5.

Thermal Regulation & Exercise

THERMAL REGULATION AND EXERCISE

A. Mechanisms of Body Temperature Regulation

 Humans are homeothermic, meaning that they maintain a constant internal body
temperature, usually in the range of 36.1oC to 37.8oC (97.0oF – 100.0oF).

 Body temperature reflects the balance between heat production & heat loss.
Whenever this balance is disturbed, the body temperature changes.

 All metabolically active tissues produce heat that can be used to maintain the
internal temperature of the body. But if the body’s heat production exceeds its
heat loss, the internal temperature rises.

 The ability to maintain a constant internal temperature depends on the body ability
to balance the heat gain from metabolism & from the environment with the heat
that the body loses

Conduction
Metabolic heat +
Convection
+ +
Radiation
Environmental heat +
Evaporation

HEAT GAIN HEAT LOSS

The balance of body heat gain and loss

(at temperatures below 92°F)

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1. The Transfer of Body Heat

 Heat gain from tissue metabolic & environment.

 The body heat from deep in the body (the core) is moved by the blood to the skin
(the shell).

 Heat can be transferred to the environment by any of 4 mechanisms or avenues:

 Conduction – transfer of heat from one material to another through direct

molecular contact.

 Convection – transfer of heat from one place to another by the motion of a gas
or a liquid across the heated surface.

 Radiation – transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves; the primary

method for discharging the body’s excess heat at rest.

 Evaporation – transfer heat through the conversion of water (such as in sweat)

to vapor; the primary avenue for heat dissipation during exercise.

Control of heat loss

 Higher humidity decreases the capacity to lose heat by evaporation because the air
already contains many water molecules.

2. Control of Heat Exchange

 Internal body temperature when at rest is kept at approximately 37oC (99oF), but
during exercise can develop an internal temperature exceeding 40oC (104oF).

The Hypothalamus : The Thermostat

 The hypothalamus houses the thermoregulatory center. It acts like a thermostat –
monitoring the body temperature & accelerating heat loss or heat production as
needed.

 There are 2 sets of thermoreceptors provide & send temperature information to

the thermoregulatory center in the brain:

1. The peripheral receptors in the skin relay information about temperature of

the skin & the environment around it.
2. Central receptors in the hypothalamus transmit information about the
internal body temperature.
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Hypothermia Hyperthermia

Low body temperature High body temperature

Stimulates thermoreceptors Stimulates thermoreceptors

Impulses go to hypothalamus Impulses go to hypothalamus

Vasoconstriction Vasodilation
occurs in skin blood vessels occurs in skin blood vessels

So less heat is lost So more heat is lost

across the skin across the skin

Skeletal muscle are activated Sweat glands become more active

Causing Causing
Shivering & generates heat Evaporative heat loss

Body temperature increases Body temperature decreases

An overview of the role of the hypothalamus in controlling body temperature

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Effectors That Alter Body Temperature

 When body temperature fluctuates, the normal body temperature can usually be
restored/alter by the actions of 4 effectors:

1. Increased sweat gland activity decreases body temperature by

increasing evaporative heat loss.
2. Smooth muscle in the arterioles can dilate to direct blood to the
skin for heat transfer, or constrict to retain heat deep in the body.
3. Increased skeletal muscle activity will increases body temperature
by increasing metabolic heat production.
4. Metabolic heat production can be increased by the action of hormone
(endocrine glands) like thyroxine and catecholamines..

3. Assessing Mean Body Temperature

 Mean Body Temperature (Tbody) is a weighted average of skin temperature and

internal body temperature.

 Body heat content is the total amount of heat in kilocalories that it contains.

 Rate of Heat Exchange can be estimated form calculations of body heat content.
If Heat Content remains constant during a long period of exercise therefore
thermoregulatory system is efficient.

B. Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Heat

1. Cardiovascular Function

 Exercising in the hot environments set up a competition between the active

muscles & the skin for limited blood supply. The working muscles need blood & the
O2 it delivers to sustain activity; the skin needs blood to facilitate heat loss to keep
the body cool.

 To maintain constant cardiac output in this condition where stroke volume has
decreased, resulting in a gradual upward drift in HR. This is known as cardiovascular
drift.

 CV drift = An increased in HR during exercise to compensate for a

decrease in SV. This compensation helps to maintain a constant cardiac
output.
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2. Energy Production

 Exercise in the heat also increases O2 uptake, therefore increase glycogen use
by working muscle & produce more lactate. Thus exercise in the heat can cause
glycogen depletion and increase muscle lactate, thus leads to fatigue & exhaustion.

 Hot environment places greater stress on CV system, which raises the HR & also
increased sweat production and respiration demand more energy, which requires a
higher O2 uptake.

3. Body Fluid Balance: Sweating

 Exercise in the heat increases sweating & this can quickly lead to dehydration and
electrolyte loss. To compensate, the release of aldosterone & ADH increases,
causing sodium & water retention, this can expand the plasma volume.

C. Health Risks During Exercise in the Heat

 Heat stress involves more than just the air temperature.

 In observing the total physiological stress imposed on the body during exercising in
a hot environment. At least 4 variables must be taken into account:

1. Air temperature
2. Humidity
3. Air velocity
4. The amount of radiation.

1. Measuring Heat Stress

 Wet Bulb Globe Temperature (WBGT) most accurate means to measure heat
stress.

 WBGT = A system that simultaneously accounts for conduction, convection,

evaporation, & radiation, providing a single temperature reading to estimate the
cooling capacity of surrounding environment. This apparatus consists of dry bulb, a
wet bulb, & a black globe.

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2. Heat-Related Disorders

a. Heat cramps
• Severe cramping of skeletal muscles that are most heavily used during exercise.

• Probably caused by losses of fluids and minerals results from excessive

sweating.

b. Heat exhaustion
• Rise of body temperature, extreme fatigue, breathlessness, hypotension,
and a weak, rapid pulse results from the inability of the CV system to
adequately meet the needs of the active muscles and skin.

• Result from the inability of the CV system to adequately meet the needs of
the active muscle & skin. It is brought on by a reduced blood volume, typically
caused by excessive loss of fluids and minerals through prolonged heavy
sweating.

• Though it is not in itself life-threatening, it can deteriorate to heat stroke

if untreated.

c. Heat stroke
• Rise in internal body temperature to values exceeding 40oC, rapid pulse &
respiration, cessation of sweating, hot & dry skin, hypertension, and total
confusion and unconsciousness caused by failure of the body’s
thermoregulatory mechanisms.

• If untreated it will progress and be fatal (death).

Prevention of Hyperthermia
 Several precautions must be taken when planning to exercise in the heat.

a. Cancel training or event if WBGT > 28°C (82.4°F).

b. Wear proper clothing.
c. Be alert to the signs of hyperthermia.
d. Ensure adequate fluid intake.

* When exercising in the heat, if the body suddenly fell chilled & goose bumps form
on the skin, stop exercising, get into a cool environment, & drink plenty of cool
fluids. The body’s thermoregulation system has become confused & thinks that

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body temperature needs to increase even more! If left untreated, this condition
can lead to heat stroke & death.
D. Acclimatization to Exercise in the Heat

 Acclimatization – natural adaptation to an environmental stress.

1. How can we prepare for prolonged activity in the heat?

2. Does training in the heat make us more tolerant of thermal stress?

 Repeated exercise in the heat causes a gradual adjustment that enables us to perform
better in the hot conditions.

Heat acclimatization

 Heat acclimatization is an adaptation of gradual improvement in ability to eliminate

excess body heat during repeated exposure to heat stress (prolonged exercise bouts in
the hot environment).

 Results in many adjustments in sweating & blood flow.

1. Effects of Heat Acclimatization

a. Increase sweat rate

• Therefore, increase heat loss through evaporation, hence reduces skin
temperature, increasing the thermal gradient from the internal to the external
body, promoting heat loss.

b. Sweat is more diluted

• Therefore, electrolytes are conserved and body is losing mainly water which can be
easily replaced.

c. SV increases
• Therefore, increases blood flow and aids the delivery of more blood to the active
or working muscles and skin when necessary.

d. Reduces the rate of muscle glycogen use for energy

• Therefore, more glycogen reserves and less lactate production, hence delaying the
onset of fatigue.

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2. Achieving Heat Acclimatization

 Heat acclimatization requires exercise in a hot environment, not merely exposure

to heat.

 Amount of heat acclimatization depends on :-

a) Environmental conditions during each exercise session.
b) Duration of heat exposure.
c) Rate of internal heat production.

* You can adapt to heat by exercising in the heat for up to an hour or more each day
for 5 – 10 days. Cardiovascular changes generally occur in the first 3 – 5 days, but
changes in the sweating mechanisms generally take much longer, up to 10 days.

E. Exercise in the Cold

 Cold stress = any environmental condition that causes a loss of body heat that
threatens homeostasis.

 Hypothalamus has a temperature set point of 37oC.

 A decrease in either skin or blood temperature provides feedback to the

thermoregulatory center (hypothalamus) to activate the mechanisms that will
conserve body heat & increase heat production.

 This primary means by which the body to avoid excessive cooling:

a) Shivering
The involuntary muscle contractions increase metabolic heat production to help
the body maintain or increase temperature.

b) Nonshivering thermogenesis
Involves stimulation of metabolism by the sympathetic nervous system & by the
action of hormone thyroxine & catecholamines. Increasing the metabolic rate
increases the amount of internal heat production.

c) Peripheral vasoconstriction
Occurs as a result of sympathetic stimulation to smooth muscle surrounding the
arterioles, which constricts the arterioles & reduces the blood flow to the skin
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& prevents transfer of core heat to the skin, thus decreasing unnecessary heat
loss to the environment.
1. Factors Affecting Body Heat Loss

a) Body size and composition

Body size is an important consideration for heat loss. Both increased surface area &
reduced subcutaneous fat facilitate the loss of body heat to the environment. So
those who have a small surface-area-to-body-mass ratio & those with more fat are
less susceptible to hypothermia.

b) Windchill
Wind increases heat loss by convection and conduction, so this effect, know as
windchill, must be considered along with air temperature during cold exposure.

2. Heat Loss in Cold Water

 Immersion in cold water tremendously increases heat loss through conduction.

Exercise generates metabolic heat to offset some of this loss.

F. Physiological Responses to Exercise in the Cold

1. Muscle Function
When muscle is cooled, it is weak, & fatigue occurs more rapidly.

2. Metabolic Responses
During prolonged exercise in the cold, as energy supplies diminish & exercise intensity
declines, a person become increasingly susceptible to hypothermia.

Exercise triggers release of catecholamines, which increase the mobilization & use of
free fatty acids for fuel. But in the cold, vasoconstriction impairs circulation to the
subcutaneous fat tissue, so this process is attenuated.

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G. Health Risks During Exercise in the Cold

 Hypothalamus begins to lose its ability to regulate body temperature if that

temperature drops below 34.5oC (94.1oF)

1. Hypothermia
 The Heart’s SA node is primarily affected by hypothermia, causing HR to drop,
which in turn reduces cardiac output.

 Breathing cold air does not freeze the respiratory passages or the lungs.

 Exposure to extreme cold does decreases respiratory rate and volume.

2. Frostbite
 Occurs as a consequence of the body’s attempts to prevent heat loss.

 Vasoconstriction to the skin causes reduces blood flow, so the skin cools rapidly.
This, combined with the lack of oxygen & nutrients, causes the skin tissues to die.

H. Cold acclimatization

 Repeated exposure to cold alters peripheral blood flow and

skin temperatures, allowing greater cold tolerance.

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