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Water Qual Expo Health (2010) 2: 7584

DOI 10.1007/s12403-010-0025-4

The Causes and the Control of Selective Pollution of Shallow Wells


by Coliform Bacteria, Imo River Basin Nigeria
Michael A. Nwachukwu Huan Feng
Maureen I. Amadi Felicia U. Umunna

Received: 20 January 2010 / Revised: 29 March 2010 / Accepted: 30 March 2010 / Published online: 28 April 2010
US Government 2010

Abstract The variability of water quality due to fecal coliform bacteria among shallow wells (3767 m deep) in Aba
northwest and Owerri west flank of the Imo River basin
Nigeria surpassed surface explanation. This is because the
communities have similar human and animal waste disposing habit. Analytical results show that six out of ten
wells (60%) have 4070FC/100 ml of water exceeding the
10FC/100 ml of water allowable by the world health organization (WHO). The pollution is attributed predominantly to
the absence of toilet facilities in automobile mechanic villages, and transit grazing of cattle in the area. Uphole refraction and vertical electric sounding revealed presence of
highly weathered topsoil to an average depth (18 m), often
with gravel bed. Water table is 1621 m, fluctuating below
and above the weathered base. Results implicate the coliform polluted shallow wells as those located in areas where
water table (WT) is above weathered base and coincides
with the base of khaki colored gravel bed. As a result,
safe depth of shallow wells is obtained as: WT + 48 m at locations were weathered base is above WT, and WT + 66 m
at locations were weathered base is below WT, for a total
cased depth ranging from 60 m (200 ft) to 85.4 m (280 ft). In
the absence of adequate treatment, the polluted wells may be
closed. Auto mechanic villages without toilet facilities, transit grazing near streams and residential areas, poorly constructed septic tanks may be prohibited by law, and the pracM.A. Nwachukwu () H. Feng
Dept. of Earth & Environ Studies, Montclair State University,
Montclair, NJ, USA
e-mail: nwachukwum1@mail.montclair.edu
M.I. Amadi F.U. Umunna
Dept. of Geoscience, Federal University of Tech. Owerri, Owerri,
Nigeria

tice of mechanic villages concept must be environmentally


friendly to be sustainable.
Keywords Fecal coliform Mechanic villages Cattle
grazing Weathered base Geophysics
1 Introduction
This study is motivated by the total absence of toilet facilities in automobile mechanic villages in the basin, all of
which could record well over one thousand human populations daily, six days a week. Human excreta litter all around
the mechanic villages, making mechanic village a major
continuous point source of fecal coliform to the water environment.
Coliform bacteria drained from mechanic village sites
may be combined with drains from cattle grazing sites,
pit toilets, household soak-away and septic pits, sewage
and municipal solid waste dumps, and travels with diseaseproducing microorganisms to surface and groundwater simultaneously. This is enhanced by the heavy rainfall of the
tropical rain forest belt and the characteristic sandy soil of
the area. The study area is located in the southwest flank of
the lower Imo River basin. The flank stretches into the Niger
delta which discharges into the Atlantic Ocean (Fig. 1).
Groundwater production from the water table aquifer of
the sandy Benin Formation (coastal plain sand) in the Owerri west and Aba northwest areas (Fig. 2a and b) could be
prolific at shallow depths, making hand-driven shallow private/commercial wells (3755 m) a major source of domestic water in the areas. Water saturation in the formation increases southwards to the delta, with water table depth often coinciding with the depth of weathering (Nwachukwu
2003). The basin is situated in the tropical rain forest belt
of West Africa, where annual rainfall ranges from about

76

1700 mm to 2500 mm, annual temperature varies from


27 to 36 C, and static water level fluctuates between 15.8
and 20.5 m (Onyeagocha 1980). Rising population, lack
of public water supply, improvement in local technology
and household economy, and the ability to strike water at
near-surface depths have resulted in proliferation of shallow
hand-driven private and commercial water wells in the flank.
This study aims at providing explanation to the parity of water quality among shallow wells in the two locations due to
coliform bacteria. Furthermore, the study establishes safe
depth and a well design, as a guide to prospective shallow
well developers in the area.
Several reports and cases of water quality disparity
among shallow wells due to odor also motivated this study.
In some cases, two adjacent wells less than 500 m apart,
of same depth, and similarly constructed with same material quality register parity in their water quality. Whereas
well A produces water that has odor, well B has no odor,
and producing water of drinkable quality, a few household
private and commercial well owners affected raised alarm
over the parity. They argued why their well could be polluted whereas a nearby well of the same standard was not,
and they demanded explanation. Well identified with odor
is quickly abandoned by the neighborhood and the owner
surfers great loss particularly if the water well was planned
Fig. 1 Map of Nigeria showing
the Imo River basin

Fig. 2 Study areas (a) map of


Aba northwest (b) Owerri west,
showing well locations/VES
stations (110)

M.A. Nwachukwu et al.

for commercial purpose. Notwithstanding, some helpless individuals could still collect water from the polluted well
for other domestic purposes, increasing room for waterrelated diseases. For small private/commercial wells such
as the wells under the investigation, the world health organization (WHO) suggests that a zero E. coli count and not
more than 10 coliforms per 100 ml is appropriate (Feachem
et al. 1977). The zero E. coli count standard by WHO is
attainable, but appears too high for general applicability in
tropical developing countries.
In the groundwater zone, a hydraulic conductivity of 20
26.41 m/day, and transmissivity of 5001370 m2 /day were
obtained in the area (Ekwe et al. 2006). Effects of exposure to contaminated domestic water sources may be gradual, making people often to overlook both the immediate and
the future consequences. Jha (2007) stated as follows: Human excreta are the cause of many enteric diseases such as
cholera, dysentery, typhoid, paratyphoid, infectious hepatitis, diarrhea etc. Food poisoning, eye, ear, nose and throat
infections can also result from exposure to such contaminated water. It was observed that in rural areas, 80% of diseases are borne of human excreta, and that safe disposal
of human waste is most important to improve community
health and quality of life. Mechanic villages and location
sites for selected trade groups and artisans over a government environmental action lack toilet facilities in the study
area. As a result, human excreta litters around the sites, degrading the environment. The most alarming is the total absence of toilet facilities in mechanic villages, whereas each
of these mechanic villages could record over one thousand
human population daily, except on Sundays. As a result,
shallow wells sited in the vicinity of mechanic villages and
essentially in the direction of drainage are most vulnerable

The Causes and the Control of Selective Pollution of Shallow Wells by Coliform Bacteria, Imo River Basin

to fecal coliform pollution. Environmentally friendly automobile mechanic village concept is being introduced as a
21st century strategy to improve local and global environmental quality in developing countries (Nwachukwu et al.
2010b).
Njemanze et al. (1999) attributed the high rate of diarrhea in the study area to lack of potable water at different
communities.They indicated a total of 11,537 cases of diarrhea to have been reported in 1999, whereas about half
of this number may not have been reported, due to lack of
records. The number of deaths due to this and the effects on
household economy are yet to be determined (Nwachukwu
2008). The Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources,
Bureau of Drinking Water and Groundwater (2005) recommended that well water should be at least tested annually,
preferably at the end of rain season, and whenever a well is
serviced, including change of submersible pump. Well water should be tested also whenever a change in taste, odor
or color is noticed. The publication contained that several
strains of bacteria can survive a long time and find their way
into the groundwater, moving through coarse soils, such as
the coastal plain sand of the study area. Properly located and
constructed water wells should be free of coliform bacteria.
Presence of coliform, which may not cause serious health
problem on its own, indicates that the well is at risk to more
serious forms of contamination. For example, presence of E.
coli (fecal contamination) will indicate a more serious health
problem.
A number of recent studies are on record concerned
with coliform pollution of shallow wells in different parts
of Nigeria, such as: Adekunle et al. (2007), Olabisi et al.
(2008), Adekunle and Eniola (2008), and Ejechi and Ejechi
(2007), and Ajayi et al. (2008), etc. As important as these
studies are in revealing the health dangers associated with
coliform bacteria, hidden in shallow hand-dug or driven
wells proliferated in different parts of the country, none of
the papers confronted the issue through well design based
on prevailing surface and subsurface environmental scenarios. This paper approaches the issue of coliform pollution
of shallow wells through a practical method of environmental problem solving, by integrating surface and subsurface
investigation results to produce a pollution control shallowwell model design that may be widely applicable in domestic shallow-water well development.
According to Foster and Hirata (1988), assessment of
groundwater pollution potential in a given drinking water
catchments area could be based on certain hazard conditions such as high density of poorly sealed latrines on a shallow aquifer, to highly complex urban and industrial scenarios with diverse human activities followed by indiscriminate
waste dumping, in which the key sources of pollution are
difficult to identify. The difficulty in identification of causes
of water quality variation in this case was not due to complex

77

urban and industrial structure but rather to a combination of


surface and subsurface environmental conditions. Sampling
30 private untreated water wells, Gonzales (2008) tested
for total coliform bacteria in the Estes Park Valley. Water
wells were classified into three categories for well depth:
(<99 ft [30.2 m], 100199 ft [30.560.7 m], and >200 ft
[61 m]), and for wellhead protection (poor, fair, and good).
Results indicated that 71% of the wells less than 199 ft
(60.7 m) tested positive for total coliform ( 2 = 15.559,
p < 0.0001). Also, 71% of wells classified as having poor
and fair wellhead protection tested positive for total coliform
( 2 = 13.084, p = 0.001). This study determined that wellhead protection and well depth do play a role in bacterial
contamination of water wells. Presence of coliform bacteria is common in shallow wells, particularly those located
in congested urban residential areas of the Imo River Basin
and where water table is near surface. Many of the private
hand-driven wells in the study area (120180 ft) have their
wellheads not properly protected.
The most contaminated wells are usually the shallow
hand-dug rather than drilled, and having poor casing material (Comely 1987). Incidentally, all the wells sampled in this
study (Fig. 2) are shallow hand-driven, and some of them
are constructed with inferior casings. The greatest problem
of manual drilling is the impunity at which the operators declare the drilling terminated as soon as the crew penetrates
the water table, or run out of energy. Usually, efforts of the
crew to penetrate deeper horizon in the aquifer is marred by
side wall collapse, and backfilling, due to increasing water
saturation, which easily reduces the viscosity and strength
of drilling mud to hold the walls. At this point, lifting of
well cuttings becomes increasingly difficult due to the low
capacity of the adaptable mud pumps. This may cause pipe
stock, a drilling trouble dreaded by all drillers. This drilling
method will hardly penetrate 60 m, yet the drillers could
promise greater depths up to 90 m to secure the drilling contract and to deliver shallow wells of depths ranging from
46 to 55 m only, thereby creating room for human exposure
to waterborne pathogens. Human activities generally represent the primary sources of water pollution, but characteristic texture, lithology, and subsurface complexity are the secondary factors that enhance the pollution process, making
pollution studies a matter for both surface and subsurface
investigations.

2 Methods of Investigation
Preliminary information on the incidents of water- and
environment-related diseases in the area was obtained from
direct interviews with community members. A good number of community members between eighteen and twentyfour were interviewed in each of the communities during the

78

M.A. Nwachukwu et al.

fieldwork. The more outreaching and curious community


members assembled at our base stations to understand what
was going on. The people lamented frequent diarrhea and
typhoid fever among children as a threat to their health and
household economy, and they pleaded for solution. Some
have ranked typhoid fever as more dreaded than the traditional prevalent malaria, and described a serious attack by
a combination of malaria and typhoid fever as an overnight
killer of younger children in the area. Ibiebele and Sokari
(1989), Lateef and Gueguimkana (2005) etc. have reported
levels of drug-resistant bacteria in well water. According to
Ibiebele and Sokari (1989), out of 300 strains of bacteria isolated from shallow well water around Port-Harcourt, close to
the study area, about 77.3% were resistant to two or more of
the common antibiotics. In this study, water samples were
analyzed using HACH spectrophotometer test kit with tryptose broth and MUG reagent within 24 hours of sampling.
Sampling was difficult in the absence of a single public monitoring well in the whole of the study area, as the well owners were not willing to comply with the demand. It became
necessary to establish understanding with the well owners
through several meetings with assurances of well security
and result privacy. As a result, we spent longer time on water
sampling. We waited for whenever the complying well owners will pump the well in the daytime, for sample collection
from the waste discharge valve. Our sampled well(s) in each
community therefore depended on which well owner(s) accepted our request.
A reconnaissance survey of the area showed similar surface environmental conditions, similar human activities and
waste disposal methods or living habits (Fig. 2), making
the causes of coliform count variability difficult to identify
by surface evaluation. This situation compelled a subsurface investigation of the causes of the parity, which involved
the application of two geophysical methods. We used uphole refraction data across the area (Table 1) originally obtained from Chevron Nigeria by Nwachukwu (2003), and

conducted single point VES at each of the selected well locations with which we mapped the depth of weathering, depth
to water table, and the underlying lithology. We integrated
water analysis results with the geophysical results, in order
to understand the subsurface scenario for the coliform pollution parity in nearby wells along the flank. We then analyzed
the results to produce a safe design of shallow wells that will
be most appropriate in the area based on the interactions of
lithology, the water table and the weathered depths.
An uphole seismic refraction aims at determining the
depth or thickness of the weathered layer for compensation
or correction during processing of seismic data particularly
in petroleum exploration. It is useful in making decisions
on drilled and charge depths during any seismic field operation, applicable also in engineering site investigation. For
literature demonstrating the field techniques of vertical electric sounding (VES) and uphole seismic refraction, we refer
the readers to Dobrin and Savit (1988) and Telford et al.
(1990). The apparent resistivity (/m) at each measurement
point was computed by multiplying the field resistance by
a geometric factor equations ((1) and (2)). In the VES, L is
the current electrode spread (m), and l is the potential electrode spread (m). The apparent resistivity values were then
applied in an automated Schlumberger analysis to obtain the
VES curves, with number of layers constrained to the model
curve. VES traverses were run east to west, in the direction
of regional strike.
Apparent resistivity a = K R (/m),
where K = geometric factor; R = field resistance.
Equation (1) can be expressed as follows:


(L/2)2 (l/2)2
a =
R.
l

(1)

(2)

A total of ten VES, one at each well site were conducted.


All necessary precautions for VES measurement were duly

Table 1 Uphole refraction data between Orji and Nekede, amended from Nwachukwu (2003)
Uphole

V1 (m/s)

V2 (m/s)

V3 (m/s)

18.4

260.9

670.89

1888.8

27.0

18.8

347.3

657.6

1856.4

27.0

18.1

318.2

658.9

1956.9

14.1

28.0

20.3

402

654

1739.7

20

32.0

19.8

328.6

654.5

1948.7

D1

D2

D3

Z1

Z2

Z3

T1

T2

T3

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m)

(m/s)

(m/s)

(m/s)

1.2

5.4

18.3

5.7

11.6

16.5

26.4

25.3

4.7

18.3

5.9

13

16.6

20.0

0.76

5.8

18.3

12

17.1

18.1

0.83

5.46

18.3

4.85

12.8

17

0.76

6.7

18.3

5.9

14.2

20.34

0.83

7.2

18.3

5.7

13

19.33

19.4

28.6

19.5

335.4

705.1

1928.7

1.2

6.3

18.3

5.8

11.13

16.25

15.6

26.0

17.8

449.4

670.7

1945.5

1.5

6.13

18.3

5.9

15

19.63

18

30.0

21.2

500

705.5

1789.2

1.2

4.9

18.3

4.7

12

19

12.6

25.1

20.3

469.1

674

1833.3

10

1.46

7.4

18.3

5.6

13

19.33

14.6

30.3

19.3

484.9

673.6

1945.6

The Causes and the Control of Selective Pollution of Shallow Wells by Coliform Bacteria, Imo River Basin

79

considered for perfect selection of VES stations. Uphole velocity (V ) (3), and intercept time (Ti ) (4) were both important in the data processing. The two parameters can be obtained as follows:
V = (D + Z)/T ,
Ti =

2Dw {(Vb )2 (Vw )2 }1/2


Vb Vw

(3)
(4)

where Vw is the weathered layer velocity, Dw is the depth


of weathered layer (low velocity layer), Vb is the bedrock
velocity (Enikanselu 2008), D is the uphole distance from
surface to the shot point, Z is the wave travel distance inclined to the receiver (m), so that D + Z is the total distance
of wave propagation, and T is the arrival time in milliseconds (ms).
The weathered depth is characterized by low velocity
(Telford et al. 1990) which can be used to estimate porosity,
as a factor of contaminant transport in a suspected environment. Porosity is an important factor for determining rock
velocity, and relationships have been developed between the
porosity of a rock and its seismic velocity. According to the
U.S. Department of Transport (2004), specific transit time
of a seismic wave can be shown as
t = tf + (1 )tm

(5)

where = porosity; t = specific transit time (slowness);


tf and tm = specific transit times of the pore fluid and
rock matrix respectively.
In order to understand the characteristics of the topsoil
regarding transport of coliform bacteria from surface to the
groundwater zone, we collected replicate soil samples at the
VES stations to obtain two composite samples. We then determined the particle size distribution, clay-silt content, pH,
moisture content, and bulk density based on the two composite samples, each representing the Aba and the Owerri
research zones. In the field, we measured infiltration rate applying the American standard test methods (ASTM D33852009) for infiltration rate of soils in the field with a doublering infiltrometer. Particle size distribution was determined
through wet and dry sieving, and then classified according
to the scheme described by Falk and Ward (1957), and as
used by Nwachukwu (2004).

3 Results and Discussion


The analysis indicates that about six out of the ten of shallow
wells investigated have coliform counts in excess of WHO
10CF/100 ml standard, giving the understanding that about
60% of shallow wells in the area are polluted by fecal coliform (Fig. 3). Users of these wells can be described as ignorant of the water quality because the well owners do not test

Fig. 3 Water analysis results showing level of faecal coliform count in


100 ml of well water. Explanation of horizontal axis: 1Umude (A),
2Umuehilgbu (A), 3Ibuzo Ihiagwa (O), 4Amorji Oforola (O),
5Comm. School Oforola (O), 6Umule (A), 7Umucham (A),
8Ariaria Market (A), 9Ezenwagbara Palace (A), 10Ariaria
Road (A), where A = Aba area O = Owerri area

the water, and there is no regulation enforcing such on the


private/commercial well. The results of seismic refraction
data show first break of seismic signals with depths of 0.55
1.5 m, representing the top soil. This is illustrated with sample curves (Fig. 4a and c). This was followed by an inflection point at depths 1.48.14 m, discriminating a weathered
layer of silty sand. A final break approximately at an average of 18.5 m represented the weathered base, consisting of
sand, or sand/gravel bed. This layer was not terminated, but
the weathered base provided a seismic break that differentiated the weathered profile from the rest of the layer. The
presence of gravel bed at any location was assumed to enhance transport of the coliform bacteria to the groundwater
zone, making shallow wells in the area more vulnerable to
the characteristic odor of coliform pollution. The weathered
profile with gravel bed is therefore assumed to be most implicated in the groundwater pollution by coliform and trace
metals from mechanic villages in the basin area.
Crane and Moore (1984) highlighted two major factors
affecting bacteria migration through soil as (1) soil factors:
particle size distribution, structure, clay content, pore size
distribution and moisture regime, and (2) biological factors
responsible for bacterial die-off including pH, temperature,
moisture content, and nutrient supply. Particle size analysis
of two composite samples derived from three replicate samples collected from each of the two areas of the flank show
grain size ranging from 0.0625 to 2.0 mm, most predominant in the range of 0.4250.6 mm, with median 0.425 mm
size up to 27% of sample weight for depth 020 cm, and
17% of sample weight for depth 90100 cm layer. Bulk density of the soil averaged 1.85 of soil layer 020 cm, and 1.81
for soil layer 90100 cm. An average clay-silt content of
20% was obtained for the soil, indicating greater potentials

80

M.A. Nwachukwu et al.

Fig. 4 (a) Time-depth curve


sample uphole number 1 (m),
(b) 3-layer model of the
weathered profile,
(c) time-depth curve sample
uphole number 2 (ft)

Fig. 5 Sampled VES curves.


(a) Coliform polluted site
(gravel bed in layer 2),
(b) unpolluted site (gravel bed
in layer 3)

Table 2 Results of VES at well locations where well water has coliform pollution
VES

Umude

layers

/m

Ihiagwa
Depth

/m

(m)

Umucham
Depth

/m

(m)

Ariaria mkt.

Depth

/m

(m)

Oforola Amorji

Depth

/m

(m)

Depth

Oforola Sec Sch


/m

(m)

Depth
(m)

Topsoil

1286

8.6

1040

7.0

1261

6.7

1170

5.6

1040

6.2

1176

6.8

Sand/Gravel

3680

23.5

3020

22.4

3780

18.0

3520

24.0

3462

20.6

3100

22.3

Sand (FSUP)

720

86.3

683

84.0

709

80.4

687.5

80.8

1140

79.1

1080

76.0

Sand (HSLP)

1760

118.6

1800

106.0

1690

112.6

2130

102.5

2086

132.4

2340

123.6

Sandy-clay

Wd = 52 m

Wd = 50 m

Wd = 51.5 m

Wd = 52.4 m

Wd = 49 m

Wd = 51 m

FSUP (fairly saturated upper prospect)


HSLP (highly saturated lower prospect)
Wd (well depth)

for high infiltration rates (1823 cm/h). Generally, the topsoil has a mean pH of 4.3 and a moisture range of 2070%,
while nutrient loading of the environment remained continuous. The above measured values are supportive of rapid migration of bacterial in the soil profile that may cause instant
pollution of shallow wells.
The VES data processing presented three characteristic
type curves: K-type (1 < 2 > 3), H-type (1 > 2 <
3), and a combination of K and H (HK or KH) type curves
(Fig. 5). VES results were similar at the six sites (Table 2) indicating that all the wells were recharged by the near-surface
fairly saturated upper prospect (FSUP) which has average

depth of 80 m. This near-surface aquifer is unconfined and


followed by a sequence of highly saturated sand unit. The
high porosity, infiltration rate, and general characteristics of
the weathered overburden enhance the transport of coliform
bacteria to the shallow wells. VES results showed that locations with coliform polluted wells (Table 2) have gravel bed
in the second layer, above the weathered base, which local
drillers and miners confirmed, and described the gravel as
khaki colored gravel. Locations with no pollution of coliform in their well water (Table 3) have no gravel bed above
the weathered base, rather in the third layer, much below
the weathered base, and the water table (Fig. 4). Drillers

The Causes and the Control of Selective Pollution of Shallow Wells by Coliform Bacteria, Imo River Basin

81

Table 3 Results of VES at well locations where well water has no coliform pollution
VES

Umuehilgbu

layers

/m

Umule
Depth (m)

/m

Ariaria Road
Depth (m)

/m

Ezenwagbara
Depth (m)

/m

Depth (m)

Topsoil

840

9.7

780

8.0

894

6.1

902

6.8

Silty sand

740

27.0

818

37.1

1087

26.0

1086

24.6

Sand/Gravel

2670

67.0

2844

66.0

2410

64.4

3045

62.6

Sand (FSUP)

1210

84.3

987

85.4

1109

80.5

1242

86.5

Sand (HSLP)

1480

122.4

1420

104.0

1611

118.3

1571

120.5

Sandy-clay base

Wd = 52.4 m

Wd = 52 m

Wd = 51.2 m

Wd = 53.4 m

FSUP (fairly saturated upper prospect)


HSLP (highly saturated lower prospect)
Wd (well depth)
Fig. 6 Subsurface model:
conditions for water quality
variation in the study area

log confirmed this gravel bed and described the gravel as


white colored gravel.
High counts of coliform are primarily attributed to poor
sanitation with respect to human and animal excrements that
litter. It is attributed to the use of pit toilets, and transit grazing of cattle in the area. The case of Ariaria market is obvious; market wastes litter, with waste dumps that contain human and animal excrement at several corners of the Ariaria
market (Fig. 2a). Animal, human and other decomposable
wastes in the dump are easily dispersed by rain, followed
by fast infiltration into the subsurface. Coliform pollution of
surface and groundwater through this process has been well
documented. Mallin et al. (1997) stated that sewage disposal
onto soil initiates solute and microbe movement that follows
natural groundwater drainage patterns and may contaminate
groundwater. The above illustration explains why many water wells in the study area may become polluted.
VES curve (Fig. 5a) has gravel bed occurred in the 2nd
layer within the weathered profile, which coincides with the
water table, thereby enhanced transport of coliform bacteria
in the shallow aquifer that recharge the shallow wells. VES
curve 5b, has gravel bed occurred in the 3rd layer, below the

weathered base and water table, and no coliform pollution.


The explanation is as follows: Analysis of uphole and VES
results shows that all the polluted wells are those with total cased depths less than 50 m from the base of weathering
and penetrated a khaki colored gravel bed (Fig. 6). The
dirty colored gravel bed enhanced vertical transport of coliform bacteria by increasing percolation into the recharge
area of nearby wells. Water table (WT) may be higher or
lower than the weathered base, but frequently coincides with
the base of gravel bed. This fluctuation controls the pollution
of shallow wells by coliform bacteria in the southern flank of
the lower Imo River basin. In the uncontaminated well locations, WT occurs below the weathered base and no presence
of gravel bed in the weathered layer. Both wells have 1.5 hp
pumps that have limited cone of influence during pumping.
The nearest wells were not less than 400 m apart. This was
found to be highly pronounced in the area where WT coincides with the base of the gravel bed. Hand-driven shallow
wells in this area may be predominantly at risk, depending
on their depth from the configuration of water table, depth
of weathering and occurrence of gravel beds.
Virtually all the wells are drilled based on depth information of some other well. Most often the information of

82

depth which is satisfactory for well 1 in community A may


not be satisfactory for well 2 about 500 m away. Whereas
poor waste management and environmental condition as earlier discussed still remain the physical factors, water table
(WT) and weathered depth variations are the remote factors of water quality variation in the water table aquifer of
the study area. As a result, a safe depth of shallow wells
is suggested as: WT + 48 m at locations were weathered
base is above WT and a whitish gravel bed underlying, and
WT + 66 m at locations were the weathered base is below
WT and a khaki gravel bed overlying. The 18 m difference
is the average depth of weathering. Pre-drilling VES is necessary in order to confirm the presence or absence of the coliform transporter gravel bed, or drillers must target a recoverable total drill depth of 87 m. This represents a safe depth
range of 6087 m, in addition to cementation of well annulus 50100% of weathered depth during completion. This
will provide a minimum total cased depth of 60 m (200 ft),
and maximum of 85.4 m (280 ft) for a standard shallow well
in the area.

4 Conclusions and Recommendations


Human establishments such as mechanic villages, the use of
household septic tanks and soak-away pits and dissemination of chemicals and microbial substances on land surface,
and into soil, or burying wastes in locations where WT and
weathered base are close or coincide, may cause direct pollution of soil, groundwater and shallow wells by bacteria
and trace metals. Nwachukwu et al. (2010a) have classified
soil pollution due to heavy metal dispersion from automobile mechanic villages as moderate to excessive. Both fecal
coliform and heavy metals are the major pollutants associated with the occupational wastes of mechanic villages. Environmental impact on groundwater quality can be reduced
either by increasing the protection measures at the source
of the groundwater or by controlling pollution sources and
Fig. 7 Model casing tally for
shallow wells in the study area

M.A. Nwachukwu et al.

human activities causing pollution within the groundwater


catchments area. This is more severe in the areas where water table is near surface, making construction of shallow water wells very cheap and possible by hand-driven processes
as in the study area, and the adjoining areas of the Niger
delta. People have been taking advantage of the cheap cost,
and the near-surface availability of water to making water
well construction an every household affair, without bothering about depth or the water quality they produce. This is
primarily due to scarcity of public water supply associated
with governmental inability to cope with the obligation free
or at no commensurate cost to the consumers. As a result,
most private wells are extended to commercial purpose.
The minimum safe depth of shallow wells in the area
is suggested as: WT + 48 m at locations were the weathered base is above WT and may have a whitish underlying
gravel bed, and WT + 66 m at locations were the weathered
base is below WT and an overlying khaki gravel bed. Predrilling VES is necessary in order to confirm the presence
or absence of the coliform transporter khaki gravel bed, or
drillers must target a recoverable total drill depth of 85.4 m
to be within safe construction limits. The upper well annulus
(about 12 m from surface) constituting the weathered profile
may be filled 100% or minimum 50% using cement grout
to reduce transport of pollutants to the well recharge zone.
A typical well design that may be suitable for shallow wells
in the study area is illustrated and specified in Fig. 7.
The primary source of the coliform is attributed to the
continuous littering of human excrements around mechanic
villages, the littering of cattle excrements along grazing
routes, and surface applications of sewage evacuated from
household septic tanks to condition soil for farming. Microbes in these wastes contaminate surface and groundwater, causing persistent effects of water-related diseases in the
area. Installation of water-quality monitoring wells is essential in this area, particularly in the direction of drainage
around mechanic villages. This will not only facilitate the

The Causes and the Control of Selective Pollution of Shallow Wells by Coliform Bacteria, Imo River Basin

monitoring of coliform pollution but will enable proper assessment of trace metal fate and transport from the mechanic
villages to groundwater. This will enhance water quality research in the area considering the difficulty encountered in
the process of obtaining water samples from private wells in
this study. Well owners do not comply with sampling their
well water for research purpose, and this attitude not only
frustrates the research effort of the scholars, but could introduce sampling errors in the process. However, water quality analysis of each of these wells is recommended annually
soon after the rain season, to save consumers of the water
from long-term exposure to water of poor quality, and this
can only be achieved if water-quality monitoring wells are
installed.
Pre-drilling electrical resistivity survey of a proposed
well site is very much recommended to save the cost. The
cost of water treatment due to total drill depth that is less
than the recommended safe depth is much of a disaster, compared to one run of VES which may cost about $300400
in the study area. The total cost of 80 m deep water well
to completion, including installations, but not with storage facility and reticulations by manual driven method is
about $3000. A medium drill rig will cost about $6500 for
the same 80 m deep well classified as medium well, with
chances of recovering the entire drill depth for casing. Most
of the shallow wells are constructed by individuals who cannot afford the cost of contracting a drilling team with adequate drilling tools. Water produced from the polluted wells
needs to be treated with a disinfectant such as chlorine before it can be used for drinking and other domestic purposes.
In the absence of proper and regular treatment, more polluted wells with CF 4070/100 ml of water may be closed
from further use.
Transit grazing is to be regulated in the area, so that grazing near stream banks and near residential areas may be prohibited. Proprietors of mechanic villages (the government)
should be required by law to provide toilet facilities in mechanic villages even if it required the inhabitants of the villages to foot the cost directly or indirectly. A law prohibiting
open-air defecation on arable land is not out of place, however such law may be difficult to enforce in the area due
to the absence of public toilet facilities. Public places, most
essentially the mechanic villages and the open markets, deserve standard public toilet facilities as a priority. Other public places such as gas stations, churches, supermarkets and
streets are to have public toilet facilities maintained and supervised regularly. A lot depends on public awareness and
education of the masses, particularly the policy makers. The
practice of mechanic village concept must be environmentally friendly to be sustainable. Already heavy metal pollution of soil within and around mechanic villages is moderate
to excessive, due to poor waste management (Nwachukwu et
al. 2010a). The ecological and public health hazards associated with this are yet to be properly documented. Adding

83

fecal coliform pollution to the heavy metal pollution within


and around mechanic villages is therefore a disaster that
calls for immediate intervention.
Acknowledgements The authors remain grateful to Chevron Nigeria for the opportunity of internship, and for data release. We are similarly grateful to GEOPROBE International Consultants Ltd., for VES
instrumentation, and data collection, and to UNICEF laboratories Owerri for the water analysis.

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