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1 Introduction
The aim of this research is to provide for the designer a practical and transparent software
solution for use with the structural Eurocode suite [1] [2] [3] [4] [5] [6]. This provides
choice between speed of design and optimisation. It is also intended to leave the option to
proceed to an accurate design with the result obtained from an anterior rapid design
without reprocessing all the actions.
Eurocode 0 indicates that the actual effects of actions need to be combined together, rather
than the values of the actions themselves as normal with permissible stress codes. This
approach provides more accurate results but can be time consuming since the number of
combinations to be performed increases quickly with the number of actions applied to the
structure. Nevertheless, when a linear elastic analysis is carried out, as it is often the case
in timber structural design, the scope of necessary checks can be reduced. Action
combinations may be pre-processed to limit or even sometimes remove the need to
combine effects of actions at a later stage. Also, the kmod factor can be introduced early to
reduce the number of cases to be investigated, by identifying the critical load duration
cases.
Because of timbers moisture and time-dependent properties, conforming to the Eurocodes
can become more complex and error prone especially for timber designers who lack a
knowledge of limit states design, or for others whose knowledge of timber design is
limited.
It should be noted that the basis of the logic is founded in EN 1990. Hence, the action
combination processing method applies for steel or concrete structures as well as those in
timber. With experience, mixed material structures (timber with steel, for example), or
timber-concrete, timber steel composites are feasible.
The theoretical basis of the software will be discussed in this paper.
2 Design methodology
The software under development is intended to permit the designer to check a structure
using the following sequence:
Group all of the actions with the same patterns together. Two actions are
considered as having the same patterns as one another when they are applied at
the same position, with the same distribution and in the same orientation.
However, they can have different load durations, be of a different nature, and
have favourable or unfavourable effects without being regarded as a separate
group.
Use the action pre-processor to pre-process each group into an equivalent action
of the same pattern as the initial action with a design value for each duration, a
reduced design value for each duration, a critical load duration case and, for
each duration, an indication of the leading variable action of the group
Group 1
Group 2
After this preliminary stage, the designer has the choice between a rapid but conservative
method and a precise method.
For each load duration which proves to be critical for at least one group of
actions, calculate the effects of the corresponding ULS design values of all the
actions groups.
2
For each load duration which proves to be critical for at least one group of
actions, take each group in turn and combine the ULS design values of its
equivalent action with the reduced design values of the other groups for that
load duration.
For each SLS combination which has to be checked, take each group in turn
and combine the design values of its equivalent action with the reduced design
values of the other groups.
Check that ULS and SLS limits are not exceeded, by applying the relevant
materials code.
Group 1
dominates.
Group 2
dominates.
Figure 3 Accurate processing of Figure 1 example for one load duration or SLS combination
The structure is designed and checked using EN 1990, EN 1991, and the
appropriate material codes.
The structural model used to calculate the action effects assumes a linear
deformational behaviour of the structure.
Where E{Actions groups} = The effect due to the actions groups calculated with an
appropriate structural model.
And Max (value1, value 2,) defined as the value having the maximum absolute value.
Rk
k mod modificati
on factor for duration of load and moisture content
M partial factor for material properties
Rk the characteristic load carrying capacity
Because, kmod is load duration and moisture content dependent, Rd, the design resistance,
alters for each load duration case. Consequently, checks need to be made for each case in
turn. Nevertheless, governing cases can more rapidly be anticipated by integrating the kmod
factor early in the process.
According to EN 1990:2002 and prEN 1995-1-1, the following condition should be met:
E d k mod
Or
Rk
Ed Rk
k mod M
Rk and M depend only upon the material, and in some cases the geometry of the structure,
hence this particular ratio is not time dependent. Thus, for each load duration case in turn,
the ratios of Ed and kmod may be compared, with the highest result indicating the limiting
case. Thus the action pre-processor logic uses this observation to predict the limiting load
duration case for each group of actions.
The effect of an action Qi,j is written qi,j. (Each action has various effects in different
regions of the structure, but for simplicity, qi,j is the effect relevant to the context).
It is also assumed that k ultimate limit states checks are required. When comparing the
methods below, the fundamental combination is considered in just one load duration case.
Nevertheless in the case of a real life design, all appropriate load duration cases would
need to be assessed. Also serviceability limit states checks would probably be required. It
is emphasised that the logic explained, and the software outlined, is to assist rather than
replace, the experience and judgement of the engineer.
Frapid
Fd
n (1 0 ) (n 1)
i, j
i, j
+ gi
Frapid 1.35
Fd
1.3
1.25
1.2
1.15
1.1
1.05
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
1
1.35-1.4
1.3-1.35
1.25-1.3
1.2-1.25
1.15-1.2
1.1-1.15
1.05-1.1
1-1.05
Post-processing
Rapid method
Precise method
No
Yes
Yes
n(m+1)
Process design
values from
characteristics
values k times.
No
The comparison outlined in table 1 considers a single load duration. With more than one
load duration involved, pre-processing is likely to provide an even greater advantage.
5 Conclusion
This research indicates that the pre-processing of actions is an efficient way of designing
with the structural Eurocodes. The logical approach provides the engineer with a choice
between precision and speed of design. It enables the upgrade of a rapid design into a
precise one, at project stage 2.
The logic and ensuing software under development requires testing with real life designs.
Timber construction has many forms, ranging from the single family timber dwelling to
long span structures such as sports halls and bridges. Thus different engineers designing
various structures are likely to come up with several solutions to prove the safety and
serviceability of these structures.
The authors would welcome comments on the paper and offer to test the prototype
software. Please address any responses to Yannig Robert from whom copies of the
software can be obtained.
6 Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the advice and assistance given by Buro Happold
Engineers especially by Jamie Siggers and Jonathan Roynon, Glued Laminated Timber
Association (UK), Gifford Consulting Engineers, Institution of Civil Engineers, Local
Authority Building Control (LANTAC), NHBC Engineers, and the Steel Construction
Institute.
7 References
[1] CEN, EN 1990:2002 Eurocode Basis of structural design, 2002, Brussels, CEN
[2] CEN, EN 1991-1.1:2002 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. General actions
Densities, self-weight, imposed loads for buildings, 2002, Brussels, CEN
[3] CEN, EN 1991-1.3:2003 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures. General actions Snow
loads, 2003, Brussels, CEN
[4] CEN, DD ENV 1991-2.4:1997 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures.
Actions on structure - Wind actions, 1997, Brussels, CEN
[5] CEN, DD ENV 1991-2.6:2000 Eurocode 1: Basis of design and actions on structures.
Actions on structure Actions during execution, 2000, Brussels, CEN
[6] CEN, prEN 1995-1-1:2003 Eurocode 5 Design of timber structures Part 1-1:
General - common rules and rules for buildings, 2003, Brussels, CEN
[7] Natterer J and Sandoz J.L.Conceptual design, in Blass H J et al (eds) Timber
engineering STEP 2, (The Netherlands, Centrum hout, 1995), pp E2/1-E2/8
[8] Harris R et al, The use of timber gridshells for long span structures, Proceedings of
the 8th world conference on timber engineering WCTE 2004, Vol 1 (June 2004), pp. 99-104