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Steel PipeA Guide for Design

and Installation

AWWA MANUAL M11


Third Edition

~o:k?!~@*\
American Water Works Association

Contents
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Chapter 1 History, Uses, and Physical Characteriodcs of SteeI Pipe.


1.1 History, 1
I .2 Uses,2
1.3 Physicai Characteristics, 3
1.4 Ductility and Yield ,
-S
3
1.5
Stress and Strain, 4
1.6
Smain in Dcsign, 7
1.7 Analysis Based on Strain, 8
1.8 Ductility in Design, 10
1.9 mects ofCoid Worlnng on -S
and D u d t y , 10
1.10 Brite Fracrure Considemtiom in Stnicturiir Dtsign, 12
1.11 Good Practice, 15

Chapter 2 Manufacture and Testing


2.1
2.2

3.3
3.4
3.5

3.6

.................................... 16

Manufacture, 16
Testing, 19

Chapter 3 Hydraulics of Pipelines


3.1
Formulas, 21

3.2

....... 1

......................................21

Caicuiations,26
Economical Diameter of Fipe, 32
Distribution Sysams, 33
Air En-ment
md Release, 33
Good Practioe, 33

Chapter 4 Determination of Pipe Waii Thicluiess ......................... 36


4.1 I n t e d Pressure, 36
4.2
Working Tension Strm in Steel, 37
4.3
Tolerante, 38
4.4
Corrosion Aiiowance, 39
4.5
Externa1 Pressure-Uniform and Radial, 40
4.6
Minimum Wall Thicknecs, 40
Chapter 5
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5

..........................51

Water Hamrner and Pressure Surge.


Basic Relationships, 5 1
Checklist for Pumphg Mains, 54
General Smdies for Water Hammer Control, 54
A l l o m c e for Water Hammer, 55
Pressure Rise Calculations, 55

.
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...............................................57

Chapter 6 ExternalLoad
. &..- . ;?y':: .;.
6.1
Load Determination, 57 "
- .
. .
6.2 Deflsction Determimtion, W
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6.3 Buckling, 61
6.4 Extreme Externa1 Loading Conditions, 62 = 6.5 Computer Programs, 63
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Chapter 7
7. I
7.2
7.3
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7

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Supports for Pipe.. ... . .


Saddle Supports, 66
Pipe Deflection as k a m , 70
Methods of Cdculation, 70
Gradient of Supportsd Pipelines to Prevent Pocketing, 71
Ring-Girder ConstrucUon, 7 1
Ring-Girder Construction for Low-Pressure Pipe, 77
Installation of Ring-Girder Spans, 78

...... . . .

.. . . . .... . . . ...... . ...... . . . . .... . . .. 86

Chapter 8 PIpeJoints
....
8.1 Bell-and-Spigot Joint with Rubber Gasket, 86
8.2
Welded Joints, 87
8.3 Sleeve CoupLings, 88
8.4 Fimges, 89
8.5
Grooved-and-Shouldered Couplings, 89
8.6 Expmsion and Contraction-General, !M
8.7 Ground Fnction and Line Temion, 91
8.8 Good Practice, 92

.. . . .... . . .

Chapter 9 Fittings and Appurtenances


. .... . . . ...... . . .... . .. 93
9.1 Designation of Fittings, 93
9.2 Bolt Hole Position, 95
9.3 Design of W y e Branches, 95
9.4 Testing of Fittings, 95
Unbalanced Thrust Forces, 95
9.5
Frictional Resistance Between Soil and Pipe, 96
9.6
Anchor Rings, 96
9.7
9.8 Nozzle Outlets, 96
Connection to Other Pipe Material, 96
9.9
9.10 F h g e d Connections, 97
9.11 Valve Connections, 97
9.12 Blowoff Connections, 97
9.13 Manholes, 97
9.14 Insulating Joints, 98
9.15 Air-Release Valves and Air-and-Vacuum Valves, 98
9.16 Good Practice, 99
Chapter 10 Principies of Corrosion and Corrosion Control
10.1 GeneralTheory, 101
10.2 Intemal Corrosion of Steel Pipe, 111
10.3 Atmospheric Corrosion, 11 1
10.4 Methods of Corrosion Control, 111
10.5 Cathodic Protection, 11 1

. ........ ..... 101


-

,
, .

...... . ..... . . ..... . . .

1 Protective Coatings and Linings .

Requircments of Good Pipeline Coatings and Liaings, 115


Selection of the h p e r Coating md Lining, 1 15
11.3 Reaommended Cuatings and Linings, 117
11.4 h t i n g Application, 1 18
11.5 GmdPractice, 119

... ...... . . ..... . .. 121

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Chapter 12 Transportadon, Installation, and Testing.


12.1 Transportation and Handling of Coated Steel Pipe, 121
- -12.2 Trenching, 122

12.3
12.4
12.5
12.6
12.7

Installation of Pipe, 123


Anchors and Thrust Blocks, 127
Field Coeiting of Joints, 128
Pipe-Zone Bedding and Backfdl, 128
Hydrostatic Field Test, 129

. . . ..

... .. 131

Chapter 13 Supplementary Design Data and Detaib .


. . .. . ... .
13.1 Layout of Pipelines, 131
13.2 Calculation of Angie of Fabricated Pipe Bend, 132
13.3 Reiforcement of Fittings, 134
13.4 Collar Plate, 136
13.5 Wrapper-Plate Design, 138
13.6 Crotch-Plate (Wye-Branch) Design, 140
13.7
Nomograph Use in Wye-Branch Design, 141
13.8
Thmsr Restraint, 147
13.9 Anchor Rings, 151
13.10 Joint Harnesses, 151
13.11 Special and Valve Connections and Other Appurtenances, 151
13.12 Freezing in Pipeiines, 162
13.13 Design of Circurnferential Fillet Welds, 168
13.14 Submarine Pipelines, 170
Index, 173

This manuai was first authorized in 1943. In 1949, committee 8310D appointed one of its
members, Russel E. Barnard, to act as editor in chief in charge of coiiecting and compiling
the available data on steel pipe. The first draft of the report was completed by January 1957;
the draft was reviewed by the committee and other authoritiec on sreel pipe. The first edition
of this manual was issued in 1964 with the title Steel Pipe-Desi@ und Installation.
The 1985 edition of this rgmual was approved in June 1984. The principal changes
from the 1964 edition rehted to externa1 loads on pipe, reinforcement of finings, and joint
harnesses. Some of the rigorous descriptions, formulas, and calculations included in the
1964edition were diminated where adequate references to such descriptions, formulas, and
calculations
were available. Some chapters of rhe 1964 edition were combined in the 1985
. ,.. edition, thereby reducing the number of chapters from 19 to 13. Also, a comprehensive
< --index wrts added to rhe 1985 edition, and the manual's title was changed to Steel Pip-A
Guide for Desi@ and Installation.
This revision of the manual was approved in Jwie 1988. In addition to corrections to the
. . . . .
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.- . text and editing for chrity throughout, major revisions include redefinition of B' in Eq &7;
. ..- redefinition of h , and Wcin Eq 6-8; revision of Sec. 13.9, including revision of Figure 13-16
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.+.- - - - - <=-:and addition of new tables for ring dimensions and ailowable bearing loads; and revision of
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Sec. 13.10, including revision of Figure 13-17 and addition of new tables for harness
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dimensions and allowable tie bol1 Ioadings.


This manual provides a review of experience and design theory regarding steel pipe
used for conveying water, with appropriate references cited. Application of the principies
and procedures discussed in this manual must be based on responsible judgment.
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This revision of Manual M1 1 was made by the following members of the Steel Water Pipe
Manufacturers Technical Advisory Committee (SWPMTAC):
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Roben E. Gilmor, Task Group Chairman

Frank Corteilessa
D.J. Cowling
Demis Dechant
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R. Dewey Dickson
A.D. Harder

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Gary V. Heatherington
C.R. McCormick
Gary D. Redrnond
Edwin N. Seward
George J. Tupac

This revision was idso approvtd by the Standards Committee on Steel Pipe and the
Standards Council. The Standards Committee on Steel Pipe had the following personnel at
the time of approval:
George J. Tupac, CIrwrman
John H. Bambei Jr., Vice Chaiman
Dennis Dechant, Seoetary

Consumer Members
J.H. Bambei Jr., Denver Water Department, Denver, Colo.
G.E. 31wk Jr., GHR Engineering AswSates, Inc., Lakeview, Mass.
R.S.Bryant, Department of Water and Bower, Los b e l e s , Calif.
D.J. Cowling, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver, Colo.
J.L. Doane, Portland Bureau of Water Works, Portland, Ore.
C.M. Frenz, M o m County Water Authority, Rochater, N.Y.
Wesley Kremkau, Washington Suburban Sanitary Commission, Hyattsville, Md.
Kemeth Olson, Tacoma City Water, Tacoma, Wash.
E.C. Scheader, Bureau of Water Supply, New York, N.Y.
G.M. Snyder, Metropolitan Water District of Southem CaIifornia, Los Angeles,
f.
General Inrerest M&s

C.J. Arch, Consulting Engmeer, Covina, Calif.


W.R. 3-11,
Metcaif & Eddy, Inc., Arlington Heights, 111.
R. Dewey D i c h n , J.M.
Montgomery Consulting Engineers, Pasadem, Caiif.
B.R. Eims*, Standards Engineer Liaison, AWWA, Denver, Colo.
L. J. Farr, CH2M fIiU, Inc., Redding, CalZ.
R.E. Gilmor, Consulting Engineer, Denver, Colo.
G.K. Hickox, Engineering Consultant, Houston, Texas
-1 R.Y. Konyalian, Boyle Engineering Corporation, Newport Beach, Calif.
G.M. Kroilik*, Naval Construction Bartalion Center, Port Hueneme, M f .
G.D. Plant, Consulting Engineer, Napa, Mif.
.
L.T.Schaper, Black & Veatch, Kansas City, Mo.
G.J. TuG.J. Tupac & A s e t e s , Pittsburgh, Pa.
W.W. Webster, Leedshill-Herkenhoff, Inc., Albuquerque, N.M.
:.K.G.
Wiikes, Consulting Engineer, Escondido, Calif.
._.
--.R.E.Yomg, Robert E. Young Engineers, Sacramento, Calif.
. -.

...

. . .

Producer Members

T.R. Brown, Rockwell Internationai, Pittsbwgh, Pa.


Frank CorteUessa, Kaiser Steel Corporation, Fontana, M f .
Dennis Dechant, c/o Thompson Pipe aud Steel Company, Denver, Colo.
A.D. Harder, Ameron Pipe Division, Portland, Ore.
-George Harris, Taipecoat Company, Evanston, iil.
C.R.McCormick, CRM Enterpises, Vacaviile, Calif.
J.R. Pegues, American Cast Iron Pipe Company, Birmhgham, Ala.
E.N. Seward, United Concrete Pipe Curporation, Baldwin Park, Calif.
H.R.Stoner, Koppers Company,Newark, N.J.
J.A. Wise, Canus Industria, Ltd., Vancouver, B.C.

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AWWA M A N U A L

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1
History, Uses, and
Physical Characteristics

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el pipe has been used for water lines in the United States sin- the early 1850s.' The pipe
was fmr manufactured by r o h g steel sheets or plata into shape and riveting the seams.
of pipe, continued with improvements
thicknesses couid be readily varied to fir the different pressure

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y low tensile strength of the early steels, and the low efFiciency of
cold-riveted seams and riveted or drive stovepipe joints, engineers initially set a safe design
S at 10 000 psi. Over the years, as riveted-pipe fabrication methods improved and
r strength steeh were developed, design s m s e s progressed generally on a 4-m-1
safety factor of tensile strength, increasing from 10 000 to 12 500, m 13750, and Finally to
psi, adjusted as necessary to account for the eficiency of the riveted seam. The pipe
was furnished in diameters ranging from 4 in. through 144 in.md in thickness from 16
f single-, double-, triple-, md even
rying in eficiency from 45 percent to 90percent depending on

d in 1905, had nearly supplanted riveted pipe by 1930.


involved planing 30-ft long plates to a width approximately equal to half the
cumference, upsetting the longitudinal edges, md rolling the plates imo 30-ft
"'long half-circle troughs. H-shaped bars of special aonfguration were applied to the mating
edges of two 30-ft troughs aud clamped into position to form a full-circle pipe section.
Following the general procedure of the times, a 55 000-psi tensile-strength steel was
used. With a 440- 1safery factor, this resulted in a 13 750-psi design stress. Lock-Bar pipe
tages over riveted p i p : it had only one or two straight seams and no round

The straight seams were considered 100-percent efficient as compmed to the


4'S;percent m 70-percent eficiency g e n e d y applied to rivered -s.
Manufxtwd in
s h s from 20 in. through 74 in., from plate m q h g in thickness from 3/i6 h.to $2 in.,
Lo&-Bar played an increasingly g r a m role in the markct riritil the advent of automtic
electric welding in the mid 1920s.
By the early 1930s, both riveting and --Bar
methods grdudly pmsed out of the
picture, and welding dominated $he field. Pipe produaed using automtic de&c Eusion
welding offered thc advaniages of fewer pieces, fewer operakm, fmter production, smalIer
seam protrusion, and 100-permnt oPelded+mm eflkiencp. Faof fusion-welded
pipe foliowed somewhat the sime initial pduction sequemes as for M - B a r . Thmugh
the 193thand into h e 19&, 30-ft fletes were used. By the 19509, some rms had obtained
48-ft dh,mda ii=wf
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h h g the developing d.ecstde of welding ip t
k i9%, a new approach was mken to
des@ stresses. Prior to that time, it had been c&on p d c e to work with a safety factor
ofPta-1 b&
on the tensiie s t m q i d As
~ w d d pipe came into p r a d o h , the concept
of ~ ~ ~w - 5t of 0the field kmme g e m d i p accepted.
Spirsiily forrrred oind wclded ppewas devebped In thc early 19309 and was ~ s e d
extensivelg in diameters from 4 h. through 36 in. Welding was by ihe e l & ~ fusion
methd. After Worid W m 11, Ger~ian
mcbines were impomd, andsubsequentiy domestic
ones were developed t h t could s p a y hrrnand w d h u g h dbekrs of 144 in.

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Steel water pipe methe requirements ofappmpriate AWWA smdards has been found
satisfactory for mmy appkatims, same of which are as follows:

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Treatment-pht piping (Figure 1-1)


Aqutduca
Self-supgodng spam
Supply &S
Tdsimmains
P m lmins
Distributiw d m
@cuhhg-water k s
PL~tda .
Uderwater crossiagg, incakes, md outfds
M &m OIIs ~ ~ & &notarbb
e
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p i p e b e ~b e bp ~ b ~ i ~ h e=la
d.~m
d
numerous others have appbed in t k J m d R WWA and 0 t h periodicals,
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as well eis in
many textbooks and engh&ng hrrndbooks.

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T h installation of pipe In This plant was made &er


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k w e d the speeM1y designed fittings and

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FI-1-1

Sted mpe in Filtratlon Phnt M e r y

HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

The properties of steel rhat make it so useful are its great strength, its ability to yield or
deflect under a 1 4 w u e stiii offwing fuli resismce to it, its ability to bend without
breaking, and its resistan= to sho&. The water utiZity eagineer s h d d understand these
properties, how they are measured, what they wiii do,and to what extent they can be relied
on.

1.4 DUCTILITY AND YIELD STaENGTH

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55-

Solid mmhis can be differentiated imo two dasses: d u d e and brittle. In engineering
practice, these IWO classes must be mteddifferentlg b u s e they behave differently under
load. A ductik material exhibits a ~~ p h t i c deformatiun or fiow at a faairly definite

The top photwraph shows a section of pipe after it collapsed as a result of Ihe
falure of automatic vacuum-relief val-.
The r e s t w section,rounded out by
water forced through under pressure, is sbown at the botiom.

Figure 1-3 Sections of 94-111.Bwquet Canyon Ppeline

STBBL PIPE

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stress level (yield point or yield strength}and Shows a considerable total elongation, stretch,
or plastic defomtion before final breakage. With a brittle material, the plastic defomtion
is not weli defined, and the ulrimate elongation before breakage is s d . Mild steel, such as
-- is used in steel water pipe, is typical of the duaile materials. (The behavior of brittle
?materialswill not be examined in this manual.)
It is because of steel's ductility, its ability to yield or flex but not break, that the
Bouquet h y o n pipeline shown in Figures 1-2 and 1-3 still operates satisfactorily in 1983
after 50 years of service. It is ductility that allows comparatively thin-wded steel pipe, even
though decreased in vertical diameter 2-5 percent by earth pressures, to perform
- satisfactorily when buried in deep trenches or under high fills, provided the true required
strength has been incorporated in the design. It is also because of ductility that steel pipe
with theoretically high localized stressesat flanges, saddes, supports, m d joint-harness lug
connections has performed satisfactorily for many years.
Designas who determine s m s using formulas based on Hooke's iaw find that the
calculated results do not reflect the inregnty exhibited by the structures iiiusmted here.
reason for the discrepancy is that the conventionai formulas apply only up to a certoiin
s level and not beyond. Many eminently safe stnictures and parw ofstructuces oontain
calculated stresses above this level. A fuli undersmding of tbe performance of sudi
ures requires that the designer examine empirically the actual behavior of steel as it is
ded from zero to the breaking point.
& - The physical properties of steel (yield strength ami ultimste tensile strength) used as
- the basis for design and purchase specif~cations
are determined from tension tests made ona
"standard specimen pulied in a tensile-testing machine. T h e strength of ductile materials, in
terms of design, is defined by the yield strmgth as measuredby the lower yield point, where
one exists, or by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
offset yield stress,
where a yield point d- not exist. For steel usually used in water pipe, the yield s t r q g h is
fixed by specification as the stress due to a load causing a 0.5-percent extension of the puge
length. The point is shown in Figure 1-4. The yield srrength of steel is considered to be the
same for eithex tension or compression laads.
Ductility of steel is measured as an elongation, or stretch, under a tension load in a
testing machine. Elongation is a measurement of change in length under the load and is
%..expressed as a percenuge of the original gauge length of the test specimen.
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In engineering, stress is a f w e obtained by dividing a l d by an area. Strain is a length


.ichange. The relation between stress and strain, as shown on a stress-strain diagram, is of
$3.&2%*.. j: : ;*: .basic importance to the designer.
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Astress-strain diagramfor any given material is a graph showing the strain (stretch per
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St.
consider a bar of sted being puiled in a testing machine with suitable instrumentation for
,
-. measuring the load and indicating rhe dimensional changes. While the bar is under load, it
- . -,~stretches.
The change in length under load per unit oflength is calltd strain or unit strain; it
- ,is usually expressed as percentage elongation or, in stress analysis, microinches (~in,)
per
. . inch, where 1 pin. = 0.000 001in. The vdues of strain are plotted along the horizontal axis of
the stress-strain diagram. For purposes of plotting, the load is converted into units of stress
--- - .
<U(pounds per square inch) by dividing the load in pounds by the original cross-sectional area
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of the bar in square inches. T h e values of stress are plotted along the vertical axis of rhe
diagram. T h e resulr is a conventional stress-strain diagram.
..
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dividing
the load by the original cross-sectionalarea of the bar, the stress appears to r a h a
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HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

MAGNlFlCATlON

ELASTIC RANGE

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REGION OF

PROWRT1ONAL

LOA0
ECTlONAL AEA
INCREASE IN LENGTH
ORiGINAL LENGTH

hape of the test piece of steel, which


the test, is shawn by the bar9 drawn

rdn Cuwe for Steel


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0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4


TRUE STRAIN, PERCENT

1.8

Unlike canventonal stress-strain curves, both true stress


and true strain have been calculated for the curves shown.

Figure 1-5

True Stress-Straln

for Steel

the l d by the actual cross-sectional ama of the bar as it decreascs in cross section under .
found that the true stress never decreases. Figure 1-5 is a stress-strain
on which both true stress and true sirain have been plotted. Becsuse conventid
sms-srrain diare used commercially, only conventid diagrams are used for the
remainder of this discussion.
Figure 1 4 shows various parts of a pure-tension stress-strain curve for steel such as
that wed in water utiiity pipe. The change in shpe of the test piecc d d n g the test is shown
by the bars drawn uader the curve. As the bar strettdies, the cross d o n decreases in area
maximum tensile s m g t h , at which point local reduction ofama (neckiag in) toikes

Many types of steel used in construction have stress-strain diagrams of the general
in Figure 1-4, whereas many other types used struchidy and for machine
pam have much higher yield and ultimate strengths, with rcduced ductiiity. Still other
useful e q h e e r i n g steels are quite brittie. In general, the low-d-ty
steels must be used at
rehtively low strains, even though they may have high stcength.
The ssaending line in the left-hand portion of the gmph in Figure 1-4 is stmight or
nearly straight and has an easily recognized slope witb respea to the vertial axis.The break
of the curve is rather sudden. For this type of curve, the point whtre the frrst
deviation from a straight h e occurs marks the proportional limit of the steel. T h e yieldstrength is at some higher stress level. Nearly al1 engineering formulas involving stress&
a lmding such that working srsesses, as calculated,will be below &e: 7
2

:,,. form shown

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STEEL P I W

Stresses md strains that f d below the proportional limit-that is, those thatfa11on the
straight portion of the ascending line-are said to be in the elastic range. Steel s t n i c m s
loaded to create stresses or suains within the elastic range r e m precisely to their original
length when the load is removed. Exceptions may occur with certain kinds and conditions of
loading not usually encountered in water utility installations. Within this range, stress
increases in direct proportion to strain.
The mdulus ofelasticity, as commonly defined, is ihe slope of the ascending srraight
portion of the stress-strain diagram. The modulus of elasticity of steel is about 30 000 000
psi, which means that for each incremenr of load that creates a strain or stretch of 1 pin. per
inch of length, a sness of U)psi is imposed on &e steel cross section (30 000 000 x 0.000 001 =

30).

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Immediately above the proprtional liihit, between it and the 0.5-percent extensionunder-load yield strength of the material (Figure 1-4) lies a portion of the suess-strain
diagram that may be termed the elastic-plastic range of the material. Typical stress-strain
curves with this portion magnified are shown in Figure 1-6 for two grades of carbon steel
used for water pipe. Electric-resistance strain gauges provide a means of studying the
elastic-phtic segment of the curve. TRese and associated instruments dlow minute
examination of the shape of the curve in a manner not possible before their development.
The elastic-plastic range is becoming increasingly important to the designer.
Investigation of this range was necessary, for example, to determine and explain the
successful functioning of thin steel flanges on thin steel pipc4 Designs that load steel to
within the elastic-pktic range are safe only for certain types of apparanis, structures, or
parts of structures, For example, designing within this range is safe for the hinge points or
yield hinges in steel ring flanges on steel pipe, for hinge points in structures where local
yielding or relaxation of stress must occur, and for bending in the w d of pipe under earth
load in trenches or under high Fills. It is not safe m rely on performance within this range to
handle principal tension stress in the walls of pipe or pressure vessels or to rely on such

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STRAIN, INJIN.

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0.007

The curves show the elastic-plastic range for two grades


of carbon steel.

Shown are the elastic and plastic portians of a


stress-strain curve for a steel stressed to a given level.

Figure 1-6 Stress-Strain Curves for Cahon


Steel

Figure 1-7 PIastic and Hastic Strains

..

HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

ACTUAL
STRESS

-.

-.:..,.

*+
(r

-.p.+

CO

..
.

. ..
i
A- -

Whon the total measured strain is known, the actual stress can
be de'ermined by use of the s?essSJswajfi curve.
.>.
.,
* ?

figure 1-9 ~eterminat& of Actual Stress


. +---

,:e -

:z

performance in other situations where the accompanying deformation is unmntroiled or


m o t be tolerated.
, si,: --:Figure 1-7 shows the elastic and plastic portions of a stress-edn curve for a steel
stressed to a given levef. Figure 1-8 shows graphically how a completdy ficritious stress is
determined by a formula based on Hooke's law, if the totai strain is mdtiplied by the
modulus of elasticity. The actual stress is determiued using o d y the elastic strain with the
mdulus of elasacity, but there is at present no way to separare theoretically the elastic and
plastic strains in a structure. The ody dternative is to take the total measured strain as
indicated by strain gauges and then determine the actud stress from the stress-strain curve,
as shown in Figure 1-9.
,

1.6 S W N 1N DESIGN
Analysis of a strucnire becames more complete when consideredin terms of strain as weli as
stress. For example, it has long k n known that apparent stresses calcuhted using classic
formulas based on the theory of elasticity aregreatly in error at hinge-point stress levels. The
magnitude of this error near the yidd-strength stress is demonstratedin the next paragraph,
where the classically calculated result is compared with the measured performatlce.
By definition, the yield-strength load of a steel specimen is that load which causes
a 0.5-percent extension of the gauge length. As was indicated in an earlier paragraph, in
the elastic range a stress of 30 psi is imposed on the cross-sectiod sea for each microinchper-inch increase in length under load. Because an extension of 0.5 percent corresponds w

.?.

STEBL PIPEvzec

'

5000 pin./in., the calculated yield-strength stress is 5000 x 30 = 150 000 psi. The measuwd
yield-strength stress, however, is on the order of 30 000-35 000 psi, or about one fourrh of
the calculated stress.
Simikrly varied results between strain and stress analyses occur when the performance
of steel at its yield strength is compared to the performance of its ultimate strength. There is
a great difference in strain between the yield strength of low- or medium-carbon steel at
0.5-percent extension under load and the specified ultimate strength at 30-percent
elongation, a difference which has a decided bearing on design safety. The specified yield
strength corresponds to a strain of 5000 pin./in. To pass the specification requirement of
30-percent elongation, the strain at ultimate strength must be not l a s than 0.3 in./in., or
300 000 pin./in. The ratio of strain at ultimate strength to strain at yield strength, therefore,
is 300 000:5000, or 60: 1. On a stress basis, from &e stress-strain diagram, the ratio of
ultimate strength to yield strength is 50 m 3 0 000, or only 1.67: 1.
Actucilly, mild steels such as those used in waterworks pipe show nearly linear
stress-strain diagrams up to the yield level, after which strains of 10 to 20 times the
elastic-yieid strain occur with no increase in actual load. Tests on bolt behavior under
tension substantiate this e f f e ~ tand
, ~ the ability of bolts to hold securely md safely when
they are drawn into the region of the yield, especially under vibration conditions, is easily
I 'explained by the strain concept but not by the stress concept. The bolts act sornewhat like
stiff springs at the yield-strength level.
--extre-me17
.

-.- - ,

=. .
.
:

ALYSIS BASED O N STRAlN


In some structures and in many welded assemblies, there are conditions that permit initial
adjustment of strain to working load but limit the action automaticaily, eirher because of the
nature of the loading or because of the mechanics of the assembly. Examples are,
mspectively, pipe under earth load and steel flanges on steel pipe. In these instances,
bending stresces may be in the region of yield, but deformation is limited.
In bending, there are three distinguishable phases through which a member passes
when being loaded from zero to fdure. In the first phase, ail fibers undergo strain less than
the proportional limit in a uniaxial suess field. In this phase, a structure will act in a
completely e b t i c fashion, to which the classic laws of stress and suain are appiicable.
In the second phase, some of the fibers undergo strain greater than the proportional or
elastic limit of the material in a uniaxial stress field, but a more predominant portion of the
fibers undergo strain less than the proportional limit, so that the structure still acts in an
essentially elastic manner. The classic formulas for stress do not apply, but the strains can be
. . .
adequately defined in this phase.
c:
-:
-.
In the third phase, the fiber strains are predominantly greater than the elastic limit of
.' .
the material in a uniaxial stress field. Under these conditions, the structure as a whole no
longer acts in an eiastic manner. The theory and formulas applicable in this phase are being
developed but have not yet reached a stage where they can be generally used.
An experimental determination of smin charaaeristics in bending and tension was
.
made on medium-carbon steel similar to that required by AWWA C200, Standard for Steel
', Water Pipe 6 Inches and ~ a r ~ e r
Results
?
are shown in Figure 1-10. Note that the
proportional-limit strains in bending are 1.52 times those in tension for the same material.
Moreover, the specimen in bending showed fully elasticbehavior at a strain of 1750pin./in.,
- . - = : which corresponds to a calculated stress of 52 500 psi (1750 x 30= 52 500) when the modulus
of eiasticity is used. The specimens were taken from material having an actual yield of 39 000
.,- -22,
'
psi. Therefore, this steel could be loaded in bending to produce strains up to 1750pin./in.
.- -;and stiU possess fuii elastic behavior.
- .'J>Steel ring flanges made of piate and fillet welded to pipe with a comparativelythin wall
- . -+-have been used successfdly for many years in water service, and this experience f o m a
1

,-r'.

-j

HISTORY, USES. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

0.001

0.002
STRALN, IN./LN.
, -

0.003

0.004

.
-.

_ ,- L=!

inmlt
~ (P.L.)
~ strains
a l in bending are 1.52 times t h s e in tension for the-

ffgme 1-10 Experlmentai Detenninatianof Strain Characterlstfcs

material.

.,

L..'

>

.-

_
.

--

Ti. ..

,,

.'

ble 1-1 M m u r n Strain in Rpe Wall Developed In PractIce

t-

h
:
M,R.E. k i g n of S e 1Rhg F k g a for Water Works S e r k + A Progress Report. Jow. A WWA, 4210:93 1
Ig. 1950).
.i .

a--

1
.
. ?

r-

_..;.. .

.-

--

&:=

.-

..,

goodbackground agoiinst which to make calculations.The fianges ranged from 4 in.through

96 in. in diameter. Calculations were made to determine the strain that would occur in the
pipe wall adjmnt to the h g e s . Table 1-1 shows the results.
Mote from the table that, in practice, the limiting suain was always below the
s..-q.:T.-; commody recognized yield-strength strain of 5000 pin./in. but did approach it quite
dosely in at h s t oae instan=. Al1 of these flanga are suff~cientlysatisfactory, however, to
.
.
2; - .
.
warrant their continued use by designers.
The idea of desia structure on the basis of ultimate i d capacity from test data
rather
than
entirely
on
diowable
stress is simply a return to m empirical point of view, a
. point of view that early engiaeers were obliged m accept in the absence of knowledgeof the
w p
mathemstics and statin necesssry to calculate srresses. The recent development of
.
r
mathemaucal processes for stress analysis has, in some instances, overemphasized the
impomnce of stress and underemphasized the importante of the o v e d strength of a
. !.
4z j.gr.
strumre.
1-

.j-

4.

b;
3

-.
<,......
- -.

1.8 DUCTlLdTY IN DESIGN


.
.

The plastic, or ductile, behavior of steel in welded assemblies may be especially important.
Allowing the stress st c e h points in a steel strucnire m go beyond the elastic range is
successful current design practioe. For many years, in buildings and in bridges,
specifications have allowed the designer to use average or nominal smsses due to bending,
shear, and bearing, resuiting h local yklding amund pins and rivets and at other points.
This local yield, which rtdistributes both load and srress, is caused by stress aoncentrations
that are neglectedin the simpk des@ formuhs. b t i c action is and has been dependedon
.to ensure the safety of steel strucrures. Experience has shown that these average or nominal
imaximum stresses form a satisfactory basis for d e s e . Dwing the manufamring p m s s ,
el pipe has been forced beyond its yieid strength many tima, and the same
thing may happen again in installation. Similar yielding can be permined after instaliarion
by design, provided the resulting deformarion has no adverse effect on the fmcrion of the
stfucture.
Basing des@ solely on approximationsfor real s m s daes not always yield safe mults.
The cohpse ofsome smcmm has been trriced toa migger action ofneglectsd p o i n of
~ high
stress concentrations in materials which, for one r-n
or another, are not ductile at these
points. Even ductile materials may fail in a brittie fwhi011 if subjected w o v e r l d in three
p h s at the same time. Careful a m t i o n to such conditions wili resdt in safer design and
d eliminate grossly over-designed struchires that are wmtdul of both material and

..
' < ,

.-i
.

-...

----

e.. ?.

Plastic deformation, esptcially at key points, sometimes is the real measure of


strengtb. For txample, a crack, once started, may be propagad by dmost
S, because at the bottom of the crack the material m o t yield a Finite mount i
n
ro distante. E v a in a d d material &e crack wili continue unt the splittbg
red elsewhere. Plasticity underliescurrent design specificationsto m extentnot
u s d y realized md offers promise of greater economy in construdon in the f u t ~ r e ? ~

EFFECTS OFCOLD WORKJNGON

:.,.s.
...:*<*

-.
.

.-

STRENGTH

AND DUCTtUN
5- :?y

-7

g:..:
--.:

-..

In the fabricatim of pipe, the steel phtes or sheets are oftea formed at room temperatura
'qinto
the desired shape.* Such cold-forming opemtions obviously =use inelastic ddor-.
mtim, since the steei re*
its formed s h p . To ilfustratt thc general. tfftcts of such
deformation w
md ducriiity, tht elemental behavior of a d n - s t t e f msim
specimen subjected to pleistic defomtion oind subsequent reloadhgs wili be considered.
The behavior of
cold-formed plates may bt much more complex.
As iiiusiraed in Figure 1-1 1, if a steel s p c h e n of plate materiai is unlaaded after bmng
stressed into either the phtic or strain-hardenhg mge, the u n l d h g curve wiU foUow a
pth pardel to the elastic porticm of the stras-strain curve, and a residual strain or
permment set will re& after the load is removed.
If the specimen is promptiy reloaded, it wiii follow the unloading curvt m tbe
stress-stmh curve ofthe virgin (uostrahad) material. Ifthe amount ofphticdeformation
is less thm that required for tht oastt of strain hardening, the yield strength of the
- phticaiiy deformad steel wiii be approximwiy the same as h t of the virgin marmid.
-.=
.
'Howtver, if the amomt of plastic defomtion is sufficient to cause S&
hardenhg, the
.,
- . - -. .
...
yield strength ofthe steel will bt increased. In either case,the tensa strength wiU remain
..
..
. -.-: .-::
tht same but the ductifity m u r e d from the point of relding will I
x d d . As
,

'

- + .

'

... :., ., L

.<;-,

=*+-:-.;.
--

'--

-:-.

. . -

S
'

*Thia &wm obeained frmn r c f m 9 with minm editing.

.- .- . -

.-

<

'

HISTORY, USES, PHY SICAL CHARACTERISTICS

11

STEEL PIPE

indiated in Figure 1- 1 1, the decrease in ductility is approximately equal to the momt of


inelastic prestrain.
A stetl spcimen that has betn straintd into the 86-hardcning mge, unlmded, and
ailowed to agc for several dap at m m temperahut (or for a much shorter time at a
moderately elevated tcmptraturc) wili tend to follow the path hdicated in Figure 1-12
during reloading.'O This phehomenm, known as s t d n aging, has the effect of increasing
yield and tensile strength while dtmasing ductility.ll
T h e effects of aold work on the strengch and dudiity of the stniaurai steels can be
eliminated Iargcly by t h c m d s m s relief, or ariiaealing. Such tteatment is not oilways
possible; fomaattiy, it is not o f b necessary.

z...,1-.

1.10 BRilTLE FRACTURE CONSIDERATIONS IN


STRUCTURAL DESIGN
General, Considerations

..
..,--.C
. .
- -..
,A

'

i,

--

As temperanite decreases, an increase is gcncraiiynokd in the yield stress, tensile strength,


modulw of elasticity, and fatigue smngrh of t
k plate seels.* In conrrast, tbt ductility of
these steels, as measurcd by rcduction ia area or by elonption under load, dtmasts with
decreasing temperanms. Furthmnore, there is a temperarure behw which a smictural
steei subjected m tensile stresses may fmcture by cleavage, with little or no piastic
deformoltion, rather thain by shear, which is u s d y preceded by a considerable amount of
plastic defomtion or yieiding.7
Fracture-thatoccurs'bycleavage at a nominal tensile stress below the yield stress is
aommonly referredmas brittie fmctwe. Generaly, a brittle fracture can mxr when there is
a suffcicntly adverse combimtimofm i l e stress, tempemttmstrriin mte, arid geometricai
dkoatinuity (suchas a notch) present. Other design md fabriatim factors may also have
an important innuenct. Because of the interrehtionof these effccts, the e x x t combination
of stress, temptratuce, notch, and other conditions that will cause brittie fracture in a given
: strumre canaot bt xleadily calculated. Consequently, designing against brittle fracture
ofm consists maintyof avoidingconditionsthat temi to cause brittlc fracture miselecting a
steel appropriatc for tbt application. A discussion of thae facton is given in the following
pamgmphs. Referaces 12,13,14, aad 15 -ver the sub@ in much more detd.
Fracture mechada offers a more direct approach for predidon of crack propagation.
For rhis analysis it is assunmed tbat an internai imptrfectim iddizcd as a crack is present in
the structure. By linearelastic stress d y s i s and hboratory tests on pmxackcd specimens,
the applied stress that wiU cause rapid crack propagation is relatd to thc size of the
imperfectim. The application of fracture mechanics has become incrcasingly useful in
dweloping a fracture-control p h and establishing, on a rationai basis, the interreiated
requirements of mareriai selection, design stress level, fabrication, and inspection
requirements?

Conditions Causing Bnttie Fracture

.-

:.+;,

Piastic deformation can occur o d y in tbe presence of shear srrtsses. Shear stresses are
always present in a uniaxial or a biaxid s t a u of stress. However, in a triaxid seate of stress,
the maximum shear stress approaches zero as the prinupd stressm approoich a common
value. As a result, under equal triaxial tensile stresses,failurc occurs by cicavage mther thm
*Tbis gccrion was obtaiacd fmm rrfffenee 9 with minar editing.
tShear and chvagt are usad in the mcmliwgki sense (maarisaopically) to denote dificrtnt f
m
mechanisms. RefmriEt 12, as wcii as most elcmenmry twxbmh on a u r g y , d i i t b c mechpnisms.

HISTORY, USES, PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

13

by shear. Consequently, trhxial tensile stresses tend to cause brittle fracture and should be
avoided. As discussed in the foliowing material, a triaxial state of stress can result from a
uniaxial loading when notches or geometrical discontinuities are present.
If a transversely notched bar is subjscted to a longitudinal tensile force, the stress
concentration effea of the notch causes high longitudinal tensile stresses at the apex of the
notch and lower longinidinal stresses in adjacent material. The lateral contraction in the
width and thickness direction of the highly stressed material at the apex of the notch is
restrained by the smaller lateral contraction of the lower stressed material. Thus, in addition
to the longitudind tensile snesses, tensile stresses are created in the width and thickness
directions, so that a triaxial state of stress is present near the apex of the notch.
The effect of a geometrid discontinuity in a strumre is generaliy similar to, dthough
not necessarily as severe as, the effect of the notch in t h t bar. ExampIes of geometrical
discontinuities sometimes found include poor design details (sudi as abrupt changes in
cross section, attachment welds on components in tension, and square-cornered cutouts)
and fabrication flaws (such as weld crack, undercuts, arc strikes, and scars from chipping
hammers).
Increased strain mtes tend to increase the possibility of brittle behavior. Thus,
structures that are loaded at fast rata are more susceptible to brittle fracture. However, a
rapid strain rate or impact load is not a required condition for a brittle fracture.
Cold work, and the strain aging that n o m l l y follows, generally increases the
Wrelihood of bnttle fractures. This behavior is usuaiiy attributed to the previously
mentioned reduction in ductiiity. The effect of ooId work that occurs in cold-forming
operations can be minimized by selecting a generous forming radius, thus limiting rtie
amount of strain. The amount of strain that can be tolerated depends on both the steel and
the application. A more severe but quite localized rype of cold work is that which o c a m at
the edges of punched holes or at sheared edges. This effect can be essentidy eliminated for
holes by drilling instead of p u n c h g or by reaming after punching;for sheared edges, it can
be elimhated by machining or grinding. Severe hammer blows may also produce enough
cold work to locally reduce the toughness of the steel.
When tensile residual stresses are present, such as those resulting from welding, they
add to m y applied tensile stress, resulting in the actual tensile stress in the member being
greater than the applied stress. Consequently,the likelihcad of brittie fracture ina structure
that contains high residual stresses may be rninimized by a postweld heat treatment. The
decision to use a postweld heat treatment should be d e with assurance that the
anticipated benefitsare needed and will be reahzed, and that possible harmful effects can be
tolerated. Many modern steels for weldd construction are designed to be used in the less
costly as-welded condition when possible. The soundness and mechanical pmperties of
welded joints in some steels may be adversely affected by a postweld heat treatment.
Welding may also contribute to the problem of brittle fracture by introducing notches
and flaws into a structure and by causing an unfavorable change in microstrumire of the
base metal, Such detrimental effects can be minimized by properly designing welds, a i n g
care in selectingtheir location, and using gwd welding practice. The proper electrde must
be selected so that the weld metal w U be as resistant to brinle fracture as the base metal.

Charpy V-Notch lmpact Test


Some steels will sustain more adverse temperature, notch, and loading oonditions without
fracture thm will other steels. Numerous tesrs have been developed to evaluate and assign a
numerical vdue indicating the relative susceptibility of steels to brittle fracture. Each of
these tests can establish with certainty only the relative susceptibility to brittle fracture
mder the particular conditions in the test; however, some tests provide a meaningfd guide
to &e relative performance of steels instructures subjected to severe temperature md stress

STEEL PIPE

14

....

..A:

-. ...

...

-. .

-,
.

..,.

..,

. >.

- .,-.-

- .

-:
.
.,

..

.
.

r>+e , ,-!+:---

- !'

*
.

-.. :., :
;. .
.

,-

.-

..-

- *

- -..;tL-.c:

::

conditions. The most commonly used of these rating tests, the Charpy V-notch impact test,
is described in this section, and the interpretation of its results is discussed briefly.
Referentes 12 and 13give detailed discussions of many other rating tests.
T h e Charpy V-notch impact test spediically evdiluatesnotch toughness-the resistance
to fracture in the presence of a notcb-and is widely used as a guide to the performance of
steels in structures susceptibleto brittle fracture. In this test, a small recranguhr bar, with a
V-shaped notch of specified size at its midlength, is supported at its ends as a beam and
fractured by a blow from a swiuging pendulum. The energy required to fracture the
specimen (which can be caiculated from the height to which the pendulum raises after
breaking the specimen)or the appearance of the fracture surface is determined for a m g e of
temperatures. The appeararice of the fracture surface is usually expressed as the percentage
of the surface that appears to have fractured by shear as indicated by a fibrous appearance. A
shiny or crystalline appearance is ascociated with a cleavage fracture.
(such as those shown in Figure 1-13) of energy or
ion of temperatwe. For the structural steels, the
ure decreasefrom relatively high values to rektively low
sing temperature. The temperature near the lower end of the
temperahire curve, at which a selected value ofenergy is absorbed (often 15ftmlb ), is
temperature. The temperature at which the percentage of
shear fracture decreases to 50 percent is often d e d the fracture-appearance transition
ition temperamre. Both transiuon temperatures provide a
resistance of various steels; the lower the transition
the bemr &e resismce to brittie fracture.The ductilitytransition temperature
transition temperature depend on many parameters (such as wmposition,
rmomechanical processing) and, therefore, can vary significantiy for a

ss of steels used for spec3c applications can be determined


service performance. Fracture-mechanics methods, when used in
study of material properties, design, fabrication, inspection,
erection, and service conditions, have proven useful. In general, where a given stel has been
used successfdy for an extensive period in a given application, brinle fracture is not likely
to be experienced in similar applications unless unusual temperature, notch, or stress
conditions are present. Nevertheless, it is always desirable to avoid or minimize the
previously cited adverse conditions that increase the susceptibility to brittle fracture.

_ BO
- ..

50

--

. .
. .

NOTECunies are for mrbon steel


and are tiken from r e f e r e n ~
13.

20

10

100

8o

P
< m W

I -.
4 0 -20

t - 1
-..

-7.

-3';

e-

5. Fracture Trandiion CUN

1
+O

...

/-

mo

20 40
80 100 120 140
TEMPERATURE. 'F
O

7 >
.

'

#- 40-

-;.. . - ?2
..

E m-

A. Energy T r m s l t h Cuwe

+U

1
:

4 0 -20

20

40

80

TEMPERATURE, 'F

:.

Source: Btockenbrough. R.L. & Johnsion, B.G. USS Steel Design Manual. ADUSS 27-340044. US Steel Corp., Pittsburgh, Fa. (Jan. 1981).

Figure 1-1 3 Transition Curves Obtnined from Charpy V-Notch lmpact Tests

..

80 100 120 140

'

"

.-

i.ii

... .
.'.-..
-5
2 . -7.
.
.

.-..,

HISTORY, USES, PHY SICAL CdARACTERISTICS

-7.

15

GOO~FRACTICE
The ordinary water pipeline requirts li* stress calcularion. The commonly used internal
pressures for stetl water pipe are given in Tables 4-1 and 4-2 in Chapter4. Suggested design
stresses to resist other loadings are given as guides in various chapters on the different design
When designing the details of supports, wye branches, and other specials, especidiy for
large pipe, the engjneer wiii do weU to consider the data in Chapter 13.
The concept of designing on the basis of strain as well as stress will shed light on the
behavior of steel and other mterials in many cases wkre consideration of stress done offers
no reasonabk exphtion. The adon and undesirabk efftcts of stress raisers or stress
concentrations-such as notches, threads, hps, and suddw chaages in cross section-will
be better understd. The steps to be taken in counteracting advcrse tffects become clearer.

References
1. ELLIOT,G.A. The Use of Steel Pipe in
Water Worb. Jow. A WWA, 9:11:839

(Nov. 1922).
2. CATES,
W.H.History of Steel Water Pipe,
Its Fabrication and Dcsign Development, (Apr. 1971).

BROCKENBROUGH,R.L. & JOHNSTON,


B.G. USS Steel De& M a d . ADUSS
27-3400-04. US Steel Corp., Pinsburgh,
Pa. (Jan.1981).
10. DI^, G.E. JR.Mechanicol MetalIingy.
McGraw-m1 h k Cumpany, New York
9.

(1%1).

4. B m A R D , R.E. Design of Stacl Ring


Flangcs for Water Works Service-A
ProgmriRepwt.Jm. AWWA,42:10:931

&m Steel Co., B e W r n , Pa. (1946,

11. CHAJES,
A.; B R ~ c S.J.;
,
&W I ~
G.EffeCKs of c m - S m i n i t l g on Smictural
Shwt Steels. Jour.of the Stnictural Div.,
Pm.,ASCE, 89, No. ST2 (Apr. 1963).
12. PARKER,
B.R. Brittle Behapnot of Engineering S ~ t u r e sJohn
.
Wiley ami Sons,
Ntw York (1957).
13. Control of Steel Construction to Avoid
Bri* Failure. WcIding Regtaxch CounciI, New York (1957).
14. LIGHTNER,
M.W. & VANDERBECK,
R. W.
Factors Involved in Brittle Fracture.
Regional TecIinicai Mectiags, Americsin
Iron and Steei Insritute, Washington,
D.C. (1956).
15. WLPE,S.T. & B~RSOM,J.M. Fracture
and FanngareControl in Structures-Applicatims of Fracture Mechanics. PraiuccHd,Inc., E n g l e w d Cliffs, N.J. (1977).

AWWA MANUAL

Manufacture and
Testing

ir':-

;+-*.:

."

-'

I.%_

-:>...

welding md ele& fusiw welding me the most common methods used


steel b m , plates, sheets, md strips into tubuloir products.
Electric resktmce welding (ERW) is done without filler materioil. The fht strip, with
edges previously trimmed to provide a &m, even S&
for welding, is formed
progressively into a tubular shape as it mveh through a series of mils. Thc forming k done
cold. Welding is thene f f d by the appliationofherit and pressure. The weldjng heat for
the h r b h ed- is generaed by resktance to &e flow of an e&c
cunrnt, which can be
inuriduccd through eIectrodts or by induction. Pressure roUs force tht hcated edges
togaher to effect the weld. The sqd o n of tht pxtssure roUs forming the weld
cause some ofthe hot weld mcmi to be exmded from tbe joint m forma beadof wtld flash
botb. b i d e and outside rhe pipe. The flash is wirmally trimmed within tolerame limits
while it is s
uhot from welding, using mechanical cutting tools contoured to the shape of
the pipe (Figures 2-1 tbrough 2-5).
Electnc fusion weldMg (EFW) differs from ERW in that filler mterial is used and
mechanid p-ssure is unnecessary to effect tae weld. Pipe pradud with this process can
hriw straight or s p i d Mms. Straight-seam pipe is made from plate with e d p planed
prirallel to each other and squrire with the ends. Curving the phte edges withcrimping rolls
is the first step of the forming prooess. This is foIlowed by presses that form the phte First
into a U&@
trough d then into a full O-sboiped tube. The O-shped tube is then fed
into a longitudid seam-weiding machint. Spiral-seam pipt is madt from coiied strip or
platc by a continuousp r o a s (Figure 26). An automatic macbinc m U s the coa, prepares
the edges for welami s p i d y fonns the suip into a tubular shape. As thc tubt h v e s the
forming elenrtnt, the &es are j o W by fusionwelding in the same submergcd-arc proatss
as is generally u& in straight-sam pipe ( F i i r e 2-7). The welded rubeis cut to tbt d e s i d
length by an auuimatic cutoff device.

MANUFAnURING AND TESTING

17

STR l P

WELDED
TUBE

PRESSURE-63
1
ROLL
WELDING ELECTRODES

FROM
COlL

FINAL FORMING ROLL FIRST FORMING ROLL

Source: See Figure 2-1

The current ente= the tube via slidlng contacts and flows along Vee
edges to and from the weld point.

Figure 2-3 Electric Resistance Welding Using HighFrequency Welding Current

WELD WELDED
POINT SEAM
INDUCTION
COlL

h 1 A

Source: See Figure 2-7

Eddy current flows around the back of the tube and along the edges
to and from the weld point.

Figure 2-4 flectric Resistance Welding by


Inciuction Using High-Frequency Welding Current

18

STEEL PIPE

1.

2.

3.

Edge Planing-Submerged are


weld plpe begins as a flat
rectangular steel plate from the
plate mlii. Yhe flrst step in
tmnsforrning it to p i p is planing
the edges paraiiei to each ofher
and square with ths ends.

Edge Crirnping Rolls-Here the


edgesrif *e p k t e are curved to
Tacllitat flnat t~rrningof the ppe,
F&UM
die wear. and produce
gresrer unllormity at the seam
edgea when the plate is pressed
to acyiindtical shape. The total
s u m e of tha plate, both sides
edge to edge, is atso inspected
ultrasonlcaiiy.

U-ing Press-A sernicircular


ram descends on the piate.
forcing it down between
rocker dies to form a U. The
plate 1s slightly over-bent to
allow for spring-back.

WlRE ELECTRODE

FLUX

]
4,
Gkrg e--The

*pea'p-eenters
;._
p - t k

Uthls

:cj;:'pmkkcular
diea open.
" 5
Tlk-w die, under
;':&&~uIFc
pressure, IS
-;.- -%&yd
-&M on the U,
:: ::-&Htwrrring it to a
g?iWCal shape.

CLEANI NO TORCH
OuiDE R o L Z

5.

6.

Outside Wekiing-The O-formd plate is now fed into a

End Wdding-Here a s i n . steel plate is


i m c h e d to each end of the pipe at the
searn,-permlttlng me iast tew inches of
the OD seam t o be welded.

longltudkiai seam w l d i n g machine i n which me abuttlnp


edges arepropedy igned.firmly p r e s d together. and
welded by the submergetd arc process. Two electrodes are
used, and the wJd is completed to within 3 in. of tha pipe

ends.

TV CAMERA
1

174

DLES
GLOSE0

WATER UNDER PRESSURE

7.

8.

lnside Welding-Here the welding


head and a srnali TV camera are
mounted on a Iong c a n t i l m r
boom. As the pipe is drawn oWr
the welding boom, a iV s z m at
the oprator's control W
enabies him to keep fhe welding
exaaly on the searn. Finishiw up
on the tab, the last few inches of
the seam are welded. The srnall
plates are then remowd, and the
cornpleted weld is inspected
inside and out.

Expsnding and Testing-TRe pipe is either mechanically or hydrostatically expanded


depending on t h i mil1 location. In elther case. accurate aiza and straightrtsss and improved
transverse yleid strength are obtained by expandon.
Mechanical Expander-The pipe is rnechanically
expanded in24-in. through 27-ln. lncrernents
until haH Of the length is completed. The pipe
rolis to a second expander die where the
remaining half of the length is expanded. The
plpe length then proceeds to a hydroatatic unit
where a specified interna1pressure is applied to
test tbe weld for sweats or leaks.

Hydrostatic Expander-00th ends


of the pipe are sealed by mandrels.
Thesemicircular dios, slightly levger
than the pipe 00,are ciosed, and the
pipe i i hydraulically expanded
against the dies. The dles are o p e n d
and a specified interna1 preasure
applled to t a t the wetd for sweats or
leaks.

Sourm: Carbon Steel P i p , Strudural Tubing, Line Pipe and Oil Country Tubular Goods. Steei Products Manual. American /ron end Steel
lns titute. Washington, D. C. (Apr. 1982).

Figure 2-5 Sequence of Operations in a Typical Double Submerged Arc Weld h e s s

MANWFACTURING AND TESTiNG

Sdiematk Diagrm d Process for Making Spiral-S-

Figure 2-6

19

Plpe

G - h m a i l r Iiiaaram fnr Maliina Phtn Clirra


- .

.=. ..

..-. .
.

'

--

.,

Pipe sizes mmufactud using the fusion wciding process are G t e d only by si%
limitations of individual pipe manufacturers. This p m s is esmaiiy suikd for
in

Spe

thod9. . . , -

..

-Testsof Chemicai Properties


The various services to which steel pipe is put require a variety of demical compositions to
produce the necessary characteristia. The chemical compsitions established in the
,.&$-wA sted pipe standards are suited to the usud needs d water utility applications.
&-er,
there are other steel materials tbat may be t q d y suitable, and these can be
:

term appiied no the chemical analysis


is is the d y s i s reported to the pwdmer.
results are determined by testing for such elemeatsas h i e been specif&d,using a
~mipleobtained from the first or middle p m of the heat or blow during
- the
d & e steel from the U.

-. ..

.. -- .

20

STEEL PIPE

It is common practie in most steel melting operations to obtain more than one
la&-test ingot sample from each heat or bIow; often three or more are taken, representing
the fmt, middle, and last prtions of the heat or blow. Drillings taken from the first or
middle sample are used in determiningthe ladle analysis because experiencehas shown that
these locations most closely represent the chemical analysis of the entire heat or blow. The
additionai samples are used for a survey of uniformity and for control purposes.
Check analysis. Check andysis, as used in the steel industry, means analysis of the
metal after it has been rolled or forged into semifmished or fmished forms. Such an analysis
is made either to verify the average composition of the heat, to verify the composition of a lot
as represented by the ladie analysis, or to determine variations in the composition of a heat or
lot. Check analysis is not used, as the term might impIy, m confirm the accuracy of a
previous result. Check analysis of known heats is justified only where a high degree of
uniformity of composition is essentid-for example, on material that is to be heat treated.
Such analysis should rarely be necessary for water pipe, except to identify or confirm the
assumed a d y s i s of plates or pipe that have lost identity. The results of analyses
representingdifferent locations in the same piece, or taken from different pieces of a lot, may
differ from each other and from the M e anaiysis owing to segregation. These permissible
variations from the specified ranges or limits have been established in the applicable
specification or by common practice. me variations are a natural phenomenon that must be
recognized by inspectors. The methods of anaiysis commonly used are in accordance with
the latest edition of ASTM ~ 7 1 5those approved by the National Bureau of Standards, or
others of equivalent accuracy.
Tests of phydcal properties. The methods of testing the physid properties of
steel pipe are established in ASTM ~ 3 7 0 The
2 physical properties required are containd
in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and ~arger?or are as otherwise
specified by the purchaser.
Hydrostatic test ofstraight pipe. Straight lengths of pressure pipe mdtubing are
.
customarily subjected to an interna1 hydrostatic pressure test. This operation is conduaed
" as a part of the regular mil1 inspection procedure to help detect defects. It is not intended to
bear a direct reiationship to bursthg pressures, working pressures, or design data, although
test pressures sometimes influence design pressures. AWWA C200 contains a formula for
determining hydrostatic test.
It is customary to make hydratatic tests at the pressure required by the standard
during the course of manufacture of the pipe. The requirements for hydrostatic testing in
the presence of the purchaser's inspector involve additional handling, unless tfie inspector is
present during the course of manufacture. The producer, on request, customarily furnishes
a certificate confirming such testing.
Tests of dimensional properties. The diameter, length, wall thickness, straightness, and out-of-roundness of pipe are checked as part of the normal manufacturing
procedure. Such dimensions are subject to the tolerantes prescribed in the appropriate
standards or sptcifications. ..-

>

..

Referentes

. .. ,. -... ,
'

1. Methods, Fractices, and Definitions for


Chemicd Andysis of Steel Products.
ASTM Smndard A751-77. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1977).
2. Methods and Definitions for Mechanical
Testing of Sted Prcdum. ASTM Stand. . ard A370-77. ASTM, PhiIadelphia, Pa.
L.:

(1977).
.

3%

. -

- ,

:.

3. Steel Warer Pipe 6 lnches md Larger.


AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1980).

r
-

;
-

AWWA MANUAL

-Hydraulicsof Pipelines

:>

.: .:.

,.:

.-,~,&E-A

.+
:

This chapter is p r i d y cace&


wirh the flow ofwater in transmission conduits; it is not
intended to cover flows through the complicated networks of distribution systems. &cause
this manual is a pide to p d c e rather thm P textbook, historid md theoretid
development of the many hydraulic flow formulas has been omitted, as has discussion of
universal or ratiod formuias.
The discussions d data in this chapter are therefore restricted to the three formulas
bebeved to be most commonly used in water flow d d t i o n s in the westem hemisphere.
Definitions of the hydraulic md other symbols used in the following formulas are given at
the end of the chapter.

The Hazen-Wllliarns Formula


Probably the most popular formuia in cumnt use among waterworks engineers is the
Hazen-Williams formula. This formula, fmt pubtished in 1904, is:

V = 1.318 c
-

# ~ ~

The head l a s hf may be caiculated from:


4.72Ql.852 L

hf =

~ 1 . 8 ~5 4~- 8 7

Tests hsve shown that the vdue of the Hazen-Wiiliams roughness coeficient C is
dependen1not oniy on the surfaceroughnessofthe pipe interior but also on the diameterof

22

STEEL PIPE

the pipe. Flow measurements show that for pipe with smooth interior linings in good
condition, the average vaiw of C m a y be appmximated by the formula:
C = 140 + 0.17d

(3-3)

However, in consideration of long-term lining deterioration, dime buildup, etc,, a Iower


design value is recommended, as follows:

A graphical solutionof the Hazen-Wilhns formula for C= 150 is presented in Figure


3-1 for pipe sizes 6 in. through 144 in. The multiplying factors in Table 3-1 provide a
convenient means of changing the flow capacities shown in Figure 3-1 to the flows for other
vaiues of C.

The Scobey Formula


The Scobey formula for steel pipe, used perhaps more commonly in irrigationwork than in
the waterworks industry, is:

or for determining head 105s:

The recommendedK,vdue for new bare steef pipt or pipe with iiaings confocming to
current AWWA smdmds is 0.36. A graphid solution to the Scobey formula for K,=0.36 is
shown in Figure 3-2. Mdtiplyiag factors for odier frictim d i c i e n w are given in Tabk
3-2.

The Manning Formula


<.-.

The nilanning formula is:

For design, an n vdue of 0.01 1 is mmmended for steel pipe with iinings conforming
to current AWWA standard$. A graphid solution to the Manning fomuia for n = 0.011 is

shown in Figure 3-3. Multiplyhg facu)rs for other values of n are @venin Tabk 3-3.

.-

HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES

23

0.1

0.2

0.0

0.4
1

4
,, ,

10

20

40

60

100

200

400600

1000

2000

4000800010000

HYDRAULIC GRAOIENT PER 1000 FT, FT

Flgure 3-2 Solution of Scobey Fiow Formula for K, = 0.36


(Seedata ln Table 3-2for other K, values.)

Table 3-2 Muitipiying Factors for Friction C&dent


Vnlue- Base Ks= 0.36+
K,vaiw
-tive

0.32
discharge

*Data for use with Figure 3-2.

1.125

0.34
1,059

0.36
1.000

0.38

0.946

0.40
0.900

Figure 3-2 Solution of Scobey Flow Formula for K, = 0.36


(See data In Table 3-2for other K, vrilues.)

T&le 3-2 Multiplying Factors b r Frictlon Coealdent


Vaiue- Bace KS= 0.36*
K,value
Rektive discharge

*Data for use with Figure 3-2.

0.32
1.125

0.34

0.36

1.059

1.000

0,W
0.946

n vaiue
Relative discharge
*Data for use with Figure 3-3.

0.009

0.010

1.222

1.100

0.011
1.000

0.012

0.013

0.917

0.846

STEHL PIPE

26

Computations for Fiow Through Pipe

- . . -. .
The quantity of water that will pass through any given pipe depends on the head (pressure)
producing the flow, the diameter and length of the pipe, the condition of the pipe interior
(smooth or rough), the number and abruptness of bends or elbows, and the presence of tees,
brmches, valves, and orher accessories in the line.
The total head, or pressure, affectingflow may be divided into four parts: velocity head
loss, entrance head loss, loss of head through friction, and minor losses due to elbows,
fittings, and valves.

. -.

Velocl ty Head Loss (v '/zg)


Velocity head loss is defmed as the height through which a body must faH in a vacuum to
acquire the velocity at which the water flowsin the pipe. This loss is u s d y considered to be
unrecoverable at the outlet. Numerical values are given in Table 3-4.
.

-E

"g-:>L
.

Entrance Head Los

.
.

,L . . ..

..

Entrance head loss is the head required to overcome the resismce at the ennance io the
pipe; it is usually less than the veiwity head. When the conditions are not specified, it is
ordinarily considered equal to one-half the velacity head, on the assumption of a sharp-edge
entrance. Safe values for the ordinary entrance head loss may be obtained from Table 3-4 by
taking half the velocity head corresponding to the velocity in the pipeline. Head losses for
other rhan sharpsdge entrances may be found in treatises on hydraulics.

d.

Loss of Head Through Friction


Friction head loss may be detemned by one of the formvlas duit have been discussed
previously (Data are given in this chapter to aid in solving the formulas.)- .

&+i:

Minor Losses Dueto Ubows, Fittings, andvalves

.
...
.

..

2..-

..->.

,.

. ,

In long lines, minor head losses due to bends and fittings are occasionaiiy ignored. In any
given line, however, it is best to consider di losses so that no important factors will be
overlooked. The minor losses should always be recognized when evaluatingflow tests. Total

Table 3-4 Theoretid Head Corresponding to Wven ~elocity -v ' / t g


Vekooty
fps

Head

Veiocity

ft

fP5

1
2
3

0.02

5
6

7
8
9
10

0.06
0.14
0.25

22

0.39

24

0.56
0.76
1.O

26
23

1.3

32

1.6

34

14

Somce: hmard, R.E. Dcsign Standards for Steel Water Pipe. Joirr. A WWA, 40:124 (Jan. 1948).

HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINHS

..

--

*-

27

head loss in long lines with low velwities, the s u m of ve1wity head loss and entrance head
loss, may be relatively insignifiant; in short lines with high velocities, this sum becomes
very important. Ordinary tables and charts showing flow of water in pipe usually give only
the fiiction head loss in straight pipe. In long lines, this is the largest loss.
In tht f i d correct solution to a flow problem, the sum of ali losses must e q m i the
available head, or pressure, prducing the flow. The foregoing formulas determine H or V,
and the volume of fiow Q is found from:

The information contained in Tables 3-5 through 3-9 wiIl be useful when making
hydraulic calculations.

Flow Through Fittings-Ecluivalent-Length Method


Experiments have shown that the head lms in bends, fitrings, and valves is related to flow
velocity and pipe diameter in a manner somewhat similar to that in straight pipe.

Drop per 1000


of Pipe

S for

Sacl Water Pipe. Jm.A W WA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948).

LRngthofEpe
1-ft Drop

STEEL PIPE

Tabk 3-6 Flow Equivalents

11 111
11 806
12 500
13 194
13 889

24.77
-26.31
27.86
29.41

21
22
23
24
25

-14 583
15 278
15 972
16 667
17 361

32.51
34.05

18056

40.25
41.80
43.34
44.89

16

17
18
19

*--

E-:- < _ .
&.-F.

- ,'

,.

3.

:<S+-+

- '4
O

26

28
29

30
31

S-:

19444
20 139
20 833

32

21 528
22 222

33
34
35

22 917
23 611
24 306

hnad,

RE. Des@

45 833
47 222
48 611

74
76
78

37.15
38.70

50000
51 389

80

52 778
54 167
55 5%

82
84

56 944
5s 333

86

59 722

88
90

61 111
62 500

92
94
%

63 889
65 278
66 667

98
100

68 056
69 444

4-44
47.99
49.54
51.08
52.63
54.18

66

35.60

43 056
44 444

68
70

30.96

18750

62 M '

"

95.98
99.08
102.17
105.27
108.37
111.4
114.56
117.65
120.75
123.85
12h.94
130.04
133.14
136.23
139.33
142.43
145.52
148.62
151.71
154.81

Stadards for Steel Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 4&1:24 Q a i ~1948).

Consequently, it is possible to determine the le@ of a theoretid piece of straight pi


which the head loss due to friction would be the a m e as for some fitting. This method of
equivoilent lengths is reoognizedby s e v e d authorities!12 By developingihe total equivalent
Length (piping plus bends, fi-,
valves, etc.), the total head loss in a piping system can
easily be determined,
The c h s s i d equation developed by Darcy-Weisbach for energy loss of flow in a
pipeline is:

HL= f

a]

v2
(+) (%)

In the equation, Htis the head (energy) l a s due to friction in the l e n e of pipe L ofinside :
diameter D for average velocity V. The friction factor f is a function of pipe mughn

29

HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES

Table 3-7 Pressure (pd) for H&s

(a)

-.

Additional Heads

+1

+2

+3

4.33

10
20
30

8.66

12.99

40
50

60
70

80
90
Source: W r d ,

+6

+7

+8

+9

Bressure
PS

ft

C
4:

+5

+4

Head
0.43

4.76
9.09
13.42
17.75
22.08

0.87
5-20
9.53

1.73
6.06

2.16

2.60

3.03

5.63

6.49

6.93

7.36

3.46
7.79

9.96

10.39

13.86

14.29

14.72

10.82
15.15

11.69
16.02

12.12
18.45

18.62
22.95
27.28

19.05
23.38

19.48
23.81

11.26
15.59
19.92
24.25

20.35

20.78

24.68

25.11

8.23
12.56
16.89
21.22
25.55

27.71

28.14
32.47

23.58
32.91

29.01

29.44

29.88

33.34

35.94
40.27

36.80

37.24

37.67

33.77
38.10

38.54

41.13

41.57

42.00

42.43

42.87

17.32
21.65
25.98

26.41

N31

30.74

18.19
22.52
26.85
31.18

34.64
38.97

35.07

35.51

39.40

39.84

1.30

31.61

32.04
36.37
40.70

3.90

34.21

R.E. Dcsign Standards for S ~ eWater


l
Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:124 (Jan.1948).
.-.

,'.

Tabk 3-8 Head (ft) b r Pressures (psi)


Additional Htads

23.1

2.3
25.4

27.7

6.9
30.0

46.2

48.5

50.8

53.1

69.3

71.6
94.7

73.9

76.2
99.3

92.4

M e w r ~

in.

Water
k.
13.6
27.2
40.8

4.6

97.0

9.2
32.3
55.4
78.5

11.5
34.6

13.9
3.9

39.3

18.5
41.6

43.9

57.7
80.8

60.0

62.4

64.7

67.0

83.1

85.4

87.8

90.1

101.6

103.9

106.2

108.5

110.8

113.2

16.2

20.8

Mercury

Water

Pi

in.

fn.

0.49

13
14
15

176.8
190.4
204.0

6.38
6.87
7.36

16

217.6

7.85

0.98
1.47

:Bamard, R.E. Design Standards for S t d Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:1:24 (Jan.1948}.

30

STEEL PIPE

SHEAR GATE

Source: John F. Lenard. President. Lenard Engineerrng,

Inc.

Figure 3-4 Resistance Coefficients of Valves and Fittings for Fluid Flows
,
.

. . -.

t'

VALUES OF Vd FOR WATER AT 60"

v."-

- \

108

4 5 6

010'

4 5 6

010'

4 5 6

810'

REYNOLDS NUMBER (RI


Soutce: Pipe Friction Manual. Hydraulic Institute, New Vork (1954).

Figure 3-5 Momly Diagram for Friction in Plpe

4 . 5 6

810'~-*2.

33-5.6,BlOb
O.%

32

velocity, pipe diameter, and fluid viscosity. Values for f have been developed by ~ o o d
and others. With a known f and L/D, the Darcy-Weisbach formula can be expressed as:

In this equation, K is the resistance coefficient. Figure 3-4 shows values for K based on a
summary of experimental data.
Examples to determine head loss HLfor fittings and vdves and equivalent pipe Iengths
using Figure 3-4 are as follows:

.Y

Pipe = 6 in.
Flow = 450 gpm

C = 100
V = 5.12 fps

CalcuIaitaon~:
. - 5..
. Velwiry head:
,

, ,--

..

.
<.L . :=
Y

SSTI3EL PEPE

..,

..,.

-?
- ;:'a
. . --

S:" .

7'

::

($)=0.41ft

.
:

.,

1. 6411.gate valve, fuiiy open:

HL= 0 . 2 x 0.41 =

0.08 ft

2. 6-in. swing check valve, fully open:

--

0.57 ft

HL=1.4x0.41=
enlargement from 6 in. to 8 in.:
:

.
+

HL= 0.18 x 0.41 =


'

>

4. 6411. elbow:
K = 0.6

..

HL= 0.6 x 0.41 =

0.25 ft
0.97 ft

Total head ioss

+:

--

f_
m

..

Using the Hazen-Wiliiarns formula, the equivalent pipe length for 6411.
pipe, C = 100
with a HL= 0.97 ft, equis 35.3 ft.
.'
-

ECONOMICAL DIAMETER OF Pt PE

,,..

. '

.-

Hydraulic formulas will give the relation between flow rate and head loss in pipes of various diameters and interior surface conditions. When a limited amount of head loss is available,
the usual design prmedure is to select the smallest diameter that will deliver the required
flow when utilizing the available head. This results in the least construction cost. her re
head is provided by pumping, a part of the cost is for energy to provide head to overcome
friction. The cost for energy decreases as pipe diameter increases and friction losses
decrease; however, the cost for the pipe increases. The objective is u s d y to minimize totai .
cost (inixial cost, operation, and maintenance) by selecting the pipe diameter t h t results in
least Iife-cycIe cost. Energy costs may prove to be the most significant cost. However, when
making an assessment of future energy costs, care must be taken to reduce such costs to the
present worth on which dl other costs of the comparisons have been predicated.

,
E

HYDRAULICS OF PIPELINES

Aqueducts
Economic studies of large aqueducts are frequently cornplicatcd by the desirability of
combining different means of carrying water-for example, through open conduits, pipe,
and tunnels-in the same system. Hinds4> demonstrated the use of grapbical rneans in
making such studies in the design of the Colorado River Aqueduct. T h e methedoffinding
economicalslopes elaborated by Hinds had been csd previously in &e desi of rhe Owens
River Aqueduct of Los ~ n ~ e land
e s the
~ Catskill Aqueduct of New York.

Penstocks
An economic study to determine penstock size generally requires that the annual penstock
cost plus the value of power lost in friction be minimai. T h e annual pwstock cost includes
amortization of al1 rekited construction costs, operation and maintenance costs, and
replacement reserve. A precise analyticai evduation, m b g al1 facuirs imo account, may be
neither justified nor practical, since ali variables entering into the problem are subject to
varying degrees of uncertainty .
Figure 3-6, which is used to determine the economic diameter for sreel penstacks and
pump lines, was derived from the method presented by Voetsch m d res en.^

3.4 DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS


Methods of determining economical sizes of pipe for disrribution systems have been
published.9

5 AIR ENTRNNMENT AND RELEASE


Air entrained in flowing water tends to form bubbles at or near the summits in a pipcline. If
not removed, such bubblcs become serious obstades to flow. The formation of hydraulic
jump in a pipe at the end of these bubbles is an importan1 reason to remove rhe air. Possible
air entrainment and its removai must be considered and remedies applisd if needed. T h e
ability of the hydraulic jump to enuain the air and to carry it w a y by the flowing water has
been investigated. Quantitative data have been published10 rehting b c t e r i s t i c s of the
jump to the rate of air removal. Removal of air through air valves is discussed in Chapter 9.

COOD PRACTICE

: .

Waterworks engineers should use


hydraulic-friction formulas with which they are most
familiar and with which they have had experience. Three of the common conventional
formulas have been discussed in this chapter. In any particular case, the results c a l h t e d
using the different conventional formulois can be compared. Engineers should, howwer,
recogniae the increasing use of the rational or universal formulas, become familiar with
them,and make check calculations using them. A practica1d ~ c i w value
r for the formulas
should i
x conservatively selected.
The results of flow tests will generaiiy be more usefui if related to the rational concept of
- fluid flow. This entails more attention to relative surface roughness, water temperature,
nolds numbers, and an amlysis of test results aimed at fitting them into the frame of the
' fluid-mechanics a p p d to flow determination.

Definition of Syrnbols
Hydrauiic symbols:

; .

A = asea of pipe (sq ft)


C = Hazen-Williams coefficient
D = diameter of pipe (ft)
d = diameter of pipe (in.)
f = Darcy fiiction factor

34

STEEL PIPE

a : Coat o f pipa p i r lb., i n s t i l l i d , dollors.


B * Oiometir muitiplisr from Groph 8.
olus d !ast powtr in dollar, pw k wh.
D : Economic d i o m i t i r ir f i i t .
o : Ovarotl plant eiieraney.
e) : Joint lffieieney.
I : Lpss factor trom G w h A.
b

n = Wsightld ovimpi hiod imludiiq w o t i r


hammar. (bid m dmign haad)
Frictim c ~ l f f i e i o n tin Seabiyh formulo (R34).
Ratio oi owrwmight b w i g M o p t p i s h l l .
Flow in tubie f& ver sacmd. (aiM p n h M d at turbina 1
Rotio of onnuol c o s t tobm(
$me ixolanotionl
Allowibli tinrion, p r l
Wrightid w t r i g i pl#i thicknisr( oi dnipn h i a d 1 f o r t o t a l Iingth.
Avsraga platl thicknns for frnpth Lo.

'

Ks
n =

9 =
r :

p=
t,

EXPLANATION

ANO

LXAY PLE
Eaomplo for plnstotk
L 2 6 L*. 1%

,=

= le6 CFS

~ f &L*:loo'
,

625

r: ~ o ~ + o . ~ ~ + ~ o ~ I ~ :soa.a~r =
T %#a
~

L,t,*C,t,*L,t,*
... tkk
+,
L , + L I * L I * . .+Ln

n:

L,+C2+Li*

K:

0 :1.281 Ifron

rfwt

m!osty"p~~~Ptof~~
0.8 M

:Cwt

sit%qb:~x465iaSlor&twioxasoxaopg,
prt I+n)

+Ln

o t mpiniuininp inhriar and mterior surfoet

mi o f E r I w r i i r i o w o r w f o r ~p ~ r ,

0.0119

R27 a D . N 7 0 i1.15
61; 6.3 7 ( h BUpk C) i EeoooiiTc

&O.

I.ZBS ~ 3 . 74 7~ 5 I m i 4'IOm0'dip.l

& M E : Cdeuldad 0d
i gpdd k v * r ~cbsi tp msrmd dim it
k m this i ~ a m p l i . Thi w b l n i shosiid k nworkrd m t i l tkir
mi*
Oipriciatim ir k r t d on t h i mmiiptiwi ot m a m l ihhing f d iarninp 3*
intirist roquired b npluce 50% o thi pipi in 45 p i r i . Thi onnwl
w y m i n t n q u i r t d 13 q u a i to 0.M5135 timar t h i t i r i t cort.

nridt w d whidt s&w ama k r i t p o n d ppi I


por p a r .
Dapriciotim :Si0 Redamtion Ymuil, MI.m m r , poqi 2,4,llD.
t:liihrest+[kpracioti~n+ % O B Y

Adaptd from Steel Penstocks and Tunnel Liners. Steel Plate Engineering Data Vol. 4. American lmn and Steel lnstitute
cooperation with Steel Plate Fabricators Assoc., lnc., 1982. Courtesy of AISI.

Figure 3-6 Economic D i e t e r for Steel Penstocks and Pump Unes

HYDRAULICS

g
hf
H

=
=

acceleration of gravity (32.2 fps/s)


head loss (ft) in pipe length L (ft)

head loss (ft) in 1000 ft of pipe

Ks
L
n
Q
r

=
=

length of pipe (ft)

=
=
=

Manning coefficient
discharge (cfs)
hydraulic radius of pipe (ft)

s
V

OF PIPELINES

35

Scobey constant

= T = 1O~0= slopeof hydraulicgradient


= mean velocity (fps).

Other symbols: '


b
Qa

=
=

value of power ($/hp/yr)


average discharge (cfs)

S
t

allowable unit stress in steel (psi)

a
i
Ha

=
=
=
=

pipe thickness (in.)

cost of steel ($/lb)


yearly fixed charges on pipeline, expressed as a ratio
average head on penstock including water hammer (ft).

References
1. CROCKER,SABIN,ed. Piping Handbook.
McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th
ed., 1945).
2. Flow of Fluids Through Valves, Fittings,
and Pipe. Tech. Paper 409, Crane Co.,
Chicago (1942).
3. MOODY,L.F. Friction Factors for Pipe
Flow. American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, New York.
4. HINDS, JULIAN. Economic Water Conduit Size. Engineering News Record,
118:113 (1937).
5. --Economic Sizes of Pressure Conduits. Engineering News Record, 118:443
(1937).
6. BABBITT,H.E. & DOLAND,J.J. Water
Supply Engineering. McGraw-Hill Book
Co., New York (1927; 1955).
7. WHITE, LAZARUS.Catskill Water Supply
of New York, N. Y. John Wiley and Sons,
New York (1913).
8. VOETSCH,CHARLES& FRESEN, M.H.
Economic Diameter of Steel Penstocks.
Trans. ASCE, 103:89 (1938).
9. LISCHER,V.c. Determination of Economical Pipe Diameters in Distribution
Systems. Jour. A WWA, 40:8:849 (Aug.
1948).
10. HALL, L.S.;

KALINSKE,

A.A.; & ROBERT-

SON,J.M. Entrainment of Air in Flowing


Water-A Symposium. Trans. ASCE,
108:1393 (1943).

The following references are not cited


in the text.

ALDRICH,E.H. Solution of Transmission


Problems of a Water System. Trans.
ASCE, 103:1579 (1938).
BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for
Steel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24
(Jan. 1948).

BRADLEY,J.N. & THOMPSON,L.R. Friction Factors of Large Conduits Flowing


Full. Engineering Monograph 7, US
Bureau of Reclamation (1951).
CAPEN, C.H. Trends in Coefficients of
Large Pressure Pipes. Jour. A WWA,
33:1:1 (Jan. 1941).
CATES,W.H. Design Standards for LargeDiameter Steel Water Pipe.Jour. AWWA,
42:9:860 (Sept. 1950).
CROSS,HARDY.Analysis of Flow in Networks of Conduits of Conductors. Bull.
286. Engrg. Expt. Stn., Univ. of Illinois,
Urbana, Ill. (Nov. 1936).
DAVIS, C.V., ed. Handbook of Applied
Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York (2nd ed., 1952).
FARNSWORTH,
GEORGE,JR. &ROSSANO,
AUGUST, JR. Application of the Hardy
Cross Method to Distribution System
Problems. Jour. A WWA, 33:2:224 (Feb.
1941).
HINDS,JULIAN.Comparison of Formulas
for Pipe Flow. Jour. AWWA, 38:11:1226
(Nov. 1946).
KING, H.W. Handbookof Hydraulics. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (4th ed.,
1954).
MOODY,L.F. Friction Factors for Pipe
Flow. Trans. ASME, 66:671 (1944).
PIGOTT, R.J.S. Pressure Losses in Tubing, Pipe, and Fittings. Trans. ASME,
72:679 (1950).
Pipe FriccionManual. Hydraulic Institute,
New York (1954).
Pipeline Design for Water and Wastewater. Report of the Task Committee on
Engineering Practice in the Design of
Pipelines. ASCE, New York (1975).
Report of Committee on Pipeline Friction
Coefficients and Effect of Age Thereon.
Jour. NEWWA, 49:235 (1935).
I

AWWA MANUAL

Chapter

an
M1

4
Determination of Pipe
Wall Thickness
-

. -

The wal thickness of steeI pipe is dected by a number of factors that will be discussed in
this and succeeding chapters, including the following:

1. Interd pressure

a. Maximum &sign pressure (Chapter 4)


b. Surge or warer-hammer pressure (Chapter 5).'

2. E x t e d pressure
,..
a. Trench Ioading pressure (Chapter 6)
b. Fwth-fili pressure (Chapter 6 )
c. Uniform oollapse pressure, atmospheric or hydrauIic (Chapter 4)
d. Vacuum underground (Chapter 6)
3. Special physical loading
.
.
a. Pipe on saddle supports (Chapter 7)
b. Pipe on ring-girder supports (Chapter 7)
.4. Fhcticoil requirements (Chapter 4)
,

'."

The thickness selected should be that whic'hsatisfies the mom swere requiremei

When desifor internai pressure, the minimum thiof a cyhder shouId be


selected to h i t the circumferential tension stressto a c e h kvel. This stressis frequwtly
termed hoop stress. The internal pressure used in design should be that to which the pipe
may be subjmed during its lifetime. In a transmissionpipeline, the pressure is m
the dismce between the pipe centerline md the hydroiulic gmde line. If there
valves, the h u m pressure on the pipe between them wiil be measured by the dis
i

.'

PIPE WALL THICKNBSS

37

between the pipe centerline and the elevation of the static leve1with the valva closed. Surge
or water-hammer pressures must also be considered. These are discussed in Chapter 5. In a
pump-discharge pipeline, rhe internai pressure is measured by the distance between the
pipe and the hydradic grade line created by the pumping operation. Ressure at the outlet
and the loss due to friction enter into this determination. If it is possibie to impose a pressure
equal to the shutoff head of the pumps, the pressure is measured between the pipe and the
shutoff grade line. Figures 4- 1and 4-2 show typical pipeline and hydraulic grade profiles for
gravity and pumped flow.
With pressure determined, the wail thickness is found using Eq 4-1:

...

Where:
+,

..

specifed wall thickness (in.)


-:.
p = pressure (psi)
d = outside diameter of pipe (in.) steel cylinder (not including coatings)
s = allowable stress (psi).
-.
t = minimum

) - - m - - - -STATIC
---

TEST HGL

STATIC TEST HGL


-

STATIC HGL

- .&&i
figure 4-2 Relation of Various Heads or
Pressures forSelection of Design Pressure
(Pumped Flow)

WORKING TENSION STRESS IN STEEL


Tension Stress ancl Yield Strength
.
*

.. .

Modern steel technology has dowed increases in the allowable working stress for steel, with
xhis working stress determined with relation to the steel's yield strength rather than its
ultimate strength. A design stress equal to 50 percent of the s p e c i f ~ dminimum yield
strength is often accepted for steel water pipe. Design criteria for penstocks h v e been
adopted by the Bureau of ~eclamation'that base design stress on 93 the minimum tensile
strength or 2/3 the minimum yield strength, whichever is least. With the use of given
methods of stress d y s i s and proper quality control mesures, hese ailowable design
stresses are considered conservative for the usual water-transmission pipelines. Table 4-1
illustrates grades of steel used as a basis for working pressure and the design stress as
to minimum yield point and minimum ultimate tensile strength for common
steel as referenced in AWWA C200, Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and

38

STEEL PIPE

Table 4-t

Grades of Steel Used in AWWA C200 as Basis for Working Pressures in Table 4-2

Specifications for
Fabricated Pipe

Design Stress
50%of Yield Point
psi

Minimum Yield Point


psi

Minimum Ultimate
Tensile Strength
psi

.18000
15000
16500
15000
16500
18000
20 000
22 500
25 000
21 000
25 000
30 000

36 000
30 000
33 000
30 000
33 000
36 000
40 000
45 000
50 000
42 000
50 000
60 000

58 000
55 000
60 000
49000
52 000
53000
55 000
60 000
65 000
60 000
65 000
75 000

Design Stress
50%of Yield Point
psi

Minimum Yield Point


psi

Minimum Ultimate
Tensile Strength
psi

15000
17 500
21 000
23 000
26 000

30 000
35 000
42 000
46 000
52 000

48 000
60 000
60 000
60 000
66 000

ASTM A36
ASTM A283 GR C
GRD
ASTM A570 GR 30
GR33
GR36
GR40
GR45
GR50
ASTM A572 GR 42
GR50
GR60

Specifications for
Manufactured Pipe
ASTM A53, A135,
GRA
and A139
GRB
ASTM A139
GRC
GRD
GRE

Table 4-2 gives the designer working pressures corresponding to 50 percent of the
specified minimum yield strength for several types of steel commonly used in waterworks
pipelines. The designer is cautioned that the diameters and wall thicknesses listed in the
table are for reference only and do not represent engineering or manufacturing limits.
Modern steel-mill capabilities permit the manufacture of almost any diameter and wall
thickness of pipe; in practice, however, most pipe manufacturers fabricate pipe to standard
diameters and wall thicknesses. Pipe with thick linings such as the cement-mortar l~nings
specified in AWW A C205, Standard for Cement-Mortar Protective Lining and Coating for
Steel Water Pipe-4 In. and Larger-Shop
Applied,3 and AWWA C602, Standard for
Cement-Mortar Lining of Water Pipelines-4
In. (100 mm) and Larger-In
Place,4 is
usually fabricated to the individual manufacturer's standard diameters to accommodate the
required lining thicknesses. It is, therefore, recommended that the pipe manufacturers be

consulted before final selection of diameter and wall thicknesses.

Pressure Limits
High quality in the manufacture of both the pipe and the steel used in its manufacture is
required by AWW A standards. Therefore, hoop stress may be allowed to rise, within limits,
above 50 percent of yield for transient loads. When ultimate tensile strength is considered, a
safety factor well over two is realized. For steel pipe produced to meet AWW A standards,
the increased hoop stress should be limited to 75 percent of the specified yield strength, but
should not exceed the mill test pressure.

4.3 CORROSION ALLOWANCE


At one time it was a general practice to add a fixed, rule-of-thumb thickness to the pipe wall
as a corrosion allowance. This proved to be an irrational solution in the waterworks field,
where standards for coating and lining materials and procedures exist. It is preferable to
design for the required wall-thickness pipe as determined by the loads imposed, then select

PIPE WALL THICKMESS

39

linings, coatings, and cathodic protection as necessary to provide the required leve1 of
corrosion protection.
. ..

4.4 EXTERNALFLUIDPRESSURE-UNIFORMANDRADIAL
The proper wall thickness must be selected to resist external loading imposed on the pipe.
Such loading may take the form of outside pressure, either atmospheric or hydrostatic, both
of which are uniform and act radially as collapsing forces. Buried pipe must be designed to
resist earth pressure in trench or fiil condition. These considerations are discussed in
Chapter 6.

Atmosphere or Fluid Environrnents


A general theory of collapse-resistance of steel pipe to uniform, radially acting forces has
been d e ~ e l o ~ eAny
d . ~unreinfoxced tube longer than the nitical length can be considered a
tube of infinia length, as its collapsing pressure is independent of further increase in length.
The foliowing formula applies to such tubes:

.::

Where:

..

...--

.'*A.

;iL.<+
-' 3 -

-.

-...

: ,

_
--

.
,
-- .5

L,

- rdn =
-

=
Pc =
E =
u
=

d i a r n e w m n e w W ~ a--f t M - w
(for thin pipes, the difference
between inside diameter, outside diameter, and neutral-axis diameter
is negligible)
.:-..:
$
,.
'
wail thickness (in.)
,- .,=,-.
.
:.- ,.
.collapsing pressure (psi)
. . .=
modulus of elasticity (30 000 000 for steel)
!? -.. .
Poisson's ratio (usually taken as 0.30 for steel).
!

,
,

Substiming the above values of E and v:

Applied Calculations
Circular cylindrical shels under external pressure may fail either by buckling or by yielding.
Relatively thin-wded shells fail through instability or buckling under stresses that, on the
average, are below the yield strength of the material. In the waterworks field, the
thickness-diameter ratio is such that there is usually a buckling failure. A number of
theoretical and empirical formulas have been promulgated to provide for the effect of
instability due to collapsing. They include the formulas of ~irnoshenko? Love, ~ o a r k , ~
Stewart, and Bryan.
Stewart developed two empirical equations for the collapsing pressures of steel pipes.
The Stewart formula, which automatically accounts for wall thickness variations, out-ofroundness, and other manufacturing tolerantes, is:

For buckling failure, where

dn

is 0.023 or Iess and PCis 581 psi or less:

Pc =
formula is considered more conservative than the previous formulas.

..

-- .-.
.:C

STEEL PIPE

Equation 4-4 is predicated on the pipe being mmmerciaiiy round, made of steel with a
minimum yield of at least 27 000 psi, and having a length six diameters or more between
reinforcing elementc.
- .
. . . --.. .r
. .
t

4.5 MlNIMUM WALL THICKNESS


Minimum plate or sheet thidmesses for handling are based w p o formulas adopted by
rnany specifying agencies. They are:'

D
t =-

(pipe sizes up to 54 in. ID)

288

t=

.- .

400

(pipe sizes greater than 54 in. ID)

In no case s W the sheli thickness be less than 14 gauge (0.ll747in.).


Ir should be mted that for pipe diameters smaller than 54 in., the use of Eq 4-5 (Pacifc
Gas and Electric formula) will result in a rhinner pipe wdl than the use of E q 4-6 (United
States Bureau of Rechmation formula). For 54411.and larger pipe, the opposite is t r u ~

4.6 W O D PRACTICE

'>X

Interna1 pressure, external pressure, special physical loading, type of Iinq and coating, and
other practicd requirements govern wall thickness. Good practice with regard to internal
pressure is to use a working tensile stress of 50 peraent of the yield-point stress under the
influence of maximum design pressure. The stress of transitory surge pressures, together
with static pressure, may be taken at 75 percent of the yield-point stress. The daigner
should, however, never overlook the effect of water hammer or surge pressures in design. It
is more positive and economical to select a proven coating or linhg for protedon against
corrosion hazards rhan to add sacrificial wall thickness.

I r

'

'

'

--a.
=
C'

ir'.

--

-S

"

PIPE WALL TIfICKNHSS

41

Table 4-2 Working Pressures For Allowable Unit Stresses*

m
WdI
Wcight
mT'MuEB$ per Foot

Stress pa'

DJt

FipeAxis
h 4

Sccaon

-dUS

15000

16500

17500

18000

21000

42

STEEL PIPE

Table 4-2 WorWng Pressures for Allowabie Unit Stresses* (continued)

.,

Stress psi

wall
waght
Diameterf Thicknesst per Fmt
t
m.
in.
M R a t i o
18

OD

.O747

-10%
-1345
.1563
.1793

30

OD

14.30
19.99
25.67

240.96
172.08
133.83

29.79
34.13

115.16

.2188
.2500

41-56

.1M6

33.40
42.91
49.82

-1345

.1%3

47.40

100.39
82.27
72.00

Pipe&
in.'

Modulus

15000

145

149

1 74

a)9

247
287

262

261

B9
313

299

329

304
349

244
314
365

359

418

365
417

401
458

425
486

438

51 1

500

583

105

115
148
172

122

126

157

161

1%
188

182

188

219

483.12

549.14

61,02

1 097.51

223.05
191.94

1401.02
1 631.50

73.17
93-80
108.77

135
156

See agt for formulm u d .


~S~undu45in.~outsi&~sizcs,~45in.andoverartinsidediamoersk.
$ M m u f a r c r s can f u m a wall thiche3scs 0 t h thm shown.
$WorlMg pressmay be interphed or exn-aplatedfor other wall thic$Qesses or messe.

*Vd= have km a m p t e d by e k a m k -puta.

21000

203

38.75
44.28
53.68

286.81

18000

137

125
174
224

348.74
398.53

17500

192

18.77
26.16
33.47

168.96

235.41
301.m

16500

Worlung rssure prix

(S)

PIPE WALL THICKNESS

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Allowable Un&Stress* (cmtinued)

m WaIl Weight
DiameterT Tbicknessf m FOO~ Do/t
k

OD

.1793
.21#
.2500

57.11
69.60
79.44
99.10
138.15
157.55

167.32
137.11
120.00

35.64
45.78

305.93
237.92

3125
.4375
.5#0

53.16
60.94
74.28
84.78
105.77
147.50
168.23

204.73
178.47
146.25
128.00
102.40
73.14
325.05

.3125

37.87
48.65
56.50
64.77
78.95
90.12
112.45

. --4375.5000

32

OD

.lo46

/'

96.00
68.57

60.00

64.00

252.79
217.53
189.63
155.39
136.00
108.80

43

---

.- - ....

Scction

PipeAxis
h?

Mddus

1 867.28
2 269.64
2 585.18
3Sll.28
4439.73
5 042.20

124.49
151.31
172.35
214.09
295.98
336.15

1 332.85

83.30
106.81
123.87
141.80
172.39
196.40

1709.04
1 981.98
2 268.73
2 758.28

3 142.37
3 904.95
5 403.00
6 138.62
1 599.62
2051.45

2 379.37
2 723.95
3 312.46
3774.37

4 691.95

15000

16500

17500

18000

21000

179
219
250

197
241

209
255

215

251

263

306

27s

292
365

300
375

48 1
550

5 10
583

525

438
613

600

700

108
139
161
185
. 226
258
322
45 1
516

114
147
171
1%

118
151
176

239

137
177
205
235
2J37
328
410
574

102
131
152
174
212
243
303

108
138
161
185
225
257
322

438

500
98
1%
147
168
205
234

244.06

293

337.69
383.66

410
469

94.10
120.67
139.96
160.23
194.85
222.02
276.00

92
119
138
158
193
221
276

273
342
479
547

202
246
281

352
492
563

111
142
165
190
232
265
331

350

656

129
166

193
221
270

309
386

sures may be interpokd or exPapolared for 0 t h wd thicknesses or strcsses.

44

STEEL PIPE

Table 4-2 WorWng Pressures for Ailowable Unlt *


S

wau

Pipe

Diamc~rtThicknessI

57

ID

WeigIlf
rier

Foot

Dn/t

Moment
of Inertia
About
PipeAxis
inP

(continud)

Stress gs

Scction
Mdulus

15000

165MJ

17500

18000

21000

158
197

230

.2500

152.88

230.00

18421.89

640.76

132

145

154

.3125

191.31
229.82
268.41
307.09

184.40
154.00
132.29
116.00

23 103.11

801.84

963.29
1 125.09
1 287.26

181
217

192

27 814.90
32 557.37

164
197

230

253
289

.3750
,4375
.5000

37 330.a

263

Values h v e been computed by ekcwinic computer. See text for formulas used.
TSizes under 45 in. are outside diametcr sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes.
furnish w d thiicimesses otkr than shown.
SManufmurm
SWorking pressures may be kiterpolated or extrapolated for other wall thiclumses ox smsscs.

230

269

307

237
276
316

184

276
322

368

45

PIPE WALL THICKNESS

Table 4-2 Working Prwsures for Ailowabk Unit Stressec* (continued)

.
.

.-.

-'

.. . .

stress psi

pipe
Wd
weight
Diamttert Thichmd ncr Foot

Dn/t

PipeAxis

in?

Section

15000

16500

17500

18000

21000

m
46

STEEL PIPE

84

ID

-3125
.3750

.4375

281.43
337.97
394.59

270.80

22.00
194.00

73551.47
88 458.73
103 432.09

1738.29
2 087.52
2 43728

112

123

130

134

134
156

147
172

156
182

161
188

*Val= have k n computed by ekcamic oomputer. See text for formulas u d .


unda 45 in.art outside dhmm sizes; those 45 in. d ovcr m inside diameter si=.
$Manukhms
furnish dr ' '
r other tfian s h .
$Workiq pmsures m y be interplated or extrapokd for other wall thiclmesses or suesses.

156
188
219

BIPE WALL THICKNESS

Table 4-2 Working Pressures for Ailowable Unlt S&-*

47

(contfnued)

stress psi

RF

Waii

Weight

iw.

iR.

(bare)

Dimead Thicknessf per Foot

Da/t

Pipe AKis
+,

htio

(I)

Section
hladdUS

(S)

15000

16500

17500

18000

Working Pnssuit psi3

21000

... .

Table 4-2 Working Pressures For Aliowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Pi~e
Wd
Weight
Diameaq ThicknessS per Foot
zk.

m.

ID

102

754.08

.7500

823.14
892.27
961.49
1030.80
1100.18
361.54
434.10

.9375

1.0000
.3125

ID

108

.37W

.3750

506.74
579.47
652.28
725.17
798.14
871.20
944.34
1017.57
1090.88
1164.27
381.57
458.13

,4375

534.78

.HXIO

.6250

611.51
688.32
765.22

-6875
.7500

842.20
919.27

.8125
.8750
.9375

996.42
1073.65
1150.96
1228.M
401.60
482.17
562.82

.4375
.S000

.S625
.62M

A875
.7500

.S125
.87M
.9375

114,

1.0000
.3125

ID
-7

.-.-.
r

si
.E

-<..L
.*
-.
. .--.L-i--

-i-

--

--

. -:-

>

-5625
.

te:k

<E
.L-!!

. ..11-.

120I.;

1.0000

ID

.3125

.3750
.4375

S000
.5625
.62W

.6875
.75M
S125
.S750

.9375
1.0000
126

ID

(bare)

A875
.a125
-8750

<?%-+;,-.
-,

i
$

STEEL PIPE

.3125

-3750
.U75
.HWK)

5625

.6250
.6875
-7500

.8125

643.55
724.37
805.28
886.26
S7.33
1048.49
1129.73
1211.05
1292.45
421.62
506.20

590.86

675.60
7M.42
845.33
930.33
1015.40
1100.56

Ddt
&ti0

Moment
of Irleda
About
Pipe Axis
i n ~
(1)

150.36
138.00
127.54
118.57
110.80
104.00
347.60
290.00

292 350.87
319513.64
346 774.99
374 135.14
401 594.41
429 152.98
155 936.84
187 449.05
248.86 219 070.05
218.00 250 S00.20
194.00 282 639.72
174.80 314 588.81
159.09 346 647.75
146.00 378 816.75
134.92 411 096.20
125.43 443 486.19
117.20 475 987.02
110.00 508 599.07
366.80 183 313.25
306.00 220 337.67
262.57 257 483.24
230.00 294 750.26
204.67 332 139.01
184.40 369 d9.79
167.82 407 282.80
154.00 445 038.33
142.31 482 916.58
132.29 520 917.94
123.60 559 042.60
116.00 597 290.87
386.00 213 719.72
322.00 2% 864.35

5 656.12
6174.18
6 92.88
7 212.24

202

222

236

243

221
239

243

257

265

7 732.26

276

279
300
322

287
309
331

8 252.94

294
87
104
122
139
156
174

263
283
303
324
95
115
134
153
172
191
210
229

343

353

101
122
142
162
182
203

104
125
146
167
188

248
267

263
284

286
306

304

208
229
250
271
292
313

324

333

90
109

99
118

2 871.10
3 447.34
4 024.25
4 601.84
5 180.11
5 759.06
6 338.70

6919.03
7 500.04
8 081.75
8 664.15
9 247.26
3 198.49
3 840.31
4 482.84
5 126.09
5 770.06
6 414.75
7 060.16
7 706.29
8 353.15
9 000.74
9 649.06
10 298.12
3 543.54
4 254.48

4 966.17
5 678.62

5 47425
6 259.42
7 045.38
7 832.14
8 619.70
9408.05
10 197.20

130.00
122.00
405.20
338.00

. -,

16500

290.00 347 272.54


254.00 397 473.19
226.00 4-47 822.27
203.60 498 320.19
185.27 548 967.03
170.00 599 763.30
157.08 650 709.09

149.69
139.14

_ .. .,..

15000

6 391.82
7 105.77
7820.49
8 535.96
9 252.21
9 969.21
10 686.99
1 1 405.53

162.00

Stress pss'

Section
lModulUa

300 143.19
M3 556.43
387 104.47
430 787.49
474 605.90
518 559.88
562 649.73
606 875.67
651 238.16
695 737.31
247315.39
297 220.04

276.29
242.00
215.33
194.00
176.55

<

J
<

3906.26

4 689.86

257

191
a18
2a6

243
260

278

82
99
115
132
148
164
181
197
214

230
247
263

ln
145
163
181
199
217
235
253
271
289

78
94
109

86
103

125
141

138

156
172
188

172
189

203
219
234
250
74
89
104
119

134
149
164
179
193

21000

175M) 18000
w o k h g Pressure psi$

223
243

115
134
154
173
192
21 1
230

249
269
288
307

241
258

91
109
128
146
164
182
201
219
237
255
273

275

292

82
98
115
131
147
164
180

87

120

155
206

223

1%
213

r other wall thiclrnesses or smsscs.

104
122
139

156
174
191
2CM
226

309

138
158
178
197
217
237
257
276
296
316
94
113
131
150
169
188
206

225

244
263

306

281
300
89

328

107

125

125
143
161
179
1%
214
232

146

350

104

167

188
208
229
250

271

49

PIPE WALL THICKNESS

Table 4-2

Working Pressures for Allowable Unit Stresses* (continued)

Wall
Pipe
Weight
Diametert Thicknesst per Foot
tn.
tn.
(bare)
126 ID

.8750
.9375
1.0000

132 ID

Dolt
Ratio

Moment
of Inertia
About
Pipe Axis
in.4
(I)

Stress psi
Section
Modulus

15000

16 500

17500

146.00
136.40
128.00

701804.90 10 987.16
753050.81 II 777.92
804 447.32 12569.49

208
223
238

229
246
262

.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000

424.40
354.00
303.71
266.00
236.67
213.20
194.00
178.00
164.46
152.86
142.80
134.00

284259.12
341 595.49
399 093.85
456 754.99
514578.70
572 565.57
630716.01
689030.01
747508.16
806 150.65
864 957.68
923 929.84

4 286.66
5 146.45
6 007.06
6868.50
7730.76
8 593.85
9457.78
10322.55
II 188.15
12 054.59
12921.87
13 790.00

71
85
99
ll4
128
142
156
170
185
199
213
227

78
94
109
125
141
156
172
188
203
219
234
250

138 ID

.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000

461.68
554.26
646.93
739.69
832.52
925.44
1018.45
1111.53
1204.70
1297.96
1391.29
1484.72

443.60
324710.23
370.00
390 181.56
317.43
455 830.18
278.00
521 656.30
247.33
587660.13
222.80
653 842.24
202.73
720202.83
186.00
786742.10
171.85
853 460.45
159.71
920 358.44
149.20
987436.10
140.00 1 054693.80

4684.73
5 624.24
6564.61
7505.85
8447.94
9390.91
10 334.75
II 279.46
12 225.04
13 171.50
14 ll8.84
15067.05

68
82
95
109
122
136
149
163
177
190
204
217

144 ID

.3125
.3750
.4375
.5000
.5625
.6250
.6875
.7500
.8125
.8750
.9375
1.0000

481.71
578.30
674.97
771.73
868.57
965.50
1062.51
1159.60
1256.78
1354.04
1451.38
1548.80

462.80
368 827.58 5 100.47
386.00
443 169.18 6 123.24
331.14
517703.79 7 146.90
290.00
592431.62 8 171.47
258.00
667 352.85 9 196.94
232.40
742467.87 10 223.31
211.45
817777.28 II 250.59
194.00
893281.08 12278.78
968 979.66 13 307.87
179.23
166.57 I 044 873.60 14337.89
155.60 I 120962.90 15368.81
146.00 I 197248.20 16400.66

75
90
105
120
135
149
164
179
194
209
224
239
72
86
100
ll5
129
143
158
172
186
201
215
229

65
78
91
104
117
130
143
156
169
182
195
208

*Valueshave been computed by electronic computer. See text for formulas used.
tSizes under 45 in. are outside diameter sizes; those 45 in. and over are inside diameter sizes.
tManufacturers can furnish wall thicknesses other than shown.
Workingpressures may be interpolated or extrapolated for other wall thicknesses or stresses.

"" ~-.-

21 000

WorkingPressurepsi

is)

ll85.80
1271.13
1356.54
441.65
530.23
618.90
707.64
796.47
885.39
974.39
1063.47
ll52.63
1241.88
1331.21
1420.63

18 000

243
260
278
83
99
ll6
133
149
166
182
199
215
232
249
265

250
268
286
85
102
119
136
153
170
188
205
222
239
256
273

292
313
333
99
119
139
159
179
199
219
239
259
278
298
318

79
95
III
127
143
159
174
190
206
222
238
254

82
98
ll4
130
147
163
179
196
212
228
245
261

95
ll4
133
152
171
190
209
228
247
266
285
304

76
91
106
122
137
152
167
182
197
213
228
243

78
94
109
125
141
156
172
188
203
219
234
250

91
109
128
146
164
182
201
219
237
255
273
292

STEBL PIPE

Referentes
1. Weided Stcel Penstocks. Engnr. Mono-

graph 3. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver,


Ch.

2. Sttcl Water Pipc 6 Inches and Largr.


AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1980).
3. Cemnit-Mortar Protective Lining and
b t i n g for Steel Water P i p e 4 In. md
--Shp
AppW. AWWA S ~ d d
C205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo.(1W).
4. Cemcnt-Morter Lining of Water Pipclincs-1 In. (100 mm) and Larger-In
Place. AWWA Standard C602-83.
AWWA, Dmvcr. Colo. (1983).

5. R u k for Constniction of Udued PPessure Vcssels. Sec. VIII, ASME Soilerand


Ressure V e s d Cadt.ASME, New York.

B. TIMOSHENKO,
S. Strmgrh of Matm'als.
Part 11. D. Van NosCo., NEw York
(1940).
7. ROARK, R.J. Formulas fur Smss and
Strah. McGmw-Hill Book Co., New
York (4th ed., 1965).
8. PARMAKIAN,
J. Mnimum Thickness for
Handling Pipcs, Water Power and D m
Constructim. (june 1982.)

References

:
.
L

1. Welded Steel Penstocks. EJngnr. Monograph 3. Bureau of R e c h t i o n , Denver,


Colo.
2. Steel Water Pipc 6 Inches and Lwrger.

sureVesgels. Sec. VIIf, ASME Soikr and


Aessure V e s 4 Cede. ASME, Ncw York.
TIMOSHENKO,
S. S m h of Mar&.
Part 11. D.Van NosCo., New York
(1W.
ROARK, R-J. Fortttulcu fm Smss and
Strai. McGraw-Hill Book GJ.,
New
Yo& (4th ed., 1965).
PARMAKIAN,J. Minimum Thickncss for
Handlmg P i p , Water Power md-Dam

.-i_;;AWWA Standard C2W-80. AWWA,


Dtnver, Colo. (1980).
3. Ccment-Mortar Protective Lining m d
Cuating for Swtl Water P i p e 4 In. md
h g e ~ - S b p Applied. AWWA Standard
C205-80. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1980).
4. Ctment-Mortar Lining of Water Rpclines-1 h.(100 mm) md Largcr-ln
:-=
PIace.AWWAStandardC602-83.
:
.
A-A,
Denver. Cob. (1983).
-*
.: . . -4
.
.
;
.

,-.

-. .. . .
. . .

p;

., ,.
..L.. .
- 7
.

.-2

. ->
,,-:.
- , .
..

>

..

.,.
-.-: - . -.
. .
. :. . .
. . .. .
-

'-

....

.-. .
'

.- I
.

.-

.:.
....
.

.
. .

- .
. .
.

.-

..

,.

*...-.

=--?,
?d..

.-Y

>

-,. .

,< :

..

<

--

..-

.:

. ,-- , -..

.<.

-?.,.-

--+-=
-,

. - .
. ,

- -.

--

.
-,

i .

+
A

<-,
, .,>

..

..,:- .,

.-:..

--1%

.- -. .-

, - ! .

-. .. .

,.:

;f..

.
,

-f

..

.
,

..:
. > .. , .

2.-

w.

9;

,-,
.-:
.-..

z . 2,sri;

-4
- - ..
.
7.

. ..- , -

..

'

>.Lt9

.>k :.

,---

<

,--!y

.S :

- ,

..

'+

:*

.: .;i:.., ,.

-7-

.p.

....

.-. -

-,

<

1..

o
.
,
<
:
;

.'<
> . :.

- "

,-

- .-

., . .
-

--,- .. . . . . . .
;.7,'

., .

. ,.
.

:-

.. 1.
-,...
..
. .
. . . .
..
., 2%-.
->. . , - .-

. . . .

. .,

---.._
...

.,-,;,
.-

4.-

,-

--:-

*.
. -< -

.: . - ,

..
..- ..=.
+ -

\:

,.

,-

',>

.- + - y

.r=

'- -

-.

--7,

. .

-.
2

. .. . ..

:.!

. .- ' C.
. . -

. ,.

> , :.

-.

..

3:-

--

:-.y

.,

'.

. .2

J .

. !:
..
..-.: ...
--.-.=
, -.... ,

.?

.,.;.

--+

:Y?

:.j<
..-

.;

$-.

- -.
.

'r

,
.
.- .

...

.
.

. =: , .

2-

i
-

a?:

--

>

-.

,::

>

2
.

--

--

.....
-.
.-

: - .. ;
-,; -:
;
.

-51.

...

-.1.-

.=

i?.

, ,.

-.

;-

. ' .-.
.

l..'-

.-

. -..

.- ;

--

- -

..;.V.

- -.
. ,
'

.
, .

...

-.

C w s d c i n . u~ne
1982.)
.. -.-.,

MI1

AWWA M A N U A L

Water Hammer and

b:.

<+=-

.E

>. T.m.

- .
:

F.

Pressure Surge .:-:.:

>-.' .

E ..

S;

Water hammer is the result of a change in flow velocity in a closed conduit causing elastic
wava to travel upstream and downstream from the point of origin. The elastic waves, in
turn, cause increases or decreases in pressure as they mvel dong the line, and these pressure
changes are variously referred to as water hammer, surge, os uansient pressure.
The phenomenon of water hammer is extremdy complex, and no attempt will be made
to cover the subject in depth in this manual. Only the fudamentals ofelastic-mve theory
and specific data pertaining to the properties of stael pipe will be discussed. For a more
detoiiled understoinding of water hammer, thc refemes listed at the end of this chapter
shouid be consulted.
.
.. , -.
-.:-..
. .
,

'=2

IC RELATiONSHIPS

The following fundamentd relationshipsin surge-wavc theory determine thc magnitudeof


pressure rise and its distribution along a conduit, Thc prcssure rise for instantmmw
closure is diredy proportional to the fluid v w t y at cutoff and to the magnitude of the
wave veiocity; it is indepwdent of the ltngth of the conduit. Its value is:

h=

aV

52

STEEL PIPE

In the above equatiom:


=
=
=
V
=
W
=
sp gr =
k
=
E
=
d
=
t
=
a

h
p

L
2L
a

wave velacity (fps)


pressure rise above normal (ft of water)
pressure rise above n o d @si)
velocity of flow (fps)
weight of fluid (lb/cu ft)
specifc gavity of fluid (water = 1.0)
bulk modulus of compressibility of liquid (psi)
Young's modulus of elasticity for pipe wali material (psi)
inside diameter of mduit (in.)
thickncss ofconduit wall (h.)
= acceleration due to gravity (32.2fps/s)
= length of conduit (ft)

= criticai time of conduit (S)

For steel pipe, Eq 5-3 reduces to:

using k = 300 000 psi and E = 30 000 000 psi.

2000

0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 ~ 6 0 7 0 O W
INSIDE DIAMETER
(o'ls)
WALL
m

The nurnbers at the rlght of the curves represent the rnodutus of elasticty ( 1 in 1 000000-psi units for various pipe
materials.4

Figure 5-1 Surge Wave Velmity Chart for Water

WATER HAMMER / PRESSURE SURGE

53

Figure 5-1 gives values of pressure wave velocity for various pipt materials with d/f
ratios up to 90. For steel pipe, higher ratios are frequently encountered in k g e sizes, and
Table 5-1 gives mmputed values up to d / t = 400.
When the flow ratc is changed in a time greater than zerobut less than or equal to W a
scmnds, tht magnitude of the pressure rise is the same as with instantaneous closure, but the
duration of the maximum value decrease as the time of closure approaches W a seconds.
Under these conditions, the pressure distribution along the pipeline varies as tht time of
closure mies. T h e pressure decreases uniformly almg the line if closureis in Wa seconds.
The maximum pressure at the control valve exists along the fuli length of &e line with
insmtaneous closure, md for slower ram mvels up the pipe a distance equal to L-(Ta/2)
feet, then decreases uniformly. T h e surge pressure distribution along the conduit is
independent of the profile or p m d contour of the line so long as the wtd pressure remaIns
above the vapor pressure of the fluid.

Table 5-1 Veldty of Pressure Wave for Steel Pipe


Wave VeWty
a

For valve closing times greater than W a seconds, the maximum pmsure rise will be a
function of the maximum rate of change in flow with respect to time, dV/d T . Nonlinear
closure rates of a vdve can be investigated, and the proper valve closing time determintd to
hold the maximum pressure rise to any d e s i d limitiq value. The effea of pumps and
quick-closing check vdves or control vaives can be investigatedusing the graphical mcthod
or numericai method through use of a computer.
The profile of the conduit leading away from a pumping smtion may have a mjor
influence on the surge conditions. When high points oocur along the l
k
,
the surge
hydraulic-grade elevation may fail below the pipe profde ctiwing negative pressures,
perhaps as isow as the vapor pressure of the fluid. If this occurs, the liquid column may be
sepmted by a zone of vapor for a short time. Parting and rejoining of the liquid aolumncan
prdtlce extremely high pressures and may cause failure of the aonduit.'
The effect of friction can be accounted for in any surge probkm. When friction losses
are less ttian 5 percent of the normal static or working pressure, they cm u s d y be
neglected.
The greater the degree of a m c y desired for the resdts of a surge analysis, the more
must be known aibout the various hydradic and physical chmacteristicsof the system. The
velmity of the pressure wave a is a fundamental factor in any surge study, as the surge
pressures are directly proportional to its value. l X s vtlocity dtpends on the pipe diameter,
wdl thickness, materiai of the pipe d s , as wdl as the density and compressibility of the
fluid in the pipe.

54

STEEL PIPE

Knowkige concerning the physid characteristics of the pipe material s fairly


complete. Young's moduius for steel iines can be mken at 30 000 000 psi, since ir avcrages
between 29 000 000 and 31000 000 psi, depending on the steelused. Ifthe mtio ofdiameter
to thickness is known, it is nccessaryto know ody the density and the compressibiiityof tht
liquid within the pipe to determine the surge wave velocity a.
Within the range of oropemting t e m p e r a m for water, 32-lWF (0-M0C),
and for pressures in the range of O- 1 psi, the specific gravity can be takn at 1.OO. In the
s a m e range, the moddus of compressibility, or bulk moduius, has been found by
measurementsm d veried by field tests to be approximately 300 000 psi with a wiation of
1 3 percentm2
.

- -

5.2 CHECKLIST FOR PUMPING W N S


A few famrs can be c h d e d to indicate whether surges of serious proportions will occur in
m y given system,once the physid, hyhulic, and operating c k a c k r i s t i c s are established.
For most mnsmissionm a h suppliedby motor-driven ctntcifugal pumps, the followhg 12
questions wili give a clue to the seriousness of thc surge p~oblern:~~
.
1. Are there any higb spots on the profile of the transmission main where the
occurrence of a vacuum can cause a parting of the water colurna when a pump is cut OE j'
2. Is the length of the transmissiw main h s than 20 tima the head on the pumps Wth
values expressed in feet)?
3. Is the maximum velocity of flow in the transmission main in excess of 4.0 fps?
4. b the factor of safety of the pipe less than 3.5 (related to ultimate strength) for

normal operaring pmsures?


5. What is tht natural rate of slowing down of the water column if the pump is cut off ?
Will rhe column come to rest and reverse irs direction of flow in l e s than the critica1
surge-wave time for &e transmission main?
6. Will the check vdve dose in l a s than the critical time for the transmission moiin?
7. Are there any quickdosing automatic valves set to open or close in less than 5 s?
8. Would the pump or its driving motor be damaged if dowed to nrn backward up to
. .
fuil speed?
- ...
.
.
.
...
9. Will &e pmp be tripped off before the discharge vdve is fully closed?
.
.
. - . .
10. WU the pump be started with the discharge gate valve open?
..11. Are there booster stations on the system that depend on the operation of the
pumping
station under consideratioa?
,-..- . - 12. Are there any quick-closing automatic valves used in the pumping system that
become inoperative with the failure of pumping system prasure?
If the answer to any one of these question is affirmative, there is a strong psibility
.
- - - ..
-that serious surges wiil occur. If the mswer to
or more of the questions is oiffirmative,
surges will pmbably be experiencsd with severity
in
ropdonm
numbtr of&-tive
. the
*
.
.-.
.-.
-.
answers,
L

:--

, -

,L.

.- ,

5.3

. .

::::.-

--

..-

>

,,

. -1

---A-

:
-

.. .-

. .

.-

> i
-

GENERALSTUDIES
FOR WATER H~MMERCONTROL
- .. .

--- 3

7---

,.-.::*.
.

,-.
J

.
.

Studies of surges can be undertaken during the design stke. Once the general hyout
-' system has been completd, the kngth,,diameter,tbickness, material, and cap
-pipe,
,
as weli as the type and s h of pumps, cm be established. The normal
pressures at various points in the system can be computed and the allowabk
pressures fixed. By this means, the margin for water hammer can be found,
should then be adjusted to provide either safety factors large enough to withstand s
conditions as might be encountered or suitable remedid or control devias.

WATER HAMMER / PRESSURE SURGE

-.

. ,

..
A

.>-

-c:

C
?.

- .

u
.

a:'

55

method is usually l e s costly.1t is important to note that there is no single device that will
cure di surge difficulties. Only by a study of both normaloperating conditions and possible
emergency conditions can methads be determined to provide proper control.
It is not feasible to make general recommendationson te type, size, and appliation of
surge-control equipment for al1 plants. Several possibk solutions should be considad for
any individualinstaliation, and one selected that @ves the maximum protection for &e least
expenditure. Surges can often be reduced subst&tially by using bypasses around check
valves, by cusbioning chtck valves for the last 15-20 percent of &e smke, or by adopting a
two-speed rate of valve smke. Water hammer resulting from power failure to centrifugal
pumps can sometimesbe held to d e limits by providing flywheek or by dowing the pumps
to run backward. Air-inlef valves may be needed, or the preferred solution m y be to use a
surge m&, a surge damper, or a hydropneumatic b b e r . Under certain opera*
conditions, no devices wiii be required to hold the pressure rise within safe iimits.
It is essentiai m coordinate di the elements of a system properly and to ascertain that
opemting practices conform to the requirements for safety. As changes take place in the
system demand, it may be necessary to review and revise the surgeconditiom, poirticuhly if
the capacity is increased, additionoil pumpage or storage is addcd, or h t e r stations are
phned.
If a competent investigation is made during the design stage and the remmmeendations
arising from it m a r i e d out, the finalplant will almost always operate without damage due
to water hammer. The agreement between te theoreticai analyses, properly applied, and
the actual tests of installations is esremely close. When a surge study was not undertaken
aud dangerous conditions existed, tbere have almost invariably been serious surge, and
sometimes m t l y damage has raulted. The time and efort spent on a surge study in advance
of the fuialdesign is the least expeasive means of ensuring agahst surges. The elastic-wave
r
y has beea complettly proven in acnial pmxice, and design engineers should take the
initiative in making surge snidies and insmbg surge-controldwices without waiting for
serio- failures to oacur.
.

. -.

, ..

5.4 ALLOWANCE FOR WATER HAMMER


Mmy conditions have choinged since the standard, niiesf-thumb empiricai allowanms for
water hammer originated. Automatic stop, check, and throttling valves were not then as
widely used as they are today. Valve closures measured in seaonds and motor-driven
centrifugd pumps were practicallyunknown. New types of pipe have since been introduced
and used. Consequently, it is questionable whether standard allowanws for water hammer
should be appiied universoilly to al1 types of instailations. Nor can it be said that such
dloweuices will provide full security uoder alt circumstances. Potential water-hammer
problems should be investigated in the dcsign of pumping-station piping, force mains, and
10% trouismission pipehes. Suitable meam sfiould be provided to reduce its effect to tht
:mhimum that is practicable or economical.

.'+:'
,

'
i

It is not withia thc scope of t h i s manual to cover an analysis of pressure rise in a complicated
piptrine. Some basic data are, however, provided for simple probkms.
The pressure rise for instantaneous valve dosure is givenby Eq 5- 1. Vdiies of the wave
velocity a may bt read fcom P i5- 1 for diameter-thicknecs ratios of 90 md less, d from
Table 5- 1 for higher ratios.
Por solutions to more mmplex problems, it is recommended that referenm be made to
the many publications avaihble (see, for example, referentes 5,6,7, and 8at the end of this
chapter). Computer progmns are available t h t indude &c effecw of pipeline friction and

56

STEEL PIPE

give accurate results. There are several means of reducing surges by the addition of devices
or revising operating conditions, but these are outside the scope of this manual. Most of the
available computer programs permit evaluation of the various means of reducing or
controlling surges. (Reference 8 describes some of these means.)

References
-

1. RICHARDS,R.T. Water Column Separation in Pump Discharge Lines. Trans.


ASME, 78:1297 (1956).
2. KERR, S.L.; KESSLER,L.H.; & GAMET,
M.B. New Method for Bulk-Modulus
Determination. Trans. ASME, 72:1143
(1950).
3. KERR, S.L. Minimizing Service Interruptions Due to Transmission Line Failures-Discussion.Jour. AWWA,41:7:634
(July 1949).
4. --Water Hammer Control. Jour.
AWWA, 43:12:985 (Dec. 1951).
5. RICH, G.R. Hydraulic Transients (Engineering Societies Monographs). McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York (1951).
6. PARMAKIAN,
JOHN.Water Hammer Analysis. Dover Publications, New York
(19 .
7. KINN H. Water Hammer Control in
Centrif al Pump System. ASCE. Jour.
Hydraul. Div., (May 1968).
8. STREETER,
V.L. &WYLIE,E.B. Hydraulic
Transients. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York (1967).

The following
the text.

ALIN,

A.L.

references are not cited in

Penstock

Surge

Tank

at

Dennison Hydro Plant. Civ. Eng., 14:296


(1944).
ALLIEVI, LORENZO. Theory of Water
Hammer. Am. Soc. Mech. Engrs., New
York (1925; out of print).
ANGUS,R.W. Water Hammer in Pipes,
Including Those Supplied by Centrifugal
Pumps; Graphical Treatment. Proc. Inst.
Mech. Engrs., 136:245 (1937).
--Water Hammer Pressures in
Compound and Branch Pipes. Trans.
ASCE, 104:340 (1939).
BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for
Steel Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24
(Jan. 1948).
BENNET,RICHARD.Water Hammer Correctives. Wtr. & Sew. Wks., 88:196
(1941).
BERGERON,L. Water Hammer inHydraulies and Wave Surge in Electricity. John
Wiley and Sons, New York (1961).

BOERENDANS,
W.L. Pressure Air Chambers in Centrifugal Pumping. Jour.
AWWA, 31:11:1865 (Nov. 1939).
DAWSON,F.M. & KALINSKE,A.A. Methods of Calculating Water Hammer Pressures. Jour. AWWA, 31:11:1835 (Nov.
1939).
EVANS,W.E. & CRAWFORD,c.c. Charts
and Designing Air Chambers for Pump
Discharge Lines. Proc. ASCE, 79:57
(1916).
KERR, S.L. Practical Aspects of Water
Hammer. Jour. A WWA, 40:6:599 (June
1948).
--Surges in Pipe Lines-Oil and
Water. Trans. ASME, 72:667 (1950).
--Effect of Valve Action on Water
Hammer. Jour. AWWA, 52:1:65 (Jan.
1960).
PARMAKIAN,JOHN. Pressure Surges at
Large Pump Installations. Trans. ASME,
75:995 (1953).
Proceedings Second Intern. Conf. Pressure Surge. Fluid Engineering, British
Hydraulic Res. Assoc., London (1976).
Second Symposium on Water Hammer.
Trans. ASME, 59:651 (1937).
SIMIN, OLGA.Water Hammer. (Includes
a digest of N. Joukovsky's study.) Proc.
AWWA Ann. Conf., St. Louis, Mo. (June
1904).
Standard Allowances for Water Hammer-Panel Discussion. Jour. AWWA,
44:11:977 (Nov. 1952).
STEPANOFF,A.J. Elements of Graphical
Solution of Water Hammer Problems in
Centrifugal-Pump
Systems. Trans.
ASME, 71:515 (1949).
STREETER,V.L. Unsteady Flow Calculations by Numerical Methods. ASME.
Jour. of Basic Engrg. (June 1972).
Symposium on Water Hammer. Am. Soc.
Mech. Engrs., New York (1933; reprinted
1949).
Water Hammer Allowances in Pipe Design. Committee Report. Jour. A WWA,
50:3:340 (Mar. 1958).

II
II1II

AWWA M A N U A I

..-

!:,

-,

Externa1 L o a d s

.. ,

+:

1.1,

5.

5
Extemal loads on buried pipe are generally comprised of the weight of the backfill together
with live and impaci I d s . T h e Marston theory' is generally used to determine the Icds
imposed on buried pipe by the soil surrounding it. This theory is applicableto both flexible
and rigid pipes instded in a variety of conditions, including ditch md projecting conduit
installations. Ditch conduits are stnictures instaiied and completely buried in narrow
dtches in relatively passive or undisturbed soil. Projecting mnduits are s ctures instalid
in shallow bedding with the top of the mnduit projecting above the surfa of the natural
gronnd and then covered with the embankment. Por purposes of calculo g the extemal
vertical loads on projecting conduits, the field conditions affecting the loads are
conveniently grouped into four subclassifications based on the @tude
of settlemtat of
' the interior prism* of soil relative to that of the exterior prismt and the height of
embankment in relation to the height at which settlements of the interior and exterior
prisms of soil are equaL2
Steel pipe is considered to be flexible, and the Marston theory provides a simple
pmdure for calculating externa1soil l d s on flexible pipe. If the flexiblepipe is buried in a
ditch less than two times the width of the pipe, the load may be computed as follows:
- -.

<!

. ..
.I -.
:,,
*The backfii prism dircctly above the pipe. = - --..
TThe b d d l prism between the trench walls d vertical linw drawn at the OD of the pipe.

58

STEEL PIPE

Whcre:

and Bd is defined btlow


= tmit weight of fili Qb/cu ft)
Bd = width of trench at top of pipe (ft)
w

If the pipe is burid in m e m b h n t or wide trench, the load may be computed from:
Wc=Ccw~c2

Where:

C,= coeficient for embanlrment conditions, a function of soil properties.


For flexible pipe, the setclement ratig may be msumed to be zero, in which ase:

Where:

. ..-- -

--- ,

:%-

,. -

The d e d l d calculation in Eq 6-4 is the weight of a prism of soil with a width equd to that
.
of the pipe md a height e q d to the depth offill over the pipe. This prism load is convenient
. .. - .
to calculate and is usually used for all instalhtion conditim for both trench md
. .
.
-.- .
embmkment wnditions. For use in the Iowa defltctioa formula, divide Eq 6-4 by 12.
.. ; . y .-TI,.
In ddition to supportingdead loads imposed by earth cover, buried pipelines malso
:,,:.., ,;-.+.e:
., ,!.
be e x p e d to superimposedconcentratedor distributed iivt loads. CoactatratedEve loads
.
- .
are generally caused by tnick-whetl loads and railway-car loads. Distributed live l& are
caused
by surchrges such as pila of material and temporary strucnrres. The &ea of live
.loads
on
si pipeline depends on thc deptb of cover over the pipe. A method for determinhg
..
.. .. .
the
live
l
d using moaed Boussinesqequations is presented on pp. 224-235 of refererice 3
,. .
of this chapter.
. ,

,,
.

- ,

r.

"I

6.2 DEFLECTION DETERMINATION


The Iowadeflectionformula was fmt propod by M.G. ~pangler?It was hter m d f k d by
Watginc and S&&
and has frequently been rearranged. h one of its most commw
forms, deflection is calcuhted as follows:

HXTERNAL LOAD

59

Where:
.

:-

.-.

.. . ... -.

.- .!

?R

..
. ,

E..

Ax = horizontal deflection of pipe (in.)


4 = deflection lag factor (1.O- 1.5)
K = bedding oonstmt (0.1)
. ,.
W = load per unit of pipe length (lbfin in. of pipe)
r = radius (in.)
EI = pipe wail stiffness (in.-lb)

- .

-.
i

,: .
-'

-> . .

::. .

-... .>

.
:

--.

...
.

-.

-.

..,.

.
-.

- .., ..
.

.
,
ii-

.
,

where E_=~modulus
of e l a J t i ~ t y ~ 3 O ~ Opsi
Q ~for
O steel and 4 000 000 psi for
cement mortar)
.
I = transverse moment of inertia per unit length of pipe wall*
= &dulus of soil reaction (lb/ine2) (Tables 6- 1 and 6-2).
.

. -

,.

. -.

. ,-

*Under Imd, tht individual elemenm-Le., mortar lining, sreel shell, and mortar mating-work together
as laminated rings (E,[, +E I I +
~ Ec 1, -sheI1, lining, and coating). Strumrally, the combiied actionof thesc
clements increases the moment of inertiaof tthe pipe smion, above that of the shell alone, thus incrcssing its
abidity to resist 1 4 s . The pipe wall stiffness EI of these individual elements is additive.

Table 4-1

Average Values* of Modulus of Sol1 Reaction (E') (For initial flexlble pipe detlettion)

Soil Typmimmy Pige Zwie Backf-dl Aburid


(Unified Chssific~tionSystem)?

E' for Degree of Cornpetion of edding, psi (MPa)


Sligllt
Moderate
a5%
P m r
8595% P m o r
~ 9 5 %M o r
40%A,den.
&?O% rel. dtn. ~ 7 0 %
reL den.

m&

Soils in this megory require s@ai engineering analpis


ta determine requid density, moisnim mtent,
compactive effort.

Fine-grainedsoils (LL<M)/Soils with medium to no


phticity CL, ML, MLXL, CL-CH, ,MGMH, with
les6 ?han25% coarse-grained particks

200,

400

soil beginning with one of diese symbols (i.e., GM-GC, GC-SC).


appkbie d y for fa I e s than 50 ft (15 m).

lo00

60

STEEL PLPE

Allowable deflection for various lining and coating systems that are often accepted are:
Mortar-lined and coated = 2 percent of pipe diameter
Mortar-lined and flexible coated = 3 percent of pipe diameter
Flexible lining and coated = 5 percent of pipe diameter
Live-lmd effect, added to dead bad when applicable, is generally based on AASHTU
HS-20truck loads or Cooper E-80 railroad loads as indicated in Table 6-3. These vdues are
given in pounds per square faot md include 50-percent impact factor. It is noted that there
is no live-load effect for HS-20 loads when the earth cover exceeds 8 ft or for E-80 loads

when the earth cover exceeds U)ft .


Modulus of soil reactionE' is a measure of stiffness of the embedment material, which
surrounds the pipe. This modulus is required for the calculation of deflection md critica1
buckling stress. E' is a d y a hybrid mdulus that has been introduced to eliminate the
spring constmt used in the origrnal Iowa formula. It is the product of the moduius of passive
resistance of the soi1 used in Spangler's early derivation and the radius of the pipe. It is not a
pure material property.
'

Table 6-2 Unlfleci Soil Classification

Well-graded pvels, gmvel-sand mbmrq li& or no fines


k l y grrtded gravels, gravd-sand miimues, 8& or no fines
Silty gravels, poorly graded gravel-sand-silt mixnires
a y e y graveis, powly gradad gravel-sd4ay mixnueS

A
-

..

Well-graded sands, p v e i i y sands, link or no fines


Pwrly g d f d sands, gravelly d,
link or no fines
Silty aands, poorly graded sanddiit mixnires
Chyey sands, p r l y grad sandxlay mixturcs

ML
CL.

Inorganic silts md vcry fmc s d , silty w &ycy fmc sands


Imrganic clays of hw to medium phticity
lnorganic silts, micaceous or diammaceous fine sandy or silty soils, elastic silts
lnorganic clays of h i i plasticity, ht &ys
.
m
c dts and organic silt-ciays oflow pkiciry
Or@c ciays of medium to high pkticity
Peat and other highly orgmic soils

MH
CH
OL
OH
R

>

.
.

SOUC
~ :b d h t i ~of
1 Soils f ~ Ern g i r ~ e e .
Purposcs.
~
ASTM Standard Da4874,ASTM, Phiiadelphia, Pa. (1969).
L.

Table 6-3 Uve-Load k

Highway HS-20 Loadiug*

Railroad E-80 M i n g *
Height of Covtr
Load

HeightofCover

had

fi

Psf

ft

1800

800

2
5
8

3
4
5
6
7
8

10

>

3800
2400

...

1600
1100

250

12

200

15

176
100

20

800
6Cm
300

30

100

*Negiect live load when lcss than 100 psf; use dead load oniy.

EXTERNAL LOAD

Values ofE' were originally determined by measuring deflections of actual installations


of metal pipe and then back calculating the effective soil reaction. Since E' is not a material
property, it cannot be uniquely measured from a soil sample, thus determination of E'
values for a given soil has historically presented a serious problem for designers.
In 1976, Amster 3oward6proposed a comprehensive table of recommended E' d u e s .
E' is given as a function of soil type and leve1 of compaction. The values proposed by
Woward, as shown in Table 6-1, are bmed on measurements of a large number of pipeline
installations. This table provides the designa with guidelines for E' that have been
heretofore unavailable.
To circumvent the problems inherent in working with the hybrid modulus E', there has
been an increasing use of the constrained soil modulus
The constrained modulus is a
constitutive material property, which is d e n as the slope of the secant of the stress-strain
diagram obtained from a confmed compression test of soil. It may also be calculated from
Young's mcdulus Es md Poisson's ratio u of the soil by:

The soil modulus can be determined from common consolidation tests, tri&iai
lahratory tests, or from fieldplate-bearing tests of the actual soil in which the pipe will be
embedded.
Since M, is taken as the secant modulus, it accounts in part for nonlinearities in
stress-strain response of soil around the pipe. Determination of M* is b a d on the amial
load applied to a pipe. ~ e c r e a s i nthe
~ load mults in a decreased value for M,. Many
vsearchers h v e studied the relationship bemeen E' and M,, with recommendations
varying widely (E' = 0.7 to 1.5 Ms).This is understandable, since M, is a "pure" soil
property, whereas E' is empirical. It appears justified to assume the two to be thesame, E'=

6.3 BUCKLING
Pipe emkdded in soil may coiiapse or buckle from elastic instability resuiting from loads
and deformations. The summation of extemal loads should be equal to or kss than the
allowable buckling pressure. The allowable buckiing pressure may be determined by the
following:

-3

>

_ -

Where:

allowable buckling pressure(psi)


-design factor
2 5 for (h/D) 2 2
3.0 for (WD)
(2
where h = height of ground surface above top of pipe (in.)
D = diameter of p;ipe (in.)
R, = water bouyancy factor
= 1 -0.33(hw/h), O lhwSh
where , = height of water surfac: above top of pipe (in.)
B' = empirical cwfficient of elastic supporr (dimensionless)

qa =
=
=
=

FS

+ 4e(-.065H)

w h e r e 3 = height of fill above pipe (ft) (Referente ANSI/AWWA


C950-8 1, Glass-Fiber-Reinforced Thermosetting-ResinPressure Pipe,
Appendix A).

62

STEEL PIPE

Nomal Mpe lnstallations

._.-.

+'

For determination ofexternal loads in normal pipe in~tallations~use


che following equation:

--

.. ..

-. -

<,

. .

. ...
.. .

.,.

-.

-. - - e . <
., -

-. >

.. .,,- :

-,_
'

L>

hw = height of water above ninduit (in.)


-.. ...-, z
..,;.- . .y, = specific weight of water (0.0361l b / in.)
~ ~
.
Pn = kteId V ~ C U U mPr~sUre(@)
-.>-+ 7- r.,lf ,
. . . = atmospheric pressure less absolute pressure uiside pipe (psi)
Wc = vertical mil load on pipe per unit fength (lb/ui.)
5

.:.&

- ,. :

In some situations it may be appropriate to consider live loa& as weU. However,


simultaneous application of live-lmd and inted-vacuum uansients need not normally be
considered. Therefore, if live loads are dso considered,the buckling requirement is satisfied

+:>-r:

:.

M=,

Where:

-,>

--

.-..

- ,----? -

...

, --

'-

-.

WL = live load on the conduit (Ib/lin ui. of pipe)


.,

,;.
-..

&$;!:::
.

.-

5.2.

S-: 7: -..

- -

--,a,

'-.

-6.4EXTJEME UCTERNAL LOADING CONDlTlONS

._
.

_q

.
:.-..

- >
.
,?

.-

'

Ari occasionalneed to calculateextreme extemal loading conditionsarists-for e


determine off-highway 1from heavy wns&on
equipment. A convenie
of solution for such load determination using modif~dBoussinesq
equations is p
--. :;$"c
pp. 356361 of referente 3 of this chapter. As an example: ':
....:,
,

'j"

--

1'

.,

As&:

Live iod fmm a Euclid I d e r


Total weight = 127 000 lb
Weight on one set of d d wheels, P = 42 300 lb
Tire pattern is 44 in. x 24 in.

CdcuEata'm:
Using Figure 6-1 as reference:

Tire pattem:
Surface presswe is:

44 24

x -= 3.66 x 2.0 = 7.33 sq ft


12 12

42
= 55768 paf
7.33

If height of cover H is 2.0 ft, then:

- 1.83

2o

B = - =2

1.0

.,-*

*:

..
*- -. -- - . - -. . , - ,...
..
.
, -..
.
.
- .
.. .$&$.
:. . W m e : Spangler, M:G. & ~ a d y , ' ~Soll-Engineerlng.
.~.
Harper & Row, Pubiishers. &w

<

-.

--

.---

..
t.-

-- ,:- fX..?!

'

'

.- ,

y.

....

.
g7.w.

.:

;,

,:b

-.

- .
..

-.

Lf hcight of mver is 3.0 ft, then:


m = 0.610

n = 0.333

p = 1615 H. '.--

?+-:

Coefficient from Table 6-4 = 0.1 17


. - P = 0.117(4)(5768) = 2700 psf
= .-

f.::%

York (4th ed.. 7982).

- ...

- ..%

h.

&:Y-

..:
. . > .-

c'

..

3;::
gs. 9.-.
,:

p- ,

Using the Iowa formula (Eq 6-5) to calculatedeflectionfor 54-in. pipe and 60411.
pipe,
wall thickness '/4 in. for .$ach size, lj' = 1250, DI= 1.O, md soil weight of 120 pcf, &e mults
are:
. _

Total l d ( d e d and live I d ) :

3 ft cover:

Using Spangler's formula, deflection =


=.- .

s.,

<

S-

I-c:

d'r

=:

"'

-i

k:.,.,
1

60 h.,2 ft cover: = 1.58 in. = 2.6%


3 ft cover: = 1.06 in. = 1.8%
54 in.,2 ft cover: = 1.41 in. = 2.6%
3 ft cover: = 0.95 in. = 1.8%

;.

<

6.5 COMPUTER PROGRAMS

....

..

*-

. .

- .-

L
-

. . ,

.L.

,<...

.-'r

,-

, * < 7

.:

AA-<

...

.-

- -.
-

Traditional procedures dependmg on weight and the elastic modulus of soil w determine
d. However, computer programs that permit a
k:.;= more r a t i d deteminati011in the design of pipe are now avaihble f r m miversities,
consulting engineers, and manuacturers.

64

STEEL PIPE

*S-:
N m 5 N.M. Simplified C o m p m a h d Vertial Rasures in E i d c F o u d a h . C k . 24.Engrg. &p. Sm
Univ. of Illinois (1935).

1. M A R ~ NANSON.
,
The Theory of Externai Loads on Closed Conduits in the
Light of tht Letest Expcriments. Proc.
Ninth Annual hetting Highway Res.

Board (Dee. 1929).


2. SPANGLER,
M.G. Underground Con. . +.
duits-An Appraisal ofModmn -.
,
Proc. ASCE (Jum 1947).
'3. -- & HANDY,
R.L.Soil Etigi'm'ng.
-7'
Hitper & Row, Publishers, New York
(4th Ed., 1982).

4.

--

The Structural Designof Flexible


P i p Culvem. Iowa Scatc Collcge Bull.
153, Ames, I A (1941).

p.

5. WATKIWS.R.K. & SPANGI.RR.


M.G.
Some Chamct&stics .of thc Modulw of
Passive esismnce of Soil: A Study in
Similinide. Highway Research BoardPm.,
37576 (1958).
6. HOWARD,AMSTER. M d d e s of Soil

M o n Vdms for Buried Fkxible Pipe.

EXTERNAL LOAD

65

- PROUDFIT,
D.P. Performance of Large-

- ;

:.

(Dcc. 1956).

- Report on' Steel Pipelines for Under-

The follming refmences are mr cired in


the texs.
- BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for

ground Water Service. Special Investigation 888, Underwritcrs' Labs., Inc.,


Chicago (1936).

- SOWERS,G.F.Trench Excavation and

Stael Water Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 40:24

..

;i-

Diameter Steel Pipe at S t . Paul. Jour.


A WWA, 55303 (Mar. 1963).
- REITZ,H.M.Soil Mechanics and BackfiiIing Prmices. Jour. A WWA, 48:1497

7. ~ R I Z E K , R.J.; PARMELEE,
R.A.; KAY,
J.N.; & ELNAGGAR,
H.A. Stnictural
Analysis and Design of Fipe. HCHRP
Rept. 116 (1971).

(Jm.
1948).

3-Hing.
Jour. A WWA, 48:854 (July
1956).
Behavior of Flexible Steel Pipe
SPANGLER,M.G.Underground ConUnder Embadcments and in Trenches.
duits-An Appmisal of MDdern Research.
Bull. Armco Drainage & Metal Products,
Trans. ASCE, 113:316 (1 948).
Inc., Middlctown, Ohio (1 955).
Protective Casings for Pipelines.
Design and Deflection Control of
lowa State College Engr. Rpts. 1 1
Buried Stwl Pipe Supporting Earth M s
(195 1-52).
md Live Loads. Proc. ASTM, 57:1233
(1 957).
& PHILLIPS,
D. L. Deflections of
Timber-Struttcd Corrugared-Metal Pipe
- BRAUNE,CAIN& JANDA. E&-th Fressure
Culverts Under Earth Fas. B d . 102.
Experiments on Culvcrt Pipe. Public
Highway Research Board; Pub. 350,
Roads, lO:9 (1929).
National Acaderny of Sciences-Natiod
BUMISTER,D.M.The Importmcc of
Research Council, Washington, D.C.
ManiralControlling Conditions U p n Tri(1955).
axial Compression Test Conditions. Specid Tech. Pub. 106, ASTM,Philaddphia,
- TERZAGHI,
KARL.TReoreticai Soil Mechnics. John Wiley and Sons, N e w York
Pa. (1951).
- HOUSEL,W.S.Interprctation of Triaxial -. . .
(1943).
Comprcssion Tests on Granular Soils.
.
*
- WAGNEK,A.A. Shear Characteristics of
.- .. Special Tech. h b . 106, ASTM, Phila,
Remolded Earth Marerials. Special Tech.
delphi Pa. (1951).
, .. . . ,
Pub. 106, ASTM, PhiladeIphia, Pa.
- Lusmn?, U. BucklingofSoil Surrounded
.
(1951).
2 . Tubes. Jout. Soil Mechanics and Forrn- ;
, WIGGIN,T.H.; ENGER,M.L.; &
SCHLICK,
W.J. A Propwed New Method
datim Diei. -ASCE (Nov. 1966).
PROCTOR,
R.R. b i g n and Construdon : - - - :" -- 2 '- for Determining Barre1 Thickntsses of
of Rolled-Earth Dams. E n g i ~ ~ News
n g 2 i';;!: - - : Gst-Iron Pipe. Jour. A WWA, 31:811
. .
(May 1939). ;,
Record, 111245 (1933).
An Approximate Method for Pre. .
..
..
the Smlement of Foundauons
- r -. . .,
- . -, ,
.. - -- , ' c ' .
otings. Second Intexn. Conf. Soil
,:; .
.. .
nics & Foundation Engr. The - : ,:-- . .- --=. . .. ,
.
.-- ..-,
> ,--,..- .-:
. -, - ,
..
, .>
-.q.
Hague, Netherlands (1948).
+.
I
,
.,

--

- ---

---

---

:
,

-y-

T.

'

':

-'

'

L...h

. ' ?

'.

-,,

;
: -.
.
.

.:,.

y,.

-.

->.

.i

, ,.
-..
.

. ,,
.f

,
Y

'

*.:

..

.,. .

'

. ..

.-1-

2
.
. .*.

'

'F.

..,!

. -- *

'.

.>,:

'

.'.*.
.
.

-.
.-

i'

'

'.

There has been very little uniformity in the design or spacing of saddie supports. The spans
have k n gradually increased, however, as experiwce has shown that such increases were
safe and practical. In general, the ordinary theory of flexure applies when a circular pipe is
supported at intervals, is held circular at md between the supporw,and is compktely fillsd.
If the pipe is only partiaily fded and the cross section at poinrs between supports becomes
out-of-round, rhe maximum f&er stress is considerably greater than indicated by the
ordrnary flexure formula, being highest for the haif-fiiied condition?
In the case of a pipe carrying intemd pressure where the ends are fully restrained, &e
Poisson-ratio effect of the bmp stress, which produces lateral tension, must be added to the
flexural stress to obtain the total beam stress.
Excessive deflection should be avoided when the pipe acts as a beam. A maximum
deflectionof ' h o of the span is suggested as gmd practice. This is the same recommendation
used for beams carrying plastered ceilings.

SUPPORTS FOR P I E

.. -

::,

67

->

-2

SEVERAL LAYERS
OF FELT W l f H
QRAPHITE BETWEEN

. .:
uyce: Barrilird. RE.h i g n Siandards tw S h l Water Piw. Jour. AWWA. 40:1.24 (Jan. 1948t

.-

ure 7-1 Detaiis of Concrete Saddle

,y-2 Saddle Supports for 78-111 Pipe


Saddle supports cause high locd stresses both Iongitudidly m d circumferefltially in
unstiffened, compmtively t h - w d i pipe at the tips and edges ofthe suppwts. Stresces v q
with the l d , the diameter-wdi thickness ratio, and the angle of contact with the pipe. In

stresses are less for a large contact angle than for a s m d l one, and interestingly, their
intensity is practidly independent of the width of tbe saddle (Dimension B, Figure 7-1).
The width ofthe saddle may thcrefort be that which is most desicable from the stadpoint of
good pier design.
Because saddie supporw =use critica1 points of stress in the memi adjacent to the
saddk alg&,it is frequcntly moreeconomicalto &ase rhe wall tbickness ofthe pipe when

a,.

1
.

68

STEEL PIPE

it is overstressed than to provide stiffening rings. This is especially true where pipe sizes are
36 in. in diameter and smaller. Even a small increase in wall thickness has a great stiffening
effect. The whole length of the span may be thickened, or only a length at the saddle
support-equal
to about two pipe diameters plus saddle width-need be thickened.
When pipe lengths resting on saddles are joined by flanges or mechanical couplings, the
strength and position of the joints must be such that they will safely resist the bending and
shear forces while remaining tight. Ordinarily it is advisable to place joints at, or as near as
practic~ble to, the point of zero bending moment in the span or spans. Manufacturers of
mechanical joints should be consulted regarding the use of their joints on self-supporting
pipe spans.
The pipe should be held in each saddle by a steel hold-down strap bolted to the
concrete. Secure anchorages must be provided at intervals in multiple-span installations.
The ability of steel pipe to resist saddle load has sometimes been greatly underestimated
by designers. Unnecessary expense has thus been entailed, because more supports have
been provided than may have been necessary. According to one report, 1the maximum value
of the localized stresses in a pipe has been greatly underestimated by designers. The same
report states that the maximum value of the localized stresses in a pipe that fits the saddle
well probably does not exceed that given by the following formula:

=k t~ loge ( ~ )

(7-1)

Where:
S
P
R
t
k

= the localized stress (psi)


= the total saddle reaction (lb)
= the pipe radius (in.)
= the pipe wall thickness (in.)
= 0.02 - 0.00012 (A - 90), where A

is in degrees (see Figure 7-1 for A).

The maximum saddle reaction a pipe can stand is about twice the value of P (Eq 7-1) when Sf
equals the yield point of the steel used. Equation 7-1 does not account for temperature
stresses.
Certain other stresses must be added to the localized stress to determine the total stress.
Let:
Sf
Sp
Sb
Sb
Sf

Sc

flexure stress in span with pipe having unrestrained ends

= ring stress due to internal water pressure


= Sf+ 0.25Sp = maximum beam stress in span
=

=
=

with pipe having restrained ends

Sf for pipe with unrestrained ends


localized stress at saddle*
maximum stress at saddle.

Then, for single or multiple spans of uniform thickness:


Sc = Sb + Sf

(7-2)

It should be noted that Sc is the maximum stress at the saddle. Any pipe selected must
meet two requirements: the maximum beam stress Sb in the span must be within the
allowable limit, and the maximum stress at the saddle must also be within the allowable
limit. One or the other will govern.
*A reference by Pablo Arriaga3 gives a more realistic stress than previous reference by Schorer2 and
reference by Wilson.4

~-

III
II

SUPPORTS FOR PIPE

The flexure stress Sj should be calculated in the usual manner. In single spans, this
stress is rnaximum at the center between supports and may be quite small over the support if
flexible joints are used at the pipe ends. In multiple-span cases, the flexure smess in rigidly
joined pipe will be that indicated by the theory of continuous beams.
For pipe with diameters of 6 in.to 144 in., Table 7- 1 gives practica1 safe spans that may
be on the conservative side for pipes supporting their weight plus that of the contained
water. Other live loads such as earthquake, wind, or the like should also be calculated. Data
for calculating spans for kirge pipe on saddles have been published.2

.--

..,

69

.
. .

Table 7-t

.
-.

- -, Practical Safe Spans for Simply Supported Pipe in 120 Contact Saddles*

-.

. ..

,.

..- -+-, .,

t are pipe dimeter


US camtainer water.

(in

--.

WdThihSs

and L

- -.
--=

. feet; fiber stress =

70

STEEL PIPE

7.2 PIPE DEFLECTION AS BEAM

. :-

'

=,:,,,.,

In the designof free spans of pipe, it may be desirable to determine the theoreucai deflection
in order to judge flexibiIity or ascertain that the defiection dms nor exceed a desirableupper
limit, Freely supported pipe sometimes must be hid so that it wili drain fully and containno
pockets between supports. The allowable deflection or sag between supportsmust be found
to determine the necessary grade.
In any given case, the deflection is influenced by conditions of instdation. The pipe
m a y be a single span or may be continuous over several supports. The ends may act as
though free or fned. In addition to its own weight and that of the water, the p
the weight of insulation or other uniform load. Cuncentrated loads such as
appurtenances, or fittings may be present between supports.
.-.-...-- .
The maximum theoretical deflection can be determined using:
-.

EI

= 22.5 W L ~
,

. ,

Where:

-..-

.-

. . ..

..-

y = maximum defledon at center of span (h.)


W = total load on span (lb)
L = length of span (ft)
E = modulus of elasticity (psi) (30 000 000 for steel pipe)
I = moment of inertia of pipe (in.4) (values of I are given in Table 7-2, page

Except for some changes in unit designation, this is the standard textbook formula for
uniformly distributed lmd and free ends. It can be used for concentraredloads at the center of the span, and it can be applied to other end conditions by applying a correction factor
described later in this chapter.
Tests conducted to determine the deflection of horizontal standard-weight pi
filled with water1 have indicated that with pipe larger thm 2 in. and supported at intervals
greater than 10 ft, the deflection is less than that determined theoretically for a uniformiy
loaded pipe fmed at both ends. The actual deflection of s d r pipe appmched the
theoretid deflection for free ends.
;-

7.3 METHODS OF CALCULATON

4 . ~

--,

The foliowing methods of calcuhting deflection are based on the formulas commonly foun
in textbooks for the cases given. Maximum deflection in a given case can be c a l d t e d b
first assuming that the load is uniformly distributed and the ends are free. This is case
below. Later this result can be modified if the bad is concentrated or the ends
[cases 2,3,and 4 below). The deflection for case 1may be calculated using Eq 7-3. Note
in cases 1and 2 the load W is the total uniformly distributed load on the span, but in cases
and 4 it is the load concentrated at the center of the span.
The four most commonly enaountered conditions, with their correspondingdeflection
factors, are:
Case 1: If the ioad W is uniformly distributed and the ends are free, the defle
calculated using Eq 7-3.
Case 2: If the load W is uniformly distributed but the ends are fixed, the deflecti
0.2 times that for case l.
Case 3: If the load W is abncentrated at the center and the ends are free, the deflectioni
1.6 times that for case 1.

71

SUPPORTS FOR PiPE

Case 4: Xf the load W is concentrated at the center and the ends are fmed, the deflection
is 0.4 times that for case 1.
T h e deflections caused by different loads are additive. Therefore, if a uniformly loaded
pipe span contains a concentrated load, the calculated deflection for the latter is added to
that for the uniform load, and the total sag in the pipe is the sum of the two deflections.

---&;-

r. .:

-.,.T.

:
+
:-.t*;2?-..

, .-

7.4 GRADIENT OF SUPPORTED PIPELINES TO

If intermittently supported pipelines are to drain freely, they must contain no sag pocketc.
To eliminate pockets, each downstream support leve1 must be lower than its upstream
neighbor by an amount that depends on the sag of the pipe between them. A przticd
average gradient of support elevations to meet this requirement may be found by using the
following formulad
.:-,.-

--

:ir:.--

(7-4)
. -.

- -

.
? =..

.-L ;: -

- =

,:

-'

2 .

5'

., .

3>*=

.:

>,

.-y..

....

- -*
- ;:-<;.:7:

G = gradient (in. per ft)


,

: .-:
l.

'

In other words, thc eleiatiogof one end should be higher than the other byan amount
equal to four times the deflection calculated at midspm of the pipe.
Example: If the deflection of an insuhted, 20411. OD, 0.375-h. wall thickness pipe
-;c..
r carrying steam is 0.4 in. in a simple, free-ended 50-ft span, what should be the grade of a
-. -..
..
.

,
,

Solurh:
G =4(u'4'
50 =. O
. .:032
!:T. .k
... f t
.ter

....
;

-.!

, .*

..-.

..

.- , & ,

It has been s&estedl h t , in the interest of satisfactmyoperation, it is well to doubk


the calculated theoretical deflectionwhen d e t e h i n g the shpe of the pipcke gradient If
le, the @e ussd wodd be 0.064 ia./fi.

a downstream s u p r t aad its upstream neighbor


ofthe pipebetween them to establishthe @e
is eight -timesthe deflection if the suggestim
.

GRDERCONSRUCTION
.
:

-'
- '

:;-

:=;'

'

::

.;:.

.:
---,

--

or across ravines or streams, rigid ring


girders, spaced at-reiatively long infervals, b v c been found to be very efZctive supports.
These girders prevent the distortionof the pipe at&e pdnw-ofsupporr anii thus mainth its
7-3 through 7-9.
ased on the elastic theory, .
,minterpreted by ~ i g u r e

72

STEEL PIPE

D. Doiaii (Altemate)
EQUIVALENT FIANGE WIDTH

A. Section Through Pipe

fi

8.8seion Through Rlng

See Sec. 7.5 for explanation of symbols.

Figure 7-3 Pipe and Rlng Wrder Support


7-3, is usedin the designequations. Units must be aoasisrent-for cxample, h&s,
pounds per sqmre inch, or pounds per cubic inch.
a

C
C'

- -.
:?

f,
fL
fh
,

h
p

- .,

r
t
t,

w
A,

D
L
Q
y
i f

= e~fentricit
y of the reaction Q from tarigent to centroidal axis of stiffener ring
fiaving radius R (h.)
= contact width of circuIar girder rjng of reamguh cross sedon (in.)
= 1.56
r, (see Figure 7 - 8 ~ifshell
)
is used as combincd sedon with stiffener
gicder web or if additional phte reinforcement is used at contact face
= maxhum combined ring stress in sheil (psi)
= combined mrirrimum longitudid b m stress
= h u m longitudinal rim-bendiag stress in sheii
= head above bottom of pipe (ft)
= variable pressure on inside of pipe circumference
= unit weight of fluid flowing in pipe (lb/cu ft)
. .
= mem roidius of pipe shell (h.)
= thiclmess of pipe shell (in.)
. ,.
= thickness of girder web (in.)
. .,. .... .... ..
= weight of pipe shell per unit of arta (psf)
= mof supprting ring (sq h.)(sce Figure 7-88)
= diameier of pipe = 2 r (h.)
= length of span from -ter to ccnter of ring-gder suppom (ft)
= total lmd of pipe sheU transmitttd by shear to one r h g m
er (lb)
= distance from neutral mis to extreme ftber (in.)
= moment of inertia (in.9.

fi+

.:

Stress in Pipe Shell


The h

pounds,

m combined ring stress2 is:

IRTS FOR PIPE

4,k

SPAN L
SUPPORTS
mi: Bafnam:

FILLET WELD FULL N-'--"-

73

IFERENCE .

SPAN L
C . TO C.OF SUPPORTS

R.E. DesJgn Standard$ tor Steei Water Pipe. Jour. AWWA, 40:1:2# (Jan. 1948).

:se girders prevent the distortion of the pipe at ths points of support.

Details of Ring Cirder Support for Smail Ppe

ure 7-4
,

1:-

:&

','
The combined maximurn longitudha1 stress (for free-end beam conditions) is:

35-

FA
I.

.--

The maximurn rim-bending stress in the sheii due to internal pressure is:

1.82 (Ar Ct)


fbo =

A, + 1.56t

&

6 (7)
-S{

'

. i.
-.

.,'
i

. ;:
A
.
-

.Q

.,:;

.,

pr

-+'

..

-=>-

~Thisequation was developed on the assumption that the stiffener ring is integral with the
pipe shell and that the rim ioad is Symmetrical. As the rim load is not symmetrical, bemuse
&P' .. of the weight of the water, a g w d approximation of the maximum value of& is obtained by
e,-:.?:substituting the value of f,from Eq 7-5 in place of p/t.
If the girder ring is fitted to the pipe in a loose manner, the rim-bending stress due to
!g@+# ,
, the reaction at the supports should be &en
into account, because the load will be
transmitted mostly by direct bearing on the lower hdfof the ringrather than through shear
distributed around the pipe.
5 - .
. The total combined Iongitudinal shell stress f is:
,

-..

r L

A,-K.

7
.

- $ i<:
-b>:-:.?
" ?Stressin Ring Girder
'L.
;The minimum possible value of the maximum bending moment in the ring girder occurs
when a = 0.04R-outsidethe neutral axis. When this is &e, the maximum bendmg moment
&' . M in !he girder is:
3.

-a

><

. ..

T h e &um

bending stress fi (general bending formula) is:

-. .... -

.
.. .

- .- ..>. --.-,,-

IPE

The maximum ring stress fi due to shear forces is:

f 2 = q

i1-

The ring stressf3due to radial forces is:

As al1 ofthese stresses are combined at the


horizuntal diameter, the total maximum stressf in
..

the ring girder is:

'

<

f*j-+j2+b5

C..

(7.'14'
..

~ ~ * ~ ~ ~ ~ k ~ & ; i i- P,.3.sI&+
g g i t d- c i- ~ 6 ~ r h c p ~ * ~ U -w- t v pipskf&y
n t a e.. * 3
& $

j
,I

;
2

I d i d "*i o s d y 10000 psi, or 18000 psi .If'Mloacicd,


-- T
m
- ~~~er,~&m~b~~.siQR.&~sl?r~~m
-$n -

SUPPORTS FOR PIPE

Figure 7-5 Ring Glrders M d e Support b r 54-in. iameter Pipe

The rings are supporting a 54-ln. diameter plpe laid on a slope.

Figure 7-6

Expnsion JointsBetwen S t i k e r RIngs

T h i block anchor~a W n . dlameter pipe agairmt fongitudinal movement.

Figure 7-7 Anchor Block

75

SUPPORTS FOR PIPE

figure 7-5 Ring Cirders Provlde Support for 54-in. Mameter Pipe

f h e rings are supporting a 54-in. diirneter pipe laid on a i l o p .

Figure 7-6 Expansion JointsBetwen S t i h r W n g s

This btock anchor~a W

Figure 7-7

n . diameter plpe agalnst tongitudinal movernent.

Anchor Blodr

75

76

STEEL PIPE

beam stress fL for a simply supported full pipe (Eq 7-6; w = o ) . The
~ corresponding stress
ratios designated by nL and n, become functions of a pure number k defined as:

In actual cases, the vaiue of k varies from about 0.20 to 1.20. Within this range:

The half-full condition causes higher stress than the full condition when k is less than unity.
The ratio n~ remains the sarne for canti~uously
supported pipe. The value of fL (Eq 7-6; w =
O) multiplied by n~ gives the maximum longitudinal stress for the half-full condition;
likewise, if multipiied by n , it gives the maximum radial bending stress in the pipe sheii. As
the rim bending stressfb,from Eq 7-7 is zero in Eq 7-8, relatively high langitudiaal stresses
may be ailowed for rhe half-full condition. A value of 10 000 psi has been suggested by
Cates7 for the full condition and 18000 psi for the half-full condition.
In the Bng girder, the maximum moment for the half-fuU condition is 3.88 times the
moment value for the fuli pipe when a value of 0.04 for a / R (the value that gives the
minimum moment for full condition) is used in design.This is notas seriousas it rnay appear
at first, because the assumptiom leading to the vdue 3.88 are conservative. Also, severa1of
the forces and conditions present when the pipe is full are not present when it is halffull. For
these reasons, stresses near the yield point may be dowed for the relatively infrequent
conditions of filling and emptying the pipe.13 The pipe shell and ring girder should,
however, be investigated for the half-fuU condition. T h e references should be consulted.
Design-aid coefficientsfor analyzing stiffener rings for fuii, partly full, and earthquake
forces have been p~blished.~.Other useful data have aIso appearedb3*
'*12.
l4

Example of Calculation, Continuous Mpelines


Condira'ons: Consider a case in whichD= f 20 in.; t=0.25 in.; L = 100ft; C =1in.; A, = 1in. x
12.25 in.; a = 0 . M ; h = 100 ft; w = 12 psf (including weight of stiffener); q = 62.5 lb/cu ft.
ShelI strdss: From Eq 7-5, the maximum ring stress:
-.

fr =
-

(W

+9h)

120
2 (0.25)

[12+ 62.5 (LOO)]

1
(=)

= 10 440 psi
The maximum longitudinal srress (Eq 7-6) for continuous pipeline:

Zw+&

- 10o2(12)
4(0.25)
= 18 690 psi

2)

(5)

2(12)(12)
120

62.5
2

77

SUPPORTS FOR PIPE

The maximum rim-bending stress (Es7-7):

..
.

- .
.

. . <> S
,,

2.;

--<-

- -

.-

.. -

..

:. .-

-,
.

T.

--.,

.-,

=18690+16540=35230psi

1.

., .-

.-, .

- :.

..- .-

.
-.. .

:;y-

,
.-A- ... .

--

.:...,

-.... - ---

-:.-.;
,

7.;

'

..
-

. ..

-.-

-.

L.?--.

..

By changing L = 100 ft to L = 60 ft, the value off b m m i i 16 650 psi.2_,


-

.
-- '

..-. 5.
..
.
.. ,
.. . . .
-.+ .

- . - * =.
,-.

R=

-.

--.

iG:

#. --;
=

.
.,i
-<<+-':
-:.

- -.-

-.

.-

'

.-S

--,:.:A>,

. -:-:..
-<
. .,- -,

.,.Y

.-

.
;

. , 4. .c..L..

--....
. .
'.

-.

-GIRDEKCONSTRUCTION FOR LOW-PRESSURE PIPE


General designsfor four types of long-$panpipe of the flow line variety are shown in Figure
7-8.

T y p l . UsuaUy recomrnendedfor crossing canals and other Iow places where a s@e
le@ of pipe for spans up to 60 ft can be ussd, type
1 pipe
may be d e and shipped from
- the factory in one length or in two lengths; in the latter case, a welded joint must be d e in
the field at the time of instalhtion.
Type 2. Used in aossing highways, canals, or rivers, where the length of the crossini
makes necessary two intermediate supporting columns, typt 2 pipe is designed in three
lengths with flanges welded to the ends of each length at points of contraflexure, together
with expansion joints for both intake and outlet. This type is normally used for crmsings
fmm 60 ft to 132 ft, with end spans haif the length of the center span.
Type 3. Type 3 differs from rypc 2 in that each end span k 80 percent of the length of
the center span. Type 3, therefore, can be used for longer crossings rhan type 2. It requires
two expmsion joints md five lengths ofpipe with flanges welded m ends of ea& Iengrh at
points ofcontrafiexure. Type 3 may be used for overall crossing lengths from 104 ft to 260ft.

Figure 7-9 Ill-in-PipeonRingGirders


:..

--

--

<

.
A

-.

Type 4. Type 4 is designed for mditions where it is necessary to support a


wntinuous series oflong, clear spaus. The smcture may be made io lengths to suit m y fieid
c o n d i h . Any number of intermediate spansmay be used, with as m n y expoinsionjoints as
needed for the o v e d length of the installation.

.-

NSTALLATION OF RiNG GIRDERSPANS


In addhion to proper design, long-span, ring-girder-supprted steel pipelines ctquire
d u l f~ide d o n , pmicularly in regeird to digmm~tmd mnber, avoidanoe d
movement aused by tempmture differences on opposite sides of the pipe, and coma
wclding m u r e . The foiiowing suggestim wiil be helpful, d more informatia has
..
beem published?
Pipes such eis these that may be exposed ta low temperaturescan &ect the ability of &e
sml to mist brittle fracture. (See Sec. 1.6.) Steel should be properly d e c t d , demiid, aad,
welded to mitigate tbis effect.

SUPPORTS FOR PIPE

,i; d

79

80

STEEL PIPE

Concrete Footings

- - --:-

-,

Before assemblingthe pipe, concrete footings (but not the intakeor outiet boxes) should be
poured. If the pipe is to be supporkd on rollers, a pocket is ieft at the topof the hotings as a
base for the roller bed phtes. If steel bents are to be used, anchor bolts are set in concrete
footings for holding the lower end of the pin-ended steel bents or the base plates. The
concrete footings should be finished a little iow to d o w for grouting these suppodng
members to their proper height.
2-

r.

Expansion Joints

-+

.-

>

>

'

Expnsion joints are installed in lhg-spoiii steel pipe to aliow for expansion or contraction

caused by temperature changes . These joints are placed near the concrete headwaiis and
should be left entirely loose until the concrete has been allowed to set for at ieast two weeks.
..-

Ifexpansion jaints are tightened before concrete is poured, the pipe may pull loose frorn the
green concrete. After concrete has set thoroughly, expansion joints are tightened and al1
danger of damage fmm pipe movement is eliminated.
To protect the expansion joint during shipment, it may be necessary for the
manufaaurer to tack-weld steel ties to the inside of the pipe, tying the two pieces of pipe
together across the joint. NOTE:When this is done, the steel ties must by hccked loose from
the pipe as soon as it is set in place and before concrete is poured.

--

Assembling Pipe
.

Pipe being assembled should be supported by temporary framework between piers. Al1
bolts except expansion joint bolts should be tightened. When pipe is in place, concrete
intake and outlet boxes should be poured. Bed plates for the rollers or pin-ended steel bents
can then be grouted in place to the proper height. Temporary supports and blocking should
be removed before the pipe is fiiied with water, otherwise the structure will be subjected to
undue stress.
-.

. , -.

..

-,.

.-

,;-

-.

.. - ,
.

:.
- .'=%

...-;t
.

.<

-0:"

-'

82

STEEL PIPE

'-+

Tabie 7-2 Values of Moment of Inertia and Sedion Modulus of Steel PIpe (continued)
Nominal Sizt*
in.

..
,

L :

W d Thicluiess
h.

Weight ofPipe and Water


lwft

Moment

9Znema

in.

O. 188
0.250

5Q4

3 390.87

524

0.312

545

4 485.86
S 569.M

0.375
0.438
0.500

566
586
607

* S i m under 45 in. are outside diameter s

6 658.W
7 736.,68
8 786.13

e thcise 45 in. and wer are imih diatnetcr sizes.

S"c'on qdulu9

188.38
249.22
309.42

369.94
429.82
488.12

84

S T E E L PiPE

Tabk 7-2 Values of M m t of Inertia and Sedan Moduhis of Steei H p e (continued)

6415.09
7706.71

5545
5706
5869
6079

343 575.02
4308 10.89
518 58823

5 678.93
7 106.16
8 536.43

397 494.49

6249
6119

6 259.76
7 83257

10 323.1 1
7 m25
9 391.42
I l zsO.07
8 17191

5188

0.500
0.625
0.750

0.m
0.625
0.750

: *S&

W062.21

0.625
0.79

369 669.79

5345

0.625
0.750

6638
6816
6994

0.500
0.625
0.7%

7221
7407
7593

498 34695
559 79537
456 779.50
572 596.56
689 067.4
521 -34
653 877.33
786 784.58

0.m

7a29

592 463.77

:'

:.

.. .

'

940%56
6 %S87

859432

under 45 in. are ourside diameter sizes; time 45 in. and over m inside diameter si=.

Referentes
1. ROARK, R.J.Form~lasfor Stress and
Srmtn. McGraw-Hiii b k Co., New

9.

Spans.EtigitigineerriPg
News-Record, 124:852
(1940).
10. FOS~ER,
H.A. Formulas Facilimte Design
of Ring-Supporred P i p . Ch. Eagrg.,

York (1954).
2. SCHORER,
HEMAN. Des@ of Large
Pipeiines. T m . ASCE,98:101 (1933).
3. ARRUGA, P.M. The Infiuence of Circumferentiai Tensiw w the Trmverse
Bending of a Pressure C d u i t on Conmete Masonry Supports (Saddlt S u p
poxrs) in thc Vicinitg of the Supprt.
Technid Library, US BUREC, Denver,

19:629 ( 1949).

f l. GARRETT~
G.H.Dcsign of L o n g - S p
Self-Supporting Steel Pipe. Jour.
AWWA, M1197 (Nov.1948).
12. BARNARD,R.E. Design Standards for
Steel W a t r Pipt. Jour. AWWA, M 2 4
(Jan.1948).
2 - 13. C R O C ~
SABIN,
,
ed. FipUng H d b o o k .
McGmw-HiU Book Co., New York (4th

4. WILSON~
W.M. & NBWMAEK,
N.M. The
Su.ength of Thin C y W d Shells m
Columns. B d . 255, Engrg. Exp. Stn.,
Univ. of iilinois, Urbana, N.(1933).
5. FOSTER,
H.A. Formulas Indicate Earth-

Bull. 5, PanV.Tech. Inwst., Final Rept.,


Boulder Canyon Project, US BUREC

'

Graw-AillBwk Co., New York (1st ed.,

The folIoamoamng
refmences are nur cited in
t k texr.
- Steel Pensmks and Tunnel Lim.AISI.
Steel Plate Engnecring Data Vol. 4,

6. Penstock Analysis and Stiffener Design.

Lmge-Diameter Steel Wam Rpe. Jmr.


AWWA, 42860 (Sept. 19%).
8. BIER, P.J. Welded Sacl Pensmks-De- -.
signandConstnictimi.Engrg.Monmph.
3, US BUREC, Washington, D.C. (July

--- Siphon Sclf-Supporting in Long

- YOUNGER,J.H. SmmraiDesigm of Metal

Airplams. 1LieGmw-Hill Book Co., New

Yo& (1935).
-

..

,->

-.
-

-.-

.-

.-

.:
,

>..

-:-

:.

. .

.--

-,

,.. ..,

?.>L.

-- .

'+_

.
4

AWWA MANUAL
;- -*"-.+--+.
- ..
.
;

' Y

'

-.

- -

.:

..i<

,.

-.

5 - 4 - ' * : y " :.,


:

- -

-- - .
-

- .

8.1 BELL-AND-SPIGOT JOINTWITH RUBBER W K E T

-':-

The pipe joim selected and the care with which it is instdied are important consideratims
for the design engineer md inspeaor. Many kinds of joints are used with steel water pipe.
Commont y p are bell-md-spigot rubber-gasketjoints, field-weldedjoints (both Uus&
in Figure 8-11> sleeve couplings, grooved-and-shouldered coupiings, and fhges. Aii of
these joints are covered in tbis chapter. Patented joints obtainable from some pipe
mmufacturers include, among others, the integral mechmid-compression gasket of
sMing-box type and the r o l l a gaslret type. Remmmended use and des& data for
patented joints may be obtained from the mmufacnmr of the joint.

- .
p-

..

- -

Pipe Joints

L
..

..

.
.
-:
'
.

.-

..

.
-

- ..

.
. > . -.

'-"

S e v e d types of mbb-gasket field joints (shown in Figures 8 1 % 8-1


8-11] havt been developed for steel water-pipe M c e . W e t e d j
instdiation in the f d d md, when properly mmufactured d
watertight joint that wiii give long service without rnaintenanm
allows flexibility in the line, permitting certeiin angular and long
settiement of the ground or other conditions while dowing the joints to remain
Thc joints are easy to assemblemd comquently reduce he cost
ofmtingcan be applied to the pipe in the shop and not be m e d at the j
operations. T h e joint is self-centering and economicoil. 3e
maintaining joim integrity, caution should be exerin
joints to maintain tight &arame between the be11 md spigot.
The rubber goisket should d o r m to AWWA standards.
to thrust at elbws, tees, hteds, wyes, reducers, valves, and dead ends. Joints
be restrained by welding (Figure &1), by harnessing, by anchors, or by thrust
(Chspter 13). Cllculations shouId considcr the anchoringeffect of soil friction (Ss.8 . ~ m .I
Sec. 13.81.

-1

87

PIPE JOIMTS

0. Single-Butl Weld Jolnt


A Lap-Welded Stip Joint

BUTT STRAP

D. Bun Strap Jolnt

E. Fabrieated Rub

..
.

Gasket Jolnt

..

- -

F. Rolled-Groove Rubbr Gisket Joint

RUBBER GASKET
H. Carnegie-Shape Rubber Gasket Joint

U.

11
.
I

CARNEGIE SHAPE
\RUBBER GASKET '
l. Carneaie-Shaue Rubber Gasket Joint With Weld-On Bell Rlna

I leu nuouar uuiiret auiiii

Welded and Rubber-Gasketec( Field Joints


. --

,>

U--

... - .. '...-

c..-

...,

'

..'

.
!

'

- - -.. -.

*,.

6.

l.-.:

,r-- -: .

- ,

.-

.,.

.,

..,

- .. C

.,

.
.

:<*,

.--.---.
.---&

. ,-,
,.-..
.
-y,-,:.-.

. .

.=Y*;.

.>i

:,a ,
--

Field welding of joints in steel water pipe 24 in. in diameter and larger is a frequently used
-., jointing method that results in strong, permanently tight joints. Slip joints for lap welding

_.,-:having a single fillet weld (Figure 8-1A) have proved satisfactory for most installations.
';..,. Singie-butt welds (Figure S l B ) and double-butt welds (Figure 8- lc)should withstand, to

thelimit of pipe-wali strength, longitudinai extension loading that may be caused by


settlement, washouts, and other disjointing forces. No other common water-pipe joint will
withstand such loading. Where welded joints are used, the pipe shodd be left bare a
sufficient distance back from the ends ro avoid damaging the protective coatings by the heat
dproduced during welding. These joints should be field-coated after welding. Field-welding
inthe interior of steel pipe with h i n g is ordinarily limited to 24411.or h g e r pipe, kcause a
worker must enter th &e after welding to apply lining to the inside at the welded joints.
- -.
.
Forced ventilation must be provided to ensure adequate air exchange when men are working
-inside the pipe.
The slip joint is commonly used because of its flexibility, ease in forming and laying,
-. ..
i:-:,-. . watertight quality, and simplicity. S d l angle changes can be made in this joint, It rnay be
welded on the outside only, or if the diameter permits, on the inside only. In certain special
..., conditions, it may be desirable to weld both on the inside and outside, in which case a
e3% method of field testing described in A m A C206, Standard for Field We1ding of Steel
Water Pipe, may be ernployed advantageously.
F:-.AWWA C206 fuiiy covers the requirements and techniques for satisfactory field
g: .
* = ,
welding. Whare the pipe wall is thicker than y2 in. and the pipe is subject to temperatures
~3
....
.'

.,

:y--

-A-

F_.

L=7..

+.

-5:

'

' U - ,

,,

beiow 40F (4OC), the SEAmd weidhg pracedures should be carefiiy sel&
to
.
.
aacommadate these adverse conditions.
=.
.
..:. .=. .
.,,

8.3 SLEEVE COUPUNGS

$Y.

Sleeve couplingsare used on pipeiines ofal1 b e t e r s and especiallyon lhed pipe tao s d
for a person m enter. Very complete technical data have betn publjshed? A typid sleeve
coupling is shown in F i 8-2.
Sleeve couplings provide tightness md strwgth with flexibility. They relieve
-ion
mdc o n d o n f o m in a pipeluie and prwide sufficient flexibility so that pipe
=y be laid on longd u s curves and g m h without thc useof s p d . The mbber gaslets
are firmly held between the coupling prts md tht pipc, and they join thc lengths securely
@nst high pressure, iow pressure, or mcuum. The compkteiyendosedmbber gaskts m
profrom -e
ami h y . These joints h v t been used s d u l i y sin= 1891.
Acceptabk axid movement inflexible sleeve couplings rcsults from shear dispkment
of the rubber gaskets rather
from siiding of the gaskets on ihc niating S&
of the
pipe. If gream dispiace.ment is needed, true expmslon joints should be prwidad r a k
sleeve muplings.
S k v e couplings trmsmit only minor tension or shear smsses acms pipe joints, rind
they wii not m
tMerentid setteementat the j h t s when usad done. However, a degree
of aegibih is psible when used in c o n j d m with an~theradjacent flexible joint.
Skeve couphgs are suitable for joining buried or exposed anchored pipe that are M on
curves tstablisked using defkdcms up to the d m u m pmitted at &e thupiing.

discusd in Sec. 8.7 and Scc. 13.8. Details of joint haraess are @ven in Chaprer 13.
-

PipeLayoutWhen UsingSleeveCouplings
centerline should be determhd u s a data suppbd by thi: wupling manufacrurer.
Extreme uamq is nmssary only in p h t layout work md other very specid pro*.
-.When these cases [Kxur, tbe data supplicd by the coupling manufacmer wiU aid
t e c h n i k and checkers in rcaching agreement on dimensions.

Data for Pipe Layo~ts

i;

The profile and oilignmeat of pipeiines is frequently s m k d on a curve. It is useful to know


*

.'.

Figure 8-2

Sleeve Coupling

PIPE JOINTS

89

loca= properly the free end of the pipe seaion behg laid. Tables showing d w of curves,
pipe lengths, and offset defkctions, as well as formulas and sketches showing dimensions,
are avaiiable from ooupling manufacmrers.

F h g e s commonly used for steel water pipe


k g e s m y be of two das=, as follows:

ase d the slip-on typt welded to thc pipe.

steel rhg, hubless fIange, which is made from miid plate, biet, or curved flat;
forged steel, m d e with a low hub, or with a welding neck, by a rolling or forging
pmcess.

The more costly welding-neck type of flange ordinarily is not justifitd for the
comparatively low pressures usuaiiy found in w a m r k s serviae.

Steel Ring Flanges


Carefd studies and experiment~~~
a o n d d on full-size specimens demonstrated that
satisfactody-tightjoints can be obtained using steel ring h g e s with lho-in. thick
txtending at least to the bolt holes. Referente should be made to AWWA C207, Standard
for S m l Pipe Flanges for Watemrks Service-S*
4 in. Through 144 in.? for
dimensions and other d d l s concernhg the series of steel ring flanges and hub flanges as
developed by an ASME- A m A committee.
Steel ring m e s conforming to AWWA C207 have b4Fa designe. for use with rubber or
asbestos ring giiskts that are either h6 i
a or l/a h.thick, at the purchaser's option. The
gskexs should occupy the s u b of the f h g e between the bolt holes and the inside
diameter of the pipe or m e . Buth the size of the gasket and the type of gasket material are
iutegrai d &trohg factors in the design of a boltcd joint. Recommendations of the
gasket manufactwer should be observed.

->

In waterworks service, it is frequtntly n e c e s s a q to use b g e s for amching pipe to pumps,


valves, or other appurtcnanm having staadard ASA drrlling. Fianges of lesser t h i h s ,
but having the same driltempiate, are obtabbk from pipe and fiange mmufmrers,
who wili provide dimensional data.

Pressure Ratings
s.:

.:

~c
it

S in AWWA C207 are for cold water. Working pressure should


include water hammm. Test pmsurts offlanged fatings should nevm ex&
1'/a times &e
flrmge pressure rathg, or m
e
s may be dama@.
When w o r h g pressurts require flanges heavier than Class E (275 psi) in AWWA
C207, other ASA
may be ~ s e dThe
. ~ cold-water (lOOF [3aC])rsting of an ASA
m e - & greatly in excess of.the rating of an AWWA C207 ciass flan&. For example, the
for &e 300-psi ASA m e is 720 psi. Whm heavier flringes are
selectal, data on sizes above 24-h.must come from the flange mmufaccamr.

D-AND-SHOULDERED COUPLINGS
coupling is a bolted, segmentd, clamp-type, mechanical
encloses a U-shped rubber gasket. The housing Imks the
end movement, yet dows some degree of flexibility and

->-

u i>

COUPLING

COUPLING

GASKET

GASKET

GROOVES

alignment. The rubber gasket is tight under either pressure or vacuum swvice. The
coupling is shom d o n e d in F
i 8-3 ami 8-4.
Errds of pipe must be spckdiy prepard to - d a t e
grooved-and-shouMered .:
coupihgs. Thk is done by grooving, bmding, rolling, or welding adapten to pipe enh. .:
Carefulstmtimmust be &ven pipe-end prepamion so h t the c~luphgswiii fit properiy. -2
Some typid groovcd-8nd-shouldcred joints are demibed in AWWA C606, Standard for
Groovcd and Shoutdcred Type ~oints?
+>

8.6 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION-GENERAL

The coefficientof expansionof sttelis 6.5 x 186 per degree (F)oftemperaturcchange. The
changc in length of an unrestrained s t d pipe can be determined using:

Ai = c h g e in length (in.)
L = length (in.)
At = c h g e in tempature (OF)
-

..,..

1. -

.-

-4

he cqmsionor contraceion of an unrrsuaincd steci pip is about 3/4 in. per 100 ft of .
pipe for each 100F (56OC) change in ttmperam.
.
..,
'

:.-i>..:j
,

Expansion and Contraction-Underground

. .-...
.

Ordinarily, a buried pipeline under-o


conditions will not experienct signjfic8nc.chmges in temperature, and t h e d stresses will be minimal. However, during the
constniction periad prior m completion of b a c k f l l , -me
changes in ambitnt
temperatures may atuse excesive expnsion or conmction in the pipe. These extreme
tanperature chmges md the resulting expmsion md contradon may be avoided by
W d h g the pipe as isconstructionprogresses.
describesa meb i t has been used
Por f~ld-wcldcdlines, AWWA standard
satisfactorily to reduce the t h e d stresses r e s u l a from kmperature variations. This
mtthod utilizesa speciai closure h p jointat 400-tto 500-ft intervds. The -S
closure is
set so tbat the pipe is stabbed deepcr tban the normal dosed position, d joinis are welded
cxcept tht dosure, poirtial W i 1 1 is p M over al1 pipe cxccpt tht dosw joint to aid in
cuoling and aonmdon of the pipt, and the closure weld is made during the coolest part of
the day. (See Chaprer 12.)

'

91

PIPE J O i m S

Forces due to expansion and oontmction shodd not be dowed to reach vaives, pumps,
or other appurtenances that might be damaged by these forces. Appurtenances can be
protected by making the connection between pipe ami appurtenance withan expansion joint
or sleeve coupling, or by providing anchor rings and thnist bloclts of suff~cientsize and
weight to prevwt the forces from reaching the appurtenance to be protected.

Expansion and Contraction-Aboveground

-.*-'

Expansion and contraction of exposed lines must be pmvided for where individual pipe
sections are anchoredand sleeve couplings are used for field joints. The joints will ordinarily
aliow enough movement so that expansion or contraction is not cumulative over several
lengths.
On exposed field-welded lines, expansion joints m a y be lacated midway between the
anchors if the pipeline is laid ievel. On slopes, the joint is usually best placed adjacent to or
on the downhillside of the anchor point. Pipe ordinarilyoffers great resistance to movement
uphill; therefore, the strength of the pipe at the anchor block should be investigated to be
sure that it is adequate to resist the downhiU thnist. The coeficienfof s l i d i n g friction for
- bare pipe bearing on supports should be determined. Spacing and psitioning of expmsion
r joints should be governed by site and profde requirements. Expmsion joinrs in pipe on
bridges should be at points where the bridge structure itself contains expansion joints
T h e sMng-box type of expansion joint is sometimes used. These joints permit linear
movement of the slip pipe relative m the pachng. Details ofa stuffing-box type of expansion
joint (slip joint) are shown in Figure 8-5. The p d m g of expansion joints may consist of

.:. '2.

..
.

3
.

. ..
.-

'I-

.1.

. -,.

,
, . :+

..

,-.

-...

.-.-

- -.-:
- -

Expansion Joint
- ,

--

The sMmg-box expansion joint is sometimes made doublesnded. Limited-move-

.7 GROUND FRiCTiON AND LlNE TENSION

92

STEEL PIPE

The change in longitudinal stress in a pipe with fmd ends due to a temperature change
may bedetermined by: . -.

-- -

-i:',.

. :: A S = change in stress (psi)

E = rnodulus of ehsticity of steel, 30 x lo6psi


c = coefficient of expansion of steel, 6.5 x lo4 per
degree (OF)

'

..

At = change in temperature (OF)

A temperature change of 30F (17OC) causes a theoretical smess of 5850 psi in the pipe
wall if ends are restrained. The stress in ail-welded buried steel pipe has been investigated?
with the resdt that some measured stresses were found to be higher md sorne lower than
theoretical. It was fomd in aU cases, however, that the soil restraint was sufkient to absorb
the longitudinal stress in a length of approximately 100 ft of pipe. Chapter 13 includes
discussion and design aid on frictional resistance between the pipe and ground.

. .,

. ,.

..

..,-.

.-

..
8.8&00D PRACICE .
. ..
The
requirements
of
installation
and
operation of a pipeline may dictate the use of more than
.., . .
.. .

.;--,

>A-;:

. .

,.

one type of field joint. The type of inte


facton in joint selection. Bell-and-s
installed-cost basis. Flanges are co
other flanged accessories. Thermal stresses may be a consideration, and these can be
accommodated by sleeve couplings, grmved-and-shouIdered couplings, special we1de.d
joints, or expansion joints.

References
1. Field Welding of Steei Water Pipe.
AWWA Standard C206-82. AWWA,

Denver, Colo. (1982)


2. KILLAM, E.T. Mechanical Joints for
Water Lines. Jour. A WWA,35:11:1457
(Nov. 1943).
3. Steel Ring Flanges for S t e d Pipe. BuU.
47-A.Armco Steel Corp., Middetom,
.

..

..

.. .- .,

.,

Colo. (1978).
6. Pipe Flmges and Flanged Fittings. ANSI
Standard B16.5.ANSI, New York (1977).

7. Grooved and Shouldered Type Joints.


AWWA Standard C606-81. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1981).
8. MCCLURE,
G.M. & JACKSON, L.R.Slack

Ohio.

4. BARNARD,
R.E. Design of Steel Ring
Flanges for Water Works Scrvice, A Pro. . -..:
I,.
gress Repon. Jour. AWWA, 42:10:931

(Oct.1950).

...

'
.

*,
,. -

AWWA MANUAL

CO

FittingS and
tenan

k y

T h e wide range of design made possible by the welding and fabriuition procases applicable
to steeI pipe provides the mems of solving almost any problem involving fittings and
specials. The design of pipe layouts, especidly intricate mes, ic greatly facilitaredby having
standardized dimensions for the center-to-face dismnce or the center-to-end dismce of
fittings. AWWA C208,Standard for Dimensions for Fabricated Steel Water Pipe Fimngs,'
provides dimensions for welded steel pipe fimngs in sizes 6 in. and larger. AWWA C200,
Standard for Steel Water Pipe 6 Inches and Larger; specifies the manufacturing
requirements for fittings and special joints.
The standard dimensions of fittings for screwed-joint pipe can be found in the catalogs
of many manufacturers. Manufacturers can also furnish the dimensions of compression
fittings for use on standard plain-end pipe in the smaiier sizes.

SNATION OF FI1

it

Fittings should be designated using standard methods to prevent misunderstandings.


Figure 9-1 is diagrammaticand refers to smooth as well as segmental fittings. T h e desired
deflection angle of the elbow or lateral should be shown on the diagram. On ordinary
elbows, both ends are numbered the same because both are the same size. Thus, only one
diameter need be given for a standard or nonreducing elbow, together with the deflection
angle. (Example: 54-in. OD, W0elbow.)
Reducing crosses and elbows are always identified by first giving the size or outside
diameter of the largest openings, then following with the sizes of the openings in the
numerical sequence shown. (Exarnples: 48411.
OD x 36411. OD 90 elbow; 24411. OD x
22-in.OD x 8%-in. OD x 6%-in, OD crms.)

Tee

90" wye
'This dimension should be
adiusiid to su! condltions.

- ..

.,

Three-Plece Elbow (N-90')


?..>Y

+
:

80P Note

3::

Four-Pleee Elbow (45-90')

, -Note

Five-Pise Elbow (6-9O0)

-, , 7.

--

Tangent-Type Outlet

NOTES: 3. "a" rnay be extendd beyond tangent line lf necessary to sult jolnt requirernents.
2. Refer to AWWA C208 for additional information.

,,

.:.?

Figure 9-1 Recommended Dlmensions for Water Ape Httings

.. <.- = . - - ,
. -.
- . ..
.
. ,. -

..
.

.,;

I , . . ' : ,

FITllNGS AND APPURTENANCES

95

Tees and laterals are specified by giving the size of the largest opening of the run first, the
opposite opening of the run second, and the size of the outlet or branch last. (Example:
72-in. OD x 66-in. OD X 24411.OD tee.)
The size of side outlets on firtings should be specified last. When specifying side-outlet
tees in reducing elbows, particular care should be exercised to show whether they are right
or left hand. In addition to designating the size of the M n g , the purchser should give a
complete specifiation for the types of ends or flanges desired.

HOLE POSITION
5-;

It is standard practie to attach flanges to pipe lengths so that the bolt h o l a straddle the
vertical centerline. If W e- d pipe
- - is to be instailed at various angles to the vertical, this
standard practice should be m c d f ~ e dand the proper data shodd be given on drawings m d
in seecificationsso rhat thc flanfie
- wiil be attached as needed.

DESlGN OF WYE. BRANCHES


.&A full treatise on the design of wye branches for steel pipe, including a nomogriiph design

&SK
3;

C"

method, is covered in a paper prepared under the auspices of the Department of Water and
Power, City of Los ~ n ~ e l e The
s ? design using this nomograph method is presented in
Chapter 13. Examples are given for single-plate, two-plate, and three-plate design. Larger
wye branches (up to 144411.diameter and up to 150-psi pressure including safety factor)
may be designed by extraplation beyond the limits of the graphs and tables in the referente.
Other data on the subject also have been published?

AWWA ~ 2 0 provides
0 ~
for nondestructive testing of weld seams on fitting$ and special
sections. Special sections fabricated from previously hydrostatically tested straight pipe
require testing of only those welded seams that were not previously tested in the straight
pipe. Nondestructive testing methods include dye penetrant, magnetic particle, ultriisonic,
x-ray, or other methods as agreed on by the manufacturer and the purchaser.
AWWA C2002also permits hydrostatic testing ofspecials in lieu of other nondestructive
testing. Maximum test pressure should not exceed 1% times the design pressure. This
maximum should be observed in the interest of design economy because fitting tests are
costly. If higher test pressures are d e d for, it may be necessary to provide expensive
reidoremen1 for the fittings, even though the anticipated operating pressure may not
require reinforcement. This is particularly me in the case of flanged fittings, wbich would
be anchored in actual service, but which, if unresnained, would be subjected to much
greater mpturing forces when shop tested to higher pressure. Flanged joints should never
be tested in excess of 1l/4 times the rated fiange pressure if subsequent installation troubles
are to be avoided.

IANCED THRUST FORCES

Piping systems are subject to unbalanced thrust forces resulting from staric and dynamic
fluid action on the pipe. These forces must be absorbed or b h c e d if the piping systems are
to maintain their integrity. Unbalanced thrust forces occur at changes in directions of flow,
such as elbows, tees, laterals, wyes, and at reducen, vdves, and dead ends. Reactive forces to
balance these thrust forces canbe provided by thrust blocks or by transmitting forces to the
pipe wall by restrained, harnessed, flanged, or welded joints. Forces in the pipe shell are
ultimately uansferred to the soil. In many cases it is desirabk to combine blocking and

- -

96

STEEL PlPE

transmitting forces to the pipe wdl. Methods of handling these thrust forces, together with
helpful data, are mentioned in Chapter 13.

9.6 FRiCTiONAL RESISTANCE BEWEEN SOIL AND PIPE


2

If m unblocked fitting is tied to buried pipe such that movernent is prevented and tension is
placed on the pipe, it may be necessary to determine the length of the pipe on which the
earth friction will overcome the disjainting force. Chapter I3 includes discussion and design

'1

aids on this subject.

9.7 ANCHOR RINGS


Anchor rings for use in concrete anchor blocks or concrete walis may be simple ring flanges.
Rings are proportioned to accept dead-nd pul1 or thrust imposed by the interna1 pressure
and any pipe thrust or puli due to temperature m e , with approximately 500 psi bearing
on concrete. Care must be exercised to ensure that thrust rings are positioned so as to
provide an adequate safety factor against punching shear of the concrete. The recommended
filiet welds used for flange attachment in AWWA (207, Standard for Steel Pipe Flanges for
Waterwarks SeMce-Sizes 4 in. Through 144 in.: offer a high safety factor against shear.
..

'.

'

9.8 NOZZLEOUTLETS

-. ' C%

- -.
- 7 .

' -.

'-,'-

-'

.>,.
i-

,
L.

Outlets from steel mains can be easily arranged in any desired location with regard to size,
shape, or position. Nozzles are welded to the main h e with reinforcing coiiars. This work
can be done in the shop during fabrication of the pipe, or at trenchside, or after the pipe is
instailed. Shop lining and coating of nozzles and pipe is satisfactory and more economical
than work done in the field. Al1 outlets should be checked to determine whether
reinforcement is required; however, outlets larger than about one third of the diameter of
the line need special consideration as to reinforcing, even for small size pipe.
If required for hydraulic efficiency, a reducer may be welded to the main pipe with the
outlet welded to the reducer. The reinforcing of the shell must be computed on the brger
diameter.
The end of the outlet nozzle should be prepared to receive the valve or fitting to be
attached. This may cal1 for a flange, a grwved or shouldered end for a mechanical coupiing,
a plain end for a flexible coupling joint, a grooved spigot end for a bell-and-spigot joint, or a
threaded end.

9.9 CONNECTiON TO OTHER PIPE MATERIAL


Care must be exercised when connecting dissimihr pipe materials, because of the possibility
of galvanic corrosion. See Chapter 10for principies of this reaction. When connecting steel
pipe to either gray or ductile cast-imn pipe, or to steel-reinforced concrete pipe, or to copper
or galvmized pipe, an electrically insulating joint should be used. The insulating joint can be
accornplished with an insulating gasket with sleeves and washers on a flanged connection or
with an insulating sleeve-rype flexible coupling. (See Sec. 9.14.)
Any valves or other ferrous equipment connected to sreel pipe should be incapsulated
in polyethylene sheeting or coated with a coating compatible with the steel pipe coating.
Similar precautions are not necessary when connedng to nonmetaiiic pipe, such as
asbestos-cement or plastic.
- :'

.. -

'

1
-

IANGED CONNECTIONS

:
2-

the main line s l o p , the m

e should be mtated with reference to this slogt to b a the


attachments vertical.
Outlet nowles should be as short as possible to reduce.theleverage of any bendiagforce
appiied to the outlet. In generd, every outlet shouId h v e a Ave f d y affached to tt
- . d
e md a flexible connection to the pipe downstreoun froi tliis valve.
-

CONNECTiONS

being strained there should be at k t one flexiile joint ciose to it.


Ir is good pracrice to provide for a flexible joint when finhgs are -d.
This c#in be
easily accomplished by inslalling a fiexible coupling or a groovcdad-shouldered
mechanical coupling immediately adjacent to ont of the m e s . Such a coupling not only
provides a satisfacmry degree of fiexi'bity but malres i n s ~ t i o n
and possible removal of
&e vdve ~ u c easier.
h
in such a situation, it may be dmtqeous w have the center smp
removd if a fiexible coupling is used. The coupling, when laose, may be moved along the
pipe to expose the joint and acilcate placenaent or remod.

FF CQNNECTiONS
S located on a slope. Short dips, such as may occur in practidy di pipelieies in

when a line must pass under a iarge drain or other mwturc, csn often be:

ammt be completelydrained into the cbannel.In su& a siwtim, iris preferable w l a t e i


blowoff co~oction
at the lowest point that will drain by gravity d provide easy means for
pumping out the part bclow the blowoff.
Blowoffs must, of m-,
be provided with a shuwff A v e . If the pipeline is above
ground, the valve shouid be attached duectly to the outiet nozzle on the bottom of the
pipeline. A pipe amched m &e d v e will route the d i m e to a safe location. me
pipc will usuaily require hsmihtion of me l b w at the blowoff valve, which must
be d
y blocked to avoid smsses on the at~a-t
to the pi-.
.Usuallythe biuwoff will be below ground. M u s e the operating nut ofthe vdve must
,be accessible from the surface, the vdve cannot be under the main but may be set with the
stem vertical and just beyond &e side ofthe pipeline. A t y p i d demil of a blowoff is shown in
AWWA ~ 2 0 oind
8 ~ in Chapter 13.

pmtice. Elliptical manholes with the cover on xbe pressure side are sometimes used, but

98

STEEL PIPE

- --

not common. The most


common t -inwaterworks is cirdar, having a short, flangedneck md a flat, bolted cover.
Such manboles are commonly 18-24 in.in diameter.
Careful consideration should be @vento lmting manhoies so as to afford the grearest
conveniente in use, Manholes give access to the inside of the pipeline for many purposes
. besidcs inspection. In general, they will be most useful if located close to vdves and
sometimes close to the low points that W h t need to be pumped out for inspection or repair.
.because they present an obstniction to smooth flow they are

Long steel pipelines frequently become carriers of electric currents originating from
differencesin ground ptentials or stray currents. This phenomenon is expiahed in Chapter
10. Where tests indicate the necessity, a long h e is often separatedinto sections or insulated
from other parts of a system by insulating joints. These joinrs can be provided at any flanged
joint, but it is often necessary to make a joint at a particular place by instding a pair of
flanges for this purpose.
Special insuhting gaskets, sleeves, and washers are used to provide electrid insuhtion
at the flanged joint. These insuloithg sleeves and washers are made of fabric-reinforced
bakelte, micarta, teflon, or similar m a t e d s that have long Me and g w d mechanical
strength.
The bolts of the insuhted flanged joints must be carefdiy insulated by sleeva and
washers. It is recommended tbatinsulating washers be used at both ends of the bolts. Some
pipe usen specify flange holes h-in. larger in diameter than normal flange holes.
It isimpomnt that insulatinggaskets, sleeves, and washers be insealled carefuUy so that
the flanged joint will be insulating as intended. After the installationof the insuhted joint is
complete, an electrical resistance test should be performed. The electrical resistance should
be at least 10 000 ohms; if the resistance is less, the joint should be inspected for damage, the
damage repaired, and the joint retested.

.-

9.15 AIR-RELEASE VALVES AND AIR-AND-VACUUM VALVES

,.

Air valves are instaed with pipelines to admit or vent air. There are b a s i d y two types:
air-release valves md air-and-vacuum valves. In addition, a combination air valve is
available that combines the functions of an &-release vaive and m air-and-vacuum valve.
Air-release valves are used to release air entrained under pressure at high ponts of a
pipeline where the pipe slopes are tcio steep for the air to be carried through with the flow.
The accurnulation of air can become so hrge as to impair the pipe's fiow capacity.
Air-release valves are installed at the high ponts to provde for the continuous venting
of accumulated air. An air-release valve consists of a chamber in which a float opemtes
through leven to open a smdi air vent in the chamber top as aiF sccumulatesmd to close the
i vent as the water leve1rises. The float must operate against an air pressure equal to the water
pressure and must be able to sustain the maximum pipeline pressure.
Air-and-vacuum valves are used to admit air into a pipe to prevent the creation of a-.
vacuum that may be the resdt of a vdve operation, the rapid draining or failure of a pipe, a
column separation, or other causes. A vacuum c m cause the pipe to collapse6 from
atmospheric pressure.

--

.- , . J.,, . .-..

...

Air-and-vacuum valves also serve to vent air from the pipeline while it is filiing with
water. An air-and-vacuum valve consists of a chamber with a float t h a is generally cenar
guided. The float ogxms and closes against a large air vent. As the water kvel recedes in the
chamber, air is permitted to enter; as the water level riges, air is vented. The air-and-vanium
valve does not vent air under pmsure.

FITTINGS AND APPURTENANCES

99

the pipeline. The connecting pipe should rise gradually ro the air vdve to permit flow of the
air to the valve for venting. T h e performance requirements of the valves are based on the
venting capacity (cubic feet of free air per second) and the pressure differentiai across the

typical pipeline and locations of air valves.

LONG ASCENDING STREFCH


WlMOUT SUMMIT

HMRAULIC GRADIENT
WHEN DRAlNlNO LlNE

TWO AtR VALVES

' CHANC

PARALLEL TO
'
HYDRAULIC GRAOIENf"

'

'
,'

L L O N G DESCENDING STRETCH
T SU

DOWNWARD GAD1ENT
UM WHEN DRAlNlNQ UNF

Types of Val-

'

DOWNWARD GRADE BUT


APPROACHING THE HYORAULIC

Increasing Downgrade
Decreasing Upgrade

CamMmtbn A

k V h

O Alr end V-um

Vdvt

Recmmendad

Cornbination Alr Valvwr


Combination Air Valvas
Combination Air Valves
Air and Vacuum Valves-lk to %mi lntewals
Combination Alr V a l v ~ - ~ / 4 - to '/rml lntervals
Avoid if Posible; if Unavoidable, fnstall Combination
Air Valves '/4- to l/rrni lntervals

. m O DPRACTICE

..

The standard-dimension fitings covered by AWWA ~ 2 0 8 'should be used whenever


possible. If drawings are not used in purchasing, the designation of fitnngs is aiways
necessary. Design data should be used to determine if reinforcement is needed. When
necessary, special welded steel-pipe finings can be fabricatedto meet unusud requirements
and severe service oonditions. When special sml-pipe Frttings are desigmted, they should
be aonimpanied with drawings to show their exact dgumtion.

--

100

STEEL PIPE

References
1. Dimensions for Fabriatcd Stael Water

Pipe Fittings. AWWA Stundard C208-83.


AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1983).
2. Statl W a m fipc 6 Inches and m e r .
AWWA Standard C200-80. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1980).
3. SWANSON,H.S. ET a.
Design of Wye
Brmches for Stecl Pipe. Jour. A W WA,
47:6:581 (Jurie 1955).
4. RUDD, F.O. Stress AnaIysis of Wyc
Branches. Engrg. h l o n w p h 32, US
BUREC, Denvw, Colo.

Sael Pipe Wges for Watcrworks Service-Sizes 4 in.TBrough 144 in. AWWA
Standard C207-78. AWWA, Denver,
&lo. (1978).
TIMOSHEMRO,
S. S m g t h of M a t d s .
Part II. Van NosCompany, New
York (1944).

AWWA MANUAL

Principles of Corrosion
and Corrosion Control

.-

.--

Corrosion is the deterioratia of a substmce (usuaiiy a memi) or its properties beause of a


remion with its environment? Even though the process of corrosion is complex and tht
detailed t x p h t i o n s even more so, relatively nontdmid publications mthe subject are
avdable .2d
An understanding of the basic principies of corrosion leads to an undmtanding of the
means md metfiods of corrosioncontrol. Methods of corrosion control are discussed in this
chapter and in Choipter 11. Alrhough mmy of t h a e merhods apply to al1 me&, both
chpters deal specifidy with a o m i o n ami corrosion control of steel pipe.

ERAL THEORY
Al1meltmkisexposed to the elements e mW y chmge to the stateh t is most sable under
prevailing conditions. Most stnicniral me&, hving been converted from an ore, ttnd to
mmto it. This reversion is an electrochemid process-M is, both a chemical d o n
the flow of a direct electric cumnt m a r . Such a cumbimtlon is ter&
m
d Electrochemical ceiis fa11 mto three general &m:
galvanic &S, with ekctmda df.dissimilar mctafs in a homogeneous - 1 9 ,
concentrationceiis, with eZectrodes of similar material, but with a nonhomogeneous
.
electrolyte,
e l m l y t i c d s , which are s
W to gdvmic ceh, but which have, in addition, a
conductor plus oin outside source of electrid energy.

Thm g e d types of corrosionare r e c o g n i d : gdvanic, ektro1ytic, and biochemid.

'

102

S T E E L PIPB

W a n i c Corrosion
Wvmic corrosion occurs when two electrodes uf dissimiiar materiais eire e l d d l y
umuected and ein an e-lyte.
An example is the common fiashiight cell (Figure
10-1). Whm the cell is comected in a circuit, m n t flows from the Pnc case (the anode)
into the electrolyte, carrying i o n i d atoms of zinc with it. As smn as the Uac ions are
dissolved in the clecu01ytc, they lose their ionic charge, passing it on by ionizing a m s of
hydrogea. Thc ionic charge (thee l d c current)flows throughthe electrolyte to the =boa
rod (tbt mhade). There, the hydrogen ions are r e d d to awms of hydrogen, which
combine to fom hydrogen gas. The current flow through the cjrcuit, therefore, is from the
zinc anode to the elecmolyte, to the carbon r d cathode, md back to the zinc anode through
the eiemicai conductor mmeahg &e ande m the cathode. As the current flows, the zinc
is destroyed but the a b o n is unhanned. In other words, the a n d e is destroyed but the
cadlde is protected.
Ifthe hydrogen gas formed in the galvanic ceii coikm on thc c a h d e , it wiii insdate
the athode from the electrolytemd stop the flow ofcurrent. As long ss tat hydrogm film is
maintained, corrosion wiii be prevented. Removal os destniction of the hydrogen film will
d o w corrosionto Sagain at it originairatc. Formationof tbe ais d e d polarkmdon;
its removd, d e p o b t i o n . Corrosion ceiis n o d y fonned in higbly comivt so& or
watersartsuchthatthehydrogenformedonthe~~~~pes~a~sndcombiatswitb
dissolvedoxygm in tht ekctrolytc, thusdtpolarizingthe cathode and d o w k g m m i o n m
p d .
In the Qashii&t battery, the zinc case is atraclred d the ah is not. However, zinc
or any othcr metal -y be amcked when in circuit with one meta&but not a m c k d when in
circuit witb another. A metal listed in Toible 10-1 will be amcked if comected in icircuit
with one listed beneath it in the table, if they are p M in a common elecmolytic
mvironment su& as w a m or moist soil.
Tht order in Table 10-1 is b w n as the gaivmic series; it g e n d y holds true for
neutralelectcoljrtts.C b q p in the compition or temmhire of the electrolyte, however,
may cause d
n rnetais listed to shitpositions or a m d i y reverse positim in the table.
Por example, zinc is lisred above iron in the tabk, and zinc wdi corrode when co-d
to
iron ia fresh water ar normal temperature. But when the temperature of the water is above

POROUS SEPARATOR

NONMETALLIC

Ci

+ -

+ ELECTROLYTE
C

4-

ZINC,

ELECTRODES SIMILAR IN
COMPOSITION AND SlZE

Figure 10-1 Caivanic Cell-Mssimilar


Metals

CORROSION

103

!;S1Gahranic Series of Metais and Alloys*

a-

....

zinc
.
Aluminum 2s
&--- w u m
Aluminum l7STt
-.

@$,
G

Magnesium and magneSium aiioys


.

-,

&,S:6
$1-

.
-

.
.

.
-

..

Stecloriron

.- Cast irw

&L>

Chromium-imn (active)
Ni-Resise
184 Sminless s w i (active)?
18-8-3Stainlcss stctl (dvcH , !

....

,l. .

-..
?

-<.-.,
.
. !. - . . .. ... .
.. - -

--1,

TI

.-. b

Ni&l (active)

.2

3 = -

.- - . . - ...+. - . : . - :.
.,
. y-'

'

:';+
-.

.',. . .. . < - ; 2 y - , - y %

18-8-3 Stainiess stcet (psive)


-

Platinum

a
'
;

,
,

w - -

-d3=.--:

.-h
.
-

film of absorbedo x y m or bydrogen.


- A metal may be initiaiiy "active" and beaorne km as si ve"
when the protective ih
is formed.-f irems is as foUows: Muminum 17ST-95% Al. 4% Cu.0.5% Mn,0.5%M g Ni-Resist, Internatid Nickei
-k,N.Y.-austenitic nickeldmtim,18-8 s
k stee1-'18% Ck,8%Ni; 18-8-3 stainiess steel-18% Cr,8% Ni,
~ i i o yC,Union Carbide C a r h Co.,NFaUs, N.Y.-59% Ni, 17% Mo,14% Cr, 5% Fe, 5% W, Inconel
Nckel Co., New York, N.Y.-59-80% Ni, 10-35 Ci, &23% Fe;b t e i i o y A*
Ni, 20%Mo,20%Fe;fIastciioy
e"

dhas a SU-

104

STEEL PIPE

about 150F (66C), the iron will corrode and protect the zinc. Thus, the table cannot be
used to predict the performance of all metal combinations under all conditions.
In the flashlight battery, dissimilar metals and a single electrolyte cause the electric
current to flow. Similar metals in dissimilar electrolytes can also produce a current, as
illustrated in Figure 10-2. In corrosion underground, differential oxygen concentration in
soils is one of the chief reasons for dissimilarity in the electrolyte. Differential oxygen
concentration (or differential aeration) may be caused by unequal compactness of back fill,
unequal porosity of different soils or of one soil at different points, uneven distribution of
moisture, or restriction of air and moisture movement in the soil caused by the presence of
buildings, roadways, pavements, and vegetation.
The electrochemical cells described in the preceding paragraphs demonstrate the
fundamental principles of the many kinds of electrochemical cells found in practice. The
common forms of corrosion encountered on unprotected buried pipelines are shown in
Figures 10-3 through 10-11.

Moist earth is electrolyte; two areas on the pipe are anode and cathode; pipe wall takes place of wire in Figures 10-f
and 10-2. Pipe wall at anode will corrode like zinc battery case; pipe wall at cathode will not corrode but will tend to
be coated with hydrogen gas, which if not removed, willtend to build resistance to current flow and thereby check
corrosion of pipe wall at anode.

Figure 10-3

Galvanic Cell on Embedded Pipe Without Protective Coating

."""--.

. -.~

TUBERCLE
PIT

\ t~
PRODUCT
OF ~
CORROSION~.--""'"

HYDROGENION

~HYDROGEN

FILM

Detail of pipe wall at anode in Figure 10-3 is shown. As current leaves surface of anode, it carries with it small
particles of metal (ions). These ions go into solution in soil (electrolyte) and are immediately exchanged for
hydrogen ions, leaving metal behind as rusty scale or tubercle around pit area. In many soils, especially
comparatively dry ones, this barnacle-like scab will "seal off" pit so that ions (electric current) cannot get through
and cell becomes inactive as long as tubercle is not disturbed.

Figure 10-4

"'~

Galvanic Cell- Pitting Action

- .

is cathode (protected areii, steel pipe is anode iwrroding area). and gurrounding earth is electrolyte. As
ode s small in area relative M a n d e , corrosion is not ordinarily swere or rapid. If these area proportions
rsed, corroslon may be much more rapid.

10-5 Corrosion Caused by Dissimilar Metais in Contact on &id& Pipe


..

ldom considered, galvanic cell is created by installing piece of new pipe in old line. New pipe always
&le and its rate of corrosion will dspend on type of sail and relative areas of anode and cathode.
areful protective measures are essential.

i; Acid leached frwn cinders contaminates soil and increases its activrty. No hydrogen wllectc

II rernains active, and corrosion is rapid.


t

106

S m L PIPE

/ COUPUNG

'

THREADS

BRlGHT METAL

/BREAK IN FILM

SCRATCHES CAUSED
BY PlPE WRENCH

Brighf scars or scratches of threads becorne anode areas in buried pipe, and rest of the pipe is cathode area. In some
soils, these bright areas can be very active and destnictive because the small anode area and lar* cathde area
produoe the most unfavorabte ratios pssible.

figure 10-8 Corrosion Cauced by Dissimilarity of Surface Conditions

PIPE

In this galvanie cell of dissimilar etectrolytes icompare Figure 1Cb2i. seaions of pipe in sandy loam are cathodes
( protected areas ), sections n clay are a n d e s I corrding areas), and soil is electrolyte. If resilance to electriccurrent flow is high in electrolyte, corrosion rate w i l be slow. If resistan= to current flow is Iow, corrosion rate will
be high. Thus. knowledge of soil resistan# to electric-current flow becomes rnportant in corrosion control studies.

Figure 10-9 Corrosion C a u d by Dlssimilai Sdb

CORROSION

107

GROUND UNE-

MOlS.

-. .-. .. -. .... -- --.-, . --. .., .., ..,.....


RI?

AFFi A T

ION

Uectrolytic Corrosion

either through p a d d circuits in the ground or through some metdic s t r u m . -use


these currents stmy from the d e s i d pth, they are m m m d y referred to as stray carth
cwrents or smy currents.
e = - . The -tic
sketch of m electric street-milway system shown in Figure 10-12 is
3 an example of a system that a n create stmy DC currents. M m y modern subway sptems
.:: opwrite on the same principk. In F
i 10-12, the direct current flows from the generamr

motors driving it. To complete the circuit, the repath of the current is intendd m be
from the motors to the wheels of the cm,then through the A s to the generamr at the

.r rcsistmce to the flow ofthe electricity,what usually hppens is that a portion ofthe c u m t ,
11 satking an easier path to the substation, leaves the roiiIs, polsses intothe ground, md returns
to the substation through thc moist c h . If, in its journty through the ground, the current
p s e s mar buRed mctal pipe-which offers an e a s k path for returnthan dms the ground

& substation; there it will leave the pipe mi flow throughthe ground back to the mil, and fineilly
rehirn to the subsmtion genemor.

Areas ofthe pipe where the current is entering are not mrroded. Whex the current is
leaving the pipe, however, steel is destroyed at it rate of about 20 ib per ampe-year of

1[i8

STEEL PIPE

POSITIVE AREA

P'PEL'NE

NEGATlVE ARE4

STRUCTURE CATHODICALLY
PROTECTED

STRUCTURE CORRODING

Fsure 10-12 Stray-Current Corrosion Gused by UectrIRed Rnllway Systems

GENERATOR

.,.' .
-

.',"

, -

.
. . .-

' TROLLEY WIRE S '.-.

NEGATIVE AREA

+
.
.;
:

'

PIPE

. -.

Figure 10-1 3 Control of Stray-Current Corrosion


.;-

:,-:-

Biochemical Corrosion
Certain soii bacteria create chemicals that may mult in comion. Bacteria1 wirrosion, or
anaembic-bacteria1oorrosion, is not so much a disthct typt of corrosion as it is mother
cause of electrochemical corrosion. The bacteria cause changes in the physical and chemical
propcrties ofthe soii to produce active pseudogdvanic cds.The bacterioiladon may be one
of removing the protective hydrogen fdm. Difftrcntial aeiaaon plays a major rok in this
activiv.
:- > *
,
The only d
n way of determining the pmence of anatrobic bacteria, the prticuhr
kind of microorganismresponsiblefor this type of comsion, is to secure a sample ofthe soil
in the immediate vicinity of the pipe and develop a bacteriat culture from that sample.
hs@m under a microwpc wiH determine definitely whether harmful bacteria are
p m t

Stress and Fatigue Corrosion


Stress corrosion is caused from tensile stresses that slowly build up in a corrosive
atmcwphere. With a static loading, tensile smsses are developed at &e metal surfacts, Ar
bighly smssed points, accehted corrosion occurs, causing increased tensile smss and
failure when the metal's safe yield is exceeded.
Corrosion fatigue occurs from cyclic loading. In a corrosive atmosphere, alternate
laabgs cause corrosion fatigue subscantially below the metal's fdure in nonaorrosivc
conditims.
#

CORROSION

Crevice corrosion
k v i c e currosion in a steel pipent is a& by a conaeatration citll formed where the
dissolved oxygen of the water varies from ont segnment of thc pipc memi m mother. In a
crevia area, rhe dissolved oxygen is h i n d e d fmm difhiionrm t h g an seodic d t i o n
h i atuses metal w go h t o soiution.

Severity of Corrosion
Severityofcorrosion in any given case will depend oa maay differentfactors, some of which
may be more impormt tiunothers.The f-rs
most W1y toaffmthe me ofcorrosion m
dative Wtiof18 of mecals in the gaivanic series,
~ i z e ~ f a n o d e ~ w i t h ~ p e c x t o ~ ~
la~8tioaof~~with~pectto~thode,
resistan= of mEeallic cimit,
tgpe mi oompition of e h l y t c ,
d u c t i v i t y or resistivity of eiextrolyte,
unifOfmityof~1~,

deplarizingd*.

Soll-Corrosion lnwstigations
The first organhd soil-corrosion investigati011 was begun by the NatiOnal Bureau of
Stadds(Nl3S)in 1911.Thtprpostatthoitti~wasmstudy
theeffectofsttaycumnts
from smet-railway lincs on b d d meallic stnichircs. In its inithi inm@awthe
bureau found that in many instanccs whcrc mther stvere amosion was anticipated, little
damage was observcd, whercas in o h , more amaion wm f d tban dm bc
indicated by tht t l & d data associatad with tbe corroded s m m a r e . These obserwtions
led to a second nwstigation, u n d c d m m 1921. O r i g i d y about 14 000 specimens were
buried at 47 test sites, but tbt numbcr was sukqumtly i n d to 36 500 qechm at
128 mt sites. The American Ptmiltum Lnstimtt and thc Anterican Gas hso&tion
c o h b o d in
the mults of the latter tests.
Buriai sita were sekctcd in typical soils representiaga sampling ofartas in whichpi@
was ar mighf k buried. Tbe p u r p x of tbe i n v e s m o n was m h. w k h r

- 0

5 2 0 ~ ~
TIME, YEARS

..
A Method o1 Deietminsng Wall Thickness of Steei Pipe for Uno'efgroundSewrce. Jour AWWA.

defrned tn Table 1-2

Corrosion Rate in Various Wls

STEEL PIPE

i-

corrosion would occur in pipelines in the absence of stray c


e under conditio
representative of those encountered by working pipelines.
The NBS soil c o m i o n tests are probably the most extensive, weil coordinate
best analyzed of any test made for the same purpase. A final report on the studies
between 1910 and 1955, including over 400 referentes, has been publishd! An imp
fmding was that in most soiis, the corrosion rate deneased with time. This is largely
the fact that corrosion pmducts, uniess removed, tend to protect the metal.
Figure 10- 14, taken from the NBS repmts, clearly shows the decreast in corrosion rate
with time in ali but &e worst soil group. Only a very small percentageof pipe is ever buried
in $02beloaging to that group. Modern methods of corrosion pmenUon generdy make it
unnecessary to allow extra wall thickness as a safeguoird agahst mrrosion. Tables 10-2 and
10-3 givt summary data on the corrosivity of soib and the relationship of soil corrosion to $

Table 10-2 Soils Crouped ln Order of Corrosive Action on Steel


Group z-Lightly C
m
~
Aemtion and drainage g d . chamcterkd by uniformcolor and no mottlinganywhere in soil profile and by very low water

mbie. Induh:
1. Sandsorsandy h m ~
-2. Light, t e x t u d silt hm
3. Porous loams or &y loams thomughly o x i M to great depths.
-. . =
>. ;.'
.
.
Ewrrp II-Moahtdy CGWOSI'W Aeratim ami draimge fair. h a c m h d by slight r n o d h g ( y e M s h brown md yelhwish gray) in lower part of profIle
- . (depth 18-24 in.) and by low water mble. Soils would be considered well dmined in an agriculnual sense, as no a1~6cial
.<!*'.%
- -is raecessary fw m p raising. hcludes:
-.
...
- .,- ;.1. Sandy
-;:
.
.
. . :
2. Silt loams
.. ..
3. Clay loams
. .
. ,
. .
s.-:...
. .
Group III-Bdy C N '
h t i o n d h i m g e p r . ChactenZed by hcavy texture and moderate mottiing close to s u r f e (depth 6-8 in.)and with
water tabk 2-3 ftbelow surface. Soils u s d y occupy flat areas and would require arrifcid drainage for crop raising. Indudts:
l. Clay loams
2. Ciays
1

1,

,-

:->

:T..

'

Vroup I V - U d I y Cmosiw
Aeration and drainage very p o r . -rized
by bluish-gray mottling at %phs of 6-8 in.with wafer table at s u r f e , or by
.
extreaae impermeability -use
of colloidal material contained. Incl~des:: .
1.

M&

2. h t
3. T
i
d
a
lmmb
4. aayS and @soils
5. Adobe &y.

..

..

. -

Table 10-3 Relationshlp of Soil Corrosion to Soil ResistMty


Resismce
Soil Class

Description

ohtn/cc

exceknt
good
fair
bad

10 coo4ml
6MW45(M

2
3
4

4500-2000

-*2

CORROSION

111

10.2 INTERNAL CORROSION OF STEEL MPE


Corrosion of the i n ~ surfaces
d
of a pipe is principally wiused by g d 6 cells? The
extent of corrosion ofthe interior ofan unlined pipe dependson the cwmivity of tht water
amed. Lanigelid ha developed a method for determining the corrosiveeffect of diiercnt
kinds of water w bare pipe interiors, md wier7has extensively investigateti and reportad

theefi~ofmter~~<w~o~kindsofpipe~.Al~wghsomeunlinedpipes
h v e been pitted through by some waters, the principai result of interior corrosion is a
reduction hflow capacity. This redudo11is causcd by a formati011of tubercles.offerric
hydroxidc, a conditim $nown as mhrmlation? It is primariiy to m h r a i n fiow capaciy
that pipt ihhgs h e becn developed. Whtre i n w d comion is a l 1 4 m persist, qualiy
of water deurioratts, pumping and transmission capacitp deefficitncy diminishes, and m t l y rtplaccment b m e s inevitable. Scrious accidents rrad h s of revmues h m
systtm shutdowns are aiso psible. The mxnmct of &ese problems. can be red& by
the use of quality p d v e linings.

ATMOSPHERiC CORROSION
Atmosphericcorrosion of exposed p i p e h s is u s d y insjgnificant, except in industrial and
Where siach owrcision is sigdhnt, the msUntmamc problem i n d is
si*
m that for bridge5 or other e x p d steel stnictures.
sea amt areas.

corrosion. Third, m inhibitive environment a n bt m t e d to prevent or reduce c o d o n


To impkment the fmt method, satisfwry and & d v t pmtcdve a d n g s h v e been
developed. athodic protection, implemcntingtbe s e d method, is bcing more and more
widely used in corkion control. hhibitive coa*
impkmtnt tht third methd by
providing m environnaent in which oxidationor comim ofsteef is inhibid. By jud.khus
use of ail of these methods, any rcquircd dqpee of comion control a m be d c a l l y
Coatings mi h h g s are mvered in Chaptcr 11. Tbt ranaindet ofthis chaptcr deals
with corrosion mtrol by ~01-c
pro&.
.

.. :.,
'

.
<,
,.

- --- .-

, :

CATHODIC PROTECnON
Cathodic protection systems reverse the electmckmicai corrosive force by creating an
externa1 circuit between the pipeline to be protected m d an auxiliary anode (sacrificid
memi) immersed in water or buried in the ground at a pdetermined distmce from the pipe.
D i current appiied to the circuit is dischmged from the anode surface md travels
Two methods are avdable for genmting a current of suffrcient magnitude to
F.:

gwrmtee pnmction. In the fmt method, sacrjf~chl-anodematerial such as magnesium or

current to flow from the anode to the pipe, retuming to the anode through a simple
connecting wire (Figure10-15). This system is generally used where it is desirable to apply
s m d i amounts ofcurrent at a number oflocations, most oftcn on coated pipelines in lightly
or moderabeiy corrosive soils.

112

STEEL PIPE

PROTECTED
STRUCTURE

Rgure 10-15 Gthodlc Protection-Gaivanic Anode Type

/ GRADE

RECTlFlER UNlT

Figure 10-16 Cathodic ~ro-tim-

~ecnfierType

The second method of current generation is to energize the circuit with an externai DC
power supply, such as a rectifier. This technique, commonly referred to as the impressed
current method, uses relatively inert anodes (usuaily graphite or silicon cast iron) connected
to the positive terminal of a DC power suppiy, with the pipe connected to the negative
terminal (Figure 10-16). This system is generally used where large amounts of currents are
required at relatively few locations, and in many cases it is more economical than sacrificial
anodes.

Bonding of joints
Where a pipeline is to be cathodically protected, or where a pipeline is to be installed with
the possibility of future cathodic protection, the bonding of joints is required to make the
line electricaiiy continuous (Figures 10-17 and 10-18). It is usually desirable to bond al1
joints at the time of installation, because the cosr later wiii be many times greater. In
addition to bonding, the pipeline should have test leads conneaed to it at appropriate
intervals to permit monitoring of the activity of electrical currents within the pipeline,
whether under cathodic protection or not. Field-welded lines require no additional
bonding.

--

. - -.

. .. .

1. NACE &sic Corrosion Courst. NACE,

Corrosion Control in Water Utilities.


Houston, T e a (June 1975).
.-..
Corrosion Control Committee, California-Nevada AWWA Scc. (1980).
2. Manual on Undeqmund Comion. CoDAVIS,
C.V. d.HadbooK of AppikdHylumbia Gas Systcm Savia Corp., Ncw - - -. .
draulks. McGraw-Hill Bmk Co., New
York (1952).
3. HERTZBERG,
L.B. Suggcstcd Non-ttchYork (1969).
DENISON,
I.A. -1+
burenicnt
n i d Mmd on C o m i o n for Water
of tbe Comsiveness of S&. NBS Re.
Works Operaton. Jow. A W WA, 48:719
Papcr RP 918 (1936).
(June 1956).
LOGAN,K.H. ASTM S y m p i u m um i
4. Underground Cwrosion, NBS Circ. No.
Corrosion Testing Prmdures. (=hia#--l
579, (1957).
Mattings (Mar. 1937).
-.S
5. ELIASSEN,
R. & L m , J.C. 111. Me&- MCCOMB,G.B.Pipcline Protedon Ushg '
anism of Internal CDrrosiw of Water
MTar Emmels. St. Louis, Mo. (June
Pipe. Joirr. AWWA, 45:12:123I (Dec.
1965).
1953).
.
- m,G.N. Adjwiment of Soil Cor6. LANG~LIER,W.F. ~ bA d
t y t i d ~ontrolrosion Pit Dcpth ~ s u f c m e n t sfor Sizt
of Anticormsion Water Treatment.Jow.
and Sample. M.
Bull. 212. MA -A,
28:1500 (Oct. 1936).
Peaolwm Instirute, New York (1933).
7. WEIR, P. Tht Hffcct of I n t d Pipe
A Preminary Study of thc &te
Lining on Water Quality. Jow. A WWA,
ofFitting ofIron Pipt in Soh.Prod. Bull.
321547 (Sept. 1940).
212. Americm P d e u m Instirute, Ncw
8. Lmsw, R.K., b FRANZINI,
J .B.WaterR e s o u m s B t r g i ' m . McGraw-Hill Book
York (1933).
API Coa*
Tests. M.
B
Co.,Mew Yo& (1979).
214. Amcricm Pctrokum iustitu~,N
9. PEABODY,A. W. Control of Pipline
Cwrosiwn. Natl. h.
O f ~ l T O s h ~ . ,
York (1934).
.-<:
. -. - Steel Plate Etigt'tfeaing Dafa-Volttme 5.
Katy, Teas (1967).
Amw. Iron & Steel Inst. and S t t d a
t
e
T h follming r e f e r m s are not cited in
Fabricaton
Assoe.,
Inc.
(1980).
she texr.

- --- --

. -:..:i.

e;:;

--. L . . r - . - .

-%-

'-

S'-

. .-.---.
. .. .

5,

? ,

.,-.+'
b
'
..% d
<.>

.. .

- BARNARD,RE.A Method of Determining


Wall Thickness of S w l Pipe for Underground !hvice. Jow. AWWA, 29:791
(June 1937).

AWWA MANUAL

C.

, -

p....:

&& ..

kc.-.;

ao

- :

11

Chapter

..

Protecti
Linings

tir

and

L.;. ronsidered
Coatings for carrosion control are extremely effective when properly used. They are
ro be the primary h e of defense @nst corrosion of steel p i p e b systems,
4- ,,,
>--

G.

Coating costs are only a fractionof pipeline costs, yet coa* is the major means of ensusing
10%-term operation by preventing pipeline deterioration aad corrosion leaks.

F-

QUIRIEMENTS OF GOOD PIPEUNE COATINGS

'

..

8 ".: The
~ mquirrmentg of a coating vary with the type of mnsmiaion, the aggmsiveneps of rhe
' y 'environment in which it will serve, and the system opemting conditiom. The effeaivemss
rr

i..

of a good prouaive pipeline coating depends on its permanente and the degree to whi& it
- possesstx physical resistance ro hazards of tmportation, installation, temperantre-e,
so9 stcess, and pressure; resistance to water penemtian or absorption; effective elecacal
5
insulative properties; and chemical inertness w soil, air, water, o@
acids, alkalies, and
k1
: bacteria1 action. Coatingeffectiveness&o depends on such g e d chmcteristics as ease of
e&xappiication, high adhesion, compatibility of use with Cathodic protection, and reasonable

%:-

,
,S,~

T h e requirements of a lining also vmy with the system md the environment. In


ddition to the factor5 considered for coatings, linings must be judged on their smoothness
L m w flow resismce), md they must meet toximlogid requirements for potable water.

S'

ETION OF THE PROPER COATINGAND LINING


:1;

Selection and recommendationof the h h g md coating mate* for use on mderground


-.sad undcrwater steel pipelines is one of the most i m p o m t activities of the enginaer.

STEEL PIW

Selection for a given use is a matter of assessing the magnitude of the corrosion, installation,
and service hazards. Testing pmcedures have been developed to aid the engineer in
evaluating and selecting the coating system that best meets a system's n e e d ~ . ~ - ~
Requirements for externd coating and interna1 lining are different, so each should be
considered separately with respect to tbe anticipated corrosion severity.

Coating Selection
The corrosion potential for the exterior of steel pipe is diff~cuitto judge because of the
variery of environments encountered. Resistivity of the soil (see Tabk 10-3, Chapter 10)is
the most important parameter for judging soil corrosivity. Soil chemical and physical
analyses, pH,moisture content, and existence of stray electrical currents are also important
factors that can aid in making the selection decision.
After the leve1 of soil cormsivity is assessed, the other conditions that &a the
long-term performance of p r o t d v e coatings should be considered.' Among hese are
distorting stresses exerted on the coating during compaction and sertling of the
backf'iI1;
medlanical stresses created by certain soils having very high expancion and
shrinkage during wet and dry cycles;
penetration by growing roots;
action of bacteria and fungus in soil surrounding the pipeline;
penetration by rocks, clods, or debris in the b&Ii;
attack by soil chemicals or industrid wastes, chemicals, and solvtnff that may be
present along the pipeline route.

Coating performance depends on putting the pipeline into service with the lem
amount of coating damage. The coating system selected must not only rneet the corrosioncontrol needs, but must also allow economical transportation, handling, storage, and
pipeline construction with minimal coathg damage or repair. To ensure precise control d
coating application and quality, many types of coatings are applied in a plant or shop. The
coating manufacturer can provide a guide m the proper protection during transportation,
handling, and storage of pipe that has been coated with such a system. General guidelinea
are given in a later section of this chapter. There are several recognized resting procedureg
that are used in evaluating coating system characteristics related to transportation, storage,
and ~onstniaion.~~
Among the characteristics to be considered are

'

resistance of the coating to cdd flow oi penetration under mechanicai loading,


resistance of the coating to ultraviolet exposure and temperature cycling dunng
outdoor storage,
resistance of the ooating to abrasion and impact.

Lining Selection

- -.

-.-

.
-

covered with cement-momr are protected by the aikaiine cement environment, w


passivates the sreel and prevents iron corrosion in most natural environments.
passivation occurs quickly in newly coared surfaces and is not destroyed by moisture
oxygen absorbed through the mortar coating. Cement-mom W g s provide low hydra
frictional resistance, and any leached products from mortar lining carrying soft water
nontoxic and anticorrosive.

PROTECTIVE COATINGS AND LININGS

117

protecr steel water lines by electridly insulating the coared pipe surfaces from the
environment. When reinforced, the coatingc provide additiod resistauce to physid
rial ~Iected,consideratiw should be given to the effects of

D COATINGSAND LININGS
- C m n tAWWA standards list coatings and linings for steel water pipe that are beliwed to
be the most reliable, as proved in prmice. The A W W A Steel Pipe Commirtee is alert,
however, to the possibilities of new developments, and dditions to and modifications of
existing standards will be m d e as deemed advisable. The current list of AWWA coating and
lining standard$ for pipe protection is as follows:
AWWA CB3, Standard for Goal-Tar Protective Coatings and LinIngs for
Steel Water Pipeiines-Enamel and Tape-Hot-Applied.
AWWA ~ 2 0 3describes
'~
ments for shop-applied mal-tar protective mtingsand
n o r d conditions when the
WF (3ZC).The standard covers
of pipe, s pecial sectians, connections, and
oal-tar tape applied to the exterior of special sections,
Coal-tar enarael is applied over a crial-tar or synthetic primer. Externa1coal-tar enamel
ded asbestos-felt and fibrous-giass mat to reinforce and shield the mal-tar
lied e x t e d coating is usually finished with either a coat of whitewash or a
"'!single wrap of kraft pper.
reinforcement or shielding. The hot
a smooth interna lining having low hydraulic
The standard provides a rigidyet reasonabk mdacmrer's @de for the productiw of
the coating, calls for t e s ~of material and its behavior ro ensure the purchaser t h t tht
product has the desired qualities,and furnishes directionsfor the effective applicationof the

..

*i

><

'

'

--

AWWA C205, Standard for Ccmcnt-Mortar RotcetRc Liniiy and Coa-'


for Steel Water Pipe-4 In. and Larger-Shop Applied. AWWA ~ 2 0 l45 describa
the material and application requirements to provide proredve Bnings and coatings for steel
water pipe by shop application of cement mortar.
Cement mortar is c o m p o d of Porthnd cement, sand, and water, well mked md of the
proper consistency to obtrtin a dense, hornogenas lining or coating. Internally, the cement
-mortaris cenwifugally m p a c t e d to remove excess water aad produce a smooth, uniform
s u r f a . Externally, the mting is a reinforced c e m t mortar, pneumatically or mechoinicaiiy
applied to the pipe suihce. Reinforcement consists of spiral wire, wire fabric, or ribbon
ide for application and curing of the mortar

Chatings for the Exterior of


el Water Pipelines. AWWA
mpe on the exterior of specid
nstailedunderground in any soil
itions. Tapes with both polyvinyl chloride and polyethylene
listed. The thicknesses of the tapes vary; however, d tapes may be sufficiently
to meer changing performance requirements. Cold-appkd tapes provide ease of
p e c d equipment md can be appiied over a broad application
rerture mnge. If severe constniction or soii conditions exist where mechanicd damage

may occur, a suitable overwreip of an e x m thickness of tape or other wrapping m a y be


required.
AWWA C210, Standard for Liquid Epoxy Coating Sysgems for the Interior
and Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA ~ 2 1 0 describes
'~
a liquid epoxy
mtbgsystem, suitable for potabk water sewice, which will provide corrosion protection to
the interior and exterior of stotl water pipe, fittings, and special sections installed
underground or undcrwater. The coating system consists of one ccwit of a two-pm
chemically cured inhrbitive epoxy primer, md one or more coats of a two-pm c h e m i d y
cured epoxy fmish coat. The fish coa1 may be a mal-tar epoxy coating, or it may be m
epoxy coating containing no coa1 tar. The mting system may d m t e l y consist of two or
more mars of the same epoxy coating without the use of a separate primer, provided the
coatiag system meets the performance requirements of AWWA C210.
These coaare suitabk when used for corrosion prevention in water service systems .
at temperatures up to 140F (60C). The p d u m are applied by spray application,
preferabiy airless.
The liquid epoxy system described in the standard differs from the customary produa .i
..
commercialiy avaihbie in that it has a very high flexibility, elongation, and impoict 2
-.
.
resismce. Any liquid epoxy offcred for water utility purposes must meet the requircments
.
. - --..
.
-.- of AWWA W 10.
. . . . . -.-:. . :
AWWA CZ13, Standard f& Fudon-Bonded Epoxy Coating for the Interior
d Exterior of Steel Water Pipelines. AWWA ~ 2 1 3 describes
'~
the material and d
.
.
applrattion requirements for fusion-bonded e p x y protective mtings for the interior and 4-.
.,
- exterior of steel water pipe, s@al
secrions, welded joinrs, connections, and fittings of s d
.
water pipelines installed undergroundor undenvaterunder normal constructionconditions.
.
Tht tpoxy coatingsare suited for corrosionpreventionin potable water systems opera- at
-13
T. - ..+A temperatura up to 140F (60C).
Fusion-bonded epoxy matings are heat activared, chemidy cured coating sys
The epoxy coatings are furnished in powder form. Except for welded field joints, th
.: -.:p h t - or shop-applied to preheated pipe, spbcial sections, c o ~ o n s and
, fmings
.
:-:--,.fluid bed, i r , or electrostoltic spray.
-.:
--:.. AWWA C214, Standard for Tape Coating Systents for the Exterior of S
Water Pipehes. AWWA w 14l8 covers the mate*,
the systems, and the applica
requirements for prefabricated cold-applied tapes for the exterior of aU diameters
water pipe placed by m d d d m-.
For nonmi comtniction conditions, prefa
.- - ,- cold-applied tapes are applied as a thrte-layer system comisting of (1) primer, (2)con
j
preventive tape (inner layer), and (3)mechanical pmtective tape (outer layer). he
r v p p M in the form of a liquid musisting of rolid hgredie11ts arried in isolvent.
corrosion preventive tape and the mechanical protective tape are supplied in suita
thicknesses md in roa form. The standard c o m application at orwiting p h m .

-,

,-

2-

--'

-.

md application, surfae finisI$ng, and curing of the c-q-nt


:

,..?

..

mortar.

--*? '::

11.4 COATING APPLICATION


This manual dots not fumish details on methcds of coating and paint application, but
importauct of obproper application cannot be overemphasized. Efictive res
m o r be secured with any cmting material d e ? adequate a r e is taken in p r e m
. ...
- .--

:r.

PROTBCTIVE COATINGS AND LINIMCrS

119

- surfaces for coating, inapplying the coating, and in handlingthe pipe &r coa-.
AWWA
standards provide the requirements for ob-g
g d coating work. T h e atwiting
manufa~urer,the applicator, and the &eer
should d cooperateto see that the work is of
the prescribed quality. M m y e x d h f sources of Informatim have k n published deahg
with the protedon of steel pipe, the pitfalls of mting mrk, and the mems ofavoiding hese

Coating of Special Sections, Connections, and Fittings


ofapplicationmoiy differ from

The AWWA standards for protective coatings have been a r e f d y prepared by experienced
individds and me based on the best current pmcaice. They should be used by incorporating
them in the job smcation
by direct referente. Modification should be made only by
experienced coaspecialists.
For AWWA Standards C203,C205, C209, C214 W 13, C214, and ~ 6 0 2 'l4I9
~ ) to be
complete for bidding purposes, the pirrchaseis job spafi(#~tions must provide the
suppkmenteiry h i l s required h each standard.

1. Control of Externa1 Corrosion on Under-

ground or Submtrged Metailic Piping


Systems. NACE Standard RP-01-69.
NACE, Houston, Texw (1983revisim).
2. Test for Cathodic Disbonding of Pipeline
h t i n g s . ASTM Sfandard G8-79.ASTM,
Philadeiphia, h.(1979).

4. Test for Disbonding Characterisrics of


Pipeline h t i w by Dimt Soil Burial.
ASTM Standard G19-77.ASTM,Philadtlphia, Pa. (1977).
5. Test for Chemical Resistance of Pipeline
Coitings. ASTM Standard G20-77.
6. Tcst for Abrasion Resistame of Pipeline
btings. ASTM Smdard G6-77. ASTM,
Phildelphia, Pa. (1977).
Test for Bendability of Pipelint Coatings.
ASTM Standard G10-77.ASTM, Phila-

delphia, Pa. (1977).

. Test for Efftcts of Outdmr Weathering


on Fipeline Coatings. ASTM Standard
G11-79.ASTM, Phildelphia, Pa. (1979).
. Tcst for Impact Resistance of Pipcline
Coatings (LimcstoneDrop Tat). ASTM

Standard GI3-77. ASTM, ~ h i l a d e l ~ d ;


Pa.(1977).
10. Test for Impact Resistance of FipeIine
Coatings (F&g Wtight Test). ASTM
Standard G14-77. ASTM, Philadelphia,
Pa.(1977).
1 1. Test for Pentt~ationResismnce of Pipeline
Cuatings (Blum Rod). ASTM Standard
G17-77. ASTM,Hddeipbia, Pa. (1977).
12. Coal-Tar Protective h t i n g s and Linings
for Stccl Water Pipelines-Ename1 and
Tape-Hot Applied. AWWA Standard
(203-78. AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1978).
13. (Refereme deleted pcr errata issued in
June 1986.)
14. Cement-Monar Protective Lining and
Cuating for Steel Water Pipe-4 in. and
Larger-Shop Applitd. AWWA Smndard
(205-80. AWWA,Denver, Colo. (1980).
15. Cold-Applied Tape Cositings for the
Exterior of Spacial Sections, Connectiws,
and Fittings for Steel Water Pipelines.
A W W A Standard C209-84. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1984).
16. Liquid Epoxy Coating Systems for the
Interior and Exterior of Steel Water
Pipclints. AWWA Standard C210-84.
AWWA, Denver, Colo. (1984).

120

STEEL PIPE

17. Fusion-Bwdd E p x y Coating for thc


Interior and Exterior of Steel Water
Pipclints. AWWA Standard C2 13-79.
AWWA, Denwr, Colo. (1979).
18. Tape Cooiting Systems for thc M
r of
S w l Water Pipchm. AWWA Standmi
(214-83. AWWA, Denver, Cob. (1983).
19. Cement-Mortar Linhg of Water Pipei i n e s 4 in. (100 mm) and Larger-in
h.
AWWA ! 3 m d d C602-83.AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1983).

20. Good Paiftmrg RacnCttd-Volumc 1. System m d Spafi-S-Volume


2. Steei
Stnicturcs Painting Manual. Stacl Strucnires Paintiag Councii, Pittsburgh, Pa.
21. PaintM d . US BUREC Denver, Colo.
(aydable from US Govemmnt Printing
Offce, Washington, D.C.).

AWWA MANUAL

CO

Transportation,
Installation, and Testing
.

5-b:

>-.<T-

-.

J.* - Y

,:mkracd prmx~urr.for nanspo&, 6~ying,m,


md rcs8iig any

steel pipeiine depend on many amtrollingfactofs, includingf i e character md p q m e of


the h e ; its size, opemting pmsure, and a
am&tions; its h t h d ,
g,, subwban, or rural; and rhe mrab wer which it is U-lat, ro-,
or momtaimw.
$ Procedures also are affecfcd by tren& deph, chmacter of the soil, md backfili.
a number of the more c o m r e q u k x n t s of
. -. . This chaprer brkfly di-

& < u

p7

chpfer, the importmce ofthe engirneeringpropertiesofthe soil being excawtedand the mil
that will be used for b d i shodd be k p t in d.
The principies of soil mechanics
pruperly appliedto exawtion md baclcfiil p d c e s lead to safer w o r h g conditi- and to
better md more economical pipeline i n s t d a t i m . l ~

SPORTATiON AND HANDLING OF COATED


~jnedand mted s t c d pipe is rcadily transporied by mck, mil, or ship and has been
- d u i l y t n m p o d to aU parts of the United Smes and to otber parts of rhe worid.
'L Regardiess of which m
& of transportation is used, lined d cuated s t d pipe is vduabk
. cargo and shouid be handkd as such.

Modes of Transportation
Requirements for packagitig, stowing, and restroiining pipe during transit depend 0x1thc
mode ofmnqmrtation.
RaiL Flrit ~~cars can be l d e d to approximttly 17 ft iabove the top of tbt mil
.sind 20 widths of 10 ft. Cars are normally a d a b l e for shipping 40-,m-, or 8 0 4 lengths of
:pipe. Pipe can be resmhed on the a r s through use ofs& pockcts or made inoofl121

loads in 8ccordaace with current Association of Americm hiiroads d e s . An inspector


fro& the r a h d will check each car for proper l d n g before accepting it for shipment.
Water. Constant pitchhg and rolliag motions should be anriupated for pipe stowed
aboard ships. S m d pipe must be padqged, and largt pipt must be stowed in such a menfier
to ride with or offset the pitching and rolling motion. Adequate padded timbers or similar
barriers must be used to kee.p pipe from rubbing together. in -y
cases, fiat racks or
wntainers a n be used. Air bags can help prevent pipe shifting inside the container, The
surveyor who is commody responsible for chec$ing imding mangemeflfs shouid malte
c e h that d dock and ship handling equipment is approvedfor use on m f e d pipe. Pipt is
normally shipped on a Cubic-foot freight basis. The feasibility of aesting s d r diameter
pipe inside hrger pipe to reduce freight costs shouldbe investigated;howwer, such nesting
must be paddsd to ensure thoit
and aating integrity is maintakd.
Truct Most coated pipe is carricd on flat-bed tnicks and trailers diredy m the job
site. This one-time handiing betwecn shipptr and customer avoids damage sometimes
enmuntered by multipk loading and doading. The shipper shodd caution the tmcking
firms agaimt use of tiedown cquipmenr that could injure the
Air. Delivery of the pipe to discant sites can be expedited by airplane, and delivery
into otherwise inaccessibk iocations may require a g o helicopfers. The air carrier should
be contacted to obtain maximum length, width, height, and weight limitations for the mute
involved. Generdy, the carrkrs will require pipe to be strapped M
y to pallets suitable
for handling.
Loading and unloading. Lmds should be pepared in a m e r that wiii protm
the h e d and a t e d pipe. SufFicient stringm should be used to hyer the pipe without
p h h g too much iaad on a single bepoint. Where plain-end pipe is being shipped,
consideration should be @ven to a p p m i d load with the fuil length of pipe resting on
adjacent pipe. Interior stulls should be used where the pipe wall is too light to maincain
roundness during shipment. Contoured block5 may be necessoiry to give proper support to
some loads. Pipe should not be h w e d to rol1 or fa11 from the conveymce to the ground
Jhndling equipment. Both looiding and unloading of coated pipe should be
performd with equipntent that wiH not damage tht pipecoating. Approved equipmentfor
handling coated pipe indudes nylon straps, wide canvas os padded slings, wide padded
forlls, md skids designed to prevent m
e to the coating. Unpaddcd m,sharp edges
on buckts, wire ropes, narrow forks, h k s , and m d bars are wcceptable.
S t h g h g . If the pipe is to be distributed along the right-of-way in rock or p v d y
tcrrain, both ends (at about o n e q m r length from the ends) should be hid on padded .
wood blocks, sandbags, mounds of sand, or othcr suitable supports to protect the pipe

e.

mating.

12.2 TRENCHING
... -

kpth
Trenches should be dug to grade as shown in the profile. Where no profile is provided, the
minimum cover should be generally s e l d to protect the pipe d e l y from mnsient loads
where the dimate is d d eind should be determined by the depth of the frost line in freezing
climate. The profie should be sekaed to m b i m h high points where oiir may be trap@.
Depth of tren& in u t y streets may be governed by existing utilities or other conditions.

Wdth

..

. .
..

Where the sides of the trench will afford reasonableside support, the trench
be maintaincd at the top of the pipe, regardless of the depth of excavation,
practica1 width that wili d o w pmper densificatim of pipe-me beddiig an
materiais. If the sides of the trench remain vertical after excavation, and if beddmg

TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTlNG

123

backfill are to be consolidaitedby hydraulic methods, then the minimum trench width at the
top of the pipe should be pipe OD plus 20 in. If the pipe-zone bedding md b&i require
dinsification by compacti&, the width of the trench at the bottom of the pipe should be
determind by the spsce required for the proper and effective use of tamping equipment,
but it should ncvcr be l e s than pipe OD plus 20 h.
When mechanical joiacg are assembled on pipe in the tren&, beil hola must be
provided at each joint and hola excavated to permit removal of the slings without dimuge to
the pipe coating. In order to avoid i m p i n g excessivee x t e d f d s on the pipe, the trench
width should be kept to the minimum width consisten1 with the baMdampaction
equipment and the type of joint used.

Bottom Preparation

--

.
.-

Fht-bottom trenches shodd be excavated to a depth of a minimum of 2 h.below the


established grade line of the oukide bottom of the pipe. The excess exavation should then
be filled with kmse material from which aii stones and hard lumps have been removed. The
loose subgrade materid should be graded uniformly to the establishedgrade line for the f d
Iwigth of the pipe. Steel pipe should not be sct on rigid blocks 0x1the trench bomm that
would cause concentration of the load on small areas of pipe 008or cause deformatimof
thepiped.
Where the bottom ofthe trcnch is covered with soiid, hard objects that might penetrate
&e protective wting, a btdding of cnished rock or sand, 5 in. thick, should be p W
gnder the barre1 of the pipe. Screened emth also has been used successfully for su& a
Wding, where ir will d
n dry during pipe insmihtion and backtidi. It may be
dvantageous to s h p e the trench bottom under hrge sml pipe for fuii arc contact.

Overexcavation and Spdal Subgrade Densification


When required by the cpmilcstians, the trench should be exavated to a depth of nt leasr 6
in. Wow the bottom of the pipe (Figures 12-1 md 12-2) where the trench bottom is
uistable, or where it includes orgmic materials, or where the subgrade is composed of rock
dr other hard md unyielding materials. T h e overtxcavation should be replaaed with
well-densified m a t e d to a depth of approximately 2 h.below the bottom of the pipe, and
the remaining subgrade should be completed witb loose maurhi, as shown in F
i 12-1
and 12-2. Voids formed by the removal of bodders and o t k large interfering obje.
extending bdow n o d excavatiw limits should be refilled with material as dacribad
above.
=. .. . . .
- ,

-'

Regulations
ti

.-

All applicable local, state, ami federai laws and reguiations shodd be a r e f d y ob&
i n c l u k g those relating to the proteaion of excavations, the safety of persons working
-herein, and provision of the required barriers, signs, and lights.

Handling and Laying


Coire similar to that exercised during loading, transporcing, doadhg, md stringing should
be observed during instdation of the pipe in the m&.
Di-cally
cosed pipe may
require a d d i t i d s p e d care when h a n W at temperaturesbtlow that recommended by
the manufacturer, or when the coating tempecanire is above that recommended by &e

Coated pipe shouki not be strung on rough ground when stored at the trench site, nor
huidit be roiled on such a surface. Rolling of mted pipe should be permitted only when
joint ends are bare and rails are provided on which to roU the expostd sted.

/""

124

STEEL PIPE

It
EMBANKMENT

TRENCH

WELL-DENSIFIED BACKFILL

MINIMUM

(SEE NOTE 5)

~INIMUM

(SEE NOTE 3)

~4

(SEE NOTE 5)

1\
Ht (SEE NOTE 4)

III
3/4

2 IN. LOOSE

Figure 12-1

ITII"~//'i'
TRENCH WIDTH
(SEE SEC. 12.2)

MATERIAL

'

Densified Pipe Zone Bedding and Backfill

It
E;MBANKMENT

TRENCH

WELL-DENSIFIEDBACKFILL
(SEE NOTE 3)

MINIMUM

(SEE NOTE 5)

.JJ M~IMUM

(SEE NOTE 5)

3/4

Ht (SEE NOTE 4)

3/4

21N. LOOSE MATERIAL


WELL-DENSIFIED MATERIAL

Figure 12-2

-6-IN.

MINIMUM

Special Subgrade Densification

NOTESTO FIGURES12-1 AND 12-2


1. Soil densities are expressed as a percentage of maximumdry soil density as determined by
AASHTOT993(StandardProctor) or ASTM D6984.
2. Class C1, C2, and C3 backfills require that the contractor prepare a firm but yielding subgrade.
3. Well-densified material shall conform to the following relative dry densities as a percentage of the
laboratory standard maximum dry soil density as determined by AASHTOT993for compacted, cohesive
soils:
Specified Bedding Class
C1
C2
C3

Dry Density
95%
90%
85%

For free-draining soils, the relative density shall be at least 70 percent as determined by ASTM
D2049-695 (withdrawn, replaced by ASTM D4253-836 and ASTM 4254-837). Comparative soil density
tests are shown in Table 12-1.
4. Pipe zone backfill height over top of pipe (Ht) shall be 12 in. minimum for pipe diameter larger than
24 in. and 6 in. minimum for pipe diameter 24 in. or less.
5. Side slopes shall be a minimum of %:1 or as required by OSHA, other safety orders, or by the soils
engineer.
6. Figures 12-1 and 12-2 represent Class C bedding as shown in ASCE Manual No. 378 (WPCF Manual
of Practice 9, see reference 8).

I!'-

TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING

125

12-1 Compadson of Standard Denslty Tests*

While handling and placing pipe in the rrench, fabric slings should be used. The pipe
shouid not be dmgged along the bottom of the trench or burnped. It should be supported by
the sling while preparing to make the joint. T h e coatingon the underside of thc pipe should

i.

should be repaired before lowering the pipe into the trench.

.
:L:

trench should be kept free from water that could impair the integrity of bedding and joining
operations. On grades exceding 10 pemmt, h e pipe should be iaid uphill or otherwise held
in place by methods approved by the engineer.
Specid means ofsupportiagthe pipe may be provided, but under noconditions should

Slight deflections for horizontal and vertical angk poiuts, lwg radius
shouid furnich data to the engineer and the conrractor i n d i d n g maximum j
deflections for each type of joint fumished.

Assembly of PTpe

trewh by suitabk means, which dlows progressivelowering of the msembledrunof pipe. If

Trestle and ring-girder consmcrion is often used for highway, river, and similar

tacked for welding.

Bows or bends in the pipe caused by direct rays from the sun are preventsd. (Thiscan
be achieved by providing a sun shield over tht pipe.)

126

STEEL PIPE

bridge contains an expansion joint in its mnstmctiou. Steel pipe is also oftcn suspended
from or a-ed
to the underside of existing highway bridges, with appropriste attention
given to the flexibiliry of the bridge's structurc. Exposed pipelinec in any iocation should be
protected againsf freezkg in are85 where such a psibility egisfs.

Field-Welded joints
,.

Technid requirements for goDdfield welding are mtained in AWWA


Standard for
FieM Welding of Steel Water pipe.13Practica1 data for field use have been published.l4 If
pipe that has been lined and m a t d is to be field welded, a short h g t h of the pipe
at
either end must be kft bare so t h t the heat of the welding operation will not adversely affect
the protective mting. The h g t h of the unprotected d o n may vary depending on the
gind of protective coatingand pipe wall thickaess. Care must be exercisadwben cuttingand

complete the lining, proper vendation must be provided. Jointcin pipe smaiier than 24 m;

h rtstraining eibows in so& oflow


capaciry.
Welded joints are capafile of resisting thrusts caused by closed valves or by changa

sufiaent distance to absorb the force through skin friction provided by the bacgFi11
against the pipe. In such ases, accuratemmputationofthe thrust and strengthof
must be made, partiahly for iarger pipe under high pressures,to determine if the weld.
~ ~ c i e n tstrong
l y to transmit the force from one pipe seaion to the next.
Except during the construction period when an open trench exists, pipe with
joints wili usualfy have no problems witb excesiv~t h e m d expansion and contr

Bel-and-Spigot Rubber-Gasket joints


the direction of laying. 3efore setting the spigot in place, the be11 should

adjusted so thc tension on the rubber is uniform around the circumference of ihe
Foiiowing assembly, the pipe joint should be &&ed with a thin metal feekr
ensure that proper gasket placement exists in the spigot g m v e and tha~the proper
of joint lap has been achieved.

TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING

127

-624 ANCHORS AND THRUST BLOCKS


The aemsity for mchors or thnist blocks arjses at ande points, side outIets, and valves, and
oint used influences the extent of anchoring necessary at
pipehes laid in trenches will ordinarily need no mchors or thnist bocks
except on extremely steep slopes and at discontinuities where the pipe has been cut for
valves and appurtenances. An all-welded pipehe laid above ground on piers may be stable
when filied and under pressure, but may r e q u k heavy anchorage at angle points md
particuhrly on steep slopes to resist stresses arising from temperarure changes when the
pipe is empty.
When other types of joints are used that have little oc no ability to resist tension, all of
the previously mentioned critica1points must be adequately blocked or anchored. In order
to provide resistance to tbrust at angla in k g e diameter pipelines, whether buried or
exposed, it is advisable to provide welded joints on each side of the angle point, a distance
sufficient to resist the componente of the thrust. Under high-pressure conditions, lapwtlded field johts should be analyzed for proper strength ciose to vdves and at large

i'

'

Where pipe is laid on piers, antifriction material should separate the pipe from the
supporting snucture. Satisfmory p d c e is for 90-120 degrees of the pipe surface to be
made to bear on the pier. For pipe on piers, the thrust resuiting from an elbow or bend tends
to overturn the anchof pier.
Pipelines laid on slopes, d c u l a r l y a b v e ground, always havt a tendency to creep
downhill. Ir is necessary to provide anchor blocks placed agahst undisturbed earth at
ent intervals on a long, steep slope to reduce the weight of pipe supported
at each mchorage to a safe figure.Where pipe is lacated in a posirion where disturbance of
ly, concrete thrust blocks may be used to resist the lateral thrust. Vertical.
angies with resultant tbrust in a downward direction require no special rreatxuent ifthe pipe
m f u l l y trimmed rrench bottom, but vertical @es with a resultant
tbrust upward should be properly anchored.
Soil resistame to thrust. A force caused by thrust against soil, whether applied
horimntally or vertically downward, may cause consolidation and shear strains in the mil,
aiiowing a thrust block10 move. T h e safe load that a thrust block can transfer to a @vensoil
lidation characferistics and the passive resismnce (shear smength) of
block movement permissible, the areaof the block, and the distance
of force application below ground line. Methods of calculating passive resistan- are
available. l5 For al1 linec, detail dculations are neasary. Data on prmissible soil grip for
13. Some data for the calculation of thrust at

Acceptable p r d u r e s for coating of field joints are described in applicable A W W A

IPE-ZONE BEDDING AND BACKFILL


The following discussion relating to pipe bedding and baddili is of necessity somewhat
general in nature. A foundation study should be performed to provide more precise design
aiteria for large projects or those with unusual pmblems.

STEEL PIPE

Pipe-zone bedding and backfill may be classified as Class C1, C2, or C3 (Figure 12oras otherwise defined by the engineer. Bedding and baclbill should be densified around t
pipe to the specified height over the top of the pipe. In the absence of a specific height, t
backfill shou1d be densified to not less than that called for in Note 4 of Figures 12-1 an
12-2.
The dry density of compacted cohesive soil for each ciass of bedding and backfdl,
shown in Figure 12-1, shouid not be less than the following:
D y Density
Class CI
Class C2
Class C3

Soil densities should be expressed as a percent of the laboratory standard maximum


dry-soil density as determined according to AASHTO T99, The Moisture-Density
Relations of Soils Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a 12411.(305 mm) I3rop,3or ASTM
D698,Tests for Moisture-Density Relations of Soilr ind Soil-Aggregate Mixturec, Using
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammer and 12411. (304.8-mm) Drop (DOD ~ d o ~ t e dIn-place
) . ~ tests af
soil density as required by the engineer are usually made in accordance with ASTM D 1556,
Test for Density of Soil in Place by the Sand-Cone ~ e t h o d , o'r~ASTM D2167,Test for
Density of Soil in Place by the Rubber-Balloon ~ e t h 0 d . l ~

-,

'

Densification
Regardless of the method of densification used, rnateriais must be brought up at
substantially the same rate on both sides of the pipe. Care also should be taken so that the
pipe is not floated or displaced before backfilling is complete.
l.-?

Mechanical Compaction
Cohesive soils should be densified by compaction using mechanical or hand tamping. Car%
must be taken not to damage coatings during compaction. Equipment with suirably shaped
mmping feet for compacting the material will generaity ensure that the specified soik
density is obtained under the lower quadrant of the pipe. At the time of placement, tht
backfill material should contain the optimum moisture content required for compaction.
The moisture content should be uniform throughout each layer. EacWiii should be placed in
layers of not more than 6 in. in thickness after compaction.
1

Hydraulic Consolidation

1%-in. screen, with not more than 10 percent passing a 200-mesh sieve. The thi
by jetting and interna1 vibration.

-.
. ..

Trench Backfill Above Pipe Zone

Native backfill material above thr pipe zone up to the required backfill surface should
placed to the density required in the contract specifications. Trench backfill should n
placed until confirmation that compaction of pipe-zone bedding and backfill
the specified compaction. Cohesive materials should always be compacted w

TRANSPORTATION, INSTALLATION, TESTING

129

rolling equipment. To preven1 excessive line loa& on the pipe, sufficient densified b M d l
shouid be placed over the pipe before power-operated hauling or roiiing equipment is
allowed over the pipe.

Interior Bracing of Pipe


the design, installation, and performance of pipe bracing during
and
installation is generally the responsibility of the contractor. Such bracing
transportation
Iimits the maximum vertical deflection of the pipe d u h g installation and backfilling.
CAUTION:
Interna1 bracing designed for shipments is not necessmily suitable for
protection of the pipe during backfill operations.

HYDROSTATIC FIELD TEST

The purpose of the hydrostatic field test is primarily to determine if the field joints are
watertight. The hydrostatic test is usually conducted after bacldilling is complete. It is
xed pressure above the des@ working pressure of the h e . If tbrust
resistance is provided by concrete thnist b l o h , a reasonable time for the curing of the
bloclMg must be dowed before the test is made.

Field Testing Cement-Mortar-Lined Pipe


Cement-mortar-lined pipe to be tested should be filled with water of appmved quality and
allowed to stand for at Ieast 24 hours to permit maximum absorption of water by the lining.
Additional water should be added to repke water absorkd by the cement-mortar lining.
(Pipe with otber types of lining m a y be tested without this w a i h g period.) Pipe to be
cement-mortar h e d in place may be hydrostaticdy tested b e f w or after the lining has

Y----

.-1
-.

lf rhe pipeline is to be tested in segments and valves are not p v i d e d to isolate the en
- ends must be provided with bukheads for r e s t a . A conventiod bdkheadusuallyconsiss
. pf a section of pipe 2-3 ft long, on the endof which a flat phte or dished plate bukhead has
been weided containing the necessary outlets for accommodating incorning
1.

Jbe pipeline should be filled slowly to prevmt possible water hamrner, and care should be

exercised to allow al1of the air to escape during the filling operation. Afrer filling the h e , it
may be necessary to use a pump to raise snd m a h i n the desired pressure.

test pressure is usually applied for a period of 24 hours before the test is
med to begin, principdly to allow for the lining material to absorb as much water as is
should be carefully inspected for evidence of leakage. The
be permitted depends on the kind of joints used in the
he test, the water pressure should be raised (based on the elevation at the
line under test) to a leve1 such that the test section is
ed to not more than 125percent of the actual (or design) operaring pressure or pipe
t pressure should be maintained for at least 2 hours.
e in an aH-welded pipeline or one tim has been joined
ralled mechanical couplings. On pipe joined with O-ring rubber gaskets, a

130

STEEL PIPE

small tolerance for leakage should be allowed. A leakage of 25 gal per in. of diameter per mile
per 24 hours is usually permitted. Pinhole leaks that develop in welded joints should not be
stopped by peening; instead, they should be marked for proper repair by welding. Such
welding frequently can be accomplished without emptying the pipeline, providing pressure
can be relieved.
If a section fails to pass the hydrostatic field test, it will be necessary to locate, uncover,
and repair or replace any defective pipe, valve, joint, or fitting. The pipeline must then be
retested.

References
1. SOWERS,G.F. Trench Excavation and
Backfilling.Jour. A WW A, 48:7:854 (July
1956).
2. REITZ, H.M. Soil Mechanics and Backfilling Practices.Jour. A WW A, 48:12:1497
(Dec. 1956).
3. The Moisture-Density Relations of Soils
Using a 5.5-lb (2.5 kg) Rammer and a
12-in. (305 mm) Drop. AASHTO Standard T99-8LAASHTO, Washington, D.e.
(1981).
4. Tests for Moisture-Density Relations of
Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures, Using
5.5-lb (2.5-kg) Rammer and 12-in.
(304.8-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard
D698-78. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1978).
5. Relative Density of Cohesionless Soils.
ASTM Standard D2049-69. ASTM,
Philadelphia, Pa. (withdrawn).
6. Test Methods for Maximum Index Density of Soils Using Vibratory Table.
ASTM Standard D4253-83. ASTM,
Philadelphia, Pa. (1983).
7. Test Methods for Minimum Index Density of Soils and Calculation of Relative
Density. ASTM Standard D4254-83.
ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa. (1983).
8. Design and Construction of Sanitary and
Storm Sewers. ASCE Manual No. 37.
ASCE, New York (1969).
9. Moisture-Density Relations of Soils Using

...

a 1O-lb (4.54 kg) Rammer and an 18-in.


(457 mm) Drop. AASHTO Standard
TI80-74. AASHTO, Washington, D.e.
(1974).
10. Test Methods for Moisture-Density Relations of Soils and Soil-Aggregate Mixtures Using 10-lb (4.54-kg) Rammer and
18-in. (457-mm) Drop. ASTM Standard
DI557-78. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1978).
11. (Reference deleted per errata issued in
June 1986.)
12. GARRETT,G.H. Design of Long-Span
Self-Supporting
Steel Pipe. Jour.
AWWA, 40:11:1197 (Nov. 1948).
13. Field Welding of Steel Water Pipe.
AWW A Standard C206-82. AWWA,
Denver, Colo. (1982).
14. PRICE, H.A. & GARRETT,G.H. Field
Welding of Steel Water Pipe. Jour.
AWWA, 35:10:1295 (Oct. 1943).
15. TERZAGHI, KARL & PECK, R.B. Soil
Mechanics in Engineering Practice. John
Wileyand Sons, New York (1948).
16. Test for Density of Soil in Place by the
Sand-Cone Method. ASTM Standard
DI556-64. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1964).
17. Test for Density of Soil in Place by the
Rubber-Balloon Method. ASTM Standard D2167-66. ASTM, Philadelphia, Pa.
(1966).

AWWA MANUAL

Supplementary Design
Data and Details

UT OF PIPELINES
The problernsinvolved in swvegringmd hying out a pipeline are affectedby both the si= o
the line md its location. More detd d c k are necessary as the size increases and as a line
passes from rural o urban areas.
Ingeneral, a p h and profile, tQgether with certain other dmtik, are necessary for any
water pipehe. These shodd show:
1. Horizontal and vertical distances, eitfierdirectly or by s w e y station and elevation (if
slope distances are given, this fact should be stated);
2, Location of angles or bends, both horizontal md vertical (point af intersection

3, Degree of bends, degree m radiits of curves, tangent dismces f o r m e s , or extemal


distances if dearance is required;
4. Pohts of intersedon with pipe centerline for tees, wyes, crosses, ar other branches,
together with direcrion-right- or left-hd, up or down-or angle of flow, viewed
from inlet end;
6. Lwation of adjacent or interferiag insdations or srnictwes;

132

STEEL PWE

7. Tie-ins with property lines, curb hes, d or smet cenferLines, and other pertinent
feanecessary to defrne right-of-wriy and locate pipe centerline clearly;
8. Details or descriptions of al1 specials, together with other data required to supplement
AWWA smdards (Figure 13-1) (see the "Information Regarding Use of This
Standard" seaion of the relevant standard);
9. Details, dimensiws, and class designation or other description of al1 m e s and
mechanical field joints;
10. Any special requirements affeaing the manufacture of the pipe or the instdlation
procedures.

'

Investigation of soil conditions m y be necessary to determine protectivecoating .


requirements,excavationprocedures, permissible foundation pressures, or design of mchor
or thnist blocks. The Iocation of the water tabk may &ect design md installation. Soil
borings are desirable for aU instabtions, espcially where large water lines are involved.
Pipe identificationmay be by mnstcutivepiece number, or some other scheme may be
used in accordance with tht oommon practice of the pipc manufactures or as estabiished by
mutual agreement between the enginetr and the manufacturer. A requirement for
consecutive numbering and insmbtion of straight pie= of uniformly cut Iength is
uneconomical if the pieces are interchangeable in the h e . Special sections may best be
fnarked to show their survey station number. (NOTE:
General marking requirements are
provided in the relevatit AWWA standards.)
A pipe-hybg schedule is a valuable tool for the manufacture and instahtion of a
pipeline system. Such a schedule is shown in Table 13-1. A schedule should show k l y
and completely the essentid details for each pipe piece. In addition, h e schedule should
show the necessaq data for proper assembly sequence and for spotting of pipe s p e d..s and
sedonc.

13.2 CALCUiATION OF ANGLE OF FABRICATED PlPE BEND


In -y
pipehe jobs,it is necessary or desirable to combine a plan md profile deflection in
one fitting. The relationship between 6 (the angle of the fabricated pipe bend), a and 13
(deflection angla in the plan and profde, respectivtly), and y (the slope mgle of ont leg of

25 '/2 !N.BAND-DRESSER TOLERAN

PLAN

NOTE: Coat lnside and Outside per Relevant AWWA Standard

Figure 13-1 Emnple of Adequately


Detailed PIpe Special

133

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS


^' *,

--

e.g :
L

.!i%+:%

s3#7

JOIHT ALLOYAHC& FOR DRZSSBtt COUPLINGS- STATfUHIRG IS HORIZONTAL


DISThHCE ALOaG BASE OR SUPYBY LIBI%. DRaSSERS, POR 24 IH. OB P I F E
UWLtSS IOPaD, WITH STOPS TW.
PIPP; ACCORDXHG FO A W A C-202 AND C O A T D
ABD URAPPXD ACCORDlWG TO A W A C-203
S T A T T O H I X T H . WO.
-

><

<>e?< +::

nn
:+
r,+;

CORR. DRdSS SR
COU-

PC.

D;ISCiZIPTIOI

10.

FiTPINGS

( D i r a c t i o n of
St a t i o n i n g )

WK. RSQ.

CU

PLIBGS

Begin
S e t t l i a g Basin
a t P t l t a r Plant

330+53.2

329+98.9

with Flaagi

5 0 1 Lengfh

Flanged P i e c e

Pc bfl (Vertical)

Add

1' 9-3/4"
Por

Slope
This

J* Conn.

Dist.
329+75

Bigia l i v e r Croaiing
- + ,

?$-??

Pipe Por Crosaing


isi Place
323+25

*a

<

- T.-*

.<
u<A

h d River Croising

1'8"

5 Pc.

E11 ~HOIIZONTAL)

w i t h 3" Conn.

zii

SOtLangth

3 Pc K l l A(Vurtical)

.. ..- . . . . - ..
..
.
..-.

- ..
...

-'

...-.
.- .- -

e bend) must be fmown. Although approximate angks are often used, uniess the exact
tionship is known, ir is impsibk to teli how dose the approximatiws are.

A simple relationshipis iiiustrated in Figure 13-2. If fl increases the slope angle relative
o y, it beaw a plus value. For the general case:

cos = s i n y s i n ( y + p ) + c o sycos
&e speciai case when

:qu& zero:
cosB=cos/3cosai

(y+fl)cosa

134

STEEL PiPE

Tees, crosscs, lateral$, wyes, headers, or other fittings that provide means of dividing or
uaiting fiow in pipelims do not havt as high a resistatlce to internal pressure as do similar
sizes of straight pipe of the same wail t h i c h s . This is because a portion of the side waiiof
the pipe in these fittings is removed to aiiow for the b m c h g pipe. Also, there are
longitudid stressesin the k
t of uarestraid elbows, owhg to distortion or unhimced
hydrostatic pressure.
For o d h r y mtemorks insmiiatiom, the d thickaess of tht pipt ~ ~ n m o nused
l y is
much greater thm pressure conditions require. Consequently, the lowered safety factor of
fittjngs having the same waii thickwss as the srraight pipe still leaves adequate strength in
most cases, and reinforcing may be UIUieOeSsary. Ifthe pipe is oparing at or near magimum
design pressure, however, the strength of the fittingsshould be investigated and the proper
reinforcemcnt or e m wall thickness provided.
Fittings may be reinforced in various ways for resismce to internd prcssure. T y p i d
fitting reinforcements are collars, wrappers, and crotch phtes. The design stress in the
reinforcement should not Be greatter h n the hmp stress used in the design of the pipe.
The type of reinforcement* c m be determined by the magnitude of the pressurediameter d u e PDV and the mtio of rhe bmch diameter to the main pipe diameter d/D
T h e press-iameter
value is cdcuiated as:

where:

PDV =

p'f2

D sin2 A

..

P = design pressure (psi)


d = brmch outside &meter (in.)
D = main pipe ou~idedhmem (h.)
A=branchdiamettr~ofddl,cction.

For PDV val- gmm


6000,the outlet reidorccmnt should oonsist
platt designtd in accordance 6 t h &e nattbodd d k d ia Scc. 13.6. For PDV
than 6000,&e ourltt mnforcxment niay k eirfier a wmpper or c o k ,
ratio ofrhe o u M diamcttr m the mainpipe diameterd/D.Por a dD ratio
may be used.Thc ratiud/D does aior includethe sin Aas in the PDV determi
the coamULag factor is thc cimmferential dbemions. Wrappets may i
x su
coM,d dpkm may be substituted for wrappm or o o b .
by tbe meh c r i b e d in Sec.
W m p and c o h should bc
ASME U d d Pressm V d ~ode! This aode prwides that the m s
the removed steel at &e h c h is replaced in the form of a wmpper or c o k
thc ASME requircnstnts whcn thc P D V r m p bemea4000and 6000,the
a r a of thc teplaccd stael should be multiplied by an M factor of 0.000 25 tima
Figure 13-3 shom rht ~
~d wrapper md
n
o@n@
t
for wclded
aad Table 13-2 lists a s
v of recammded reiufommmt tgpts,
in determining thc required steel replacement, credit should be given to an
a r a of the material inthe d ofthe branch outlet to the dowabk disfatlcefrom
* R t i d o r c c m m t f o r d ~wyes,ordoubk
,
hemis msy requiiea d d i h d d y s e s
ditisnissed M
i
.

DETAILS

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN

135

Figure Ooes Not Show the


ion of Necesgary Welds

= mainline pipe outside diamiter (In.)


Ty = mainline cylinder thickness (in.)
Tr = requlred mainline cyllnder thickness (in.)

d
ty

!13-3

= branch pipe outside diameter (in.)


= branch cylinder thickness (in.)

tr = requi&d bknch cylind& thickness


A = brinch deflection angle (degrees)
T = wrapper thickness (in.)
W = owrall wragper width (h.)
w = wrapwr edgs width lin.)

Reinforcement of Openings in Welded Steel Pipe :


,

Recommended ReinforcementTyp&
M F m

>m

all

'3006000
c4000

>O.?
>O.?

mMOiM
<4000

10.7
S0.7

- .

, -

d/D

PDV

0.00025 PDV
1.0
0.00025 PDV
1.0

..

--..S_

Reinforcemmt T m
CmtChPlrrte
Wrnvmr
,

- ,

wf~pper GUar
Collar

-7

--.;*.= L.
:

--

- =-I--.

. .

- y;2-;,-&.
- ...<=--

...

.e-,-

..: -,, .-_


. Y-->,.&
-.;,.
. -

.
+
.
-

>
.

.<

M.::
7
>
A
$
2
?
.

einforcemmts are for resistame to intmmi pressure. ~ h e should


y
IX*d

for abiiitg to rtsst m-

or wrapper (2.5tY). Weld areas should not be considered in the design. Overall width of the
m h or m p p e r should not be l a s than f .67d/sin A and should not exceed 2.0d/sin A. This
widtb range produces a minimum edge width of 0.3Wsin A. Collar edge widths in the
ckumferential diredon should not be kss than the longinidinal edge width.
Cohw may be oval in shape, or they may be rectangular with rounded comers. The
sadii at corners shodd not be kss thm 4 in. or 20 times the collar thickness, whichwer is
greater (except for collars with a length or width less than 8 in.). Longitudinal seams should
- be placed at 90' or more from the center of the removed section.
On the bmch outlet centerline, the limit line of the branch reinforcement occurs at a
listance 2.5 times the thickness of the branch from the surface of the main pipe run or from
h e rop of the collar or wrapper reinforcement.
In Figure 13-3, the area Tdd-Zr,)/sin A represents thc senion of the mainlinc pipe
:ylinder removed by the opening for the bmch. The hoop tension due to pressure wirhin
*e pipe that would be d e n by the removed section were it present must be arried by the
:otalareas represented by 2wT and 5ry (r, - ir), or 2.Sty (t, - t,) on each side of outlet.

--:*:'

-2::

STEEL

COI
Criteria-data examph-2hin.

x 84~.
tee
Main-pipe size (nominal diameter)
Main-pipe cylinder OD
Main-pipe cylinder thickness
Bmchsutlet size (nominal diameter)
Branchsutlct cylinder OD
. .
.>*
Branch-outlet thicknegs
Deflection angk
Design press&c
Reinforcement stecl allowablc stress (Tbt ailowable
stress, based on a design stress rcsdting from
working pmsure, shaIi no1 exceed % tbt rninimum
yield of the steel used for the pipe cylinder or in the
reinforcement, wbichever is less.)
'

24 in.

D 25 3/4 in.
T, 0.135in.(lOgauge)
d
t,

A
P
f,

8 in.
8 H in.
'A h.
90

150psi
16 500 psi

Therefort, for PDV <4000 and d / D 10.7, use collar unless wrapper is provided.

For PDV 40,M = 1.0


13.4.3

Collar &si@

Branch outlet (G)

13.4.3.2 Theoretical reinfmement area.

TheoretIcal rcinforcement area = A,

:
'

?d

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

= 1.0 [0.117(

8.625 210.25)
sin PO0

= 0.951 in.2

13.4.3.3 Area available as excess Tyand d l m b l e outlet area.

Area available = A,
A,

(d - 2ryl
sin A (T,- T,)+ 5ty (i, - t t )

= 8m625 2'0.25)(~.135

sin w0

- O. 117) + (5 x 0.25) (0.25 - 0.039)

= 0.410 i a 2
13.4.3.4 R e i n f o r m t area.

Reinforcement area = A,

Therefore, use not iess than 12-gauge(O. 105-in.:

= 0.105in.

137

w = 2 w + - =d
14.375
2(2.875) + sine
= in.
sin A
Use: T = 0.105 h.

W =1Min.

13.5 Wrapper-Mate Design


Critmh-Bora exm&-60fin x 4 8 k . l a m l
Main-pipe sizt (nominaldiameter)
Main-pipe cyiinder OD
Main-pipe cgijnder t h i c b s s

Branchoudetsize
Branch-outlet cylinder OD
Branch-outlet thickmss
Defkdon angle
Design pmsure
Reinforcementsteel d m b l e stress (Theallowablestress
s h d i mt e x d % the mhimum lyieid of the sote1 used
for tht pipe cylinderor in thc rnfomment, whichever

PDV =

pd
- (100) (49.87~)~
= 4M9
D sin2 A - (61.875) sin2 75'

Therefore, for PDV 56000 md 5 >0.7 use wrapper.

For 4000 <PDV 46000

M =
1

iI
$

0.000 25 PDV = 0.000 25(4309} = 1.077

Therefore, use M = 1.Os.


13.5.3

Wrapper design

13.5.3.1

Theoretical cylhder rhicknesses.

Main pipe (T,)

PD
T, = -=
2fJ

(100) (61.875)

a16

= 0.188 in.

60 in.
61Inin.

Ty

Y~'isXn.
48 in.

49%in.

t,

%sin.

75O

P
f.

16 500 psi

IOopsi

SUPPLEMENTARY DESICrN DETAILS

Pd
2fs

f r = -=

(100) f,49.8?5)
2(16 500)

= 0.151 in.

13.5.3.3 Area ava2abZe as excess Tyand a l I d Z e outler ama.

Area available = A,

A, = 'd - 2fy) (Ty- Tr) + 5ty (ly - tr)


sin A
A, =

49.875 Z(0.188)
(0.188 - 0.188) + (5 X 0.188) (0.188 0.151)
sin 7 5 O

m = = d
. 49.875 =.25.317 h.
2sin A
2 sin 75O

(O. 105 h.).

139

140

STEEL PIPE

w(min.) = -=
3 sin A

49m875
= 17.211 h.
3 sin 75'

17.21 1 in. (20.740 in.

:.

w = 20.740 in.

13.5.3.8 Oeierall reinforcement wixth.

&y)+--

49m875
H
= 93.1 14 in.
- 2(20'740) +
sin A
sin 750

Use: T = 1/4 in.


W = 93Ya in,

TCH-PLATE (WE-BRANCH) DESlGN


When the PDV exceeds 6000, crotch-plate reinforcement should be used. S
plate reinforcement are illustrated in Figures 13-4 th
nomograph use was taken from a published smdy
Los Angeles?

A single curved plate serves as reinforcement for each


branch of this 9&in. X 66-in. X 66-in., 9O0 included angle

This 15-ft X 15-fi X lcfi,90 wye has two crotch


and one back plate.

WYe-

Figure 13-4 One-Plate Wye

FIgure 13-5 Three-Piate Lyle

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

141

Ths 1S i n . X 12&in. x 125in., 45' wye section has two plates.

Figure 13-6 Two-mate MFye

NOMOGRAPW USE IN W'E-BRANCH DESIGN


The nwiograph design, bastd on design working pressure plus surge aiiowauce, iacludes a
safety factor that will keep stresses well below the yieid poinr of steel. ?he minimum yield
strength of &e sml used in this repon is 30 000 psi. The design pressure used ia tbe
nomopph was kept to 1.5 times the working pressure in order w approximtc ari dlowablc
m a s of 20 000 psi.
Step 1. h y a straightsdgeacross the nomograph (Figure 13-7) through the appropriate
points on the pipe diameter (sestep 2b) and inted-pressure scales; r e d off the deprh of
plate from its scde. This r d n g is the crotch depth for l-h.thick plate for oi two-plate, 90,
wye-brand pipe.
Step Za. If the wye bmch deflection angle is othm than 90, use the N-factor m e
(Figure 13-8) to get the factors which, when multiplied by the depthof plate found in s t q 1,
will give the wye depth d, and the base depth 4 for the new wye branch.
Step 2b. If the wye bmch has unequal-diameter pipe, &e h g t r diameter p i p will
havc been used in steps 1 and 21,
and &ese rtsults should be multiplied by the Q factors
found w the singie-plate stiffenef curves (Figure 13-9) to give d, and di. These factors
vary with thc ratio of the d u s of the small p i p to the radius of the hrge pipe.
Step 3. If the wye depth $, found so far is -ter
thm U)times the thiclmess of the
plate (1 h.},then $,and dbshould be converted to winformto a greater thickness t by use of
tht general equation:
A
(0.917 - m)
d=d1(1;?)

rdl = existing depth of plate

t 1 = existing thickness of plate


d = new depth of plate

r = new thichws of phtt seltcted


A = deflection anglc of &e wye branch.

142

STEEL PIPE

.-

with defiection angles from 30" to 909 the Nfactow obtalned from the above c u m s are
plate depth d , found from the nomograph (Figure 13-71. in accordanee with the equations

ithe

A,:
+ ;
-:

-2..

ches for S ~ W I

hof UneqUat diameter, flnd 4, and Q for the larger-diameter pt$&{from

Figures 13-7 and 13-81;


= d'b, base depth of singliLplate
2
r? t-+. :, -:-LL- ..
.--.lb: ;.-=:
-+..;% -*44-1.
<-iF
;A-:.
..-*<g.
aq+L ,-. 7 ., .
-::.:!
-.
.

= d;v,crotch depth of single-plate stifener: and &Q

-- &T3.f;L:,:

13-9 Q actor ~ u & s

,.;-f.

u.

-.,

.:-

. .

.t

-'

144

STEEL PIPE

10

50

40

50

80 70 80 9
l 100 110 120 130 140 150 180
BASE DEPTH, dh OR d'h !N.

Source: Swanson, H,8 ET AL 5estgn of Wye Branches for Steel Ppe. jour. AWWA. 47.58l (Jum 1W).

d't and d'e are om+@ate design dmensions; 4 and Q are two-plate design dimensiwis.

Figure 13-10. Seiection ofTop Depth


Sup 4. T o find the rop depth d, or dc, use F i 13-10, in which d,
against db or di. This dinmaision gives tht mp amzd bottdm deptbs of p h
crotch depths.
Srep 5. The interior curves foIlow the cut of the pipe, but the outside
both crotches should e q d d, plus the radiusofthe pipe, or in die sin&+
the radius ofthe smaller pipe. Tmgmts c o d h e e n these ames com

shape.
The im-t
depths of &e reinforcement plates, rd, and d, (F
found from &e nomgraph. Ifa w e d exterior is dcsired, a d u s equd to
mdius plus ti,can be used, both for tlx outside curveof the wye d o n oind
m e of the base d o n .

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

S t G I IUN

TOP SECTION

145

,di

,i;
-d:AsE

SECTION

RE= 3Oh
R~ = 21 m.
A = 4s0
Working pressure, 230 psi
Design pressure, 230 (1.5) = 350 psi

Srep 1. With the h g e r pipe diameter 60 in. and the des*


critical plate depth d h m the nomogrriph (t = 1 h.,A = 90):

prtssu~e350 psi, r e d the

Sep 2. Using the deiectionangle 45O, find the ktors on &e N-factor mmc W will
convert the depth found in step 1 to apply to a 4 5 O wye branch ( t = 1 in.):

Saep 3. With the ratio of tht s d e r pipt radius divided by the larger pipe radiw,
(Rs/Rs)= {21/30) = 0.70 and the dtfxaceion angle (A = 4S0), use Figure 13-9 to find the Q
factor5 that give the crotch dtpths for a single-plate pipe wye stiffener (t = 1 h.):
= 0.52
Qa = 0.66
d& = 0.52(122) = 63.4 in.
d i = 0.66(61.5) = 4U.5 in.
Qm

Step 4. Because the depth d&is greater than 30 times the thichess t, rhc conversim
equation should be used:

STEEL E'IPE

Try a tbicbess of 1'/z in.:

d'-=

(0.725)

d& = 63.q0.725) = 46 h.
d i = 40.5 (0.725) = 29 in.
<

Step 5. Find the top depth d: from the curve for one-phte design in Figure 13-10:

Dephof

mof
Depbd
Outsider
e

dusof~s~pipEd;+R,=I8+2l=Bh.

.1

-5

Ibratmrk*--P-d-hP
RB = &=36in.
A = 53O

.-

.Workhg prmurc, 150 psi


Design -me,
150 (1.5) = 225 psi
iipe~~of72in, &a pmureof2
g q h (t = 1 in., A = 90):

si, .i*n

,:a3

SUPPLEMENTARY DESlGN DETAILS

Three-Ptate D e g n
-.

.
.

- -

f 47

~he-preoedingaAqpphsstian
has C o v c d rhe da*

of one- sndm**

wye

itp~~pQm&atbitwf~ma~~desigii.TbetidditinalpbMb
mamd'd*the-athejuiiEtionofthe@tes.Thctrom
htb*-theimseofatBirdphe~ofpipedia~pm~.~tf-

~is~rthen60in.IDdtbehtemat~k~ter~~@,a
pEatecoinbeadwn@ems. I f e i t h e r o f t I i ~ ~ i s b e b w t h e l i m i t , t B e d a ~ ~ k
&uwedtu&meathirdphte.
I f a M phteisdesiredas a n M m totheawo-phte des*, itssizesbuhik
d i ~ b y t b t - t o p d e p t h ~ . ~ ~ o t h e r ~ p l a t e s ~ f l u s h ~ &
the pipe, however, thesidpieite thirkness plus ciemnceshodd b e s i r i ~ , & i j i & W p p
m.This dhensiw s h d & c w s t a n t throughout, and the $ h e shoumdlb p&-a
right angles to the axk of the pipt, giving it a M-ring shape. ~ tus s s should
s&r
of t h e l m i n p b .

ThttfiirdplateMdbt~tothtothtr~rct~iatntplatesd~~at~~opd'
bm,beingMfrtefromthepiptsbellso&rtapI:d~~W~~&
-to the ring phte.
-. e

9..

+
-,-

~ b n2wam
m Aor.&-ugionisismderi
n
pmsure, un- foroes-devebpat -p&sand
c l h d m in the pipeline, T&appb to bends, tees,
rrduan,.&m,b-'&.
(Figure 13-12). ?he magniaideofthne thrust foroes for !
and-b
is<equalmthe p u c t of the i n t e d pressure md the cross-sectiod
amofahepipe,m

e:
1

T=PA

k.

(13-3)

Where:

T = the thrusr force (lb)


P = maximum interna1 pressure inciuding any anticipated surge pressure
or static test pressure if greater h n opemthg precswe (psi)
A = ms-sedonal area of the pipe (in.2)
= 0.7854 02,where D is the outside diameter of the pipe (in.)

148

STEEL P I E

NOTE:h the case of m m - l i n e d steei pipe, the outside W e r is considerad to be


the outside diameter of the steel sheii.
At elbows or bends, the resuitant thrusf force T is:

Where:
A = the deflection @e

of the elbow os bend (Table 13-3, Figure 13-13).

There are also s d mbalanced forces at bends caused by the velocity of water flow
withinthe pipeline. Ingeneral, this v e k i t y is so low in mansmissionor distribution s y s m
that its effect on thnist is insignificant, and thmst forces caused by velocity can, therefore,
be neglected.
Methods to resmin the thrust forces may be provided by a concretet h t b l d , or by
the development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil through restrained or
hamessed joints, or by a combinatiun of these two'methods.
Whcn thrust blocks are used at eelbom or bends, the W i n g a r a of h e block is
determined by the bearing capacity of the so3 against which the thrust force will act, or:

The value for safe horizontal bearing a p i t y of the native soil should be detecminedfrom
field tests by qualified mil engineers.
Restrajned or harnessed joints may &o be used to resist thrust forces through &e
development of friction forces between the pipe and the soil surromding it. When this
method is d,
~ ~ c i e lengths
n t of pipe must be restraid by w e d g or haniessing to
counter the u n b h o e d forces. These unbalanced forces are e q d to PA at bdkheads and
tees (Table 134). As shown in F i 13-14~,the f r i a i d force developed becwten the
p i ~ 1 i n eand the surrounding soil to restrain this unbalanced force of ZPA sin M 2 is
assumed to be distributed uniformly dong the restrained length of the pipehe. Properly
compxted backf~iladjacent m bends will provide l a t d restraiint and eliminare any
tendency for movement in'the bend due to u n b b c e d transverse forces. Figure 13-14~
shows a force dhgam, wherein axid b t s are equal to PA cos A. F
i 13-14c shows
axial thrusfs versus defkction &s.
The length of pipeline required to be restrained on
each side of the bend is then:

length of resrraincd or hamessed joints on eeich side of the bend or


elbow (ft)
i n t e d pressure (psi)
cross&nal
area of &e piw (in.2)
bend or elbow deflection (de-)
udcient of friction between the pipe and the soil
weight of the prism of soit over the pipe (lb/ft of pipe iength)
werght of the pipe (lB/ft)
weight of the contained water (lf>/ft)

In the preceding equation, di 'mametersexoept the vdue of p, fnction d i c i e n t


between the pipe md the soil, can be readi1y.determke.d.Tests and experience indicate that
the value ofp is mt only a functionofthe typeofmil, it is also greatly dfecred by the degcee
of compaction and moishrre content of the backfill. Therefore, a r e must be exercised in thc
seledon of p. &Ecients of friaion are generally in the romge of 0.25 to 0.40.
As shown in Figure 13-15, an additional horizontal force H will be developed for a
buried pipe to res& tht pipc from its lagmi movement. This resmining force is a passive
foroe. 1t dwelops at the -e when minure movemtnt of the pipe is taking place in &e
diredon of the resultant thmt force. Since this force is not induded in the dculation of
restrahed or hamessed pipe length, ir can be considered to providt an added d e t y factor.

1 9

STEEL PIPE

Tabk 13-4 yldrwtic b t d m k a d E d s and Flarige Cwer P h s per 100


Ppc Diameter
nir.

Pipe D h m e r
Un.

Lnad*

lb

m of In-

-re

M*
8%

*The tabulsted W, or disjoGng form., eqwis 100 times the


pressures other thm 100 psi, the lomi will be indirea prqmtion.
10050 Ib; rhe load at 150 psiequals 1.5 (20100), or 30 150 lb.
Sww: Bamard, RE.k i g n S m d a d s for Ste '
"' - .

D&eloped Between Pipe and Soil

- .

figure 13-14c Mal Thnists Versus Mextion

Figure 13-15 I-Idmnhk


Rstrains hried flpe Frm
.J

i@ ANCHOR RINGS
Anchor rings for use in cbqmgte anchor bl& or concrete walls are Uusmfed in Figure
13-16. ~ o ~ ~ e s ~ ~ & o n c d t h n i s t o r ~ ~ ~ a r e g i v e n i13-5.
n ~ -are
able
p r o p r t i o d to
dead-end pull or zhnist imgosed by 150 psi and 250 psi h e d
-

pressures.

laformatiion fbr joint k i m s tie b l t s or stucfs to be "sed for @ven pipe diarrieters and
~ u r e ss shom in Tabie 134. Hamm des@ data appGab1e EO s k
coiiphgs are s
bom ia Tabk 157s sad Figure 13-17.
Data src W on rEEG f o l i d q d ~ f l M
~
bola
:
C O d f o to
~ ASTM A193,
SpeQficsthu for Alhyr%dea aad S t a h b s Steel Bolririg Mawiafs for High-Tempermre
=ce,
Grade B7 or equ& nuts ennfmnhg m ASTM A194, S~~
for C a r h
and Alloy SteeI U m for .&ts
for HQh~Msuremd High-Tempemure Service, Giade
lug m a f d d a m h g to ASTM A283, SpecSdons for Low and Tntemdbe
Tensile Strength ~ h
Steel '
Phtes, Shapes md h,
& d e c5or ASTM A36,
S@Eation Eor Smtcmrd steer? or e q d . Stud bolts %-h.
through %-h.
diameter have
UNC threads; m d bol& 1-in. b e t e r and Largtr have eight UP6 k a d s per inch.
h h h u m bolt stress aliowable is 40 U1psi, basad on:

&um

~essl~are~y~equallyaroundthepipe.In~~thtarraess,
the nuts shoill be tightened g r a d d y
cquay at diammically o p p i t t sides
snw
to w e n t misalignnieat and to ensure that dl studs carry e q d Ioads. The thta&,of.the
studs shall protrude a mnimum of !4 in.from_the n m .

Thtend-thnrstmiueg&own iaTatzk 13-6- themaximumend-thmsf vdzlcs


hamess asmb1ks are da&
10 wirhs&.
The Mi p-kire
must h&&
anticipatBd ailowaacc for sur& pressure. The fiei-test pressure rmst never e&d
,

6
-

L
F

F:

rm
&e

daigapmsutt.

Special mmmions are shownin Figufe 13-10 (wihTabla 13-8 md 13-9), Figures 13- 19
through 13-22 (MTabk 13- 101, md Figure 13-23(with Tabk 13-1 1). Some examph of
vault and m d d e d
e are sbwn in Figures 13-24 through 13-26. Figures 13-27 md
13-28 iiiusPrate blowsff connectim. Tire 13-29 shows a mlief-&e manifold layout.
andhave been i;sed for
S*
tapping machines for m a b mder pressure are
many y-.
Figure f S30 iliuszraxes rhe m e r h d The reidkcing pad is eii*
unkss
pressure requires h. The o m b is ordinarily a p k e d exta-kwy, standard-weight pipe
with 8n AWWA s W d phte f h g e atmhed. The tapping valve is sgecial and oillows
pmper &armefor rhe cuw
on the ddhg d n e . -

152

STEEL PIPE

Figure 13-16 Anchor fng


Tabk 13-5 Dimensions and Bearing b d s for Anchor Rlngs in Concrete-Mahnum Pipe
of t 5 0 psl and 250 psi
+
.

0,758

154

STEEL PIPE

Table 13-6 Tle Bolt Schedule for Hamessed Joints(continued)


Minimum

Number

. .

Maximum

155

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

CUT TYPE RP ANO


TYPE RR PLATE TO
UNIFORM HEIGHT
En.
CONTINUOUS
AROUND PIPE

HOLE STUD DIA. + l/a tN.

u3

EQ a-S
Back Plate

= WICKNESS OF STEEL HARNESS PLATES


PlPE WALL THlCKNESS ANO S t f E OF FlLLET
ATTACHMENT WELD

FRONT PLATE
CONTINUOUS
RlMG AROUND
-

..

PLAN

ALL THlCKNESS AND SlZE OF FILLET


HMENT WELD

G u m t Plate

1 3 4 and 13-7 for dirnensions.


10 for design conditions.
lug type RR, the g u m t plates btween the back plate and the front plate m y be perpendicularto lhe
@ateswith a rninimum clear distan- betwewi each pair of gusset plof dimensian W.
in. for cylinder or wrapper thicknesses through '/a h.;and l/4 in. minimum
m weld tRickness t shall be
II other cylinder or wrapper thickneases.

156

STEEL PIPE

Y,

%
1
I
1%
1%
1%
1%

fi
'A

P
P
RR
RR
RR
RR

1/2

RR

iN
17h
2

RR
RR
RR
RR
RR
RR

5
5
5%
5
5
5%
5
7
7%
8%
10
10%
12
13

RR
RR

14
15%

'm

'Ig

2%

Ft

3%

3%
%

K
%

1
1

1%
1Y2
1%

5
5

m
3
Ring
Ring
Ring
~ing

3%

5
5

4%

4%

3
3%
3%

2
2

3%

2
2
2%

7/9
1

1%
,

14
!
1%

1X
1%

Ring
Ring
R~w
Ring
Ring
Eng

2
2H

mng
Ring

2%

2'/a
2%
Z1/2

2%
3

Rhg
Ring

4N
4fi
4%

Ring

Ring
Ring

5%
SE

m
a%

Ring

RinS

3%
3%
3%
3%

1%

1%
1%
1%

2%

3%

2L/i
2%

5%

3%

2%

5%
6

2%

6%

4%
4x6

2%
2%
2%

6%

1%
1%

2%
r

NOTES:

;3y,

1. Dimeasiwis sbown a b o are


~ in inchts.
2. Use thtst dimensions with Figure 13-17 and Tables 1 3 6 ami 1>?A.

:S

-.

Table f 3-7A

Maximum Ailowable Load per Te Bolt

m
li

.- . -&
.

.
:

.
L

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

157

..-.

AS POSSt BLE

Source: Bernard, R.. Design Standards iw Sieel Water Pipe.


Jour. AWWA, 40:3:24 (Jan. 3948).

F~ure
13-19 Nipple Wth Cap

WHOLE OR PART LEN


OF DRESSER COUPL

FORM

OASKET
HERE ONL

Souree: amard, R.. Design Standards Tw Sieel- Water Wpe. Jwr. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1848).

Figure 13-21 Wal1 Connection Uslng


CoupBng

.:

WELD HEFlE

Source: Bernard, R. E. esign Stendards lor Steer Water Pipe.


Jour. AWWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 19-48),

fgure 13-23 Thredolets

S F L PIPE

T a k 13-8 Plate Dimensionsand Drilt Si$7

SiztofPipcTap

m.

A-

.,, -*

-.

for Reinforced Tap@

~ i o a ofsPlate

r Size of Drill
for Pipe Tap

in.

in.

Openjngs (See FIgure f 3-18) -

*Diameter of p h e pad b e f a curving to fit outside of pipe.


Sorrrce: mwd, RE.Des@ Saindards for Steel Water Pipc. Jw.A WWA, 40:1:24 (Jan. 1948).

it1.

6%
8%

itl.

.-

10Y4
12 Y4
14
16
18

20

..

Maximum Size Tapped O@r@

Pipe SiZt

.
z .
u

1 v4
1 Y2
2
2 V2
3
3 Y2
3 Y2
4

*For sizes hrga than gven, usethe d

un.

,-,

<

Table 13-10 Dimemions of Extra-H&


HalF-Coupliw (% Hgure 13-22)

Table 13-9 Maximum Size of Threaded


Openingsfor Given S i PipeWth Reinfordng

PrtdS(SeeFigure13-18)

33

D*

n shown in

Figures 13-19> 13A), m 13-22.


Somz: mwd, R.E. Design Saindardsfor Stecl Wmr
Pipe. Jm.
A WWA, 40:124 (Jan.1W).

Stcei Water Pipc.Qm.A WWA, 4& 124 (Jan. 1948).

.{

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

51
-

FT. 3 IN.

159

.lP-f.z
15 FT. 3 IN.

'E C
'INC

Plan

DES

-IN. DIAM.)

SECTION A-A

LE.S-/ Pipelim Appurlenances. Jour. AWWA, 4i:i:47

(Jan. 1849).

-24 Casing and Removabk T w Rece Roof

--

160

STEEL PIPE

LADDER FlUNGS

.?.

( GRAVEL-FILLED DRAINHOLE (4 IN.) AND POCKET (1 FF3)


Sourm: Goit, L.E. Steel Pipeline Appurienances. Jour. AWWA, 41:1:47 (Jan. 1949).

Figure 13-25 Section of W n g m


n
gAccess to Gate Valve G d n g
c.7-

BLlND F W G E
L

ALL 'h-IN.PLAT

6 IN.
'/4-IN. DIAM. BAR
8 IN. 8 IN.

'-

Bolted-Corer Typa

Fgure 13-26 Access Manhole

-. ..

. -.

..

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

ILET MANIFOLD

162

STEEL PIPE

.-

WATER MAlM (UNDER PRESSURE)

Procedure: lai weld outlet and sadd


tool and dril1 hole in main: (d withd

Figure 13-30 Tapplng Main Under Pressure


-

.-=.

13.12 FREEZING IN PIPEUNES


Dependence on the saying h t "running water doesn't freeze" is lmi design praaice. W&r
in a pipeline will freeze, running or
32OF (OC). If the water is losing i
wili freeze if not moved out of that
in this sense, the running of the
r e p h the water that is mar freezing. Under some urcumstmces, agitated
tum to ice even when the temperanue is as low as 2S0 to 2g0P (-2.2O to - 1.7OC), l$ut t
condition m m o t be pdicted or depended on. The only safe condition is one wk*
water temperature stays above 3ZF (OC) with a m
,
if possible, of I D or 2 O F (Q.5'
1C) against contingencia. The heat added to the moving water as a result of W o
resistmce to flow is negligible for large pipe wirh low velociues, but it may be considera
for smaIi pipe with high velacitieg.
Calculations relative to the prevmtion of freezing in pipdiaes are h e d the sa
general principia of heat transmission and loss tbat govern similar Calculation@Jpliei
buildings and other hstaiiations. It is well established that complete f
r
a
e
w
d9
occurs when 144 Btu of heat per pound of water is mmcfed after the temperaw Q@
mass has been lowered to 32OF (OC). Also, wirh certain exceptions, the mtio ofthe
of water existing as ice to the w&hf of liquid water at any time during woling L
proportianalm the ratio ofrhe Bri@h rhermai units per p m d withdrawn to the $44
pound required for complete freezing.
Water containing only ice partides ( f h l or needie ice) m a y cause S
because hese can quickly block a pipeline by adheringto vaives or ruiy mino1
Experience indicates that the .water must be maintained at about 32.
(0.M0
to 0.3OC) to avoid trouble.

3
4

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

Freezing in Underground Pipes


3.-..

*;+:
g>:..,

L ,- -*&
y:?:

. y

%;,=

r.;
.
..

-.:

k-

...

The Ereezing of water ia buried pipes is usually dw to the cooling of the surroundingsoil to a
point below 32OF (OC). Soil-temperature variations are related to flow of heat in SO*. Air
tempefature is the most impormt fctor aecting soil temperamre and frost penetration.
The most common method of expressing the seasonal effect of air tempemtures on
water is the freezing index? Thc index is the cumulative total of de.gree4ays below the
freezing point in any winter. In this mtext, a degreehy is a unit representing 1 degree (F)
of difference behw 32OF in the mem outdoor temperature for one day. Values for
midwinter days hving tempemhires above freezh-that is, ne@ve degree-days-are
subtreicted from the total.
Temperature data for many I d t i e s are av&ble.8 A des@ a m e rehting fmt-dcpth
penetration to the freezing index is shown in Figure 13-3 1. The curve wm devdopsd by the
US Amiy Corps of Engineersgs 'O from an andysis of frost penetration records of the
northern United Sutes. The data on the severai soils in Figure 13-31are from observations
made at Ottawa, Ont?
Exptrimencal work on the subject of frost penemtion7 indicates that:

.- ,

h3=
-

-.-'

163

Theoretical equations for computation of frost depth are not free from error. Thc
Corps of Engineers design cucye (Figure 13-31) is the best aid currently available for
estimating frost penetration.
Fmt penetration is signifbntly greater in distiirbed soil than in undisturbed soil.
Water pipes may safely be placed at less depth in clay so& than in sandy soiis. Frost
penemtion 'has been found about 1% times as deep in smd as in clay.
Maximum frost penetration may occur several f ~ e e k before
s
or dter the frtezing index
for a winter reaches a maximum. Water rnains have fmzen as late as Junein Winaipcg,

-.
i
. .

Man.

Frost penetrates deeperin soils on hiilsides with northerne x p u r e than in those with
southern expure.
Undisturbed continuous snow mver has reduced fmt penetration in the Uttawa
c h t e by m m u n t equoil to or greater than the snow-cover ttiickness.
., c.-.,.

200

I ~ m r c eL-t.:

400

fOOO
2OMl
FREUING INDEX, DEGREE OAYS

4MW1

R F & Crswford, C.B.So/ Tempratures >o Water Works P r a c t h . Jovr AWWA, U:IO:#

BOM)

(Oct. 1952).

Measurements were made in Ottawa, Ont., $947-51. Right end of each horizontal line indicates rnaximum frost depth at
maximumf reezing index; let end indicatesfreezing index at time of maximumfrost depth. mrefers to measurements made in
sand (Inierpolated): Olnclay {interpolatedl: Xin aand (by excavation):and +inclay (byexcavation).

Rgure 13-31 Maximum Frost Penetration and Maximum Freezing lndex

- ,
,

.*.-

-.
-:..
.
. ,

164

STEEL PIPE

-<

Freezing in Exposed Rpes

balance is illustrated by Figure 13-32, The hear input is e q d toHi+HB


British thermai units per square foot of exposed pipeline per hour avaihbl
hear of water above 3ZF at the inlet end, md H2being the British thermal unim per sq
foot of pipe per hour genemted by f r i c t i d energy. ( E q for~
Hl and
~ H2are give
Table 13- 12.) The heat losses are given by:
Hbs

At

1+L+Lt+ 1
rif k 'k &+hm

13- 16, respectively.

Source: RIWick, T.M. ET AL Freezing of Water in Exposed PipIims. Jour. A W A . 42:f f :TU35 ( N o v .

1950).

Ffgure 13-32 Heat Balance in Exposd Pipelines

Tntde 13-13 Values of D dv


D
Pipe Diameter
m.

11.0

Smw: Riddick,T.M.; Lindsay, M.L.; &Tomassi,Antonio. Freezingof WaterinEffpOgBdPipenes.3~.


AWW

(Nw.1950).

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

165

166

STEEL PIPE

Table 13-14 Conducdon H e a t - T e r Values


T h e d Gmductivity
Substance

A*

Assumd Thickntss
k.

Heat T m f t r Value

0.75

515
1.1

Pa$e mar&

Steel
Cast iron
Concrete
Wmd stave

385
5.3

~hmin~m
Askm cement
I d a m
Dry air

5.0
2.0

1.O
1410
4.5

Water

Ice

0.5

5w
4.5

0.25
1.o

0.17
4.0
15.6

0.08
2.0

7.8

85% magnesia

'4Foamgh"t

*Btu per square fwt p u hour pu de= Fahrcnhtit diffmntial ptr inch thlclmess of' material.
?A product of Pittsburgh Corning Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa.
Sosrrce: Riddkk, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.;& Tomassi, Antonio. Freezing of Water in h m s d
42: 11: 1035 (Nov. 1950).

rl
Table t 3-15

E m i s s ~ t yFactors
Emissivity Factor

w d (u)
Asbestos ement

0.9
0.9

Aluminum
Brass or mpper (with p i n a )

O. 1
0.5

S o u n : W c k , TM.; Lindsay, N.L.;& Tomassi, Antonio. Fraezing ofWater in Expared P i p h s .Jour. A W W A , ~


(Nov. 1950).
.1

Table t 3-16 Wnd Velocity Factors


Factor

. - - - - - -

. . .

. .

--

Smw: Riddick, T.M.; Lindsay, N.L.; & Tomassi, Antonio. Fieezing of Water in Expsed Pipelines.jw. A W ~
-<

(Nov. I950).

SUPPLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

167

Example ofcalcutadon. P ~ o b h : An exposed, uninsutateds t d pipeline is 48 h.


in diameter, 0.25-in. thidc, 10 000-ft long, md has a C famr of 1 4 . Wiii this line freeze
when coirrying 25 mgd of water entering the pipe at 3SF, with an outside air temperanire of
-SF, snd a 35-mph wind blowing?
-

'-.

For &e d t i o n s given:

Heat input e q h Hi+ Hz.

?.

. -..

+
;.;*:;:.

..

7-

= 143.5 ~ t u / f t ~ h .
-

Because the h a t input is 207.5 ~ t u / f t ~ /and


h the heat loss is 143.5 ~ n i / f t ~ / hthe
,
pipeline is safe against freezing under the des* aonditions. Further calculationshowsthat,
for the same temperature conditions, heat input and heat loss are equaI when the pipeline is
about 14 800 ft Iong and the velociry is 3.1 fps; or, stated conversely, the velocity in the
10 000-ft line could be as Iow as about 2.1 fps before ice might form mar the outlet.

168

STEEL PIPE

Warning of Water in Exposed Pipelines


In desert areas and in the tropics it may be desirable to determine the rise in water
of pipe to sun and wind. In this case, the heat input is
calculared io accordance with the same basic principies ofheat m f e r used to determine
heat losses in lhts undergoing cooling.The values of factorsto be usad in the equations in a
given instance should be determined locaily.Data applicable to calculationof heat loads for
air-conditioning and cooling units may be helpful.
temptraturc caustd by q u r e

13.13 DESIGN OF CIRCUMFERENTIAL FILLETWELDS


Any weld that is continwus wiil containwater, so weld size is insignificantfroma seal-we
aspect. Once welded, the weld must withscrind my iongitudinai forces ap
does not behave as an uflsmssed sea1 weid, since it is the only r e s h t that
ofthe pipe at the joint.In areas of ipipeline not affected by pipeline features that give rise to
longitudid stresses (elbows, vdves, reducers, etc.), the only lo@tudii stress n o d y ,encountered is due to change in temperature or to ixam bending from uneven settiement of
the pipeline. To minimize longitudid stresses, it is customary in specifications to cail for
one joint every 400-500 ft u,be left unwelded untii the joints on both sides of it are weldd.
This joint is later welded at the cooiest time during the worday. Determination ofweld
size then is as follows (see Figure 13-33):
= fillet weld leg size (h.)
= thraat dimension (h.)
AT = temperahire change (OF)
T = tempereiture(F)
K = constmt linear dcient
of thermal expansion for steel
= 6.33 x
in./in./OF
L = iength of pipeline (ft)
AL = c h g e in length (ft)
E = Young's modulus = 30 x lo6 psi
Sp = stress in pipe woiu (psi)
S, = stress in weld (psi)
r = pipe wail (in.1.

Assume an anchored straight pipeline is welded at a temperature TI.


is then reduced to T2.
The pipehc would then tend to reduce in kngth by
a function of Ti-T2,L, md K.S k the ends are anchored, it cannot chringe its

Figure 13-33 fillet Nomendature

SUPFLEMENTARY DESIGN DETAILS

169

Therefore, the stress in the line is the carne as h t which wodd exist if it were stretched by
the same amom that it wodd shorten if it were free to do so. This is a conservative
assumption. Few p i w e s are p e r f d y straight between anchor pints, md kmperature
chmges are usudly gradual, so most lines acnidiy can c h g e their iength by a s d
amount, relievhg the thermal s t m s somewhat. To dcuiate t h d stress:

Shortenhg due to temperature change ~ L isTfound as:

~T=L(AT)(K)
Hongation due to lorgitudind tension AL, is found as:
(2)

According to the oissumption above.:

AL, (stras elongation) = ALr (temperature shortening)


Substituting (2) into (4):
(5)

AL,=ALT

E = 30 x 1O6 psi
S, = AT(6.33 x l e ) (U)x

106)= AT(189.9 psi)

For MF change in temperature:


S, = 189.w)= 7596 psi (stress in pipe wall)

CaicuZatim for fiilet sixe:


The weld must carry its load through its least dimension (its throat). To be
conservative,assume no penetrationat the thmat. The full force ofa unit Iength of pipe wdi
in the Qrcumferential diredon must be b e d by a unit lmgth of fdtt weld thmat aiso
measured in the circumferential direction. C a l this unit length 2.

STEEL PIPE

The weld metal is as strong as the parent metal,so consider the aiiowable stress to be 15 000
psi (% yield) in the pipe 4.
thens, = 15 000 psi

for A T = 40F
S, = 75% psi

Ieg size then is:

NOTE:In meas where a vdve anchor b l d or other pipeline appumnanccs can


introduce tension into the h,
the tmsion due to &e appurtenances should be checked to
determineif it established the minimum fillet size. Thae dstresses can never ex&
balf
the hoop stress caused by internd pressure. That tension and the thermal tension are m
additive because the tension can only exist if &e pipe is not restrained, and the thermal
can only exist if it is mmhed.The greater tensionapplies for d e s e purpmes. See

13.14

SUBMAWNE PlPEliNES
The type of constnicti& used has a great influcnce on design and on total costs ofa systwn,
A britf discussion of different available construction tdmiques wiii illusuatc their effcct,
Thm are basicaiiy two systems for coastructing submarine pipelints: pipe-laying systems
and pipt-pulling systems.

Pipe Laying
In a pipe-laying system, the pipe is mansported by water to the laying platform,
barge equipped primady with a heavy crane and horse. The horse is a
moving on skid beams in two directions with cables extending vertidy downwar
water. On arrival at the job site, the crane picks up the pipe segment and
horse is centered above it. T h e pipe, once attached to the horse, is Iowered t
Divers report the position of the segment in rehtion to the completed section
the horse is moved up and down, forward and badward, md sideways
..
lines up with the beil end of the completed section.
. ,.2:-{---..,
'

Rpe Pulling

.,

,- ,

Pipe puliing has been evolved by the oii industry through rivers, bays, mdopen
pipe-pulling method requires pipe apable of withstandhg the tensile stresses
during the puiiing operation. The method is usually used with steel pipe b u s
high tensiie stresses.
A steel-pipe pulling operation begins on assembly ways establishedashore, o
the pipe is coated and wrapped. To p t n t fioating, the pipe may be allowed

"-a
- -.
- *-%
7

water as it leaves the assembly way. Alternatively, the pipe may be apped to exclude water,
then concrete weighted or coated to overcome its bouyancy.The pipe ltagths are welded in
aontinuous strings. The mmpleted pipe string is transferredto launchways (Figure 13-34),
which lead to the sea. Once shore sssembly is complete, the reinforced head of the pipe
strhg is attached to a pull barge by wire rope and pukd along ttie bortom by a winch until it
is in position ( F i i 13-35).
A variation of the bortom-puU method is the flmting-string method of pipe
instalhtion. The line is initially assembkd in long segments and transferred to the
Iaunchways. It is then pulled off the launchweiy by a tug, floated out to locoition, and sunk
(Figure 13-36). Individual strings are connected by divers, as in the pipe hying method, or
strings are joikd by picking up the end of the iast piece installed and putting it on a deck ofa
special tie-in phtorm, where the connection to the beginaiag of the mxt string is made.

-------- - - - - m -

LAUNCHWAY

TIE-IN STATION
CONTROL HOUSE

PlPE SUPPORTS

.72.

-5

. -,

>: !,.
__1

.9

- . -1
.

172

STEEL PIPE

. .-+ - . ,

PONTOONSSYSTEMATICALLY
RELEASED TO LOWER PIPE

Pyden, W.M.8 Piaseckyj, P.J. Wnornicand Omr Design Conside


fngenieursiver publisher). Aniwerp, Belgium (f9741.

Submarine Rpeline- Hoating Strlng Posloning


;

h .m e ; _ .

...P.

<A,

..

~matler~~ipefitaesaresometinm
bw-bmrd~forweidingpipe
ofthcbargeasis-bargemovesaiong~-mmeofrhepi@me, taddiagpiptasitgcits. he
pipe mdggcxx b d i n g stresses as it is kid, so the barge should include quality-srpl
faciiitits fur checaing the somdness of.the cipcumferential wdds.

Referentes
l. ASME UdUed Pressure Vessel Cede.
2. SWANSON,H.S. ET a.
Dwign of Wyc
B m h e s for Steel Pipc. Qwir. A WWA,
47:6:581 Uune 1955).
3. Spccificatiws for Alioy-Swei and S&less Stel Bolting Matcriais for HighTemperatufe Sewice. ASTM S m W
A193-80. ASTM, FWadeIphia, Pa. (1980).
4. S-m
for Carbon and Aiioy Steel
Nuts for Bolts for H i g h - h u r e and
Higb-T~mmturtSm?a.ASTM Standard Al-.
ASTM, Phhdelphih, h.
(1=).

for Iiw and Intermediate


Tcnsilc S
e G t d m Stacl Platcs,
Shapes and M.
ASTM Standard A285
79. ASTM, FWaddphia, Fa. (1 979).
6. Spcufmtion for Sm&
Steel. ASTM
S m h d A3&77. ASTM, Phihddphia,
Pa. (ign).
7. -E-,
RF. & CaAwom, C.B. S i l
Tcmptratum in Water Works Pmaiot.
JmA WWA, 44:103923 (Oct. 1952).
8. Heating,VentilatingamiA i r M t i o n i n g
Guidc, Amer. Soc. Heating and Air Conditioning Engrs., New York.
5. S@ications

9. Repwt

on F m t

(1

10. MdedUm No. 1,

F m t PmetfatiOfl
11. RIDDICK, T.M.; LINDSAY,

The fol2uwing refmmes are nat

th texr.

lndex
-

. .
-..-...,...

, ,

..

,:

-.

.. ,

.
,- ..

I . .

>

.-<.

Air-and-vacuum valves, 98-99


Air entrainment and release, 33
Air-release valves, 98-99
Air venting, 129
Amerian Water Works Association standards for
coatings and linings, 117- 19 Anchor rings, 96,15 1
Anchors, 127
Appurtenanm
See Firtings and appurtenances
Aqueducts
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
Assembly of pipe, 125-26
Atrnospheric corrosion, 111

BacEu
.

.f

..

-'?y
See Pipe-zone bedding and backfill
Bedding
See Pipe-zonebedding and backfill
Bell-and-spigot joints, 86, 126
Bending stress of steel, 8
Biochemid corrosion, 108
Blowoff connecrions, 97
Bolt hole p i t i o n , 95
Bouquet Canyon pipeline, 4
Boussinesq equation, 62-63
Brittie fracrure, 12- 13
Brittle material, 4
Buckling, 61-62
Bulkheads, 129
,

blowoff, 97
hnged, 97
special, 151
to other pipe material, %
Gmosion
. .>..
allowance, 38-39 . '-' atmospheric, 111
bimhemical, 108
bonding of joints, 112
cathodic protection, 111-12
control methods, 111
aevice, 109
electrolytic, 107
- -'
galvanic, 102, lk"
internal. of steel pipe, I 11
overview, 101
severity of, 109
mil investigations, 109- 110
s t r a s and fatigue, 108
survey, 113
theory, 101
Couplings
grooved-and-Shouldered, 89-90
sleeve, 88-89
Crevice corrosioi?, 109
Densification, 128 "Design
. .,....
See Pipe design "'1'" ;
Distribution system '"
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
D u d e material, 3
Ductility of steel, 3-4
ductility in design, 10
effects of aold working on, 10, 12
'-

q'

"

.-

:.

requirements of, 115


selection of, 115-17
Cold working, 10, 12-13
Collapse-resistance of steei pipe, 39
Coliars, 134-35
collar plate, 136-40
design, 136-38
Compaction
See Mechanical compaction
Concrete footings, 80
Connections

Calculations
angle of fabrimted pipe bend, 132-33
collar design, 136-38
definition of symhls, 33,35
entrance head l a s , 26
flow through fittings, 27-28,32
flowthrough pipe, 26
freezing in exposed pipes, 167
loss of head duough friction, 26
losses due to-elbows, fittings, and valves, 26-27
nomograph, 141,14447
pressure rise, 55-56
velocity he& loss, 26
wrapper design, 138-40
Cathodic protection, 11 1- 13
Charpy V-notch impact test, 13-14
Check analysis, 20
Coatings and linings
application of, 119
A W W A standards, 117-19
overview, 115
recommendations, 119

-'

-4

..
..-. ..:..
-

'- .
.-.

.:.

,'

. ..r3. . ..

Economical diameter of pipe, 32-33


Elastic-plastic range of steel, 6-7
Ehsticity
See Mduius of elasticity of sieei

-..,.--.
.

'.

.. .

:.: .>=

?-.

.---

o..

- 7 .

2>cL..

,-

T..

.
.-

=:
.

.?
L...

,....,T

- ..
-

. -

.:

-.

-.
.-, i
-: .
?.;
--- S ,.*-Y
-.
..- - =--s. . .,._
- .. -- ,::s._.-.. +
,-

.:.. -- >d~:
;:;.
.-.:
-:,2

:-:

-.

- - > - -

-..---<... .:.. .:-...

. --

-:.<.y-;*-++:
-- . . . .

,
T
.

-.

- -:.->$
.+;:=
'Y

.. -..

...-.. .
-..
L
:
.

--

-..

,>--- -.y.,!
.
---.. . .,--

- Y.
.?
:- c.
. .<-.
- ..
.>
.
:
.<>..-- <-.- -.. y
-,:-.--.
- ".C.,-<:---. *
;:,-<.
:
...
- - , -=.- . :'.
. - - - - . - -:,? . ---:
-

--

,
..:
.

.e<-,
---

..
-.. .

>-

-.:

\.

174

STEEL PIPE

Electric resistance welding, 16


Electrolytic corrosion, 107
Entrance head loss, 26
Expansion joints, 80
Exterior prism, 57
External load
buckling, 61-62
computer programs, 63
deflection determination, 58-61
extreme conditions, 62-63
load determination, 57-58
normal pipe installations, 62
External pressure
applied calculations, 39-40
atmosphere or fluid environments, 39
Fatigue corrosion
See Stress and fatigue corrosion
Field-welded joints, 126
Fillet welds, 168-70
Fittings and appurtenances, 95-99
designation, 93, 95
overview, 93
recommendations, 99
reinforcement, 134-35
testing, 95
Flanged connections, 97
Flanges, 89
Flow through fittings, 27-28, 32
Flow through pipe, 26
Fracture mechanics, 12-13
Freezing in pipelines
exposed pipes, 164, 167
overview, 162
underground pipes, 163
Frictional resistance
soil-pipe, 96
Galvanic corrosion, 102, 104
Gaskets, 86, 89
Hazen-Williams formula, 21-22
Head loss through friction, 26
See a/so Calculations
Herman Schorer design, 71-72
Hoop stress, 66
Hydraulics
air entrainment and release, 33
calculations, 26-28, 32
definition of symbols, 33, 35
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
formulas, 21-22
overview, 21
recommendations, 33
Hydrostatic field test
air venting, 129
allowable leakage, 129-30
bulkheads, 129
field testing cement-mortar-lined pipe, 129
overview, 129

Installation
anchors and thrust blocks, 127
assembly of pipe, 125-26
bell-and-spigot rubber-gasket joints, 126
field coating of joints, 127
field-welded joints, 126
handling and laying, 123, 125
hydrostatic field test, 129-30
overview, 121
pipe-zone bedding and backfill, 127-29
Insulating joints, 98
Interior prism, 57
Iowa deflection formula, 58-62
Joints
abovegrouml conditions, 91
bell-and-spigot, 86, 126
bonding of, 112
expansion and contraction, 90-91
field coating, 127
field-welded, 126
ground friction and line tension, 91-92
insulating, 98
overview, 86
recommendations, 92
slip, 87
stuffing-box expansion, 91
underground conditions, 90
welded, 87-88
Ladle analysis, 19-20
Lay barge, 172
Linings
See Coatings and linings
Live-load effect, 60
Load
See External load
Lock-Bar pipe, 1-2
Manholes, 97-98
Manning formula, 22
Manufacture of steel pipe
electric fusion welding, 16, 19
electric resistance welding, 16
Marston theory, 57-58
Mechanical compaction, 128
Modulus of elasticity of steel, 6
Modulus of soil reaction, 60-61
Nozzle outlets, 96
Penstocks, 37
economical diameter of pipe, 32-33
Pipe deflection as beam, 70
calculation methods, 70-71
Pipe design
anchor rings, 151
angle of fabricated pipe bend, 132-33
circumferential fillet welds, 168-70

crotch-plate, f 40-41
fittings reinforcement, 134-35
freezing in pipeiines, 162-64,167-68
joint harnesscs, 15 1
nomogmph, 141,14447
pipeline layout, 131-32
S@
connections, 151
submarine pipelines, 170-72
thrust restraint, 147-49
Pipe joints
See Joints
Pipe wall thickness
corrosion allowance, 38-39
extenid prcssure, 39-40
i n m d pressure, 36-37
minimum, 40
overview, 36
pressure limits, 38
recommendations, 40
vs. stiffening rings, 67-68
worlcing tension stress in steel, 37-38
Pipe-zone bedding and backfill
densifiation, 128
hydraulic consolidation, 128
interior braang of pipc, 129
mechanical compaction, f 28
o v e ~ e w 127-28
,
trench b d ~ i &ve
i
pipe mne, 12&29
Pocketing, 71
Pressure lirnh, 38
Ressure surge
See Water hamrner
Fressure wave veldty, 53
jng-girder construction
assembiing pipe, 80
concrete footings, 80
continuous pipelines, 76-77
design factors, 74
expmsion joints, 80
Hermau Schorer design, 71-72
nstaIlation of spans, 78
low-prwsure pipe, 77
pipe hal full, 74,76
stress in-pipeskll, 72-73
smess in ring girder, 73-74
Riveted pipe, 1
Rubber gaskets, 86,89

Saddle supports
equal l d , 67
hmp suess, 66
maxirnum saddlc, 68-69
spans, 66
4 1 thickness vs. stiffening rings, 67-68
Scobey formula, 22
Shear stress, 12-13

..

SIeeve couplings, 88
pipe layout, 88-89
Slip joints, 87
Soil-pipe frictional resistance, %
SteeI pipe
design stresses, 1
ductility and yield saength, 3-4, 1412
history, 1-2
interna1 w m i o n of, 111
Lwk-Bar, 1-2
physid charamristics, 3
reuimmendatiofls, 15
riveted, 1
stecl sciection, 14-15
saength, 14 12
s m s and srran, 4-9
structud design, 12- 15
tension strcss and yield srrength, 37-38
-, 2
welded, 2
S t e m formuia, 39
Strength of steel
effeas of coid working on, 10, 12
Stress and fatigue corrosion, 108
Stress and strain of steel, 4-7
analysis based on smin, 8-9
bending stress, 8
. hoop stress, 66
.
pipe shefl, 72-73
.2~i:t
ring girder, 73-74
.. shear stress, 12-13
- strain in design, 7-8
tension stress, 37-38
Stringing of steel pipe, 122
Stuffing-box expansion joint, 91
Submarine pipelines
lay barge, 172
overview, 170
pipe laying, 170
pipe pulIing, 170-71 . .- '
Supprts
girtdiait to prevent pocketing, 7 1
overview, 66
pipe deflection as beam, 70
ring-girder construction, 7 1-74,7&7&, 80
saddle, 66-69
Surge-wave theory, 5 1-54
,

-,

Tension stress of steel pipc, 37-38


Testhg of steel pipe
check amlycis, 20
chemimI properties, 19-20
dimensional properties, 20
hydrostatic test, 20
ladle analpis, 19-20
physid properties, 20
Thrust blocks, 127

176

STEEL PIPE

Thrust forces
soil resistance 10, 127
unbdanced, 95-96
Thnist restraint, 147-49
Transpomtion
air, 122
handling, 122
loading and unloading, 122
modes, 121-22
overview, 121
rail, 121-22
stlillghq, 122
tnick, 122
water, 122
Trenching
bottom preparation, 123
depth, 122
werexcavation, 123
regdationc, 123
width, 122-23

Wdl thickness
See Pipe wall thickness
Warming water in ex@
pipelines, 168
Water hamrner
aUowance for, 55
checldist for purnping &,54
effect of conduit, 53
effect of friction, 53
overview, 51
pressure rise calcuiations, 55-56
sudies for, 54-55
surge-wave theory relationships, 5 1-54
Welded joints, 87-88, 126
Welded pipe, 2
Wrappcrs, 134-35
design, 1 3 8 4
Wye branch design, 95, 140-4 1
nomograph use in, 14 1,14447
one-phte, 145-46
three-phtt, 147
two-pIate, 146-47
Yield strength of steel, 3-4, 37-38
Young's rnodulus, 54

2 August f ssS for

AWWA Mll-88
Third Edition
June 1988

SUPERSEDING
AWWA M1 1-87
Semnd Edition
14 JuIy 1988

Department of Defense Acceptance Notice


AMWA Mll-88, Thiri
the D m e n t
- .
-.
has furnished the c l a m c e required by exhking mguktims, Copies of this
domment are gbcked by the W Single S k k Faw,NawI P&Iic
Center, 5801 Tahr Ave., Philadelphia, FA 19l20=for isme ta OrD a&viti&-apiy,-v L=;is
An other requestors mvst obtain documenb fmoi AWWA, 6666 Weat Wncy Ak,-.--*?g
Denver, CO 80235.
use by

E.

&---

>-.

merican Water Works


, Guide for Design and

A d o e Third Editio
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