1

5.0

FIBER OPTIC SYSTEM DESIGN

5.1

Fiber optic system design.

Figure 5.1: Fiber optic bidirectional link

Basically, fiber optic links are the communications pathways between
devices as shown in Figure 5.1.A link is bidirectional, usually with signals
transmitted in two directions on two different fibers. The link connects
electronic signals from two devices that need to communicate, just like a
copper cable. The link has a transmitter that converts electronic signals
from communications equipment to optics and a receiver that converts the
signal back to electronics at the other end.
Fiber optic transmitters use LEDs or semiconductor lasers to convert
electronic signals to optical signals. LEDs, similar to those used
everywhere for indicators, except transmitting in the infrared region
beyond human perception are used for slower links, up to about 100
million bits per second (Mb/s), for example fast Ethernet LANs. Faster links
use infrared semiconductor lasers because they have more bandwidth, up
to tens of billions of bits per second (Gb/s). Lasers have more power, so
they can also go longer lengths, as in outside plant applications such as
long distance telecom or CATV.
At the receiver end, a photodiode converts light into electrical current.
Photodiodes must be matched to the transmitter type, wavelength, power
level and bit rate as well as the fiber size to optimize performance. It's the
receiver that ultimately determines the performance of the link, as it
needs adequate power to receive data reliably. Receivers have a certain
amount of internal noise which can interfere with reception if the signal is
low, so the power of the optical signal at the receiver must be at a minimal
level. The power at the receiver is determined by the amount of light
coupled into the fiber by the transmitter diminished by the loss in the fiber
optic cable plant.
5.1.1 Explain system design with aid of diagram.
Architectural standpoint is an essential element to design a fiber-optic
communication system. There are three categories of architectural design;
point-to-point links, distribution networks, and local-area Networks.

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i.

point-to-point links

Figure 5.2: Point-to-point fiber links with periodic loss compensation

through (a) regenerators and (b) optical amplifiers.
Point-to-point links constitute the simplest kind of lightwave systems. Their
role is to transport information, available in the form of a digital bit stream,
from one place to another as accurately as possible. The link length can
vary from less than a kilometer (short haul) to thousands of kilometers
(long haul), depending on the specific application.
When the link length exceeds a certain value, in the range 20100 km
depending on the operating wavelength, it becomes necessary to
compensate for fiber losses, as the signal would otherwise become too
weak to be detected reliably. Figure 5.2 shows two schemes used
commonly for loss compensation. Optoelectronic repeaters, called
regenerators because they regenerate the optical signal, were used
exclusively. The regenerator is nothing but a receivertransmitter pair that
detects the incoming optical signal, recovers the electrical bit stream, and
then converts it back into optical form by modulating an optical source.
Fiber losses can also be compensated by using optical amplifiers, which
amplify the optical bit stream directly without requiring conversion of the
signal to the electric domain. Amplifiers are especially valuable for
wavelength-division multiplexed(WDM) lightwave systems as they can
amplify many channels simultaneously.
The spacing between regenerators or optical amplifiers often called the
repeater spacing; L is a major design parameter simply because the
system cost reducesas L increases. However, the distance Ldepends on
the bit rate, B because of fiber dispersion. The bit rate and distance
product, BL, is generallyused as a measure of the system performance for
point-to-point links. The BL productdepends on the operating wavelength,
since both fiber losses and fiber dispersion arewavelength dependent.

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ii. Distribution Networks

Figure 5.3: (a) Hub topology and (b) Bus topology

Many applications of optical communication systems require that
information is not only transmitted but is also distributed to a group of
subscribers. Figure 5.3 shows two topologies for distribution networks. In
the case of hub topology, channel distribution takes place at central
locations (or hubs), where an automatedcross-connect facility switches
channels in the electrical domain. Such networks are called metropolitanarea networks (MANs) as hubs are typically located in major cities.Since
thefiber bandwidth is generally much larger than that required by a single
hub office,several offices can share a single fiber headed for the main hub.
Telephone networksemploy hub topology for distribution of audio channels
within a city. A concern for thehub topology is related to its reliability
outage of a single fiber cable can affect theservice to a large portion of the
network.
In the case of bus topology, a single fiber cable carries the multichannel
opticalsignal throughout the area of service. Distribution is done by using
optical taps, whichdivert a small fraction of the optical power to each
subscriber. A simple CATV application of bus topology consists of
distributing multiple video channels within a city.A problem with the bus
topology is that the signal loss increases exponentially withthe number of
taps and limits the number of subscribers served by a single optical bus.A
solution to this problem is offered by optical amplifiers which can boost the
optical power of the bus periodically and thus permit distribution to a large
number of subscribers as long as the effects of fiber dispersion remain
negligible.

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iii.

Local-Area Networks

Figure 5.4: (a) Ring Topology and (b) star topology for local-area networks
Many applications of fiber-optic communication technology require
networks in whicha large number of users within a local area (e.g., a
university campus) are intercon to any other user. Such networks are
called local-area networks (LANs).Optical-access networks used in a local
subscriber loop also fall in this categorySince the transmission distances
are relatively short (<10 km), fiber losses are not ofmuch concern for LAN
applications. The system architecture plays an important role forLANs,
since the establishment of predefined protocol rules is a necessity in such
anenvironment. Three commonly used topologies are known as bus, ring,
and star configurations.The bus topology is similar to that shown in Fig.
5.3(b). A well-knownexample of bus topology is provided by the Ethernet,
a network protocol used to connectmultiple computers and used by the
Internet. A major limitation is related to the losses occurring at each tap,
which limits the number of users.
Figure 5.4 shows the ring and star topologies for LAN applications. In the
ring topology, consecutive nodes are connected by point-to-point links to
form a closedring. Each node can transmit and receive the data by using a
transmitterreceiver pair, which also acts as a repeater. The use of
ringtopology for fiber-optic LANs has been commercialized with the
standardized interfaceknown as the fiber distributed data interface, FDDI
for short.
In the star topology, all nodes are connected through point-to-point links to
a centralnode called a hub, or simply a star. Such LANs are further
subclassified as active-starorpassive-star networks, depending on whether
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the central node is an active or passivedevice. In the active-star

configuration, all incoming optical signals are converted tothe electrical
domain through optical receivers. The electrical signal is then distributedto
drive individual node transmitters. Switching operations can also be
performed atthe central node since distribution takes place in the
electrical domain. In the passivestarconfiguration, distribution takes place
in the optical domain through devices suchas directional couplers. Since
the input from one node is distributed to many outputnodes, the power
transmitted to each node depends on the number of users. Similarto the
case of bus topology, the number of users supported by passive-star LANs
islimited by the distribution losses.
5.1.2 Explain the fiber optic design consideration
a. System architecture
What configuration will the system require? This generally refers to the
topology of the system, which may be point-to-point, ring, hub or bus. All
these architecture design were discuss in 5.1.1 before. A fiber optic system
is design based on its applications. For example, ring and star topologies
are for LAN applications. While Telephone networks employ hub topology
for distribution of audio channels within a city.
b. Types of fiber optic
Basically the distance or the system length will decide the types of fiber
optic used in the system. There are three fundamental types of fiber optic
cable in use. These are called Multimode Step-Index, Multimode GradedIndex, and Single-Mode Step Index. In general conversation these are
grouped by their general characteristics and simply called Multimode Fiber
(MMF) and Single-Mode Fiber (SMF).
SMF cable allows communication distances of between 40km and 200km
as compared with as little as 2km for MMF. Interestingly, because the
telephone companies use SMF in great quantities, the cost per foot for SMF
is actually lower than the less capable MMF. If there were no other
considerations then, clearly, SMF would be the cable of choice for all
applications.
c. Information capabilities: Coding technology.

Figure 5.5: RZ and NRZ coding schemes

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For digital data, two main coding schemes are used. They are the returnto-zero (RZ) and non-return-to-zero (NRZ). As illustrated in Figure 5.5 the
NRZ method occupies the entire bit width (bit period), whereas the RZ
method occupies only a portion of the bit period. Coding format related to
bit rate, B and rise time, Tr as stated in the following equation,

0.35/ B for Return format

0.70 /B for Non Return

T r { Zero format

Equation 5.1

The communication system must be designed to ensure that Tris below the
maximum value of above equation. In other words, coding format is
depend on bit rate used in a fiber optic system and influence the value of
the rise time budget in the system.
d. Transfer mode : Multi mode LED, Single mode LASER
The beam of light used with SMF must be from high quality laser light
source. MMF, in spite of its shorter distance capabilities, is much better
suited to carrying the less focused light from a low-cost light emitting
diode (LED). True, the LED is not as powerful as the laser, and the
multimode fiber is potentially more expensive than the SMF used with the
laser - but the LED transmitter device may be significantly less expensive
than the laser transmitter device. These issues become part of the cost
analysis process.
e. Transmission Distances.
System complexity increases with transmission distance. All of these
considerations are inter-related, and transmission distance is the
predominant consideration. Transmission distance affects the strength of
the transmitter output, which dictates the type of light source used. It
impacts fiber type, as single-mode fiber is better suited to long distance
transmission
f. Operational wavelength
Typical operating wavelength used are 780, 850, 1310, 1550, and 1625
nm. These operating wavelength applied in an optical system are the
parameters for fiber optic cable (FOC) selection as shown in Table 5.1
below.
Types of FOC
SMF
MMF
MMF or SMF

Wavelength (nm)
1310/1550
850
1310

Source
Laser
LED / VCSEL
Laser

g. Cable losses
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It describes how much optical attenuation occurs over a certain length of

fiber. If the system is previously installed and is being upgraded, this
information is probably readily available. If the installation is new, knowing
the transmission distance (i.e. the distance between the transmitter and
the receiver) can help an applications engineer calculate the fiber loss.
The fiber loss will determine transmitter optical output requirements
and/or the inclusion of regenerators in the fiber path.
h. Insertion losses
What optical connectors will be used? As with fiber type, different systems
will have different requirements. Connectors may be specified to reduce
backreflection, increase ease of installation, meet dense packaging
requirements, or interface with connectors in an existing system. Insertion
loss is the product of the total of connectors in the system and loss for
each connector. The value need to take into account in calculating power
budget of an optical system.
Overall, optical system design consideration is as described in Table 5.2
below
Table 5.2 - System Design Considerations
System Factor
Considerations/Choices
System Complexity Increases
Transmission Distance
with Transmission Distance
Types of Optical Fiber
Single-mode or Multimode
Incorporate Signal Regenerators
Dispersion
or Dispersion Compensation
Fiber Characteristics,
Fiber Nonlinearities
Wavelengths, and Transmitter
Power
780, 850, 1310, 1550, and 1625
Operating Wavelength
nm Typical
Transmitter Power
Typically Expressed in dBm
Source Type
LED or Laser
Receiver Sensitivity/Overload
Typically Expressed in dBm
Characteristics
Detector Type
PIN Diode, APD, or IDP
Modulation Code
AM, FM, PCM, or Digital
Bit Error Rate (Digital Systems
10-9, 10-12 Typical
Only)
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
Specified in Decibels (dB)
Signal Loss Increases with the
Number of Connectors or
Number of Connectors or
Splices in the System
Splices
Environmental Requirements & Humidity, Temperature,
Limitations
Exposure for Sunlight
Flammability, Indoor/Outdoor
Mechanical Requirements
Application
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5.2

Understand power link budget.

5.2.1 Define power link budget.

The purpose of the powerlink budget is to ensure that enough power will
reach the receiver to maintain reliable performance during the entire
system lifetime. The powerlink budget is the difference between the power
launched, PT into the fiber and the sensitivity, SR (minimum amount of
power required) of the receiver connected through the fiber optic cable.
The powerlink budget takes an especially simple form in decibel units with
optical powers expressed in dBm units. More specifically,
PB=PT- SR= CL+Ms

Equation 5.2

WhereCLis the total channel loss and Msis the system margin. The purpose
of system margin is to allocate a certain amount of power to additional
sources of power penalty that may develop during system lifetime because
of component degradation or other unforeseen events. A system margin of
46 dB is typically allocated during the design process. The channel loss
CLshould take into account all possible sources of power loss,including
connector, splice and cable losses.
5.2.2 Define rise time budget.
The purpose of the rise-time budget is to ensure that the system is able to
operate properlyat the bit rate, B. Even if the bandwidth of the individual
system componentsexceeds the bit rate, it is still possible that the total
system may not be able to operate atthat bit rate. The concept of rise time
is used to allocate the bandwidth among variouscomponents. The rise time
Trof a linear system is defined as the time during which theresponse
increases from 10 to 90% of its final output value when the input is
changedabruptly. Figure 5.6 illustrates the concept graphically.
An inverse relationship exists between the bandwidth, and the rise time
Trassociatedwith a linear system. This relationship can be understood by
considering asimple RC circuit as an example of the linear system. When
the input voltage across anRC circuit changes instantaneously from 0 to V0,
the output voltage changes as
Vout(t) =V0[1exp(t/RC)]

Equation 5.3

WhereR is the resistance and C is the capacitance of the RC circuit. The

rise time isfound to be given by
Tr= (ln9)RC 2.2RC
Equation 5.4

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Figure 5.6: Rise Time, Tr associated with a bandwidth-limited linear system

The three components of fiber-optic communication systems have
individual risetimes. The total rise time of the whole system is related to
the individual componentrise times approximately as
T r 2=T tr 2+T fiber 2+ T rec 2

Equation 5.5

whereTtr, Tfiber, and Trec are the rise times associated with the transmitter,
fiber, andreceiver, respectively. To be clear,
- Ttris determined primarily by the electronic components
-

Tfiber= Tmodal+ Tgvd

Equation 5.6

Tmodal is rise time of intermodal dispersion

Tmodal= 0 in single mode operation

in multimode operation, Tmodal= (0.44(Lq)/B0)

B0 is bandwidth of 1km length of cable and sublinear dependence Lq

Tgvdis the total of the and group-velocity dispersion (GVD)

Tgvd=D L

D is material dispersion parameter, L is fiber length and is source

spectral width

Trec = 350/Brx

Brxis bandwidth of the receiver in MHz to obtain Trec in nano second

Equation 5.7

Equation 5.8

Equation 5.9

5.2.3 Explain power link budget with the aid of block diagram of a point-topoint link.
As mentioned before, the power budget is the difference between the
power launched into the fiber and the sensitivity of the receiver connected
through the fiber optic cable. Unlike the power budget, the loss budget, CL
is the total losses of any component of the link. The total power budget is
the summation of the link loss budget and the system margin also known
as safety margin, Ms. In all cases, the power budget must be more than the
loss budget and safety margin.
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Figure 5.7: Typical losses of a fiber optic communication system

To determine losses and maximum distances for a fiber optic
communications, we hadto identify the following variables:i.
Although small and often insignificant, average splice loss is usually
less than 0.1 dB per splice (there is no perfect loss-less splice). Total
splice loss is the product of splice loss per splice and the total of
splice exist in the system. Mathematically,
Total Splice Loss= splice loss per splice x total of splice
Equation 5.10
ii.

Like splices loss, there are connector losses; it is important to note

that even the highest quality connectors can get dirty (dirt and dust
can completely obscure a fiber lightwave and create huge losses). A
0.2 dB loss per connector is commonly the best case scenario
assuming a cleaned and polished connector is used. The formula to
calculate total connector loss is as follows:Total connector Loss= connector loss per connector x total of
connector
Equation 5.11

iii.

It is common to add a couple dB of loss as a safety margin.

Allowing 3 dB of loss can take fiber aging, poor splices, temperature
and humidity, etc., into account and ensure a solid system.

iv.

The amount of signal loss due to cable attenuation or cable loss is

just the attenuation per kilometer, A (at the signal wavelength)
multiplied by the fiber length, Lf.Mathematically,
Cable Loss= A x Lf.
Equation 5.12

To determine the maximum distance you can send a signal (leaving out
the effects of dispersion), all you need to do is to add up all the sources of
loss along the way and then compare it with the power budget. As
mentioned before, the channel loss CLshould take into account all possible
sources of power loss, including connector, splice and cable losses.
Therefore,
Channel loss, CL= Total connector Loss + Total splice Loss + Cable loss
Equation 5.13
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5.2.4 Calculate the power link budget and rise time budget
i.

Power budget calculation

Example 1:
Find out the reliability of a fiber optic system with - 10 dBm of transmitter
power and the sensitivity of the receiver is - 20 dBm. The link of the
system has 5 connectors at 0.2 dB of loss per connector and 10 splices at
0.1 dB per splice. It is 2km in length with 2dB of loss per km. The safety
margin for the system is considered 3dB.
Solution:
Recall, PB=PT - SR
And the power budget must be more than the loss budget and safety
margin.
PB=(-10dBm(- 20dBm)) = 10dB
CL = connector loss + splice loss + cable loss
= (5 x 0.2dB) + (10x 0.1dB) (2km x (2dB/km))
= 1dB + 1dB + 4dB
= 6dB
CL + MS = 6dB + 3dB
= 9dB
This leaves us with a total of 9 dB system loss. This is within our link
budget and so wewould expect such a system to have sufficient power. So
the system is reliable to be implemented.
ii.
Rise time budget calculation
Example 1:
Consider a 1.3m lightwave system designedto operate at 1 Gb/s over a
single-mode fiber with a repeater spacing of 50 km.The rise times for the
transmitter and the receiver have been specified as Ttr = 0.25nsand Trec =
0.35 ns. The source spectral width is specified as =3nm, whereas
theaverage value of D is 2 ps/(km-nm) at the operating wavelength.
Determine whether the system can be operated using RZ or NRZ format.
Solution:
Modal dispersion does not occur in singlemodefibers. So,Tmodal= 0 in single
mode operation.
Tgvd = D L
= (2 ps/(km-nm))(50 km)(3 nm)
= 0.3ns
Tfiber = Tmodal + Tgvd
= 0 + 0.3ns
= 0.3ns
T r 2=T tr 2+T fiber 2+ T rec 2
(0.25 n)2 +( 0.3 n)2 +( 0.35 n)2
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T r =0.524 ns
At 1Gbps of bit rate,
For RZ format, acceptable
0.35/1Gbps
0.35 ns
ForNRZ format, acceptable
0.70/1Gbps
0.7 ns

T r 0.35/ B

T r 0.70/ B

This indicatesthat such a system cannot be operated at 1 Gb/s when the

RZ format is employed forthe optical bit stream. However, it would operate
properly if digital format is changedto the NRZ format. If the use of RZ
format is a prerequisite, the designer must choosedifferent transmitters
and receivers to meet the rise-time budget requirement. The NRZformat is
often used as it permits a larger system rise time at the same bit rate.
Example 2:
Consider a lightwave system designed to operate at 20Mb/s over a multimode fiber with a repeater spacing of 6 km.Bandwidth of 1km length of
cable is 400MHz km.The rise time for the transmitter hasbeen specified as
Ttr = 15ns and bandwidth of the receiver is 25MHz. The source spectral
width is specified as = 40nm, whereas the average value of D is
0.0875ns/(km-nm) at the operating wavelength. Determine whether the
system can be operated using RZ or NRZ format. (q = 0.7)

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Solution:
0.7

T modal=

0.44 6
400 M

T modal=3.86 ns
Tgvd = D L
= (0.0875ns/ (km-nm)) (6 km) (40 nm)
= 21ns
Tfiber = Tmodal + Tgvd
= 3.86n +21n
= 24.86ns
Trec = 350/Brx
= 350/25
= 14ns

T r 2=T tr 2+T fiber 2+ T rec 2

(15 n)2 +(24.86 n)2 +(14 n)2
T r =32.23 ns
At 20Mbps of bit rate,
For RZ format, acceptable
0.35/20 Mbps
17.5 ns
ForNRZ format, acceptable
0.70/20 Mbps
35 ns

T r 0.35/ B

T r 0.70/ B

This indicates the system cannot be operated at 20Mbpswhen the RZ

format is employed for the optical bit stream. However, it would operate
properly if digital format is changed to the NRZ format.
5.3

Understand measurement standards and test procedures.

Testing is used to evaluate the performance of fiber optic components,

cable plants and systems. As the components like fiber, connectors,
splices, LED or laser sources, detectors and receivers are being developed,
testing confirms their performance specifications and helps understand
how they will work together. Designers of fiber optic cable plants and
networks depend on these specifications to determine if networks will work
for the planned applications.
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5.3.1 Define basis classes of standard in fiber optic measurement and test:
a.

Primary standard

This test will measure the loss of an installed fiber opticcable plant,
singlemode or multimode, including theloss of all fiber, splices and
connectors.
b.

Components testing standard

This test will measure the loss of a fiber optic cable, singlemode or
multimode, including connectors on each end individually - one at a time.
For short cables, e.g. patchcords, with negligible fiber loss, the measured
loss may be considered the loss of the connector mated to the reference
connector. Reversing the cable tests the connector on the other end of the
cable.
c.

System standard

This test will measure the optical power exiting the endof a fiber optic
cable. This test is commonly used tomeasure the coupled power of a fiber
optic source in atransmitter, power into a receiver or for settingreferences
for optical loss measurements.
5.3.2 Define: optical power, optical wavelength and signal measurement.
a. optical power measurement
Optical power measurement is a process measuring optical power from the
end of a fiber. This measurement is the basis for loss measurements as
well as the power from a source or presented at a receiver.
b. optical wavelength measurement
Optical wavelength measurement is a process measuring optical
wavelength used in a system. This measurement is usually applied a
wavelength meter which typically consists of a photosensor,
photoamplifiers, a thermostat, a device to split and measure the light (two
or more interferometers), and software to error-correct the signal, then
calculate and display the wavelength.
c. signal measurement
Optical signal measurements involve of Q factor and Bit Error Ratio
measurements.The Q-factor is a parameter that directly reflects the
quality of a digital optical communications signal. The higher the Q-factor,
the better the quality of the optical signal. While, the probability of
misinterpretation or error probability can also be expressed as bit errors
per total transmitted number of bits the so called BER.

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5.3.3 Explain: optical power measurement, optical wavelength and signal

measurement.
a.

Optical power

measurement

Figure 5.8: Optical power measurement

Typically both transmitters and receivers have receptacles for fiber optic
connectors, so measuring the power of a transmitter is done by attaching
a test cable to the source and measuring the power at the other end as
illustrated in Figure 5.8. For receivers, one disconnects the cable attached
to the receiver receptacle and measures the output with the meter. Turn
on the transmitter or source and give it a few minutes to stabilize. Set the
power meter for the matching wavelength and note the power the meter
measures.
Optical power is based on the heating power of the light, and some optical
lab instruments actually measure the heat when light is absorbed in a
detector. Optical power meters typically use semiconductor detectors
since they are sensitive to light in the wavelengths and power levels
common to fiber optics. Most fiber optic power meters are available with a
choice of three different detectors, silicon (Si), Germanium (Ge), or IndiumGallium-Arsenide (InGaAs).
b.

Optical wavelength measurement

Figure 5.9: The Michelson interferometer

The most important concept in optical wavelength measurement is
interferometry. Interferometry refers to a family of techniques in which
waves, usually electromagnetic, are superimposed in order to extract
information about the waves. The most common high-accuracy
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wavelength meters are based on Michelson interferometer as shown in

Figure 5.9 above.
The Michelson interferometer splits the incident beam between a fixed
path and a smoothly varying path. Both beams reflect back and recombine
at a beamsplitter to produce a sinusoidal interference pattern. Next, the
device calculates the unknown wavelength of the incident light, , using
the Michelson interferometer equation: m = 2nd, where m is the number
of fringes detected across a distance, d, scanned by a scanning mirror. The
refractive index, n, is typically that of air. The accuracy of this wavelength
calculation depends on the precision of the scanning mirror displacement,
so the Michelson-based device incorporates a reference laser with a
wavelength known to high accuracy. The reference laser is measured at
the same time as the scanning mirror displacement to determine the
incoming laser wavelength.
c.

Signal measurement
As mentioned before signal measurements involve of Q factor and BER
measurements. Q factor more than 6 is acceptable otherwise some
component need to be upgraded. With Q factor less than 6, system will
become less reliable.Mathematically, the Q-factor is defined by the
difference of the mean values of the two signal levels divided by the sum
of the noise rms values (standard deviations) at the two signal levels.This
can be expressed by the following equation.
Q=

mean1mean0
standard deviation1+ standard deviation0

Equation 5.14

BER less than 10-9 is acceptable for light wave system. BER is the ration of
erroneous bits to correct bits. A simple way to measure the error rate in a
digital data stream is to divide the number of errors, N e occurring over
certain time interval, t by the number of pulses, N t (ones and zeros)
transmitted during the interval. Mathematically,
BER =

Ne
Nt

BER =

Ne
Bt

Equation 5.15

Where, B is the bit rate of the system

Equation 5.16

5.3.4 Fiber optic test

a.

Component testing

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(a)

(b)

Figure 5.10: Component testing

Equipment Needed To Perform This Test
1. Test source appropriate for the fiber beingtested (Multimode: 850
and/or 1300nm LED,singlemode, 1310 and/or 1550 nm laser).
2. Optical power meter calibrated at the samewavelengths as the
source output withadapters to mate to connector type on cable.
3. Launch reference cable that is the same fibertype and size as the
cable plant and haveconnectors compatible to those on the cable.
4. Mating adapters compatible to connectors
5. Fiber to test
Test Procedure
1. Turn on equipment and allow time to warm-up
2. Attach launch cable to source. This shouldremain connected to
source for the duration ofthe test.
3. Clean all connectors and mating adapters.
4. Set 0 dB reference using method shown in the Figure 5.4 (a). Meter
may be set to read 0 dB.
5. Attach launch cable to the cable undertest as shown in the Figure 5.4
(b)and make loss measurement.
6. Reverse cable and test again.
b.

Continuity testing

Figure 5.11: Visual tracing

As shown in figure 5.11, continuity checking with a visual fiber tracer
makes certain the fibers are not broken and to trace a path of a fiber from
one end to another through many connections.
Equipment Needed To Perform This Test
1. Visual fiber tracer
2. Fiber to test
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Test Procedure
1. Attach the fiber to test to the visual tracer and look at the other end
of the fiber to see the light transmitted through the core of the fiber.
2. If there is no light at the end, go back to intermediate connections to
find the bad section of the cable.
A higher power version of the fiber tracer called a visual fault locator (VFL)
uses a visible laser that can also find faults. The red laser light is powerful
enough for continuity checking or to trace fibers for several kilometers,
identify splices in splice trays and show breaks in fibers or high loss
connectors. You can actually see the loss of light at a fiber break by the
bright red light from theVFL through the jacket of many yellow or orange
simplex cables as shown in Figure 5.12

Figure 5.12:Visual Fault Locator (VFL)

c. Insertion loss testing
Loss of a cable is the difference between the power coupled into the cable
at the transmitter end and what comes out at the receiver end. Testing for
insertion loss requires measuring the optical power lost in a cable
(including fiber attenuation, connector loss and splice loss) Loss testing is
done at wavelengths appropriate for the fiber and its usage. Generally
multimode fiber is tested at 850 nm and optionally at 1300 nm with LED
sources. Singlemode fiber is tested at 1310 nm and optionally at 1550 nm
with laser sources.
Equipment Needed To Perform This Test
1. Fiber optic light source and power meter (LSPM) or
2. Optical loss test set (OLTS.)
3. Fiber to test
Test Procedure
1. Mating the cable being tested to known good reference cables
with a calibrated launch power that becomes the "0 dB" loss
reference as similarly shown in Figure 5.10 (b). In order to mate
the reference cables to the cables you want to test, you need
mating adapters as shown in Figure 5.13.

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Figure 5.13: Insertion loss testing

2. Turn on the source and select the wavelength you want for the
loss test.
3. Turn on the meter, select the "dBm" or "dB" range and select the
wavelength you want for the loss test.
4. Measure the power at the meter. This is your reference power
level for all loss measurements.
d. Optical time domain reflectometry (OTDR) testing
OTDRs are powerful test instruments for fiber optic cable plants. OTDRs
can locate faults, measure cable length and verify splice loss. Within limits,
they can also measure the loss of a cable plant. About the only fiber optic
parameters they don't measure is optical power at the transmitter or
receiver.
The source and meter of the OTDR duplicate the transmitter and receiver
of the fiber optic transmission link, so the measurement correlates well
with actual system loss. The OTDR, however, uses backscattered light of
the fiber to imply loss. The OTDR works like RADAR, sending a high power
laser light pulse down the fiber and looking for return signals from
backscattered light in the fiber itself or reflected light from connector or
splice interfaces.
Since it is possible to calibrate the speed of the pulse as it passes down
the fiber, the OTDR can measure time, calculate the pulse position in the
fiber and correlate what it sees in backscattered light with an actual
location in the fiber. Thus it can create a display of the amount of
backscattered light at any point in the fiber as shown in Figure 5.14.Since
the pulse is attenuated in the fiber as it passes along the fiber and suffers
loss in connectors and splices, the amount of power in the test pulse
decreases as it passes along the fiber in the cable plant under test. Thus
the portion of the light being backscattered will be reduced accordingly,
producing a picture of the actual loss occurring in the fiber.

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Figure 5.14: Diagram of OTDR trace with events shown

There is a lot of information in an OTDR display. The slope of the fiber trace
shows the attenuation coefficient of the fiber and is calibrated in dB/km by
the OTDR.The large initial pulse is caused by the high-powered test pulse
reflecting off the OTDR connector and overloading the OTDR receiver. The
recovery of the receiver causes the "dead zone" near the OTDR. To avoid
problems caused by the dead zone, always use a launch cable of sufficient
length when testing cables.Connectors and splices are called "events" in
OTDR jargon. Both should show a loss, but connectors and mechanical
splices will also show a reflective peak so you can distinguish them from
fusion splices. Also, the height of that peak will indicate the amount of
reflection at the event, unless it is so large that it saturates the OTDR
receiver. Then peak will have a flat top and tail on the far end, indicating
the receiver was overloaded. The width of the peak shows the distance
resolution of the OTDR, or how close it can detect events.
e.

Bit error rate (BER) testing

The basic concept behind bit error rate testing is quite straightforward. A
data stream is sent through the communications channel, whether a radio
link, a fibre optic link or whatever, and the resulting data stream is
compared with the original. Any changes are noted as data errors and
logged. Using this information a bit error rate can be determined.
BERT or Bit Error Rate Test is a testing method for digital communication
circuits that uses predetermined stress patterns consisting of a sequence
of logical ones and zeros generated by a test pattern generator. A BERT
typically consists of a test pattern generator and a receiver that can be set
to the same pattern. They can be used in pairs, with one at either end of a
transmission link, or singularly at one end with a loopback at the remote
end.
As data errors occur in a random fashion it can take some while before an
accurate reading can be gained using normal data. In order to shorten the
time required for measurements, a pseudorandom data sequence can be
used.To make a simple measurement of the number of errors that take
place it is possible to use an error detector that compares the transmitted
and received data and then counts the number of errors. If one error were
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detected while sending 10^12 bits, then a first approximation may be that
the error rate is 1 in 10^12 bits of data.

~AsRiNa~