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02_Heat transfer
05.02_Heat transfer
The rate of heat conduction through a plane layer is proportional to the temperature difference T - T across the layer, the
1
thermal conductivity l and the surface area A and is inversely proportional with the thickness of the layer t. The rate of heat
conduction can than be written as
Q = lA ( T - T ) / t
1
More generally the process of conduction for homogeneous materials can be combined with the law of energy conservation
2
r c dT / dt = l d T / dx
x
+ l d T / dy + l d T / dz
y
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= l dT / dx ,
x
= l dT / dy and
= l dT / dz ,
z
In their most detailed form these equations are three-dimensional and the materials are time dependent, in some cases the
properties are also moisture dependent.
Tabulated thermal conductivity ( - values) for some building materials are given in Section 05.06.
Convection
Convection heat transfer occurs in a fluid when the fluid moves over a surface that is at a different temperature. The mechanism
for the fluid movement may be naturally induced buoyancy forces resulting from a conduction temperature gradient, in which case
the terms natural or free convection are used, or the fluid movement may be caused by some external agency, such as a pressure
difference or fan, in which case the term forced convection is applied.
Convection heat transfer between a surface and a body of fluid is defined by the relationship
Q = h
Q
A DT
Generally the heat transfer coefficient h can be predicted theoretically if the fluid movement is laminar, but must be determined
c
05.02_Heat transfer
Usually the convective heat transfer is described by means of empirical relationships. The following are examples of relationships
(a and b are constants):
The heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the air velocity nalong the surface:
c
Forced convection:
= an
= a DT
The value of b is determined by the nature of the boundary layer (laminar or turbulent).
The heat transfer coefficient h is a function of the local wind velocity and wind direction (used for external surfaces)
c
= a + bn
The heat transfer coefficient h is a fixed value (dependent on the direction of the heat flow) and described for each of
c
the two directions (used for internal, horizontal surfaces, ceilings and floors).
For convection heat transfer in an enclosed gas-space between two glass panes the value of the heat transfer coefficient is
usually obtained from an empirical correlation based on many hundreds or thousands of previously reported measurements.
Correlations for natural (free) convection in an enclosed gas-space are based on the use of the dimensionless Nusselt and
Rayleigh numbers, with a correction for the height of the gas-space
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Nu = C (Ra) ( t / L )
where
Nu = h t / l
and
3 2
Ra = ( b g a r C
) /
(m l)
-1
b
q
l(br C / ml)
p
Some values of this group are given below (at atmospheric pressure and a mean temperature of 10C), based on horizontal heat
transfer through a vertical gas-space for which n = 0.38 (BS 6993:Part 1 [1989])
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Gas
l(br C / ml)
0.38
Kr (krypton)
7.9
Ar (argon)
8.9
Air
12.3
SF (sulphur hexafluoride)
[W/mK]
25.3
Sulphur hexafluoride has been used in multiple glazing because it has a higher density and lower viscosity than other gases and
so gives better sound insulation. However, it should also be noted that from a purely thermal point of view the use of a gas such
as sulphur hexafluoride also allows thinner gas-spaces than with other gases (the thermal conductivity of SF is about half that of
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air) - this is often preferred as a reduction in the volume of gas means that the build-up of pressure due to gas heating is reduced.
In some simplifications convective and radiative heat transfer are combined together into one coefficient.
Radiation
All bodies emit electro-magnetic radiation and the amount of radiation emitted by a body is primarily a function of its absolute
temperature. In a vacuum, a body will reach a stable temperature when there is a no nett exchange of radiant energy between
itself and its surroundings i.e. when it emits energy at the same rate as it absorbs energy from its surroundings. If the body were to
emit energy at a greater rate than that at which it absorbs energy then the temperature of the body would fall, and vice versa.
When considering the thermal effects of radiation it is often assumed that the spectral composition of the radiation is of minor
importance because the emissivity of the surfaces is fairly constant over a wide range of wavelengths. However, the spectral
composition of radiation can be important when considering energy transfer within buildings and it is of crucial importance in
lighting. This section describes only the heat transfer due to long wave radiation. Section 05.04 describes the different forms of
radiation and heat transfer due to solar radiation.
The amount of radiation that is emitted by a flat surface is limited by the physical law
4
Q = se A T
h
05.02_Heat transfer
-8
2 4
= sA F
12
12
12
(T14 - T24)
is some combination of the surface emissivities together with a factor for the visibility of surface 1 from surface 2
1
2
12
Although this relationship appears complex it can be factorised into the form
12
= aA F
1
12
(T12 + T22) (T + T ) (T - T )
1
Now, T and T must be absolute temperatures, in degrees Kelvin, and so in buildings they will have values typically in the range
1
(T12 + T22) (T + T )
1
4 Tm3
05.02_Heat transfer
= (T + T ) / 2
= 4 Tm3 s A F
12
12
(T - T )
1
The relationship for radiation heat transfer can now be expressed in the form
= h A (T - T )
12
= 4 Tm3 sF
12
In principle the external long wave radiation is the same as the internal long wave radiation. The surface between which radiation
exchange occurs are the building external envelop on one side and the sky, the ground and the surrounding buildings on the other
side. The assumptions made for the external long wave radiation can be different:
The long wave heat exchange is described by a heat transfer coefficient and heat sink to the clear sky
se
= h (T -T ) + f
se
sink
a
1
sink
05.02_Heat transfer
sink
= DT / Q
is the resistance, in K/W
a set of convection and radiation resistances linking the warm-side environment to the warm-side surfaces of the
component,
a set of conduction resistances through the component (with some radiation and possibly convection in cavities),
and a set of convection and radiation resistances from the cold-side surfaces of the component to the cold-side
environment.
Each of these resistances might need to be identified and defined before a total heat transfer assessment can take place. This
requires a thorough knowledge of the component materials, surface finishes, geometry and orientation.
The resistances between the environments and the surfaces of the component (surface resistances) depend on the location of the
component on the facade and on the prevailing weather conditions. The surface resistance represents the combined effects of
radiation and convection heat transfer at surfaces. In practice the surface resistances vary according to the internal and external
conditions, but fixed values are used for the purposes of assessment, and these are defined in national or international standards.
The surface resistance may also be given in the form of a surface heat transfer coefficient, which is simply the reciprocal of the
surface resistance.
The convection heat transfer at a surface of the component depends on the air temperature adjacent to the surface, but the
radiation heat transfer depends on the temperature of all of the surfaces facing the component. An environmental temperature is
used in assessments, which is an appropriately weighted function of the air and surface temperatures within the environment. The
environmental temperature is also defined in national standards.
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05.02_Heat transfer
The thermal performance of a facade or facade element is normally expressed in terms of the thermal transmittance or U-value
which is the reciprocal of the resistance per unit area. Heat flow through the facade and U-value are related by the following
formula;
U = Q / A DT
2
Cold-bridging / Thermal-bridging
Cold- or thermal-bridges are sections through the fabric of significantly lower thermal resistance than the rest of the construction.
These happen particularly around openings and at junction of walls/floors and walls/roofs. Concrete and metal framed buildings or
facades are particularly prone to cold-bridging unless these elements are individually insulated. Cold-bridging is the result of
localised areas of low thermal resistance caused by the presence of elements with a high thermal conductivity.
Typical examples are non-thermally broken metal frames, concrete frames, openings etc.
The result of thermal-bridging is localised areas of increased heat loss/gain and possible increased condensation risk, mould
growth (which can also cause respiratory and other allergies in sensitive people), pattern staining and corrosion.
1-DIM
2-DIM
3-DIM
Corners of buildings
Local imperfections
05.02_Heat transfer
Depending on the thermal behaviour, the elements can then be assessed by one, two or three- dimensional heat transfer
assessment.
1D
2D
3D
(X)
(X)
05.02_Heat transfer
(X)
Measurement by testing
X ideal
(X) possible but not ideal
The different methods of assessing the heat loss are described in the following section.
05.02_Heat transfer
05.02_Heat transfer
ISO 10211-1, may be used to check the accuracy of the calculation method. Note also that several analyses may be required to
assess the performance of a composite system such as a curtain wall (one for each particular frame-profile/infill combination used
in the curtain wall), although the time involved will be far less than for measurements and the effects of design changes can be
examined. European guidelines are being prepared to standardise assessment by detailed calculation methods, and these will
include values for the thermal conductivity of many materials, for example in prEN 10077-2.
The validity of any detailed calculation method is best checked against measured data. Measured U-values should always be
sought as a means of checking the accuracy of a calculation. In the USA a rating system is used for windows and doors (NFRC
100-91) in which analyses are carried out using a detailed calculation method to assess the performance of a complete range of
products, and the two products showing the extremes of performance are then measured as a check against the validity of the
analysis - this approach combines the speed of calculation with the certainty of measurement.
Guide to good practice for assessing heat transfer and condensation risk for a curtain wall (CWCT, 1998)
describes a detailed calculation of the U-value of a curtain wall.
Three-dimensional simulation
Measurement methods
Measurement is generally considered the only way in which the 3-dimensional heat transfer processes are fully and accurately
recreated. However, a test cannot be performed prior to manufacture of a prototype or sample, which may leave too little time to
revise the design should it not perform as expected, and temperatures are rarely measured within the component, although
surface temperatures will be recorded as part of the measurement procedure.
Measurement devices must be calibrated, and there are well-established and proven measurement standards which allow data to
be adjusted to reference conditions. Measurement cannot usually be used to identify the U-values of the various parts of the
sample (for example each of the different frame profiles and infill types in a large curtain wall specimen) but it does allow for the
interactions between the components of the sample. Standards are available for the particular type of measurement apparatus (for
example BS 874: Part 3 or prEN 12412-1 for hot-boxes) and can give guidance on suitable sample sizes and arrangements.
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05.02_Heat transfer
The hot-box is the principal laboratory-based apparatus, and is to be preferred for measurements. The sample is mounted in an
insulated surround, between two thermally-controlled environments, and the heat transfer through the sample is measured.
The calorimeter is a device which encloses one side of the sample. It therefore controls only one of the thermal environments
(usually on the cold-side of the sample). The calorimeter allows the warm-side of the sample to be observed, which gives the
assessor the opportunity to gain more data regarding surface temperatures, and may allow condensation to be observed.
The hot-plate places the sample between, and in good thermal contact with, two surfaces at known temperatures. This is only
suitable for use with plane components of uniform thickness - if the component has an edge detail of a different thickness to the
remainder of the component then a different form of measurement must be used. Note that removing the edge detail to assess
such a component may not give a realistic result.
Infra-red thermography uses a thermal imaging camera to observe the surface temperatures of a structure. Useful in
connection with in situ measurements, this technique usually requires additional temperature measurements from a reference
surface for calibration. However, although infra-red thermography may be used in combination with a calorimeter it should not be
considered as suitable for measuring U-values until further work has been undertaken on standardisation.
In situ temperature measurement may be used to assess thermal performance by measuring surface temperatures and
comparing them with predicted values. Such a method is readily calibrated by using a component with a known performance, for
example a double glazing unit, as a reference. As with infra-red thermography this technique should not be used to assess
performance other than as a diagnostic tool, where it is useful for checking that a facade has been properly designed and
constructed.
The only significant issue with measurement of a component is to decide the size and arrangement of the test specimen; the test
specimen should be a realistic representation of a component or system as it will be used.
= Q / A
DT
The area A is the projected area of the component. Obviously the U-value is dependent on the value taken for this area. In many
P
cases it is possible to define a solid edge for the component, and the projected area is readily calculated. In some cases however
the limits of the component may be uncertain or variable in practice; a typical example is a glazing frame with a glazing unit, where
the glazing gasket, which is part of the frame, partly covers the edge of the glazing. The actual coverage of the gasket is variable
in practice and in this case the solid edge of the frame is a better limit to the projected area of the frame.
05.02_Heat transfer
The basis of selecting the dimensions of the projected area A should always be stated. Note that for the purposes of the Building
P
Regulations the projected area of the facade is defined looking from the inside of the building.
In the case of a component which overlaps another, such as a glazing frame and the glazing unit, the measured or predicted total
heat transfer will combine the effects of two or more components. In this case it is only possible to separate the U-value of one
component if the U-value of all other components is known. The U-values of the known components can be used to calculate an
expected heat transfer through each component, using the relationship
= U A
c
pc
DT
These other-component heat transfers can then be subtracted from the predicted total heat transfer for the assembly. The
remainder is then converted to a U-value for the final component, using equation
= Q / A
DT
The procedure for calculating a total facade heat transfer is to add each of the component heat transfers
total
S ( Uc ApcDT )
Note that the component U-values will have been assessed using a common reference environmental temperature difference T,
but in determining the total facade heat loss each component may be used in an area which has some different local temperature
difference T .
c
The overall U-value of the facade is a projected-area-weighted average of the component U-values
overall
S ( Uc Apc ) / S
pc
The total projected area of the facade must be the sum of the component projected areas, by definition.
The detailed calculation is worked out in the following documents: Guide to good practice for assessing glazing frame
U-values and Guide to good practice for assessing heat transfer and condensation risk for a curtain wall
(both CWCT, 1998).
The edge effect of heat transfer through insulated panels and glazing
The heat flow through glazing units and insulated panels can be greater around the edge due to the cold bridging effect of the
edge detail, image. The thermal performance of a part of a wall can be described in two ways;
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= Q / A DT
Q
[W/m K]
Q = ( U A + Y L ) DT
Q
Y = A(
-U)/L
05.02_Heat transfer
= (A U
g
+ A U +l Y) / (A
f
+ A )
f
where
is the thermal transmittance of the centre glazing (without edge effect; spacer effect)
w
g
f
Y
A
is the linear thermal transmittance due to the combined thermal effects of glazing, spacer and frame
is the projected glazing area
is the projected frame area (i.e. the area of the projection of the frame on a plane parallel to the glazing panel).
PrEN ISO 10077 part 1 gives more detailed information about the use of the formula given above. Note that the annexes in prEN
10077 part 1 are only informative and shouldn't be applied on curtain walling systems.
The thermal transmittance of the glazing U is applicable to the central area of the glazing and does not include the effect of the
g
glass spacers at the edge of the glazing. On the other hand the thermal transmittance of the frame U is applicable in the absence
f
05.02_Heat transfer
of the glazing. The linear thermal transmittance Y describes the additional heat conduction due to the interaction between frame,
glazing and spacer. The linear transmittance Y is mainly affected by the conductivity of the spacer material.
Note that is possible to consider the linear thermal transmittance Y consisting of two components:
Y = Y
+ Y
Y
Y
is the additional heat flow per unit length through the frame, which depends on the type of the frame and the spacer
g
f
PrEN ISO 10077 part 2 gives more detailed information about how to assess both values by computer simulations.
standard DIN 52619 'Bestimmung des Wrmedurchlawiderstandes und Wrmedurchgangskoeffizienten von Fenstern - Teil 3:
Messung an Rahmen'.
The standard DIN 52619 concerns measurement, however k
DIN
The method of measurement in DIN 52 619 Part 3 is a similar method to the prEN 12412-2 'Thermal performance of windows,
doors and shutters - Calculation of thermal transmittance by hot box method - frames' where the frame and the glazing are
assessed separately
A comparison of both standards is set out in the following table:
DIN
part 3
05.02_Heat transfer
DIN
Although the k
DIN
DIN
- values resulting from the DIN 52619 should only be used to classify the window frame according to DIN 4108
(and not to compare the values with the prEN 10077), k values are frequently quoted in the UK and are wrongly believed by
specifiers to give a realistic assessment of the heat transfer through a curtain wall frame.
A good example of the difference and misleading use of comparing results from two different standards is worked out in the
CWCT Document: 'Guide to good practice for assessing glazing frame U-values'.
In the example of a curtain walling mullion, the calculated U-value by the CEN standards is almost twice the one obtained from the
o
DIN method. The minimum temperatures obtained on the warm side with the DIN method are much higher (more than 6 C).
05.02_Heat transfer