EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS & GENERATOR OPERATION

OBJECTIVES
1. Explain:
(a) how a generators equivalent circuit is obtained.
(b) why the simplified equivalent circuit will, for most purposes, provide acceptable
results.
2. Explain the operation of a generator when it supplies power at:
(a) 1.0 pf.
(b) lagging pf.
(c) leading pf.
INTRODUCTION
It is possible to explain the operation of a generator by using magnetic flux
diagrams as shown in the previous lesson. However, it is often easier to represent the
operation of a generator by considering its equivalent circuit.
In this lesson, the generators magnetic behavior and equivalent circuits are considered
for the following conditions:
(a) 1.0 pf load. This type of load occurs when a generator load is purely resistive.
(b) lagging pf load. This type of load occurs when a generator supplies, for example,
induction motors.
(c) leading pf load. This type of load occurs when a generator has a resistive and
capacitive load. The capacitance could be due to lightly load transmission lines.

On Load Equivalent Circuit

As a generator is loaded, current flows in the stator conductors and creates the
armature flux A. This flux A combines with the flux produced by the rotor F. The
combination of F and A gives the resultant flux R which passes through the air gap to
stator iron. The resultant flux induces a voltage in the stator conductors producing the
terminal voltage VT. In the generator on load equivalent circuit, the magnitude of the
induced emf E is the terminal voltage when zero current is flowing in the stator windings.
The stator internal volt drop, caused by the armature flux A, is represented by the load
current Ia flowing through a series reactance Xa, (Xa being the armature reactance due to
armature reaction). When the load current Ia flows through Xa, it causes the voltage drop
laXa. The windings in a generator also have leakage reactance XL (which is largely due to
the fluxes surrounding the end windings which are outside the core). The stator windings
also have resistance Ra which is small compared with Xa and XL. When load current Ia
flows through XL a voltage drop IaXL occurs, Similarly, when Ia flows through Ra, a
voltage drop IaRa occurs.

Figure 1: Per phase equivalent circuit for a generator.

E = generated voltage.
Xa = reactance due to armature reaction.
XL = reactance of winding.
Ra = winding resistance.
Ia = load current.
VT = phase terminal voltage.

Figure1 can be simplified to the diagram shown in Figure 2. Xa and XL, because
they are both reactances, can be summed forming Xd which is known as the generator
synchronous reactance. The term synchronous is used because this is the reactance of
the generator at its synchronous speed as distinct from standstill or any other speed. Ra,
because it is small compared to Xd, is neglected in this lesson.

Figure 2: Simplified per phase equivalent circuit for a generator.

E = generated voltage.
Xd = generator synchronous reactance.
Note that as R is small compared to Xd. it is neglected.
Ia = load current.
VT = phase terminal voltage.
Generator Operating at 1.0 pf
Figure 3 shows the flux pattern produced in the generator when it is loaded onto an
isolated load at 1.0 pf.
Note the following:
(a) The current Ia and terminal voltage VT are in phase. This is because the load is
resistive.
(b) Applying more electrical load requires more power input (ie, torque) from the turbine.
This increased torque stretches the lines of flux coupling the rotor to the stator.
(c) This stretching action weakens the flux produced by the rotor. Consequently the
output voltage drops. To keep the terminal voltage VT constant, the field flux F must be
increased which increases E and VT.

Figure 3: Generator on load at 1.0 pf.

Another way of representing the effects shown in Figure 3 is consider the
equivalent circuit of a generator supplying a 1.0 pf load. As the generator load current
increases, the induced voltage E, now assumed to be constant, is reduced at the terminals
by the voltage drop IaXd. This gives a lower terminal voltage VT. To keep VT constant as
the load increases, the field flux F must be increased which increases E and VT.

1.0 pf load
Figure 4: Equivalent circuit of a generator supplying a 1.0 pf Load.

Figure5: Phasor diagram showing a generator on full load 1.0 pf.

Note the following:
(a) As the generator is loaded onto a resistive load, the pf =1.0 and Ia is in phase with VT.
(b) Because Xd is purely reactive, Ia must lag IaXd by 90. Therefore the IaXd phasor is at
90 to the Ia phasor.
(c) As the generator is loaded, to keep the terminal voltage constant, the generator voltage
E has to be increased. This is done by increasing the rotor current. Note E is greater than
E off load.

Generator Operating at 0.9 pf Lag

Figure 6 shows the flux patterns produced in the generator when it is supplying an
isolated load at 0.9 pf lag.
Note the following:
(a) The generator is supplying a lagging pf load and the current Ia lags VT by = 25.8
degrees.
(b) Because the load current Ia is now lagging VT, the magnetic lines are stretched more
than they were in the 1.0 pf condition. This further stretching produces field weakening
and VT decreases. To compensate for this the rotor current and hence flux must be
increased compared with the 1.0 pf condition.
(c) The increased rotor flux for the same turbine power as in the pf = 1 case produces a
smaller load angle .

Figure 6: Generator on load at a lagging pf.

The effects shown in Figure 6 can be represented by an equivalent circuit, see

Figure 7. The generator is delivering the same value of active current (MW load) as
shown in Figure 5. In addition, the generator is now called upon to deliver a lagging
reactive current (lagging Mvar load) and the resulting power factor becomes 0.9 pf lag.
Note the following:
(a) the load determines the generators operating power factor.
(b) the load current Ia consists of the resultant sum of the current through the resistor R
and the current through the inductor L
(c) the load current Ia has increased in magnitude.
(d) the load angle has decreased.
The larger lagging current Ia flowing through Xd, produces a larger voltage drop
than the current in the 1.0 pf condition. Consequently the terminal voltage VT will drop
further. To compensate for this effect and keep VT constant, the field current and hence E
must be increased, compared to the 1.0 pf condition. A opposes the rotor flux and
decreases VT. Rotor current has to be induced to increase F to maintain VT at the set
point. The increased excitation causes the load angle to decrease.

Figure 7: Equivalent circuit of a generator supplying a 0.9 pf lag load.

Figure 8: Phasor diagram showing a generator on full load at 0.9 pf lagging. The
MW load is the same as in Figure 5.
Note the following:
(a) As the generator is operating at 0.9 pf lag, the Ia phasor lags the VT phasor by .
(b) The laXd phasor is at 90 degrees to the Ia phasor.
(c) As the generator is being loaded from 0 load to the same MW load in Figure 5 but
with pf = 0.9 lag, to keep the terminal voltage VT constant, the generated voltage E has to
be increased. This is done by increasing the rotor current. Note E load 0.9 pf lag is greater
than E load at 1.0 pf, and the load angle is smaller. A opposes the rotor flux and
decreases VT. Rotor current has to be increased to increase F to maintain VT at the set
point. The increased excitation causes the load angle to decrease.

Generator Operating at 0.9 Pf Leading

Figure 9 shows the flux patterns produced in the generator when it is supplying an
isolated load at 0.9 pf lead.
Note the following:
(a) The generator is supplying a leading pf load and the current Ia leads VT by = 25.8
(b) Because the load current Ia is now leading VT, the magnetic lines are stretched less
than they were in the 1.0 pf condition. This reduced stretching produces less field
weakening and VT increases. To compensate for this, the rotor current must be reduced
compared with the 1.0 pf and 0.9 pf lag conditions.
(c) A aids the rotor flux and increases VT. Rotor current has to be reduced to decrease F
to maintain VT at the set point. The reduced excitation causes the load angle to increase.

Figure 9: Generator on load at a leading pf.

The effect shown in Figure 9 can be represented by an equivalent circuit in Figure

10. The generator is delivering the same value of active current (MW load) as shown in
Figure 5. In addition, the generator is now supplying a leading reactive current and the
resulting power factor becomes 0.9 leading.
Note the following:
(a) the load determines the operating power factor of the generator.
{b) the resultant load current Ia has the same magnitude as that shown in Figure 7.
The leading current flowing through Xd produces a larger voltage drop than in the 1.0 pf
condition. The vertical component of this voltage aids VT and VT increases. To
compensate for this effect, the rotor current must be reduced compared with that required
for the 1.0 pf or the 0.9 pf lag condition.

Figure 10: Equivalent circuit of a generator supplying a 0.9 pf lead load.

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Figure 11: Phasor diagram showing a generator on full load at 0.9 pf leading. The
MW load is the same as in Figure 5.
Note the following:
(a) As the generator is operating at 0.9 pf lead, the Ia phasor leads the VT phasor by .
(b) The IaXd phasor is at 90 to the Ia phasor.
(c) As the generator is being loaded from 0 load to the same MW load as Figure 5 but pf
= 0.9 leading, to keep the terminal voltage VT constant, the generated voltage E has to be
decreased relative to the 0.9 pf lag and 1.0 pf conditions, this is done by reducing the
rotor current. Note E load 0.9 pf lead is less than E load pf =1.

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