Basic analog meters

Two common types of movements used for ac measurement are the iron-vane,
or moving-iron, and electrodynamometer arrangements. In the iron-vane instrument,
as shown in Fig. 4.11, the current is applied to a fixed coil. The iron vane is movable
and connected to a restraining spring as shown. The displacement of the vane is
then proportional to the inductive force exerted by the coil. The meter is subject to
eddy-current losses in the iron vane and various hysteresis effects which limit its
accuracy
The features of the electrodynamometer movement are shown in Fig. 4.12. This
movement is similar to the DArsonval movement, except that the permanent magnet
is replaced by an electromagnet, which may be actuated by an alternating current.
Consequently,
the field in the electromagnet may be made to operate in synchronization
with an alternating current in the moving coil. In order to use the electrodynamometer
movement for ac measurements, it is necessary to connect the electromagnet
and moving coil in series as shown in Fig. 4.13.

2.3 Calibration
The calibration of all instruments is important, for it affords the opportunity to check
the instrument against a known standard and subsequently to reduce errors in accuracy.
Calibration procedures involve a comparison of the particular instrument with either
(1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the
instrument to be calibrated, or (3) a known input source. For example, a flowmeter
might be calibrated by (1) comparing it with a standard flow-measurement facility
of the National Institute for Standards and Technology (NIST), (2) comparing it
with another flowmeter of known accuracy, or (3) directly calibrating with a primary
measurement such as weighing a certain amount of water in a tank and recording
the time elapsed for this quantity to flow through the meter. In item 2 the keywords
are known accuracy. The meaning here is that the accuracy of the meter must be
specified by a reputable source.
The importance of calibration cannot be overemphasized because it is calibration
that firmly establishes the accuracy of the instruments. Rather than accept the reading
of an instrument, it is usually best to make at least a simple calibration check to be sure
of the validity of the measurements. Not even manufacturersspecifications or
calibrations
can always be taken at face value. Most instrument manufacturers are reliable;
some, alas, are not.We shall be able to give more information on calibration methods
throughout the book as various instruments and their accuracies are discussed.

2.6 The Generalized Measurement System

Most measurement systems may be divided into three parts:
1. A detector-transducer stage, which detects the physical variable and performs either a
mechanical or an electrical transformation to convert the signal into a more usable form.
In the general sense, a transducer is a device that transforms one physical effect into
another. In most cases, however, the physical variable is transformed into an electric
signal because this is the form of signal that is most
easily measured. The signal may be in digital or analog form. Digital signals offer the
advantage of easy storage in memory devices, or manipulations with computers.
2. Some intermediate stage, which modifies the direct signal by amplification, filtering, or
other means so that a desirable output is available.
3. A final or terminating stage, which acts to indicate, record, or control the variable
being measured. The output may also be digital or analog.

4.7 Amplifiers
Experimental measurements occur in many forms: for example, the voltage output
of a bridge circuit, the frequency signal of a counting circuit, and voltage signals
representative of a change in capacitance. In many cases the signals are comparatively
weak and must be amplified before they can be used to drive an output device. In
other instances there is a serious mismatch between the impedance of the measurement
transducer and that of the output circuits so that some interface must be provided to
allow effective impedance matching. An example, in a familar setting, of the former
class of problems involves connecting a phonograph pickup cartridge directly to a
loudspeaker. The cartridge is a transducer which converts the force produced by
mechanical motions in the groove of a record directly into an electric voltage. This
voltage could be applied directly to a loudspeaker, but it is so small that no audible
sound will result. All sound systems provide a significant amount of amplification to
increase this voltage before it is applied to the speakers. As a parenthetical comment,
the buyer of such systems generally pays more when he or she insists that the voltage
have a low distortion as it undergoes this amplification process.