
Horses, mules, nd shps under l w of, 352, 405.
Deserters, 355, 390.
L nds, 355.
Mov ble propert, 356.
Thngs useful n w r, 356.
Premum of nsur nce, 156.
Prescrpton, l w of, s ppled to soveregn, 115.
Prce, governed b dem nd, 151.
Prsoners: Surrender of, 258, 259.
Kllng of, 328, 363.
As sl ves, 345.
R nsom of, 347, 410.
Rght of postlmnum, 352, 390.
Rghts of, on rele se, 353.
Rght of m kng, 357.
Prv teers, 200.
Prv te rght, 20.
Prvleges of bodes poltc, 262.
Przes: B rght of w r, 337, 343, 346.
T ken from pr tes, 357.
Prohbtons n tre tes, 193.
Promses: Oblg ton of, 131, 135, 379, 381.
Perfect, 135, 194.
Interpret ton of, 137.
Obt ned b fr ud or fe r, 137.
Erroneous, 137, 142.
V ld, 138.
Of mb ss dors, 139.
Revoc ton of, 140.
Accept nce of, 139, 141, 415.
Wth condtons, 142.
Propert: Me ns of cqurng, 103.

Oblg tons rsng from possesson of, 123 _et seq._

Alen ted b rghts of w r, 353, 389.
Restor ton of, t ken n unjust w r, 375.
Possesson of, for long tme m  not gve rght of, 109,--but
see 114.
Redress of njures to, 311, 318.
Of enem, rght to destro, 332, 365, 366.
Ttle to, 335, 90.
Possesson of, fter w r, 390.
Appropr ton of, on ground of necesst, 91, 92.
Of subjects, l blt of for debts of st tes, 308, 370, 387.
Ttle to, s between enemes, 338.
Use of, 94.
Acquston of, n w r, 340.
C ptured, 369.
Ide of how est blshed, 89.
When rght of, ce ses to exst, 117.
Mov ble nd mmov ble, 88, 356.
Thngs not reducble to, 89.
In l kes, ponds, nd rvers, 90.
Ab ndoned, 107, 111.
Puffendorf, 193.
Punshment: A justf ble c use of w r, 75.
Defned, 221.
Who m  nflct, 223, 226, 228.
Object of, 224, 226, 229, 232, 240, 247, 370.
Under the Gospel, 230.
C pt l, 233.
Wcked cts not subject to, 235.
Proportoned to offense, 243 _et seq._
Of offenses g nst God, 249 _et seq._
Communc ton of, upon ccomplces, 256.
Offenses ffectng socet, 258.
Of non-p rtcp nts, 262.
Of suret, 264.
Of chldren for p rents' sns, 266.
Cl sses exempt from, 362.
Of host ges, 364.
Rght to cl m propert s, 391.
Quntl n, 24, 89.
R tfc ton of tre tes nd conventons, 167, 175, 414.
Recover of thngs len ted b rghts of w r, 353.
Redempton of pledges, 401.
Redress, method of obt nng, 311, 318.
Relgon, b sed on four truths, 250.
Remed l st tutes, constructon of, 181.
Reprs l: Letters of M rque nd, 278.
A method of obt nng redress, 311, 312, 327, 370.

Resdents, foregn, rghts of, 97.

Restor ton: Of subjug ted people, 354, 355.
Of propert, 375, 392.
Rght: To mov bles b occup nc, 104.
To mpose dutes on goods n tr nst, 97.
Common-p ss ge through countres, 95, 97, 99.
Of bur l, 213.
Vol ton of, 301.
Of domnon, cquston of, 379.
Of governors nd governed, 19.
Of prsoners, 353.
Defnton nd sgnfc ton of, 18, 19, 20.
To ctons, 99.
Prv te, 20.
Superor, 20.
Of slum, 260.
Volunt r, 25.
Of m kng w r, 386.
Of possesson, 399.
Rghts: Hum n nd Dvne, 25.
Sources of, 195.
Dsputed, methods of settlng, 276.
Of propert, 307.
Of persons, 19, 307, 391.
Resultng from conquest, 348.
Arsng out of l w of n tons, 219.
Re l, 19.
Of w r, 18, 332, 336, 381.
Corpore l nd ncorpore l, 85, 309, 346.
Of tempor r resdents, 98.
Of n tve, 92.
Rver: Effect of ch nge n course of, 106.
Mddle of bound r between terrtores, 107.
When propert, 90, 104.
Robber, rght to kll robber, 81.
Rom nus, Clemens, 52.
S cred thngs not exempt from destructon b enem, 332.
S fe conduct, , 408.
Expr ton of, 409.
S les nd purch ses: Rght of restrctng, 100.
When contr ct complete, 151.
S llust, 206.
S lv n, 51.
Se : Open, not propert, 90.
Portons of, m  become propert, 104.

Self-defense, 77.
Senec , 19, 24, 74, 75, 80, 92, 108, 118, 135, 192.
Servces, gr tutous, 144.
Settlement of n ton l dsputes, methods of, 276.
Shps. Owners bound b cts of m sters of, when, 139.
Goods found n enem's, 337.
Under l w of postlmnum, 352.
Sl n n, Decree, 53.
Sl ver, 345.
Sl ves: Prsoners of w r, 345.
Rght of postlmnum, 352.
Smth, Ad m, 101 _n_.
Solders, compens ton to, 341, 343.
Soveregn power: Not n the people n ever c se, 63 _et seq._, 120.
Ce ses, when, 117.
To decl re w r, 316, 386.
Soveregns: Electve nd heredt r, 71.
Responsblt for pr c nd robber, 200.
For cts of subjects, 257.
Bound b cts of commssoner, 412.
Soveregnt: Its n ture nd where t resdes, 60, 62, 70, 71, 103.
Not forfet ble b ct of delnquenc, 80.
Spes, tre tment of, when c ptured, 331.
Sponso, 167.
St te: Defnton of, 25.
Soveregn, 62.
Conquered, prvleges llowed to, 374.
Dvson of, nto consttuent p rts, b consent of w r, 121.
St tes: When mmort l, 117.
M  lose poltc l exstence b conquest, 348, 349.
St tes Gener l: Three dvsons of, 70, 71.
Power of, 71.
Of Holl nd, 337.
St tutes: Pen l construed strctl; remed l lber ll, 181.
Str bo, 62, 98.
Str t gem, use of, n w r, 294 _et seq._
Subjects: Of soveregn, detenton of, 311.
L blt to tt ck, n tme of w r, nwhere, 327.

Superor rght, 20.

Suppl of thng ffects ts prce, 151.
Suret: Punshment of, 264.
Bound b consent, 308.
Surrender: Of people, n w r, 390.
Condton l, 400.
Sll , Lucus Cornelus, 57.
T ctus, 64, 68, 87, 106, 110, 213.
T xes on goods n tr nst, 97.
Termnus, rtes of, 373.
Terrtor long possessed, ttle to, 110.
Tertull n, 49, 51, 52.
Thucddes, 60, 174.
Tme: As n element of rght of propert, 109.
Immemor l, 113.
Tr nst, goods n, 97.
Tre tes: Publc nd prv te, 166.
Equ l, 170.
Unequ l, 158, 170, 171, 184.
Defnton of, 167.
Requrng r tfc ton, 167.
Power to m ke n mon rches, 168.
Restng n l w of n ture, 168.
Of commerce nd mt, 169, 170, 185.
Of pe ce, 170, 386, 389, 391.
Renew l of, 173.
Effect of vol ton of, 174.
Interpret ton of, 176 _et seq._ (See Interpret ton of Tre tes.)
Person l nd re l, 184.
Where governments ch nge form, 184, 185.
Of pe ce, m ter l p rt of, 386.
Stpul tons s to ctons t l w, 390.
Host ges nd pledges under, 400.
Truces: Defnton, 403.
Dur ton of, 404.
Publc notce of, 405.
Bre ch of, 406,
Gr ntng of, 414
Ulp n, 21, 34, 36, 129, 162, 166, 263, 333.
Unl wful cts, 305.
Usuc pton, l w of, s ppled to soveregns, 115.

Usufruct, 155.
Usufructu r propert, 86.
Usur, 155.
V lentn n, 67.
V lue of thng governed b wh t? 150.
Of mone, 153.
V squez, 80, 239, 286, 388.
V ttel, 101, 158, 167, 169, 177, 203, 297, 387, 388--_notes_.
W r: Defnton of, 18, 403.
Derv ton of word, 18.
Dvson of, publc, prv te, nd mxed, 55.
All, not repugn nt to l w of n ture, 34, 36.
Prv te, 55, 56, 83.
Justf ble c uses, pretexts, nd begnnng of, 73, 75, 247, 285.
Defense, ndemnt nd punshment, 75, 245.
Tme of begnnng, 284.
Object of, 379.
Effect upon debts, 391.
L wfulness of, 18, 31, 278, 324.
Under dvne volunt r l w, 36, 40.
Ad to p rtes to, 173.
C uses, justfng p rtcp ton of lles, 285.
L wful me ns used n, 290, 363.
Use of str t gem, 294.
Suspcon of hostle ntentons, 83.
Injur to propert, 85.
Dem nd of surrender of ctzen, 285.
Prec utons g nst, 280 _et seq._
Rght of bellgerents to neutr l sol, 93.
Unjust, c uses of, 267 _et seq._
Avod nce of, 280 _et seq._, 418.
Decl r ton of, 318, 321, 404, nd forms, 319.
Rght to m ke, 386.
Losses of ndvdu ls b, 388.
Publc, form l nd nform l, decl red b soveregn, 57, 316, 317,
386.
Rght to vert, nd to punsh wrongs, 83, 200, 247, 280.
"We lth of N tons," 101 _n_.
Wthern m, 311.
Wrongs: Dvson of, prv te nd publc, 61.
Soveregn power m  vert nd punsh, 83.
Xenophon, 32, 93.

FOOTNOTES:
[1] The eghth Secton s omtted, the gre ter p rt of t consstng
of verb l crtcsm upon Arstotle's notons of geometrc l nd
rthmetc l justce; dscusson no w  conducve to th t cle rness
nd smplct, so necess r to ever dd ctc tre tse.--TRANSLATOR.
[2] The l w, b ts slence, permts those cts, whch t does not
prohbt. Thus m n cts, f the re not evl n themselves, re no
offence, tll the l w h s m de them such. Of ths knd re m n cts,
such s exportng gold, or mportng cert n rtcles of tr de; dong
cert n ctons, or followng cert n c llngs, wthout the requste
qu lfc tons, whch re m de punsh ble offences b the St tute-L w.
Those ctons, before the prohbton w s enjoned b the l w, c me
under the cl ss of wh t Grotus c lls permssons.
[3] B mor l necesst s me nt nothng more th n th t the L ws of
N ture must lw s bnd us.
[4] To expl n the me nng of Grotus n ths pl ce, recourse must
be h d to frst prncples. Thus the l w of n ture uthorzng
self-defence n ts fullest extent, the l ws of n tons, whch
uthorze w r for the s me purpose, c nnot be repugn nt to t.
[5] The L w of Engl nd on homcde excus ble b self-defence, wll
throw lght on the sentments of Grotus n ths pl ce. "The l w
requres, th t the person who klls nother n hs own defence, should
h ve retre ted s f r s he convenentl or s fel c n, to vod the
volence of the ss ult, before he turns upon hs ss l nt; nd th t,
not fcttousl, or n order to w tch hs opportunt, but from
re l tenderness of sheddng hs brother's blood. And though t m  be
cow rdce, n tme of w r, between two ndependent n tons, to flee
from our enem; et between two fellow subjects the l w counten nces no
such pont of honour; bec use the kng nd hs courts re the _vndces
njur rum_, nd wll gve to the p rt wronged ll the s tsf cton he
deserves. And ths s the doctrne of unvers l justce, s well s of
the muncp l l w."--Bl ckstone's Com. vol. 4, ch p. 14.
[6] The uthor here lludes to the deflement or uncle nness whch
the ncents thought w s contr cted b touchng m n, who h d klled
nother, even nnocentl nd l wfull.--B rber c.
[7] The rem nder of ths secton s omtted, Grotus hmself st tng
t to be onl repetton nd enl rgement of hs rguments mmed tel
precedng t. (Tr nsl tor.)
[8] Grotus does not vouch for the truth of ths sserton, but onl
quotes the p ss ge to shew there were CHRISTIANS n the rm of M rcus
Aurelus.
[9] B the Sl n n decree of the Sen te, t w s ordered th t f
m ster h ppened to be murdered n hs own house, ll the sl ves under
the s me roof should be put to de th; even though no proof ppe red of
ther beng concerned n the murder. We h ve n ex mple of the c se
n T ctus. Ann l. v. xv. ch. xl. The Emperor Adr n softened the
rgour of th t decree, b orderng th t onl the should be exposed to
the r ck, who were ne r enough to h ve he rd some nose. Sp rt n, Lfe
of Adr n, ch. xv.

[10] As Grotus h s so full est blshed hs rgument, t s

unnecess r to revew hs nswer to further objectons.--(TRANSLATOR.)
[11] As the topcs of the thrd secton h ve been so full st ted n
the second ch pter, th t secton h s been omtted, nd the tr nsl ton
goes on from the second of the orgn l to the fourth. (Tr nsl tor.)
[12] In c se of rebellon, the subjects t ken n rms, h ve no rght
to be tre ted s prsoners of w r, but re l ble to punshment s
crmn ls.
[13] "Wrongs re dvsble nto two sorts or speces, PRIVATE WRONGS,
nd PUBLIC WRONGS. The former re n nfrngement or prv ton of
the prv te or cvl rghts belongng to ndvdu ls, consdered s
ndvdu ls, nd re therefore frequentl termed cvl njures;
the l tter re bre ch nd vol ton of publc rghts nd dutes
whch ffect the whole communt consdered s communt,
nd re dstngushed b the h rsher ppell ton of crmes nd
msdeme nors."--Bl ckst. Com. b. . c. .
[14] The tr nsl ton proceeds from hence to the second book of the
orgn l, whch seems to follow ths p rt wthout n m ter l bre k n
the ch n of rgument: the ntermed te sectons rel tng to nst nces
n the Rom n Republc, whch do not drectl ppl to the pr ctce of
modern governments.--TRANSLATOR.
[15] The tenth secton s omtted n the tr nsl ton; s the subject of
Chrst n forbe r nce of whch t tre ts, h s lre d been dscussed n
the preceedng book.--TRANSLATOR.
[16] Sectons XIII. XIV. nd XV. of the orgn l re omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.
[17] _Actus lquos_, whch lter ll sgnfes cert n cts, m  be
rendered b the term ncorpore l rghts, whch mpl the rght of w s,
dgntes, fr nchses, nd m n other person l prvleges rsng out
of cert n corpore l knds of propert.
[18] The words of Judge Bl ckstone wll elucd te the me nng of
Grotus n ths pl ce. The le rned Comment tor s s, "There re some
few thngs, whch, notwthst ndng the gener l ntroducton nd
contnu nce of propert, must stll un vod bl rem n n common; beng
such wheren nothng but n usufructu r propert s c p ble of beng
h d: nd therefore the stll belong to the frst occup nt, durng the
tme he holds possesson of them, nd no longer. Such ( mong others)
re the elements of lght, r, nd w ter; whch m n m  occup b
me ns of hs wndows, hs g rdens, hs mlls, nd other convenences:
such lso re the gener lt of those nm ls whch re s d to be
_fer e n tur e_, or of wld nd unt me ble dsposton: whch n m n
m  sese upon nd keep for hs own use or ple sure. All these thngs,
so long s the rem n n possesson, ever m n h s rght to enjo
wthout dsturb nce; but f once the esc pe from hs custod, or he
volunt rl b ndons the use of them, the return to the common stock,
nd n m n else h s rght to sese nd enjo them fterw rds."
[19] The me nng of Grotus n ths Secton wll be more cle rl
understood b bref expl n ton of the n ture of Contr cts. "Now
contr cts re of two knds, ether express or mpled. Express
contr cts re openl uttered nd vowed t the tme of m kng, s to

delver n ox, or ten lo d of tmber, or to p  st ted prce for

cert n goods. Impled re such s re son nd justce dct te, nd
whch therefore the l w presumes, th t ever m n undert kes to perform.
As, f I emplo person to do n busness for me, or perform n
work; the l w mples th t I undertook, or contr cted, to p  hm
s much s hs l bor deserves. If I t ke up w res from tr desm n,
wthout n greement of prce, the l w concludes, th t I contr cted
to p  ther re l v lue. And there s lso one speces of mpled
contr cts, whch runs through nd s nnexed to ll other contr cts,
condtons, nd coven nts, vz. th t f I f l n m p rt of the
greement, I sh ll p  the other p rt such d m ges s he h s sust ned
b such m neglect or refus l." Bl ckst. Com. b. . c. 30. p. 442.
[20] There re c ses n whch monopoles, nd the exclusve prvleges
of tr dng comp nes re not onl llow ble but bsolutel necess r.
"For there re, _s s V ttel_, commerc l enterprzes th t c nnot be
c rred on wthout n energ th t requres consder ble funds, whch
surp ss the blt of ndvdu ls. There re others th t would soon
become runous, were the not conducted wth gre t prudence, wth one
regul r sprt, nd ccordng to well supported m xms nd rules. These
br nches of tr de c nnot be ndscrmn tel c rred on b ndvdu ls:
comp nes re therefore formed, under the uthort of the government;
nd these comp nes c nnot subsst wthout n exclusve prvlege.
It s therefore dv nt geous to the n ton to gr nt them: hence h ve
rsen n dfferent countres, those powerful comp nes th t c rr on
commerce wth the E st."--L w of N t. b. . c. v. sect. 97. p. 42.
[21] Ad m Smth n hs We lth of N tons, spe kng of tre tes of
commerce, observes, th t "when n ton bnds tself b tre t, ether
to permt the entr of cert n goods from one foregn countr whch t
prohbts from ll others, or to exempt the goods of one countr from
dutes to whch t subjects those of ll others, the countr, or t
le st the merch nts nd m nuf cturers of the countr, whose commerce
s so f voured, must necess rl derve gre t dv nt ges from the
tre t. Those merch nts nd m nuf cturers enjo sort of monopol n
the countr, whch s so ndulgent to them. Th t countr becomes
m rket both more extensve nd more dv nt geous for ther goods: more
extensve, bec use the goods of other n tons beng ether excluded or
subjected to he ver dutes, t t kes off gre t qu ntt of thers:
more dv nt geous, bec use the merch nts of the f voured countr,
enjong sort of monopol there, wll often sell ther goods for
better prce, th n f exposed to the free competton of ll other
n tons."--Vol. 2. b. v. ch. v.
[22] The tr nsl ton proceeds from the fourth to the nnth Ch pter
of the Second book of the orgn l. The ntermed te ch pters, beng
chefl repetton of the uthor's former rguments, respectng the
rghts of se s nd rvers, nd other knds of domnons; nd th t
rel tng to the rghts of persons, beng so full tre ted n the frst
volume of Judge Bl ckstone's Comment res, t seemed unnecess r to
gve them n the present work.--TRANSLATOR.
[23] Secton VII of the orgn l s omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.
[24] The followng extr cts from Bl ckstone's Com. b. . ch. xxx.
wll elucd te the me nng of our uthor n ths pl ce. "S le or
EXCHANGE s tr nsmut ton of propert from one m n to nother, n
consder ton of some prce or recompense; for there s no s le wthout
recompence." P. 446.

"Where the vendor HATH n hmself the propert of the goods sold, he
h th the lbert of dsposng of them to whom ever he ple ses, t n
tme, nd n n m nner." Ibd. 446.
"And notwthst ndng n number of ntervenng s les, f the orgn l
vendor, who sold wthout h vng the propert, comes g n nto
possesson of the goods, the orgn l owner m  t ke them, when found
n hs h nds who w s gult of the frst bre ch of justce." Ibd. p.
450.
[25] "A promse s n the n ture of verb l coven nt, nd w nts
nothng but the solemnt of wrtng nd se lng to m ke t bsolutel
the s me. If therefore t be to do n explct ct, t s n express
contr ct, s much s n coven nt; nd the bre ch of t s n equ l
njur."--Bl ckst. Com. b. . ch. x. sect. 3.
[26] All the re sonngs of Grotus, on ths, nd on ever other pont,
re ntended to ppl not onl to the tr ns ctons of ndvdu ls, but
to the conduct nd ff rs of n tons.
[27] "The most unvers l nd effectu l w  of dscoverng the true
me nng of l w, when the words re dubous, s b consderng the
REASON nd SPIRIT of t, or the c use whch moved the legsl tor to
en ct t. For when the re son ce ses, the l w tself ought lkewse to
ce se wth t."--Bl ckst. Introd. Com. ch. 2. p. 16.
[28] Sectons X. nd XI. of the orgn l re omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.
[29] From ths smple orgn of b rter, nd exch nge of thngs h ve
rsen ll the v rous tr ns ctons of commerce. And wh t w s t frst
n ct of necesst between ndvdu ls, h s proved n nexh ustble
source of we lth nd prospert to n tons.
[30] For the necesst of Monopoles n cert n c ses, see the note on
the xx. sect. of the 2nd. ch pter of ths book.
[31] The Dutch n order to secure to themselves the monopol of the
spce-tr de h ve frequentl destroed ll the productons of the spce
sl nds beond wh t w s necess r for ther own suppl. B the just
polc of the l ws of Engl nd, "combn tons mong vctu llers or
rtfcers, to r se the prce of provsons, or n commodtes, or
the r te of l bour, re n m n c ses severel punshed b p rtcul r
st tutes; nd, n gener l, b st tute 2 nd 3 Edwd. VI. c. 15, wth the
forfeture of 10 l., or twent d s mprsonment wth n llow nce of
onl bre d nd w ter, for the frst offence; 20 l. or the pllor for
the second; nd 40 l. for the thrd, or else the pllor, loss of one
e r, nd perpetu l nf m. In the s me m nner, b consttuton of
the Emperor Zeno, ll monopoles nd combn tons to keep up the prce
of merch ndse, provsons, or workm nshp, were prohbted, upon p n
of forfeture of goods nd perpetu l b nshment."--Bl ckst. Com. b.
v. c. 12. p. 159.--Also the 39 Geo. III. c. 81, en cted, th t ever
person combnng wth others to dv nce ther w ges, or decre se the
qu ntt of work, or n w  to ffect or controul those who c rred
on n m nuf cture or tr de n the conduct nd m n gement thereof,
mght be convcted before one justce of the pe ce, nd mght be
commtted to the common g ol for n tme not exceedng three c lend r
months, or be kept to h rd l bour n the house of correcton for two
months.--Chrst n's notes to Bl ckstone on the s me pl ce.

[32] "It s possble th t n est te or house m , durng the term

of le se, be so ncre sed or dmnshed n ts v lue, s to become
worth much more, or much less, th n the rent greed to be p d for t.
In some of whch c ses t m  be doubted, to whom, of n tur l rght,
the dv nt ge or ds dv nt ge belongs. The rule of justce seems to be
ths: If the lter ton mght be EXPECTED b the p rtes, the hrer
must t ke the consequence; f t could not, the owner. An orch rd, or
vne rd, or mne, or fsher, or deco, m  ths e r eld
nothng or next to nothng, et the ten nt sh ll p  hs rent; nd
f the next e r produce tenfold the usu l proft, no more sh ll be
dem nded; bec use the produce s n ts n ture prec rous, nd ths
v r ton mght be expected."--P le's, Mor. Phl. vol. 1. p. 155, 156.
[33] The followng p ss ge from Judge Bl ckstone wll both elucd te
the me nng nd support the re sonng of our uthor. "Though mone
w s orgn ll used onl for the purposes of exch nge, et the l ws
of n st te m  be well justfed n permttng t to be turned to
the purposes of proft, f the convenence of socet (the gre t end
for whch mone w s nvented) sh ll requre t. And th t the llow nce
of moder te nterest tends gre tl to the beneft of the publc,
espec ll n tr dng countr, wll ppe r from th t gener ll
cknowledged prncple, th t commerce c nnot subsst wthout mutu l nd
extensve credt. Unless mone therefore c n be borrowed, tr de c nnot
be c rred on: nd f no premum were llowed for the hre of mone,
few persons would c re to lend t; or t le st the e se of borrowng t
short w rnng (whch s the lfe of commerce) would be entrel t n
end."--B. . ch. 30. p. 454, 455.
[34] "The Mos c l w ndeed prohbted the lendng of mone upon
usur. But ths w s poltc l nd not mor l precept. It onl
prohbted the Jews from t kng usur of ther brethren the Jews, but
n express words permtted them to t ke t of str nger: whch proves
th t the t kng of moder te usur, or rew rd for the use, s not n
evl n tself, snce t w s llowed where n but n Isr elte w s
concerned."--Bl ckst. Com. b. . ch. 30. p. 454. The objectons m de
to t b Ccero nd others, our uthor observes, re founded more upon
the consequences of usur th n upon usur tself. Bec use t deters
men from borrowng. But, on the other h nd, f there were no dv nt ge
tt ched to the lendng of mone, none would be found wllng to lend;
consequentl the benefts rsng from f clt of borrowng mone to
c rr on tr de would be defe ted.
[35] "Insur nces beng contr cts, the ver essence of whch conssts n
observng the purest good f th nd ntegrt, the re v c ted b n
the le st sh dow of fr ud or undue conce lment; nd, on the other h nd,
beng much for the beneft nd extenson of tr de, b dstrbutng the
loss or g n mong number of dventurers, the re gre tl encour ged
nd protected both b common l w nd cts of p rl ment."--Bl ckst.
Com. b. . ch. 30. p. 460.
"The contr ct of nsur nce s founded upon the purest prncples
of mor lt nd bstr ct justce. Hence t s necess r th t the
contr ctng p rtes should h ve perfectl equ l knowledge or gnor nce
of ever m ter l crcumst nce respectng the thng nsured. If on
ether sde there s n msrepresent ton or _ lleg to f ls_, or
conce lment, or _suppresso ver_, whch would n n degree ffect the
premum, or the terms of the eng gement, the contr ct s fr udulent nd
bsolutel vod."--Chrst n's note on the s me p ss ge.

[36] There s dstncton to be observed between the NECESSARY, nd

the VOLUNTARY l w of n tons. V ttel defnes the NECESSARY l w to
be "th t whch s lw s oblg tor on the conscence, nd of whch
n ton ought never to lose sght n the lne of conduct she s to
pursue n order to fulfl her dut, but when there s queston of
ex mnng wh t she m  dem nd of other st tes, she must consult the
VOLUNTARY l w, whose m xms re devoted to the s fet nd dv nt ge of
the unvers l socet of m nknd."--Prelm. sect. 28.
[37] The wrter quoted n the precedng note defnes th t oblg ton
"to be INTERNAL, whch bnds the conscence, nd s deduced from the
rules of dut; nd th t to be EXTERNAL, whch s consdered rel tvel
to other men, nd produces some rght between them."--Ibd. sect. 17.
[38] A tre t m  be more dv nt geous to one of the contr ctng
p rtes th n to the other, nd et cont n nothng unjust. "Frequentl
gre t mon rch, wshng to eng ge we ker st te n hs nterest,
offers her dv nt geous condtons, promses her gr tutous succours,
or gre ter th n he stpul tes for hmself; but t the s me tme he
cl ms superort of dgnt, nd requres respect from hs ll.
It s ths l st p rtcul r whch renders THE ALLIANCE UNEQUAL: nd to
ths crcumst nce we must ttentvel dvert; for wth ll nces of
ths n ture we re not to confound those n whch the p rtes tre t
on footng of equ lt, though the more powerful of the lles,
for p rtcul r re sons, gves more th n he receves, promses hs
ssst nce gr ts, wthout requrng gr tutous ssst nce n hs
turn, or promses more consder ble succours or even the ssst nce
of ll hs forces: here the ll nce s equ l, but the tre t s
unequ l, unless ndeed we m  be llowed to s , th t, s the p rt
who m kes the gre ter concessons h s gre ter nterest n concludng
the tre t, ths consder ton restores the equ lt. Thus, t
tme when Fr nce found herself emb rr ssed n momentous w r wth
the house of Austr , nd the c rdn l de Rcheleu wshed to humble
th t formd ble power, he, lke n ble mnster, concluded tre t
wth Gust vus Adolphus, n whch ll the dv nt ge ppe red to be on
the sde of Sweden. From b re consder ton of the stpul tons of
th t tre t, t would h ve been pronounced n unequ l one; but the
dv nt ges whch Fr nce derved from t, mpl compens ted for th t
nequ lt."--V ttel, b. . ch. 12. sect. 175. p. 200, 201.
[39] The n ture of o ths, contr cts nd promses h vng been so full
dscussed n the precedng ch pters, the tr nsl ton proceeds from the
thrteenth to the ffteenth ch pter of the orgn l, the fourteenth
beng n gre t me sure onl repetton of our uthor's former
rguments upon the subject.--TRANSLATOR.
[40] On ths subject the opnons of our uthor, nd those of V ttel
wll reflect lght upon e ch other. From the l tter of whom, the
followng extr cts wll pl ce the m tter n cle r pont of vew. "If
publc person, n mb ss dor, or gener l of n rm, exceedng
the bounds of hs commsson, concludes tre t or conventon
wthout orders from the soveregn or wthout beng uthorsed to do
t b vrtue of hs offce, the tre t s null, s beng m de wthout
suffcent powers: t c nnot become v ld wthout the express or t ct
r tfc ton of the soveregn. The express r tfc ton s wrtten
deed b whch the soveregn pproves the tre t, nd eng ges to
observe t. The t ct r tfc ton s mpled b cert n steps whch
the soveregn s justl presumed to t ke onl n pursu nce of the
tre t, nd whch he could not be supposed to t ke wthout consderng
t s concluded nd greed upon. Thus, on tre t of pe ce beng

sgned b publc mnsters who h ve even exceeded the orders of ther

soveregns, f one of the soveregns c uses troops to p ss on the
footng of frends through the terrtores of hs reconcled enem, he
t ctl r tfes the tre t of pe ce. But f, b reserv tor cl use
of the tre t, the r tfc ton of the soveregn be requred-- s such
reserv ton s usu ll understood to mpl n express r tfc ton,
t s bsolutel requste th t the tre t be thus expressl r tfed
before t c n cqure ts full force. B the L tn term _sponso_, we
express n greement rel tng to ff rs of st te, m de b publc
person, who exceeds the bounds of hs commsson, nd cts wthout the
orders or comm nd of the soveregn. The person who tre ts for the st te
n ths m nner wthout beng commssoned for the purpose, promses of
course to use hs ende vours for prev lng on the st te or soveregn
to r tf the rtcles he h s greed to: otherwse hs eng gements
would be nug tor nd llusve. The found ton of ths greement c n be
no other, on ether sde, th n the hope of such r tfc ton."--V ttel,
b. . ch. xv. sect. 208, 209, p. 219. "The gener l of n rm, _he
proceeds_, h s ndeed b vrtue of hs commsson, power to enter,
s crcumst nces m  requre, nto prv te conventon,-- comp ct
rel tve to hmself, to hs troops, or to the occurrences of w r: but
he h s no power to conclude tre t of pe ce. He m  bnd hmself,
nd the troops under hs comm nd, on ll occ sons where hs functons
requre th t he should h ve the power of tre tng; but he c nnot bnd
the st te beond the extent of hs commsson."--Ibd. sect. 210. p.
220.
[41] "The rght of postlmnum s th t, n vrtue of whch, persons
nd thngs t ken b the enem re restored to ther former st te, on
comng g n nto the power of the n ton to whch the belonged."
V ttel, b. . ch. xv. sect. 204.
[42] "Person l credtors re n the Rom n l w c lled Chrogr ph r,
bec use the commonl h ve some bond or note of h nd for the debt.
And where there re sever l such credtors, f the debtor's est te s
not suffcent to s tsf them ll, e ch h s hs sh re ssgned n
proporton to the l rgeness of the debt, wthout n reg rd to the
tme, when t w s contr cted. But n mortg ges t w s dfferent, the
debt of longest st ndng w s to be frst s tsfed."--B rber c.
[43] When the Rom n rm h d p ssed under the oke t C udum, upon
ther return, when the m tter w s referred to the sen te, t w s s d
th t s the conventon w s m de wthout the consent of the sen te or
people, the Rom n people were not bound b t, nd propos l w s m de
th t those who h d sgned the tre t should g n be gven up to the
enem, thus the people would be rele sed from the eng gement. Ths
propos l w s greed to, nd decree to th t purpose p ssed.
[44] Luct tus h d nserted ths cl use th t the greement should be
good nd v ld, onl n c se t w s pproved b the Rom n people.--Lv.
lb. xx. c. xx. See lkewse Polbus, lb. . c. xx.
[45] "In ll hum n ff rs, where bsolute cert nt s not t h nd
to pont out the w , we must t ke prob blt for our gude. In
most c ses t s extremel prob ble th t the p rtes h ve expressed
themselves conform bl to the est blshed us ge: nd such prob blt
ever ffords strong presumpton, whch c nnot be overruled but b
stll stronger presumpton to the contr r. C mden, n hs hstor
of Queen Elz beth, gves us tre t, n whch t s expressl s d
th t the tre t sh ll be precsel understood ccordng to the force
nd ppropr te sgnfc ton of the terms."--V ttel, b. . ch. xv.

sect. 271. On the s me subject, Judge Bl ckstone s s, th t "words re

gener ll to be understood n ther usu l nd most known sgnfc ton;
not so much reg rdng the propret of gr mm r, s ther gener l nd
popul r use."--Introduct. to Com. ch. . p. 59.
[46] "The word DAY s understood of the NATURAL DAY, or of the tme
durng whch the sun ffords us hs lght, nd of the CIVIL DAY, or
the sp ce of twent-four hours. When t s used n conventon to
pont out sp ce of tme, the subject tself m nfestl shews th t the
p rtes me n the cvl d , or the term of twent-four hours."--V ttel,
b. . ch. xv. sect. 280.
[47] "It s fund ment l rule of constructon, th t pen l st tutes
sh ll be construed strctl, nd remed l st tutes sh ll be construed
lber ll. It w s one of the l ws of the twelve t bles of Rome,
th t whenever there w s queston between lbert nd sl ver, the
presumpton should be on the sde of lbert. Ths excellent prncple
our l w h s dopted n the constructon of pen l st tutes: for
whenever n mbgut rses n st tute ntroducng new pen lt
or punshment, the decson sh ll be on the sde of lent nd merc;
or n f vour of n tur l rght nd lbert: or, n other words, the
decson sh ll be ccordng to the strct letter n f vour of the
subject. And though the judges n such c ses m  frequentl r se nd
solve dffcultes contr r to the ntenton or the legsl ture, et no
further nconvenence c n result, th n th t the l w rem ns s t w s
before the st tute, nd t s more conson nt to prncples of lbert,
th t the judge should cqut whom the legsl tor ntended to punsh,
th n th t he should punsh whom the legsl tor ntended to dsch rge
wth mpunt. But remed l st tutes must be construed ccordng to
the sprt: for n gvng relef g nst fr ud, or n the further nce
nd extenson of n tur l rght nd justce, the judge m  s fel go
even beond th t whch exsted n the mnds of those who fr med the
l w."--Chrst n's Notes on Bl ckst. Comm. Introd. p. 87.
[48] The c se of promse m de on the supposton of posthumous
chld's dng, nst nced b our uthor n ths pl ce, be rs so ne r
resembl nce to th t of f ther's beque thng hs propert to nother,
belevng hs son to be de d, th t t s omtted n ths ch pter h vng
been lre d gven under the he d of erroneous promses n the x.
ch pter nd 6th secton of ths book.--(Tr nsl tor.)
[49] "The v ret of hum n tr ns ctons c nnot be comprsed wthn
gener l rules. Occ son l decrees therefore become requste; whch
v r wth e ch v r ton of crcumst nces, for the me sure of wh t s
ndefnte must be ndefnte tself, lke the le den ruler n the
Lesb n rchtecture, whch ch nges ts own sh pe ccordng to th t
of the stones to whch t s ppled. It s m nfest, therefore, th t
equt s speces of justce, nd contr sted wth nother speces
to whch t s prefer ble. A m n of equt s he who delber tel nd
h btu ll exercses ths vrtue; who prefers t n ll hs de lngs
to the rgour of justce; nd who, even when the l w s on hs sde,
wll not v l hmself of ths dv nt ge to tre t others njurousl or
unh ndsomel."--Arstot. Eth. b. v. ch. x.
[50] Owng to crcumst nces there m  be v r ton n the conduct,
nd et no ch nge n the prncples of st te. Ths must frequentl
h ppen n the commerc l regul tons between dfferent countres, who
re oblged to v r ther me ns to secure the unt of ther end. Or
f n tre t between two n tons, t s decl red there sh ll be
PERPETUAL mt, nd subsequent decl r ton of w r b one of the

p rtes pronounces such mc ble rel tons to be t n end, here there
s no v r ton n PRINCIPLE but n CIRCUMSTANCES, whch render such
dssoluton of the mt, th t w s orgn ll ntended to be perpetu l,
necess r to the welf re nd preserv ton of th t power, the sole
object of ll tre tes.
[51] To llustr te the n ture of GENERAL AND PARTICULAR c ses, the
followng ex mple s t ken from the Puffendorf:--"One l w forbds us to
ppe r n publc wth rms on hold s: nother l w comm nds us to turn
out under rms nd rep r to our posts, s soon s we he r the sound of
the l rm bell. The l rm s rung on hold . In such c se we must
obe the l tter of the two l ws, whch cre tes n excepton to the
former."--Jur. Gent, lb. v. c. x. sect. 23.
[52] "The deputes sent to the ssembl of the st tes of kngdom,
or commonwe lth re not publc mnsters lke mb ss dors, s the
re not sent to foregn powers; but the re publc persons, nd, n
th t respect, re possessed of ever exempton nd mmunt, th t
re necess r to the dsch rge of ther functons."--V tt. b. v.
ch. v. sect. 109. Of ths n ture re the prvleges enjoed b the
represent tves of the Brtsh people, nd denomn ted the PRIVILEGES
OF PARLIAMENT.
[53] Nothng forms more strkng contr st between ncent nd modern
w r, then the person l nmostes, whch seemed to oper te upon
the comb t nts n the former, nd the publc nd n ton l objects,
WITHOUT ANY PERSONAL CONCERN, upon whch the l tter re undert ken.
Peruse n ncent hstor n, or the b ttles n Homer nd Vrgl,
WHICH THOUGH FICTIONS, DESCRIBE THE MANNERS OF THE AGE, nd ou see
comb t nts eng ged, on whom the l ws of n ture nd of n tons seem to
h ve lost ther force. Re d the ccounts of modern w rf re nd ou
fnd hostltes commenced, not from prv te nmost, but from some
gre t nd n ton l object, n the prosecuton of whch the feelngs of
the ndvdu ls pponted to conduct them re not the onl sprngs of
cton.
[54] Sectons XVI nd XVII of the orgn l, rel tng onl to
the refut ton of cert n bstruse opnons, re omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--(Tr nsl tor.)
[55] Secton V of the orgn l s omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.
[56] Thus letters of m rque nd reprs l, b whch ndvdu ls re
en bled to redress ther own wrongs, must ssue from the soveregn
power, otherwse the hostltes of such ndvdu ls would be unl wful.
So th t here the ACTION would be unl wful, th t s unjust, unless
performed b n AGENT, who h d commsson from publc uthort.
[57] The three rules bove l d down b our uthor m  be llustr ted
b the three followng propostons.-In the frst pl ce, t c nnot be dened, th t w r, n the ABSTRACT, s
n evl, but then t s necess r to consder, whether t s not n
evl th t must, n m n c ses, be submtted to n order to vod stll
gre ter c l mtes.
Secondl, n the prosecuton of w r, where the dv nt ges, or evls
re doubtful, t s necess r to ende vour fter the tt nment of
new confeder ces or ll nces, th t m  compens te for the losses

sust ned, or m  open out new ch nnels of tr de nd commerce, whch

m  suppl the pl ce of those th t h ve been closed b the mmed te
w r.
As n llustr ton of the thrd pont, we m  dduce the conduct of
Kng Wll m, fter the Brtsh C bnet th t met t Tunbrdge Wells,
August 28, 1698, represented to hm how n dequ te the sprt of the
n ton w s to enter nto new w r, nd to be r ddton l burdens,
concludng, "ths s the truth of the f ct upon whch our M jest wll
determne wh t resoluton ought to be t ken." Hs M jest dd determne
upon w r, s the le st of ll the evls whch f ced hs people,
notwthst ndng the APPARENT n dequ c of hs me ns. And "n th t
gre t w r, _s s Mr. Burke_, c rred on g nst Lous the XIV, for ne r
eghteen e rs, government sp red no p ns to s tsf the n ton, th t
though the were to be nm ted b desre of glor, glor w s not
ther ultm te object: but th t ever thng de r to them, n relgon,
n l w, n lbert, ever thng, whch s freemen, s Englshmen, nd
s ctzens of the gre t commonwe lth of Chrstendom, the h d t
he rt, w s then t st ke."--Lett. on Regc Pe ce, p. 90.
[58] Thus when shp m kes n ppe r nce of mountng more guns th n
she re ll c rres, n order to deter n enem from tt ckng her, ths
m  be consdered s one of those neg tve str t gems, or str t gems of
dssmul ton, to whch our uthor lludes.
[59] Besdes the NECESSARY l w of n tons, whch s EQUALLY, nd t
ALL TIMES bndng upon ALL st tes, there s POSITIVE l w of n tons,
consstng of THE VOLUNTARY, THE CONVENTIONAL nd THE CUSTOMARY l w.
All of whch "proceed from the wll of n tons,--the VOLUNTARY from
ther presumed consent, the CONVENTIONAL from n express consent, nd
the CUSTOMARY from t ct consent: nd s there c n be no other mode of
deducng n l w from the wll of n tons, there re onl these three
knds of POSITIVE LAW OF NATIONS."--V ttel, Prelm. Sect. 27.
[60] See b. . ch. xx. sect. 2. of ths tre tse.
[61] See b. . ch. xx. sect. 7. _bd._
[62] But such c ptures c nnot be m de wthout uthort from the
soveregn.
[63] The tr nsl ton proceeds from the XV. to the XXIII. Secton of the
orgn l, the ntermed te Sectons beng onl confrm ton of the
precedng rguments b ex mples from ncent hstor.--TRANSLATOR.
[64] Our uthor here spe ks of thngs t ken n b ttle. For upon the
surrender of towns, n lmost ll rtcles of c ptul ton t s
stpul ted, th t the Gener l nd other superor offcers, nd the
offcers of regments sh ll preserve ther swords nd ther prv te
b gg ge, nd the noncommssoned offcers nd solders sh ll preserve
ther kn ps cks.
[65] "The end of such l w s to nm te solders nd prv teers to
pursue robbers nd pr tes, b the hopes of possessng thngs t ken
even from the subjects of the st te."--B rber c.
[66] The tenth Ch pter chefl cont nng rem rks th t h ve been
nterspersed n other p rts of the work, s omtted here.--TRANSLATOR.
[67] See b. . ch p. . sect. 9.

[68] See b. . ch. . of ths work.

[69] The tr nsl ton proceeds from the XIII. to the XV. Ch pter of the
orgn l.--TRANSLATOR.
[70] B. . ch. xv. sect. 7.
[71] "The dffcult of recognsng thngs of ths n ture, nd the
endless dsputes, whch would rse from the prosecuton of the owner's
cl ms to them, h ve been deemed motves of suffcent weght for the
est blshment of contr r pr ctce. It s therefore wth re son,
th t move bles or boot re excepted from the rght of postlmnum,
unless ret ken from the enem mmed tel fter hs c pture of them; n
whch c se the propretor nether fnds dffcult n recognsng hs
effects, nor s presumed to h ve relnqushed them."--V ttel b. .
ch. xv. sect. 209.
[72] B. . ch. x. sect. 9.
[73] The tr nsl ton proceeds from the xvth to the xxth ch pter of
the orgn l.--TRANSLATOR.
[74] Sectons VI, VII, VIII, IX nd X of the orgn l re omtted n
the tr nsl ton. (Tr nsl tor.)
[75] B. . ch. v. sect. 2.
[76] "The necesst of m kng pe ce uthorses the Soveregn to dspose
of the propert of ndvdu ls; nd the emnent domnon gves hm
rght to do t. Ever thng n the poltc l socet ought to tend to
the good of the communt; nd snce even the powers of the ctzens
re subject to ths rule, ther propert c nnot be excepted. The st te
could not subsst, or const ntl dmnster the publc ff rs n the
most dv nt geous m nner, f t h d not power to dspose occ son ll
of ll knds of propert."--V ttel, b. v. ch. . sect. 12. bd. b.
. ch. xx. sect. 244.
[77] "Some d m ges re done delber tel nd b w  of prec uton, s
when feld, house, or g rden, belongng to prv te person,
s t ken for the purpose of erectng on the spot tower, r mp rt,
or n other pece of fortfc ton,--or when hs st ndng corn,
or hs storehouses re destroed, to prevent ther beng of use to
the enem. Such d m ges re to be m de good to the ndvdu l, who
should be r onl hs quot of the loss. But there re other d m ges,
c used b nevt ble necesst, s for nst nce, the destructon
c used b the rtller n ret kng town from the enem. These re
merel ccdents, the re msfortunes, whch ch nce de ls out to the
propretors on whom the h ppen to f ll. The soveregn ought ndeed to
shew n equt ble reg rd for the sufferers, f the stu ton of hs
ff rs wll dmt of t: but no cton les g nst the st te for
msfortunes of ths n ture,--for losses, whch she h s occ soned, not
wlfull, but through necesst nd mere ccdent, n the exerton of
her rghts. The s me m  be s d of d m ges c used b the enem." V t.
b. . ch. xv. sect. 232.
[78] See b. . ch. xv. sect. 12.
[79] "Bec use then the condton of the contr ctng p rtes beng
unequ l, there s gre t re son to beleve, th t he, to whose

ds dv nt ge the nequ lt s, h s pretended to eng ge hmself s

lttle s possble: nd t w s the other's busness who w s to h ve
the beneft of t, to h ve the thng expl ned n s cle r m nner s
possble."--B rber c.
[80] Sectons XLII, XLIII, XLIV, & XLV, of the orgn l, rel tng
to decsons b lot nd sngle comb t, re omtted n the
tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.
[81] The XXIII Ch pter of the Orgn l, on Prv te F th n W r, s
omtted n the tr nsl ton.--TRANSLATOR.

Tr nscrbers' Notes:
Punctu ton nd hphen ton were m de consstent when predomn nt
preference w s found n ths book; otherwse the were not ch nged.
In p rtcul r, nconsstent punctu ton n Bblc l ct tons nd
omtted comm s or perods n sever l pl ces h ve not been remeded.
Ambguous hphens t the ends of lnes were ret ned.
Spellng w s m de consstent when predomn nt preference w s found
n ths book, or when some occurrences of word m tched modern us ge
whle other occurrences dd not; otherwse, ll v r tons were
ret ned. Words spelled dfferentl n quoted m ter l th n n the
prm r uthor's text were not ch nged.
Smple tpogr phc l errors were corrected; occ son l unb l nced
quot ton m rks remeded when un mbguous, nd otherwse ret ned.
These re noted below.
Sever l ch pters were omtted from the Englsh tr nsl ton of whch
ths s tr nscrpton. The re sons for ths re gven n the
footnotes.
The Index w s not checked for proper lph betz ton or correct p ge
references.
Footnotes, orgn ll t the bottom p ges, h ve been collected nd moved
to the end of ths eBook.
"Controul" s lw s spelled th t w  n the orgn l book.
"Commt" sometmes s used where modern pr ctce would use "commts".
Text uses both "sometmes" nd "some tmes", " nthng" nd " n thng".
The sgn tures on p ges x nd 17 were ctu l sgn tures.
Some footnotes reference Ch pters th t were omtted from ths tr nsl ton.
P ge 3: "Jugemens d' Olron" lkel s msprnt for "Jugements d'
Olron"; "S urez" m  be msprnt for "Su rez".
P ge 21: "" {dik im
} w s mispri
ed s ""
{dik m
} d h s bee ch ged here.

P ge 43: N
m
chig c
sig qu


i
 m rk f
ud f
r se
ece
begiig '"H
w c  kigs serve
he L
rd'.
P ge 55: N
m
chig c
sig qu


i
 m rk f
ud f
r c use begiig
'"wh
c  be d
e by m gis
r
e'.
P ge 59: N
m
chig c
sig qu


i
 m rk f
ud f
r se
ece
begiig '"F
r
h
ugh UNDER SOME'.
P ge 73: " " { h s
m}  s mis itd s
"" { h s
m}; h gd h .
P g 78: N
m thig
ig qu
t ti
 m k f
ud f
st dig
'h
m h himsf hdd iju y
dst uti
."'
P g 107: "i 
t 
tiu t
b s m iv " iky is missig "th".
P g 110: N
m thig 
sig qu
t ti
 m k f
ud f
 us bgiig
'"th t h 
ud st
'.
P g 193: "h t is qui d t
b d
 t "  s
t"; h gd h .

itd s "t
b


P g 217: "su-st"  s itd th t  y.

P g 218: "G
i h"  s

itd th t  y.

P g 249: "uiju d
d g d" m y b mis it f
"iju d".

P g 267: "" { 
 } w  mprn
ed  "" { 
 };
h nged here.
P ge 286: Tr nrer dded long quo

on m r

he end o
he
p r gr ph endng w
h 'or even mmnen
d nger.'
P ge 310:
he olon n "whh  n 
o ju
e: n
he nex
pl e"
w  poorly prn
ed, nd m y e e
her deren
pun
u
on m r or
ju
p e.
P ge 314:
he long quo

on m r n 'denomn
on o pr
e nd
roer." W
h' w  dded y
he Tr nrer.
P ge 321: Tr nrer dded omm n "y
h

, volun
rly"
e ue
here w  exe p e e
ween
he word, whh ugge
ed
mprn
.
P ge 378: "
o rem n neu
er" w  prn
ed
h
w y.
Foo
no
e 18: Tr nrer dded long quo

on m r

he end o

he oo
no
e.
Foo
no
e 19: Tr nrer dded long quo

on m r 
er 'my
negle
or reu l.'

End o Proje
Gu
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m wor  lul
ed ung
he me
hod
you lre dy ue
o  lul
e your ppl le
xe. The ee 
owed
o
he owner o
he Proje
Gu
energ-
m
r dem r, u
he
h  greed
o don
e roy l
e under
h p r gr ph
o
he
Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on. Roy l
y p ymen

mu
e p d w
hn 60 d y ollowng e h d
e on whh you
prep re (or re leg lly requred
o prep re) your perod
x
re
urn. Roy l
y p ymen
 hould e le rly m red  uh nd
en

o
he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on

he
ddre peed n Se
on 4, "Inorm
on ou
don
on
o

he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on."
- You provde ull reund o ny money p d y uer who no
e
you n wr
ng (or y e-m l) w
hn 30 d y o reep

h
/he
doe no
gree
o
he
erm o
he ull Proje
Gu
energ-
m
Lene. You mu
requre uh uer
o re
urn or

de
roy ll ope o
he wor poeed n phy l medum
nd don
nue ll ue o nd ll e
o o
her ope o
Proje
Gu
energ-
m wor.
- You provde, n ord ne w
h p r gr ph 1.F.3, ull reund o ny
money p d or wor or repl emen
opy,  dee
n
he
ele
ron wor  dovered nd repor
ed
o you w
hn 90 d y
o reep
o
he wor.
- You omply w
h ll o
her
erm o
h greemen
or ree
d
ru
on o Proje
Gu
energ-
m wor.
1.E.9. I you wh
o h rge ee or d
ru
e Proje
Gu
energ-
m
ele
ron wor or group o wor on deren

erm
h n re e

or
h n
h greemen
, you mu
o
n permon n wr
ng rom
o
h
he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on nd Mh el
H r
,
he owner o
he Proje
Gu
energ-
m
r dem r. Con


he
Found
on  e
or
h n Se
on 3 elow.
1.F.
1.F.1. Proje
Gu
energ volun
eer nd employee expend onder le
eor

o den
y, do opyrgh
ree rh on,
r nre nd proore d
pul dom n wor n re
ng
he Proje
Gu
energ-
m
olle
on. Dep
e
hee eor
, Proje
Gu
energ-
m ele
ron
wor, nd
he medum on whh
hey m y e 
ored, m y on
n
"Dee
," uh , u
no
lm
ed
o, nomple
e, n ur
e or
orrup
d
,
r nrp
on error, opyrgh
or o
her n
elle
u l
proper
y nrngemen
, dee
ve or d m ged d or o
her medum,
ompu
er vru, or ompu
er ode
h
d m ge or  nno
e re d y
your equpmen
.
1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Exep
or
he "Rgh

o Repl emen
or Reund" dered n p r gr ph 1.F.3,
he Proje

Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on,
he owner o
he Proje

Gu
energ-
m
r dem r, nd ny o
her p r
y d
ru
ng Proje

Gu
energ-
m ele
ron wor under
h greemen
, dl m ll
l l
y
o you or d m ge, o
 nd expene, nludng leg l
ee. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAE NO REMEDIES FOR NEGLIGENCE, STRICT
LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE
PROIDED IN PARAGRAPH 1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE
TRADEMARK OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL NOT BE
LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIE OR
INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EEN IF YOU GIE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH
DAMAGE.
1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - I you dover
dee
n
h ele
ron wor w
hn 90 d y o reevng 
, you  n
reeve reund o
he money ( ny) you p d or 
y endng
wr

en expl n
on
o
he peron you reeved
he wor rom. I you
reeved
he wor on phy l medum, you mu
re
urn
he medum w
h
your wr

en expl n
on. The peron or en

y
h
provded you w
h

he dee
ve wor m y ele

o provde repl emen
opy n leu o
reund. I you reeved
he wor ele
ron lly,
he peron or en

y
provdng 

o you m y hooe
o gve you eond oppor
un
y
o
reeve
he wor ele
ron lly n leu o reund. I
he eond opy
 lo dee
ve, you m y dem nd reund n wr
ng w
hou
ur
her
oppor
un
e
o x
he prolem.
1.F.4. Exep
or
he lm
ed rgh
o repl emen
or reund e
or
h

n p r gr ph 1.F.3,
h wor  provded
o you 'AS-IS', WITH NO OTHER
WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.
1.F.5. Some 

e do no
llow dl mer o er
n mpled
w rr n
e or
he exluon or lm

on o er
n
ype o d m ge.
I ny dl mer or lm

on e
or
h n
h greemen
vol
e
he
l w o
he 

e ppl le
o
h greemen
,
he greemen
h ll e
n
erpre
ed
o m e
he m xmum dl mer or lm

on perm

ed y

he ppl le 

e l w. The nv ld
y or unenore l
y o ny
provon o
h greemen
h ll no
vod
he rem nng provon.
1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You gree
o ndemny nd hold
he Found
on,
he

r dem r owner, ny gen

or employee o
he Found
on, nyone
provdng ope o Proje
Gu
energ-
m ele
ron wor n ord ne
w
h
h greemen
, nd ny volun
eer o
ed w
h
he produ
on,
promo
on nd d
ru
on o Proje
Gu
energ-
m ele
ron wor,
h rmle rom ll l l
y, o
 nd expene, nludng leg l ee,

h
re dre
ly or ndre
ly rom ny o
he ollowng whh you do
or  ue
o our: ( ) d
ru
on o
h or ny Proje
Gu
energ-
m
wor, () l
er
on, mod
on, or dd
on or dele
on
o ny
Proje
Gu
energ-
m wor, nd () ny Dee
you  ue.
Se
on 2. Inorm
on ou

he Mon o Proje
Gu
energ-
m
Proje
Gu
energ-
m  ynonymou w
h
he ree d
ru
on o
ele
ron wor n orm
 re d le y
he wde
v re
y o ompu
er
nludng oole
e, old, mddle- ged nd new ompu
er. I
ex

e ue o
he eor
 o hundred o volun
eer nd don
on rom
people n ll w l o le.

olun
eer nd n n l uppor

o provde volun
eer w
h
he

ne
hey need re r
 l
o re hng Proje
Gu
energ-
m'
go l nd enurng
h

he Proje
Gu
energ-
m olle
on wll
rem n reely v l le or gener
on
o ome. In 2001,
he Proje

Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on w  re
ed
o provde eure
nd perm nen
u
ure or Proje
Gu
energ-
m nd u
ure gener
on.
To le rn more ou

he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on
nd how your eor
 nd don
on  n help, ee Se
on 3 nd 4
nd
he Found
on norm
on p ge
www.gu
energ.org
Se
on 3. Inorm
on ou

he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve
Found
on
The Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry Arhve Found
on  non pro

501()(3) edu
on l orpor
on org nzed under
he l w o
he


e o Mpp nd gr n
ed
x exemp


u y
he In
ern l
Revenue Serve. The Found
on' EIN or eder l
x den

on
numer  64-6221541. Con
ru
on
o
he Proje
Gu
energ
L
er ry Arhve Found
on re
x dedu
le
o
he ull ex
en

perm

ed y U.S. eder l l w nd your 

e' l w.
The Found
on' prnp l oe  lo
ed
4557 Mel n Dr. S.
F r n, AK, 99712., u

 volun
eer nd employee re 

ered

hroughou
numerou lo
on. I
 une oe  lo
ed
809
Nor
h 1500 We
, S l
L e C
y, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Em l
on

ln nd up
o d
e on

norm
on  n e ound

he
Found
on' we 
e nd o l p ge
www.gu
energ.org/on


For dd
on l on

norm
on:
Dr. Gregory B. Newy
Che Exeu
ve nd Dre
or
gnewy@pgl .org
Se
on 4. Inorm
on ou
Don
on
o
he Proje
Gu
energ
L
er ry Arhve Found
on
Proje
Gu
energ-
m depend upon nd  nno
urvve w
hou
wde
pre d pul uppor
nd don
on
o  rry ou

 mon o
nre ng
he numer o pul dom n nd lened wor
h
 n e
reely d
ru
ed n m hne re d le orm ele y
he wde

rr y o equpmen
nludng ou
d
ed equpmen
. M ny m ll don
on
($1
o $5,000) re p r
ul rly mpor
n

o m n
nng
x exemp



u w
h
he IRS.
The Found
on  omm

ed
o omplyng w
h
he l w regul
ng
h r
e nd h r
le don
on n ll 50 

e o
he Un
ed
S

e. Compl ne requremen
 re no
unorm nd 

e
onder le eor
, muh p perwor nd m ny ee
o mee
nd eep up
w
h
hee requremen
. We do no
ol
don
on n lo
on
where we h ve no
reeved wr

en onrm
on o ompl ne. To
SEND DONATIONS or de
ermne
he 

u o ompl ne or ny
p r
ul r 

e v
www.gu
energ.org/don
e
Whle we  nno
nd do no
ol
on
ru
on rom 

e where we
h ve no
me

he ol

on requremen
, we now o no proh
on
g n
ep
ng unol
ed don
on rom donor n uh 

e who
ppro h u w
h oer
o don
e.
In
ern
on l don
on re gr
eully ep
ed, u
we  nno
m e
ny 

emen
 onernng
x
re
men
o don
on reeved rom
ou
de
he Un
ed S

e. U.S. l w lone w mp our m ll 
.
Ple e he
he Proje
Gu
energ We p ge or urren
don
on
me
hod nd ddree. Don
on re ep
ed n numer o o
her
w y nludng he, onlne p ymen
 nd red
 rd don
on.
To don
e, ple e v
: www.gu
energ.org/don
e
Se
on 5. Gener l Inorm
on Aou
Proje
Gu
energ-
m ele
ron
wor.
Proeor Mh el S. H r
w 
he orgn
or o
he Proje
Gu
energ-
m
onep
o lr ry o ele
ron wor
h
ould e reely h red
w
h nyone. For or
y ye r, he produed nd d
ru
ed Proje

Gu
energ-
m eBoo w
h only looe ne
wor o volun
eer uppor
.
Proje
Gu
energ-
m eBoo re o
en re
ed rom ever l prn
ed
ed
on, ll o whh re onrmed  Pul Dom n n
he U.S.
unle opyrgh
no
e  nluded. Thu, we do no
nee rly
eep eBoo n ompl ne w
h ny p r
ul r p per ed
on.
Mo
people 
r

our We 
e whh h 
he m n PG e rh  l
y:
www.gu
energ.org
Th We 
e nlude norm
on ou
Proje
Gu
energ-
m,
nludng how
o m e don
on
o
he Proje
Gu
energ L
er ry

Arhve Found
on, how
o help produe our new eBoo, nd how
o
ure
o our em l newle

er
o he r ou
new eBoo.