D I V INATI ON AND G A M ES

81

god O n o t her occasions when t h e coco n u t was merely

sp u n for amusemen t no prayer was made and n o credi t
given t o t h e resul t Here t h e serious an d t h e spor t ive use
of t his rudimen t ary t ee t o t um are found t oge t her In t h e
S amoan Islands however a t a la t er da t e t h e R e v G
Turner nds t h e pract ice passed in t o a di fferen t s t age A
par t y s i t in a circle t h e coco n u t is spun in t h e middle
an d t h e oracular answer is according t o th e person t owards
whom t h e monkey face of t h e frui t is t urned when i t s t ops ;
b u t whereas formerly t h e S amoans used t his as an a rt of
divina t ion t o discover t hieves now t hey only keep i t up as a
1
I t is in
way o f cas t ing lo t s and as a game of forfei t s
favour o f t h e view of serious divina t ion being t h e earlier
use t o no t ice t ha t t h e N ew Z ealanders t hough t hey have
no coco nu t s keep up a t race of t h e t ime when t heir
ances t ors in t h e t ropical islands had t hem and divined wi t h

t hem ; for i t is t h e well known P olynesian word niu i e

coco n u t which is s t ill re t ained in use among t h e Maoris
for o t her kinds of divina t ion especially t ha t performed wi t h
s t icks Mr Taylor who poin t s ou t t his curiously nea t
piece of e t hnological evidence records ano t her case t o t h e
presen t purpose A me t hod of divina t ion was t o clap t h e
hands t oge t her while a proper charm was repea t ed ; if t h e
ngers wen t clear in i t was favourable b u t a check was an
ill omen ; on t h e ques t ion of a par t y crossing t h e coun t ry
in war t ime t h e locking o f all t h e ngers o r t h e s t oppage
o f some o r all
were na t urally in t erpre t ed t o mean clear
passage mee t ing a t ravelling par t y or being s t opped al t o
ge t her This quain t li t tle s ym b olic a rt of divina t ion seems

2
now only t o survive as a game ; i t is called puni puni
A similar connexion be t ween divina t ion and gambling is
shown by more familiar ins t rumen t s The huckle b ones or
as t ragali were used in divina t ion in ancien t R ome being
conver t ed in t o rude dice by numbering t h e four sides and
-

M ar in er To n ga I s la nd s vol ii p 2 3 9 ; T u r n er P olyn es i a p
W ill i am s F ij i vo l i p 2 2 8 C om p a re C r a n z G r o n la nd p 2 3 1

R T ylo r N e w Z e ala nd pp 2 0 6 3 48 3 8 7
1

214 ;

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M I T I V E C U LT U R E
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R E S E A RC H E S I N T O
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PRE F A CE T O THE F I RS T E DI T I ON

T H E presen t volumes uniform wi t h t h e previous volume o f

R esearches in t o t h e E arly His t ory of Mankind ( 1 s t E d

1 8 6 5 ; 2n d E d
carry on t h e inves t iga t ion o f C ul t ure
in t o o t her branches of t hough t and belief art and cus t om
D uring t h e pas t six years I have t aken occasion t o bring
t en t a t ively before t h e public some o f t h e principal poin t s
o f new evidence and argumen t here advanced
T h e doct rin e
o f survival in cul t ure
t h e bearing of direc t ly expressive
language and t h e inven t ion of numerals o n t h e problem o f
early civiliza t ion t h e place of my t h in t h e primi t ive his t ory
o f t h e human
mind t h e developmen t o f t h e animis t i c
philosophy o f religion and t h e origin of ri t es and cere
1
monies have been discussed in various papers and lec t ures
before bein g t rea t ed a t large and wi t h a fuller array o f
fac t s in t his work
The au t hori t ies for t h e fac t s s t a t ed in t h e t ex t are fully
specie d in t h e foo t no t es which mus t also serve as my
general acknowledgmen t of obliga t ions t o wri t ers on e t h n o
,

F o rt ni g ht ly R e v i e w O ri g in of L a n g u ag e A p r i l 1 5 1 866 ; R e l i gi o n
of S avag es A u g u s t 1 5 1 86 6 L e ct u res t R oyal I n s t i t u t i o n Tr a c es o f

t h e E a r ly M e n t al C o ndi t i o n of M n M a r c h 1 5 1 8 6 7 ;
S u r v i val of S avag e
Th o u g h t in M o d er n C i v i l i za t i o n A p r i l 2 3 1 869 L e c t u re a t U ni v ers i t y
C oll e g e L o nd o n S p i r i t u al i st i c P h i lo s o p h y of t h e L o w er R a c es of M a n k ind

M ay 8 1 869 P a p er re a d t Bri t i sh A ss o c i at i o n N o t t in g h am 1 86 6 P he
mom e n a of C i v i l i za t i o n Tr a c e a b l e t o a R udi m e n t al O r i g in amo n g S avag e
Tr i bes P a p er re a d t E t h n olog i c al S o c i e t y of L o nd o n A p r i l 2 6 1 8 7 0
P h i lo s o p h y of R e l i g i o n amo n g t h L o w er R a c es of M a n k ind & c & c
1

vi

r u s ra e u

g ra phy a n d kindred s cience s as w ell a s t o his t o ri a ns

I will o n ly men t ion a par t
t ravellers a n d missiona ries
t w o t rea t ises o f which I have ma d e especial u s e : t h e

Menseh in d e r ( l e s e h i e h t e f b y P ro fe s s o r Bas t ian o f B erlin

a nd
A n t h rop o lo g ie d e r N a t u rvi i lke r b y t h e la t e
the
P ro fessor \Va i t z o f Mar b ur g
In discussin g pro b lems s o complex as t hose o f t h e d e
ve lo pme n t o f civiliza tion i t is n o t enough t o pu t forward
The
t heories accompanied b y a fe w illus t ra t ive examples
s t a t emen t o f t h e fac t s mus t form t h e s t aple o f t h e argumen t
and t h e limi t of needful de t ail is only reached when each
g roup so displays i t s general law t ha t fresh cases come t o
r a nge t hemselves in t heir proper niches as new ins t ances
S hould i t seem t o any
o f an already es t ablished rule
readers t ha t my a t t emp t t o reac h t his limi t some t imes leads
t o t h e heaping up of t o o cumbrous de t ail I would poin t
ou t t ha t t h e t heore t ical novel t y as well as t h e prac t ical
impor t ance of many o f t h e issues raised make i t mos t
unadvisable t o s t in t t hem of t heir full evidence In th e
course o f t en years chie y spen t in t hese researches i t h as
been my cons t an t t ask t o selec t t h e mos t ins t ruc t ive
e t hnological fac t s from t h e vas t mass on record and by
lopping away unnecessary matt er t o reduce t h e da t a o n
each problem t o wha t is indispensable for reasonable proof

E B
.

I ll a rch ,

18 7 1

PRE F ACE T O THE SE CO N D EDI T I O N

publica t ion of t his work in 1 8 7 1 t ransla t ions

have appeared in G erman and Russian
In t h e presen t
edi t ion t h e form of page has been sligh t ly al t ered fo r
convenience o f re issue a t once in E ngland and A merica
The ma tt er however remains subs t an t ially t h e same A
few passages have been amplied o r al t ered for grea t er
clearness and on some poin t s addi t ional o r improved
evidence has been pu t in
A mong t h e an t hropologis t s
whose published reviews or priva t e communica t ions have
enabled me t o correct o r s t reng t hen various poin t s I will
only men t ion by name P rofessor F elix L iebrech t of L i ege
Mr C lemen t s R Markham P rofessor C alderwood Mr
R als t on and M r S ebas t ian E vans
I t may have s t ruck some reade rs as an omission t ha t in
a w ork on civiliza t ion insis t ing so s t renuously on a t heory
of developmen t or evolu t ion men t ion should scarcely have
been made of Mr D arwin and Mr Herber t S pencer whose
in uence o n t h e whole course of modern t hough t on such
subj ect s should n o t be lef t wi t hou t formal recogni t ion
This absence of par t icular reference is accoun t ed for by t h e
presen t work arranged on i t s own lines coming scarcely
in t o con t ac t o f de t ail wi t h t h e previous works o f t hese
eminen t philosophers
A n obj ect ion made by several cri t ics as t o t h e accumula
t ion of evidence in t hese volumes leads me t o remark wi t h
sincere gra t ica t ion t ha t t his obj ec t ion has in fac t been
balanced by solid a dvan t age The plan of collec t ing wi d e
and minu t e evidence so t ha t readers may have ac t ually
before t hem t h e means o f j udging t h e t heory pu t forward
S I NCE th e

vni

REFAC E

h as be en

j us t i ed b y t h e recep t ion of t h e b o o k even in

circles to whose vie w s many o f i t s a rg umen t s are s t ro n g ly
a dverse
and t h a t in ma t t e rs o f t h e fi rs t impor t ance
\Vri t e is
of mos t various ph ilosophical and t heolo g ical
schools n o w admi t t ha t t h e e t hnolo g ical fac t s are real
and vi t al and have t o b e accoun t ed fo r I t is n o t t o o
much t o sa y t ha t a percep t i b le movemen t o f pu b li c opinion
has here j us t ifi ed t h e bel ief t ha t t h e English m i nd n o t
readily swayed b y rhe t oric moves freely under t h e pressure
of fac t s
E B T
,

S q c mber,

PRE FAC E T O THE T HI RD E DI T I O N

I N t his edi t ion w hile I have n o t found i t needful t o al t er

t h e general argumen t t h e new informa t ion which has
become available during t h e las t t wen t y years has made
i t necessary t o inser t fur t her de t ails o f evidence and t o
correc t some few s t a t emen t s F or convenience of reference
t h e paging of t h e las t edi t ion is kep t t o
E B T
,

$c

mba

'

189 1

PR E F AC E T O THE F O U RT H E DI T I O N

F O R ordinary purposes

th e

presen t edi t ion may be t aken

as subs t an t ially unchanged
In only a few passages
ol
no t iceable al t era t ions have been made ( see v
i p 1 67
vocal t one ; vol
pp 2 3 4 7 t o t emism )
E B T
.

Octo ber, 1 9 0 3

C O N TEN TS
OF

TH E

I RS T

VO LU

C H A PT ER

ME

TH E S C I EN C E O F CU LTU RE
C u l t u re o r C i v i l i zat i o n I t s p he n om e n a re la t e d a cc o r din g t o d e ni t e L aw s
M e t h o d of c la ss i c at i o n a nd di s c u ss i o n of t h e e v id e n c e C o nn e x i o n
of s u cc ess i v e s t ag es of c u l t u re b y P er ma n e n c e M o di c a t i o n a nd
S u r v i val P r in c i p al t o p i c s e xam in e d in t h e p rese n t w o r k
.

C H A PT E R

II

AG E

T H E D E V EL O P M E N T O F C U L T U R E
S t a t e of c u l t u re indu s t r i al in t e ll e c t u al p ol i t i c al mo r al D e v e lo p m e n t
of c u l t ure in gr e at m e a s u re c o rres p o nd s w i t h t r a n s i t i o n fr om s avag e
P r ogr ess i o n t he o r y D e g e n er at i o n
t hr o u g h b a rb ar i c t o c i v i l i z e d l i fe
t he o r y D e v e lo p m e n t t he o r y in c l ud es b o t h t h e o n e a s p r i ma r y t h e
o t her a s se c o nd ar y H i s t o ri c al a nd t r adi t i o n al e v id e n c e n ot ava i la b l e
a s t o l ow s t ag es of c u l t u re H i s t o r i c al e v id e n c e a s t o p r in c i p l es of
D e g e n er a t i o n E th n olog i c al e v id e n c e a s t o r i se a nd fall in c u l t u re
fr om c om p a r i s o n of di ff ere n t l e v e l s of c u l t u re in br a n c hes of t h e
s am e r a c e E x t e n t of h i s t o r i c ally re c o r d e d a n t i q ui t y of c i v i l i za t i o n
P reh i s t o r i c A r c h ae ology e x t e nd s t h a n t i q ui t y of ma n in l o w s t ag es
of c i v i l i za t i o n Tr a c es of S t o n e Ag e c o rr o b o r a t e d b y m e gal i t h i c
s t r u ct u res lak e d we ll in g s she ll he a p s b u ri al p la c es & e p r ov e
o r i g in al l ow c u l t u re t hr o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d S t ag es of P r ogress i v e
D e v e lo p m e n t in indu s t r i al a r t s
.

C H A PT E R

III

26

SU R V I V A L I N C U LTU RE
S u r v i val a nd S u p ers t i t i o n C h i l d re n s gam es G am es of c h a n c e Tr a di
N u rser y p o e m s P r ov erbs R idd l es S i g ni c an c e
ti on al s ay in g s
a nd s u r v i val in C u s t om s s n ee z in g fo r m u la r i t e of fo und at i o n
sacri c e p rej udi c e aga in s t s av in g a d r o wnin g ma n
.

70

C ON T EN T S

C H A PT ER I V

S U R V I V A L I N C U L T U R E (em ti m c l )
O cc u l t S c i e n c es M gi c l p
tt i b u te d b y h i g her t o lo wer ra c es
M g i c l p r o c esses b se d
A ss o c i t i o n of I d O m e n s A u gu ry
& O n e i r om n c y l l r s pi t i n S c a p u l i ma n c y C h i r oma n c y &
C n t m ue y & c l { h b d m y D a c t yl i oman c y C o s c in oma n c y
& A str ology
I n t l I t l c o ndi t i o n s a cc o un t in g fo r t h p ers i st
e n c e of M gi c S u r vi v l p a ses in t o R e v i val W i t c h c raft o r i gin a t in g
i n s v g e c u l t u re c o n t inu es in b a rb r i c c i v i l i za t i o n ; i ts d e c l in e in
ly med imvl E u ro p e follo w e d b y re v i val ; i t s p r a c t i c es a nd c o un t er
p r c t i c es be lo n g t o e a rl i er c u l t u re Sp i r i t u al i s m h as i ts s o u r c e in
e ly sta g es of c u l t u re in c l o se c o nn e x i o n wi th wi t c h c raftSp i ri t
ra ppin g a nd Spi i t ri t in gR i s in g i n t h e a i rP er fo rma n c es of t i e d
m e diu m s P ra c t i c al be a rin g of t h s t ud y of S u r v i val
e

cc

ca

u u

c as

I AO IC

anc

e.

ua

ea r

on

ou ei s a

t r

ar

C H A PT ER V

112

E M O T I O N A L A N D I M I T A T I V E L A N G U AG E
E l e m e n t of di re c t ly e x p ress i v e S o und i L a n gu ag eTes t b y ind e p e n de n t
c o rres p o nd e n c e in di st in c t la n g u ag es C o n s t i t u e n t p r o c esses of L a n
g uag e Ges t u re E x p ress i o n of fe a t u re &
E mo ti o n al T o n e
.

c.

A rt i c u la t e s o und s vo we l s d e t er m in e d b y m u s i c al q u al i ty a nd p i t c h
c o n s o n a n ts E m p h a s i s a nd A cc e n t P hra se m e lo d y R e c i t a t i v e
S o und wo rd s I n t erj e c t i o n s C all s t o A ni mal s E mo t i o n al C r i es
S e n se w o rd s fo r m e d fr om I n t erj e ct i o n s A f rmat i ve a nd N e ga t i v e
p a rt i c l es & c
,

C H A PT E R V I

1 60

E M O T I O N A L A N D I M I T AT I V E L A N G U A G E

(conti n u ed )

I m i ta t i v e W o r d s H u ma n a c t i o n s n am e d fr om s o und A ni mal s n am es
from c r i es & c M u s i c al I n s t r u m e n t s S o und s re p r o du c e d Wo r d s
mo di fi e d t o a d a p t s o und t o se n se R e du p l i c a t i o n G r a du a t i o n of
vo we l s t o e x press di s t a n c e a nd di ffere n c e C h i l dr e n s La n gu ag e
S o und wo rd s a s re la t e d t o S e n se wo r d s L an gu ag e a n o r i gi n al
p r o du c t of t h e lo wer C u l t u re

C HA PT E R V I I

2 00

T H E ART OF C O U N T I N G
I d e a s of N u m ber d er i v e d fr o m e x p er i e n c e S t a t e of A r i t h m e t i c amo n g
un c i vil i z e d ra c es S mall e x t e n t of N u m er al wo r d s amo n g l ow t r i bes
C o un t i n g b y n g ers a nd t o es Ha nd num er al s sh o w d er i vat i o n of
V erb al re cko nin g fr om G es t ure c o un t in gE t ymology of N u m er al s
Q uin a r y D e c i mal a nd V i g es i mal n o ta t i o n s of t h e w o r l d d er i v e d
fr om c o un t in g o n n g ers a nd t o esA d o p t i o n of fo re i g n N u m er al
w o rd s
E v id e n c e of d e v e lo p m e n t of A r i t h m et i c fr om a low or i g i n al
l e v e l of C u l t u re
.

24 0

CONTENTS

xi

C H A PT E R V II I

M Y TH O LO G Y

M y th i c fa n c y b a se d l i k e o t her t h o u g h t o n E x p er i e n c e M y t h ology
affo r d s e v id e n c e fo r s t ud y in g laws of I mag in a t i o nC h a n g e in p u b l i c
o p ini o n a s t o c re di b i l i t y of M y t hs M y t hs r a t i o n al i z e d in t o All e go r y
a nd H i s t o r yE t h n olog i c al i m p o r t a nd t re a t m e n t of M y th M yt h
t o be s t udi e d in a c t u al e x i s t e n c e a nd gr o wt h amo n g m o d er n s avag es
a nd b a rb ar i a n s O ri g in al s o u r c es of M y t h E a r ly d o c t r in es of
g e n er al a ni ma t i o n of N a t u re Person i e a t i on of S un M oo n a nd
S t a rs ; Wa t er s p o u t S a nd p i lla r R ain b o w Wa t er fall P es t i l e n c e
A n alogy w o r k e d in t o M y t h a nd M e t a p h o rM y t hs of R a in Th und er
Arc E ffe c t of L a n gu ag e in fo r ma t i o n of M y t h M a ter i al Person i
c at i o n p r i ma r y V erb al Person i cati on se c o nd a ry G rammat i c al
G e nd er mal e a nd fe mal e a n i ma t e a nd in a ni ma t e in re la t i o n t o
M y t h P r o p er n am es of o bj e ct s in re lat i o n t o M y t h M e n t al S t at e
p r o p er t o p r omo t e my t h i c i mag in at i o n D o ct r in e of W erew olv es
P h a n t a s y a nd F a n c y

AG E

C H A PT E R I X

273

MY T H O L O G Y (con ti n u ed )
N at u re myt hs t he i r o r i g in c a n o n of in t er p re t at i o n p reser va t i o n of
o r igi n al se n se a nd s i g ni c a n t n am es N a t u re my t hs of u p p er s avag e
r a c es c om p a re d w i t h re la t e d fo r m s amo n g b a rb a r i c and c i v i l i z e d
n at i o n s H e av e n a nd E a r t h a s U ni v ers al P a re n t sS un a nd M oo n
E c l i p se a nd S un se t a s H er o o r M a id e n s wallo we d b y M o n st er ;
R i s in g of S un fr om S e a and D es c e n t t o U nd er Wo r l d ; Ja ws of N i g h t
a nd D e a t h S ym p l e ga d es ; E y e of H e av e n E y e of O din a nd t h e
G r a i aeS un a nd M oo n a s my t h i c c i vi l i z ers M oo n her in c o n s t a n c y
p er i o di c al d e at h a nd re v i val S t a rs t he i r g e n er a t i o n C o n s t e lla t i o n s
W ind a nd Te m p es t
t he i r p la c e in M y t h ology a nd A s t r o n omy
Th und erE a r t h q u ak e
.

C H A PT ER X

316

MY T H O L O G Y (con ti n u ed )
P h i lo s o p h i c al M y ths in fere n c es be c om e p se ud o h i st o r y G e ologi c al
M y t hs E ffe c t of d o c t r in e of M i r a c l es o n M y t h ology M agn e ti c
M o un t ain M y t hs of re la t i o n of A p es t o M e n b y d e v e lo p m e n t o r
d e g e n er at i o n E t h n olog i c al i m p o r t of my t hs of A p e m e n M e n wi t h
t a i l s M e n of t h e w oo d s M y t hs of E rr o r P er v ers i o n a nd Exa gg era
t i o n : s t o r i es of G i a n t s D wa r fs a nd M o n s t r o u s Tr i bes of m e n
F a n c i fu l e x p la n at o r y M y t hs M y t hs a t t a c he d t o l e g e nd ar y o r h i s
t ori cal P ers o n ag es E t ymologi c al M y ths o n n am es of p la c es a nd
p ers o n s E p o n ym i c M y t hs o n n am es of t r i bes n a t i o n s c o un tr i es
& c ; t he i r e t h n olog i c al i m p o r t P r agma t i c M y t hs b y re al i za t i o n of
m e ta p h o rs a nd id e a s All e go r yB e a s t F a b l e C o n c l u s i o n
.

3 68

CO NT ENTS

C H A PT ER X I

AN I M I SM
R e l i gi o u s id ea s g e n e ra lly a ppea r amo n g l w ra c es of M n k ind N eg ti v e
st a te m e n ts o n th i s s u bj e c t fre q u e n t ly m i s l e din g d m i st k e n :
m n y ca ses u c l t i n Mi n i n mm d e lini t i o n of R e l i g i o n l ) e t ri n
of Spi r i t u l Be in gs he l e term e d A ni mi s m A ni m i s m tre te d a s
be lo n g in g t o N t u r l R e l i g i o n A ni mi s m d i v id e d in t o t w se c t i o n s
the p h i lo s o ph y o f S o u l s
d of o t her Sp i r i ts D o c tr in e of S o u l s
i t p re val e n c e a nd d e fini t i o n mo n g t h e lo wer ra c es
D e f ni ti o n of
A p pa ri t i o n al S ul o r ( l h t S o u l l t i s the o ret i c l c o n c e p t i o n of
p ri m i t i v e P h i lo s o p h y d es i g n e d to cc o un t fo r p he n om e n a n w c la sse d
und er Bi ology es p e c i lly L i fc a nd D e th H e al th a nd D is s e S l ee p
Tr n c e a nd V i s i o n s R e la t i o n o f S o u l i n n am e a nd
n d D re am s
n a t u re t o S h d o w Bloo d B re a th D i v i s i o n o r P l u r al i t y of S o u l s
S o u l ca u se of Li fe i ts rest o r a t i o n t o b o d y w he n s u pp o se d a bse n t
E x i t of S ul in Tra n c es D re am s a nd V i s i o n s t he o r y of e x i t of
d re m er s o r s ec r s o wn s o u l ; the o r y of v i s i t s re c e i v e d b y t he m fr om
o t her s o u l s G h o st S o u l see n i n A pp a r i t i o n s W ra i ths a nd D o u b l es
S o u l h a s fo r m of Bo d y ; s u ffers m u t i la t i o n w i t h i t V o i c e of
G h o s t S o u l t re a t e d a nd d e n e d a s of M a t er i al S u bs t a n c e ; t h i s
a pp e a rs t o be t h e o r i g in al d o c t r in e Tr a n s m i ss i o n of S o u l s t o
ser vi c e i n fu t u re l i fe b y F un er al S a c r i c e of w i v es a t t e nd a n t s & c
S o ul s of A ni mal s The i r t ra n sm i ss i o n b y F un eral S a cri ce
S o u l s of P la n ts S o u l s of O bj e c t s The i r tr a n s m i ss i o n b y F un er al
S a c ri ce R e la t i o n of D o c tr in e of O bj e c t S o u l s t o E p i c u re a n t he o r y
of I d e a s H i s t o r i c al d e v e lo p m e n t of D o c t r in e of S o u l s fr om t h e
E t here al S o u l of pr i m i t i v e Bi ology t o t h e I mmat eri al S o u l of
mo d er n The ology
.

n e

an

os

ea

'

an

AG E

4 17

PRI MI TI V E

C U LTU RE

C H AP TE R I

THE SCIENCE

OF

CULT U RE

C u l t u re o r C i v i l i zat i o n
I t s p he n om e n a re la t e d a cc o r din g t o d e ni t e L aw s
M e t h o d of c la ss i c a t i o n a nd di s c u ss i o n of t h e v id e n c eC o nn e x i o n
of s u cc ess i v e st ag es of c u l t u re b y P er ma n e n c e M o di c a t i o n a nd
S ur vi val P r in c i p al t o p i c s e xam i n e d in t h e p rese n t wo r k
e

C U L T U R E or C iviliza t ion t aken in i t s wide e t hnographic

E EK I ncludes knowl edge

sense is t ha t comple x W

belief a rt m
Orals l a w Eu st om an d any o t her ca pabili t ies
The
a n d h a bi t s acqu i red by_ man as a member o f socie t y

can (Ti t ion o f cul t ure among t h e various socie t ies of mankind
in so far as i t is capable o f being inves t iga t ed on general
principles is a subj ec t apt for t h e s t udy o f laws o f human
t hough t and ac t ion
O n t h e on e hand t h e uniformi t y
which so largely pervades civiliza t ion may be ascribed in
grea t measure t o t h e uniform ac t ion o f uniform causes :
while on t h e o t h er hand i t s various grades may be regarded
as s t ages o f developmen t or evolu t ion each t h e ou t come o f
previous his t ory and abou t t o do i t s proper par t in shaping
t h e his t ory o f t h e fu t ure
To t h e inves t iga t ion of t hese
t w o grea t principles in several depar t men t s o f e t hnography
wi t h especial considera t ion of t h e civiliza t ion of t h e lower
t ribes as rela t ed t o t h e civiliza t ion o f t h e higher na t ions
t h e presen t volumes are devo t ed
,

'

TH E

S C I EN C E

O I

C U LTUR E

"

mo dern inves t ig a t ors in t h e sciences o f inorg anic

na t ure are forem o s t t o reco g nize b o t h wi t hin and wi t hou t
t heir s pecial fields o f w rk t h e uni ty f na t ure t h e fixi ty o f
i t s la w s t h e de fini t e se q uence o f cause and e ffec t t hrou g h
which every fa c t d c pe mls o n wha t has gone before i t and
ac t s upon wha t is t o c o me af t er i t Th e y grasp rmly t h e
Py t hagorean doc t rine o f pervading order in t h e universal
K osmos
Th e y a fl i r m wi t h A ris t o t le t ha t na t ure is n o t
full of incoheren t episode like a b ad t ragedy They a g ree

wi t h Lei b ni t z in wha t he calls my axiom t ha t na t ure

neve r ac t s by leaps ( la na t ure n ag i t j amais par
as

w ell as i n his g rea t principle commonly li t t le employed

N or
t ha t no t h i n g happens wi t hou t i t s su fcien t reason
a g ain i n s t udying t h e s t ruc t ure and habi t s o f plan t s and
animals o r in inves ti g a ting t h e lower func t ions even o f
man are t hese leading ideas unacknowledged B u t when
we c o me t o t alk o f t h e higher processes o f human feeling
and ac t ion o f t hough t and language knowledge and a rt
a change appears i n t h e prevalen t t one o f opinion The
world a t large is scarcely prepared t o accep t t h e general
s t udy of human life as a branch of na t ural sci ence and t o

ca rry o u t in a large sense t h e poe t s inj unc t ion t o A c

coun t fo r moral as fo r na t ural t hings " To many educa t ed
minds t here seems some t hing presump t uous and repulsive
in t h e view t ha t t h e his t ory o f ma nkin d is par t and parcel
of th e
his t ory o f na t ure t ha t o u r t hough t s wills and
ac t ions accord wi t h laws as deni t e as t hose which govern
t h e mo t ion of waves t h e combina t ion o f acids and bases
and t h e g row t h of plan t s and animals
The main reasons of t his s t a t e o f t h e popular j udgmen t
are n o t far t o seek There are many who would willingly
accep t a science of his t ory if placed b efore t hem wi t h sub
s t an t i a l d e n i t e n e s s of principle and evidence b u t who n o t
unreasona b ly rej ec t t h e sys t ems o ffered t o t hem as falling
t oo far shor t o f a scien t ic s t andard
Through resis t ance
such as t his real knowledge always sooner o r la t er makes
i t s way while t h e ha b i t o f opposi t ion t o novel t y does s u c h
O ur

DEFINITE LAWS

excellen t service agains t t h e invasions of specula t ive dog

ma t i s m t ha t we may some t imes even wish i t were s t ronger
B u t o t her obs t acles t o t h e inves t iga t ion o f laws
t han i t is
of human na t ure arise from considera t ions o f me t aphysics
and t heology The popular no t ion o f free human will i n
volves n o t only freedom t o ac t in accordance wi t h mo t ive
b u t also a power of breaking loose from con t inui t y and
ac t ing wi t hou t cause
a combina t ion which may be roughly
illus t ra t ed by t h e simile o f a balance some t imes ac t ing in
t h e usual way b u t also possessed o f t h e facul t y o f t urning
by i t self wi t hou t or agains t i t s weigh t s This view o f an
anomalous ac t ion of t h e will which i t need hardly be said is
incompa t ible wi t h scien t ic argumen t subsis t s as an opinion
pat en t or la t en t in men s minds and s t rongly affec t ing t heir
t heore t ic views of his t ory t hou h i t is n o t as a rule
brough t prominen t ly forward in sys t ema t ic reasoning
Indeed t h e deni t ion o f human will as s t ric t ly according
wi t h mo t ive is t h e only possible scien t ic basis in such e n
u i ri es
Happily
i
is
n o t needful t o add here
e
ano
her
t
t
t
q
y
t o t h e lis t of disser t a t ions on superna t ural in t erven t ion and
na t ural causa t ion on liber t y predes t ina t ion and a cc ou n t a
b ili t y W e may has t en t o escape from t h e regions o f t rans
c e n d e n t a l philosophy and t heology t o s t ar t o n a more hope
ful j ourney over more prac t icable ground N one will deny
t ha t as each man knows by t h e evidence o f his own con
deni t e and na t ural cause does t o a grea t
s c i ou s n e s s
ex t en t de t ermine human ac t ion
Then keeping aside
from considera t ions o f ex t ra na t ural in t erference and cause
less spon t anei t y le t us t ake t his admi t t ed exis t ence of
na t ural cause and e ffec t as our s t anding ground and t ravel
o n i t s o far as i t will bear us
I t is o n t his same basis
t ha t physical science pursues wi t h ever increasi n g success
i t s ques t of laws o f na t ure
N or need t his res t rict ion
ham per t h e scien t ic s t udy o f human life in which t h e
real di fcul t ies are t h e prac t ical ones of enormous com
pl e x i t y o f evidence and imperfec t ion of me t hods o f o b s e r
va t ion
,

S C I ENC E

THE

N ow

C U LTU RE

or

ap pe a rs t ha t t his view o f human will and conduc t

s u bj ec t
a
t o de fini t e law is indeed recognized a n d ac t ed
upon by t h e very pe o ple w h o o ppose i t when s t a t ed i n
t h e a bs t ra c t as a g e neral princi ple and who t hen complain
t ha t i t a n n i h ila t c s man s free w i l l d es t ro ys his sense of per
sonal res ponsibili ty a ml d e g ra d es him t o a soulless machine
H e w h o will s a y t hese t hin g s will never t heless pass much o f
his o w n life in s t u dyin g t h e m o t ives which lead t o human
ac t ion seeking t o a t t ain his wishes t h r o u g h t hem framing
in his mind t heories o f personal charac t er reckoning wha t
a re likely t o b e t h e e ffec t s o f n e w com b ina t ions and giving
t o his reas o nin g t h e cr wnin g charac t er o f t rue scien t ic
enquiry by t akin g i t for gran t ed t ha t in so far as his
c alcula t ion t urns o u t wrong e i t h e r his evidence mus t have
b een false or incomple t e o r his j udgmen t upon i t unsound
S u c h a o n e will sum up t h e experience of years spen t in
complex rela t ions wi t h socie t y by declaring his persuasion
t ha t t here is a reason for every t hing i n life and t ha t where
even t s look unaccoun t able t h e rule is t o wai t and wa t ch in
hope t ha t t h e ke y t o t h e problem may some day be found
This man s observa t ion may have been as narrow as his i n
terence s are crude and prej udiced b u t never t heless b e h as
been an induc t ive philosopher more t han for t y years wi t h
He has prac t ically ac knowledged deni t e
ou t knowin g i t
laws of human t hough t and ac t ion and has simply t hrown
o u t of accoun t in his own s t udies of life t h e whole fabric
of mo t i veless will and uncaused spon t anei t y I t is assumed
here t ha t t hey should b e j us t so t hrown o u t o f accoun t in
wider s t udi es and t ha t t h e t rue philosophy of his t ory l ies
in ex t endin g and improving t h e me t hods of t h e plain people
who form t heir j udgmen t s upon fac t s and ch eck t hem
upon new fac t s W he t her t h e doc t rine be wholly or b u t
par t ly t rue i t accep t s t h e very condi t ion under which w e
search for new knowledge in t h e lessons of experience
d i n a word t h e whole course of our ra t ional life is b ased
an
upon i t

O n e even t is always t h e son of ano t her and we mus t

it

CONNECTED STAGES

never forge t t h e paren t age was a remark made by a

Thus
B echuana chief t o C asalis t h e A frican missionary
a t all t imes his t orians so far as t hey have aimed a t being
more t han mere chroniclers have done t heir b es t t o S how
n o t merely succession b u t connexion among t h e even t s upon
Moreover t hey have s t riven t o elici t general
t heir record
principles o f human ac t ion and by t hese t o explain par
t i c u l a r even t s s t a t ing expressly o r t aking t aci t ly for gran t ed
S hould any o n e
t h e exis t ence o f a philosophy o f his t ory
deny t h e possibili t y of t hus es t ablishing his t orical laws
t h e answer is ready wi t h which B oswell in such a case

Then sir you would reduce all

t urned on Johnson :
his t ory t o no be t t er t han an almanack
Tha t never t heless
t h e labours o f so many emin en t t hinkers should have as y e t
brough t his t ory only t o t h e t hreshold o f science need cause
no wonder t o t hose wh o consider t h e bewildering complexi t y
o f t h e problems which come before t h e general his t orian
The evidence from which he is t o draw his conclusions is a t
once so mul t ifarious and so doub t ful t ha t a full and dis t inc t
V iew o f i t s bearing on a par t icular ques t ion is hardly t o b e
a tt ained and t hus t h e t emp t a t ion becomes all b u t irre
s i s t i b l e t o garble i t in suppor t o f some rough and ready
The philosophy of his t ory
t heory of t h e course o f even t s
a t large explaining t h e pas t and predic t ing t h e fu t ure phe
n o m e n a of man s life in t h e world by reference t o general
law s is in fac t a subj ec t wi t h which in t h e presen t s t a t e of
knowledge even genius aided by wide research seems b u t
hardly ab l e t o cope Y e t t here are depar t men t s o f i t which
If
t hough di fcul t enough seem compara t ively accessible
t h e eld o f enquiry be narrowed from His t ory as a whole
t o t ha t branch of i t which is here called C ul t ure t h e
his t ory n o t o f t ribes or na t ions b u t of t h e condi t ion o f
knowledge religion a rt cus t om and t h e like among t hem
t h e t ask o f inves t iga t ion proves t o lie wi t hin far more
modera t e compass W e su ffer s t ill from t h e same kind o f
di fcul t ies which bese t t h e W ider argumen t b u t t hey are
much diminished
The evidence is no longer so wildly
,

'

TH E S C I EN C E

C U LTURE

or

he t ero g eneous b u t may b e m o re simply cla s si fied and c o m

pare d w hile t h e pt t f g e t t in g r id f e x t ran e us ma t t er
and t rea t in g each issue o n i t s o w n proper s e t o f fac t s
make s close re a sonin g o n t h e wh o l e m o re availa b le t han in
g eneral hi s t o ry This may a ppe ar fr o m a b rie f preliminary
examin a t ion o f t h e pro b l e m h w t h e phenomena o f C ul tu re
may b e c l a ssi fied a n d arrange d s t ag e b y s t ag e i n a pro b a b le
order o f evolu t ion
S urveyed in a b road view t h e charac t er a n d habi t o f
m a nkind a t once di s play t ha t similari ty and consis t ency o f
phenomena w hich le d t h e I t alian prover b maker t o declare

all t h e world is o n e coun t ry

t u t t o il mondo a
t ha t
paese
To g eneral likeness in human na t ure on t h e on e
hand and t o general likeness in t h e circums t ances of life on
t h e o t her t his similari ty and consis t ency may no doub t be
t raced and t hey may be s t udied wi t h especial t ness in
comparing races near t h e same grade of civiliza t ion L i t t le
respec t need be had in such comparisons for da t e in his t ory
or for place on t h e map ; t h e ancien t S wiss lake dweller may
be s e t beside t h e medi aeval A z t ec and t h e Oj ibwa o f N or t h
A merica beside t h e Z ulu of S ou t h A frica A s D r Johnson
con t emp t uously said when he had read abou t P a t agonians

and S ou t h S e a Islanders in H aw k e s w or th s V oyages on e

H o w t rire a generaliza t ion
se t o f savages is like ano t her
t his really is any E t hnological Museum may show
E xamine
fo r in s t ance t h e edged and poin t ed ins t rumen t s in su c h a
collec t ion ; t h e inven t ory includes hat c h e t adze chisel
knife saw scraper awl needle spear and arrow head and
o f t hese mos t or all belong wi t h only d i e re n c es o f de t ail t o
races t h e mos t various S o i t is wi t h savage occupa t ions ;
t h e wood chopping shing wi t h n e t and line shoo t ing and
spearin g game re making cooking t wis t ing cord and
plai t ing baske t s repea t t hemselves wi t h wonderful uni
formi t y in t h e museum shelves which illus t ra t e t h e life o f
t h e lower races from K amcha t ka t o Tierra del F u eg o and
from D ahome t o Hawaii E ven when i t comes t o comparing
b arbarous hordes wi t h civilized na t ions t h e considera t ion
,

CLASS I FI CATI ON OF EV I DENCE

t hrus t s

i t self upon o u r minds h o w far i t em af t er i t em of t h e

life o f t h e lower races passes in t o analogous proceedings o f
t h e higher in forms n o t t oo far changed t o be recognized
and some t imes hardly changed at all Look a t t h e modern
E uropean peasan t u sing his ha t che t and his hoe see his
food boiling or roas t ing over t h e log re observe t h e exac t
place which beer holds in his calcula t ion of happiness hear
his t ale o f t h e ghos t in t h e neares t haun t ed house and o f
t h e farmer s niece who was bewi t ched wi t h kno t s in her
inside t ill she fell in t o t s and died If we choose o u t in
t his way t hings which have al t ered li tt le in a long course o f
cen t uries we may draw a pic t ure where t here shall be scarce
a hand s bread t h di fference be t ween an E nglish ploughman
and a ne g ro of C en t ral A frica These pages will be so
crowded wi t h evidence of such correspondence among man
kind t hat t here is no need t o dwell upon i t s de t ails here
b u t i t may be used a t once t o override a problem which
would complica t e t h e argumen t namely t h e ques t ion of
race F o r t h e presen t purpose i t appears bo t h possible and
desirable t o elimina t e considera t ions of heredi t ary varie t ies
o r races o f man and t o t rea t mankind as homogeneous in
na t ure t hough placed i n di ff eren t grades o f civiliza t ion
The de t ails o f t h e enquiry will I t hink prove t ha t s t ages
of cul t ure may be compared wi t hou t t aking in t o accoun t
how far t ribes who use t h e same implemen t follow t h e
same cus t om o r believe t h e same my t h may di ffer in
t heir bodily congura t ion and t h e colour o f t heir skin
and hair
A rs t s t ep in t h e s t udy o f civiliza t ion is t o dissec t i t in t o
de t ails and t o classify t hese in t heir proper groups Thus
in examining weapons t hey are t o be classed under spear
club sling bow and arrow and so for t h ; among t ex t ile ar t s
are t o be ranged ma t t ing ne t t ing and several grades o f
mak ing and weaving t h reads ; my t hs are divided under such
headings as my t hs o f sunrise and sunse t eclipse my t hs
ear t hquake my t hs local my t hs which accoun t fo r t h e names
o f places by some fanciful t ale eponymic my t hs which accoun t
,

T II E S C I E N C E

C U LT U R E

0 1"

fo r t h e paren t a g e o f a t ri b e by t u rnin g i t s n a me in t o t h e
name o f a n im a g inary ances to r ; u n d e r ri t es a n d ceremonies

o c cu r s u c h prac t i c es as t h e various kin d s o f s acrice t o t h e

g ho s t s o f t h e d ead a n d t t her spi ri tual b e in g s t h e t u rni n g
t o t h e e as t i n W rs hi p t h e pu ri lie a t i o n o f cerem o nial o r
mo ra l u ne le a n n e s s by means f wa t er r fire S uch a re a
few mis c e lla n m u s examples fr m a lis t f hundreds and
"
t h e e t lm o g ra ph c i s b usiness is t o classify such de t ails wi t h
a vie w t o makin g o u t t hei r di s t ri b u t ion in geo g raphy and
his t ory and t h e rela t ions which exis t amon g t hem W ha t
t his t a k is like may b e alm o s t perfec t ly illus t ra t ed by com
parin g t he e de t ails o f cul t ure wi t h t h e species o f plan t s and
anima ls as s tudied b y t h e na t uralis t To t h e e t lmo g ra ph e r
t h e bow and arrow is a species t h e habi t o f fl a t t ening
children s s kulls is a species t h e prac t ice of reckoning
numbers b y t ens is a species The g eo g raph ical d i s t rib u
t ion o f t hese t hin g s and t heir t ransmission from region t o
region have t o be s t udied as t h e na t uralis t s t udies t h e
geography of his bo t anical and zoological species Jus t as
cer t ain plan t s and animals are peculiar t o cer t ain dis t ric t s
so i t is wi t h such ins t rumen t s as t h e A us t ralian boomerang
t h e P olynesian s t ick and groove for re making t h e t iny
bow and arrow used as a lance t o r ph le me by t ribes abou t
t h e Is t hmus of P anama and in like manner wi t h many an
a rt
my t h or cus t om found isola t ed in a par t icular eld
Jus t as t h e ca t alogue o f all t h e species of plan t s and animals
of a dis t ric t represen t s i t s F lora and F auna so t h e lis t of
all t h e i t ems of t h e general life o f a people represen t s t ha t
whole which we call i t s cul t ure A nd j us t as dis t an t regions
s o of t en produce vege t ables and animals wh i ch are analogous
t hough by no means iden t ical so i t is wi t h t h e de t ails of t h e
civiliza t ion of t heir inhabi t an t s How good a working
analo g y t here really is be t ween t h e di ffusion of plan t s and
animals and t h e diffusion o f civiliza t ion comes well in t o
view when we no t ice h ow far t h e same causes have produced
bo t h a t once In dis t ric t af t er dis t ric t t h e same causes
which have in t roduced t h e cul t iva t ed plan t s and d o me s t i
o

CORRESPONDENCE OF EV I D ENC E

nimals o f civilization have b r ought in wi t h them a

correspondin g art a n d kn o wledge The c o urse o f events
which carried h o rses and whe a t to A merica c a r r ied wi t h
t hem t h e use o f t h e gun and the iron hatchet W hile in
return the wh o le w o rld received n o t o nly m a ize p o t a t o es
a n d turkeys
but t h e habi t o f tob acco smoking and t h e
sailo r s hammock
It is a matter worthy o f considerati o n t ha t the accounts
of similar phenomena o f c ulture recurring in di fferent parts
of t h e world actually supply incidental proof o f their ow n
authenticity
Some years since a question which brings
o u t this point was put to me by a g r eat historian
H ow
can a statement as to customs myths beliefs & c o f a
sav age tribe be treated as evidence where i t depends o n t h e
t e s t im on y o f some traveller or missi o nary who may be a
supercia l obse rver more or less ignorant of t h e native
language a c a reless retailer o f unsifted talk a man prej u
diced o r even wilfully deceitful ? This question is indeed
one which every ethn o grapher ought to keep cle a rly an d
constantly before his mind O f c o urse he is bound to u se
his best j udgment as to t h e trustw o rthiness of all authors
he quotes a n d if possible to obtain several accounts to
certify each p o int in each locality But i t is over and above
these me a sures of precaution that the test of recurrence
comes in If two independent visitors to di fferent countries
say a medi aeval Mohammedan in T a rt a ry and a modern
E nglishman in D ahome or a Jesuit missionary in B razil
a n d a Wesleyan in the F ij i Islands a gree in describing some
analogous art or rite or myth am o ng t h e people they have
visited i t becomes di fcult or impossible to set down such
correspondence to accident or wilful fraud A story by a
bushr a nge r in A ustr a lia may perhaps be o bj ected to as a
mis t ake o r a n invention but did a M ethodist mi n iste r in
G ui n ea co n spire wi t h him to cheat the public by telling t h e
same s to r y there ? The p o ssibility of intenti o n al o r unin
t e n t i on al my s t i ca t i on is o ften ba r red by such a state o f
thi n gs as that a simila r statement is made in two remote
cate d a

10

S C I EN C E

TH E

l a n d s by

or

C U LT UR E

wi t n e s s e s f wh m A lived a c entu ry b e fo re
B a n d l l a ppe a ls n ev e r t h a v
e h e a rd o f A H w di s t an t
a re t h e c o u n t rie s h o w w ide a p a r t t h e d a t e s
h o w d i lte re n t
t h e c ree d s a n d c li u ra e t e i s o t t h e o h s e n e rs i n t h e c a t a l o gue
o f fa c t s o f civil i z a t i o n n ee d s n
f ar t he r s h w i n g t a n y n e
w h o w ill even gl a n c e a t t h e
l t h e pre s e n t w o r k
A n d t h e m o re o d d t h e s t a t ni e n t t h e le s s likely th a t s eve ra l
pe o ple in s eve ra l pl a c e s sh uld h a ve ma d e i t wr o n gly Th is
b eing s o i t seem s re a s o n a ble t o j u dge th a t t h e st a tements
a re i n t h e m a i n t r uly give n a n d t h a t thei r c l o s e a n d r egul a r
c o incide n ce is due t o t h e c ro ppi n g up o f s imil a r fa cts i n
v a ri o u s d i s t rict s o f cul tu re N o w t h e m os t imp o r ta nt fa ct s
o f e t h n o g ra phy a re v o u c hed fo r i n th i s w a
rie n ce
E
xpe
y
le a ds the s t ude n t a fte r a while t o expect a n d nd th a t the
phe n omen a o f cul t u re a s re s ulti n g f ro m widely acting simila r
causes should recu r a g a i n a n d a g a in in the w o rld He even
m i s t ru s ts is ol a ted st a teme n ts t o which he k n o ws o f no par a llel
elsewhe re a n d w aits fo r thei r ge n ui n e n ess t o be shown by
c o rresp o ndi n g acc o u n ts f ro m t h e o the r side o f the ea r th o r
the othe r e n d o f history S o str ong indeed is this means
o f a u thenticati o n th a t the eth n og r apher i n his lib ra ry ma
y
sometimes presume t o decide n o t o n ly whether a pa r ticular
expl o rer is a sh rewd ho n est o bserve r but a lso whether
wh a t he repo rts is c o n fo rmable to the general r ules of civili
N o n quis sed quid
z a t i on
To turn f ro m the distribution o f culture in di fferent
c o untries to its di ffusion within these countries The
quality o f mankind which tends most t o make the syste
m a tic study o f civiliz a ti o n possible is th a t rem a rk able tacit
co n sensus o r a greement which so fa r induces wh o le po pu la
tions to un ite in the use o f the s a me l a nguage to f o llow the
same religi o n a n d custom a ry la w to settle down t o the same
general level of art and k n owledge It is this st a te o f things
which makes it s o fa r possible to ignore excepti o nal fa cts
and to describe nati o ns by a s o r t of gene ral a ver a ge It is
this state o f things which m a kes it so fa r p o ssible to represent
immense masses of details by a few typic a l facts while these
t wo

'

'

DI STRIBU TI ON AND DIF F US ION

11

o n ce settled new cases rec o rded by new O bservers simply

f a ll int o their pl a ces t o p ro ve the sound n ess o f t h e c la s s i
c a ti o n The r e is fou n d t o be such regula rity in the c o mpo
s i t i on
o f societies of men
t ha t we c a n drop individu a l
differences ou t o f sight an d thus can generalize on t h e a rts
a n d O pinions of whole nations j ust as when l o o ki n g d o wn
upon an a rmy from a hill we fo rget t h e individual soldie r
whom in fa ct we can scarce distinguish in the mass while
we see each regiment a s an organized body spreading or
c o ncentrating moving in advance o r in retreat In some
branch es o f the study o f soci a l l a ws it is n ow possible t o c a ll
in the aid o f st a tistics and to set apart speci a l a cti o ns o f
l a rge mixed c o mmunities of men by means o f t ax g at h e re rs
schedules or the t ables o f the insur a nce o fce A mong
m o dern a rguments o n the l a ws o f hum a n a cti o n none have
had a deeper e ffect than gener a liz a tions such as those of M
Q uetelet o n t h e regul a rity n o t only of such matters as
average stature and the a nnu a l rates o f birth and de a th but
o f the recurrence
year after year of such O bscure and
seemingly incalculable products o f natio n al life as the
numbers o f murders and suicides an d t h e p r oportion of the
ve ry weapons of crime O ther strikin g c a ses a re t h e a nnu a l
regularity o f perso n s kil led accident a lly in the L ond o n
streets and o f undirected letters dropped into p o st ofc e
letter boxes B ut in exam i n i ng the culture o f the lower
races far from having at command t h e measured arithmetical
facts of modern statistics we may have to j udge of the
condition of tribes from the imperfect accounts supplied by
tr a vellers or missionaries o r even to reason upon relics o f
prehistoric r a ces o f whose very n ames an d languages we
a re hopelessly ign o r a nt
N ow these may seem a t t h e rst
glance s a dly indenite and unpr o mising m a teri a ls fo r a
scientic enquiry But in fac t they are neither indenite
n o r unp r o mi sing but give evidence t ha t is good and denite
so far as it goes They a re data which for t h e di stinct way
in which they severally den ote the c o nditi o n o f the tribe
they belong to will a ctually bea r comp a ris o n wi t h the
,

12

SCI ENC E

TH E

C U LT U R E

o r

'

t a tis t ici a n s retu rn s Th e fa c t i s t h a t a s t o n e a rr o w head

a c a rved c lu b
a n id l
a g ra v e m u n d w he re sl a ves a n d
pr o pe rt y h a v
e b ee n b u ried f r t h e u s e o f t h e de a d a n
o f a
a cc o u n t
S o rc e re r s rite s i n m a ki n g ra i n a t a b le o f
n ume ra ls t h e c o nj ug a t i o n o f a ve r b a re thi n g s which e a ch
t h e s t a te o f a pe o ple a s t o o n e p a rticul a r p o int
o f culture
a s t r uly a s t h e t a b ul a ted num b e rs o f de a ths
b y p o is o n a n d o f c he s ts o f t e a imp o r ted expre s s in a diffe r
e n t wa
y o t her p a r t i a l results o f t h e gener a l life o f a whole
c o mmu n ity
Tha t a wh o le n ati o n s h o uld h a ve a s peci a l d ress special
t o ols a n d we a p o n s s peci a l l a w s o f m a rri age a n d p ro perty
speci a l m o ra l a n d religi o us d o ct ri n e s is a rem a rk a ble fact
w hich we n o tice s o little bec a u s e w e h a ve lived a ll o u r lives
i n the mid s t o f it
It is with such ge n e ral qualities o f
o rg a nized b o dies o f men t h a t ethn o gr a phy h a s especially to
de a l Yet while gener alizi n g o n the culture o f a tribe or
n a t i o n an d setti n g aside the peculiarities o f the individuals
c o mp o sing it as unimp o rta nt to the m a in result we must
be c a reful not t o fo rget wha t makes up t his main result
The r e a re pe o ple s o intent o n the sep a rate life o f i n di
vi d u als that they cannot grasp a n o tio n o f the acti o n of a
community as a wh o le such an o bserver inc a pable of a
wide view o f s o ciety is aptly described i n the s ayi n g t ha t

he cannot see the fo rest for the trees

But on the o ther
h and the philos o pher may be so i n tent upon his general
l a ws o f s o ciety a s t o neglect the indi vidua l actors o f whom
t h a t s o ciety is m a de up a n d o f him i t may be said that
he c ann o t see the trees fo r the f o rest We know how a r ts
cust o ms an d ide a s are shaped a m o ng ourselves by the com
b i n e d a cti on s o f ma n y individu a ls o f which actio n s both
m o tive and effect o ften c o me quite distinctly wi t hin ou r
view The history of an inve n tio n an opinion a cerem o ny is
a hist o ry o f suggestion an d modicati on e n c o ur agement an d
o pposition pers o n a l g a in a n d p a rty prej udice and the indi
vid ua l s co n ce rned act each a ccording to his o wn motives
as determ i ned by his cha racter and c i rcu m st an c s Thus
s

D I ST RIBUTION AND DIFF US ION

13

s o metimes we wa t ch individu a ls a cting fo r their own ends

with little thought o f their e ffect on s o ciety a t la rge and
sometimes we h a ve to s t udy movements o f n a ti o nal life
as a whole where the individu a ls c o operating in them are
utterly bey o nd ou r o bserv a ti o n B ut seeing t ha t c o llective
social acti o n is the mere r esultant of many individu a l
i t is clear t ha t these two meth o ds o f enquiry if
a ctions
rightly followed must be absolutely co n sistent
In studying b o th t h e recurrence of special h a bits or ideas
in several districts and their p r evalence wi t hin each district
there come befo re us ever reiter a ted proofs o f regular caus a
tion producing t h e phenomena o f human l i fe and of laws
of maintenance and di ffusion a ccording to which these phe
n o m e n a settle into permanent standa r d conditi o ns o f society
But while giving full imp o rt
a t denite stages o f culture
ance to t h e evidence bea ring on these st a nd a rd conditi o ns
o f society
let us be c a reful to avoid a pitfa ll which ma y
entrap t h e unwary student O f course t h e o pinions a n d
habits bel o nging in c o mm o n t o m a sses of mankind are to
a gre a t extent the results of sound j udgment and practical
wisd o m But t o a g reat extent it is n o t so Th a t many
numerous societies o f me n sh o uld h a ve believed i n the
inuence o f the evil eye an d the existence o f a rma me n t
should have sacriced sl a ves an d goods t o the ghosts o f t h e
departed should h a ve handed d o wn traditions o f giants
slaying monsters an d men turning int o beasts all t his is
g r ound for holding that such ideas were indeed produced in
men s m inds by e fcient causes but it is not ground for
holding t ha t t h e rites in question are protable the beliefs
sound and the history authentic This may seem a t t h e
rst gl a nce a t r uism bu t in f a ct it is the denia l o f a fa llacy
which deeply a ffects the mi n ds o f all but a small c ritic a l
min o rity o f m a nkind Popul a rly wha t eve rybody s ays

m ust be t rue wha t everybody d o es must be right Q uod

ubique quod semper quod ab omnibus c re di t u m est h oc
est vere propri e q u e Oa t h oli c u m and s o forth There are
v a ri o us topics especially in history la w phil o s o phy an d
,

14

TH E

S C I EN C E

C U LT U R E

O F

the o l o gy whe re even the edu c a ted pe o ple we live a m ong

ca n h a rdly b e bro ugh t t o s e e t h a t t h e cause why me n d o
h o ld a n o pi n io n o r p ra c t i s e a cu s t o m i s by n o me a ns
nece s s a rily a re a s o n why t hey o ugh t t o do s o N o w c o llee
t i o n s o f e t h n o g ra phi c evide n ce b ri n ging s o prominently int o
view t h e a g reeme n t o f i mme n s e multitudes o f me n a s t o
b eliefs a n d us a ges a re peculi a rly li a ble
c e r t a in tra diti o n s
t o b e t hus imp ro perly u s ed in direct defence o f these insti
t u t io n s t hem s elves eve n o l d b a r b a ric n a ti o ns bei n g polled
t o m a i n t a i n thei r O pi n i o n s a g a i nst what a re c a lled modern
ide a s A s it h a s m o re than o nce happened t o myself t o
n d my c o llecti o ns o f t ra diti o ns a n d beliefs thus s e t up t o
p ro ve t heir o w n o bj ective truth without proper examination
o f the gr o u n ds o n which they we r e actually received I take
thi s o cca s i o n o f rem a rking th a t the same line of argument
will serve equ a lly well t o dem o nstrate by the stro n g an d
wide c o nsen t o f n a ti o ns th a t t h e earth is fl at a n d night
m a re the visit o f a demo n
It being shown t ha t the detail s of C ulture are capable of
be ing cl a ssied in a great number o f ethnog raphic groups of
a r t s beliefs cust o ms an d the rest t h e consideration comes
next how far the fa cts a rranged in these groups are produced
by ev olution f ro m on e another It need hardly be pointed
ou t that the g ro ups i n question though held together each
by a common character a re by no me a ns accurately dened
To t a ke up a g a in the n atur a l history illustr a tio n i t may be
s aid th a t t hey are species which tend to ru n widely into
v a rieties A nd whe n i t comes t o the question what r elatio n s
some o f these gr o ups be a r t o others i t is plai n that t h e
stude n t o f the h a bits o f m a nkin d has a g reat adv a nt age o ver
the s t ude n t o f t h e species o f pl ants and animals A m o ng
n a tu ralists it is an ope n questio n whether a theory o f
devel o pment f ro m species to species is a r ecord o f tr a nsi
tions which actu a lly to o k pl a ce or a mere ide a l scheme
se rvice a ble i n t h e cl a ssication o f species whose o rigin w a s
really independent But among eth n ogr a phers there is no
such questi o n as t o the p o ssibility o f species of implements
,

S TAG E S

OF

C U LTU R E

15

or habits or beliefs being developed one out o f another for

development in culture is recognized by ou r most familia r
kn o wledge Mech anica l inve n tion supplies apt ex a mples o f
t h e kind o f development which a ff ects civilization a t l a rge
In t h e history o f re arms the clumsy wheel l o ck in which
a notched steel wheel revolved by means o f a spring against
a piece o f pyrites till a sp a rk c a ugh t t h e priming led to the
invention o f the m o re service a ble i n t l o ck of which a few
still hang in t h e kitchens o f o u r farm h o uses for the boys
to shoo t sm a ll bi r ds wi t h at C hris t mas ; the i n t lock in
time passed by modica tion in t o the percussion lock which
is j ust now changing its ol d fashioned arrangement to be
ad a pted from muzzle l o ading t o breech loading
The
me di ee v
al astrolabe p a ssed in t o the quadrant now discarded
in i t s tur n by the seaman who uses the m o re delicate
sextant an d so i t is through the histo ry o f one a r t an d
inst rument a fter an o ther
Such examples of prog r ession
are kn o wn t o us as direct history but so thoroughly is t his
no t ion of development a t home in ou r minds t h a t by means
o f it we reconstruct lost history without scruple trusting t o
gene ra l knowledge o f t h e principles of human thought and
ac t ion a s a guide in putting the facts in t heir proper order
Whether chr o n icle speaks or is silent on the point no one
comp a ring a long bow an d a cross bow would d o ubt that
the cross b o w was a development a rising fr o m t h e simpler
instrument
So amo n g the re drills for igniting by
fricti o n i t seems clear on the f a ce o f the matter that t h e
drill w o rked by a c o rd or bow is a l a ter improvement on the
clumsier p rimitive instrument twi rled between the hands
Tha t instructive class of S pecimens which antiq u a ries
sometimes discover b ronze celts modelled o n t h e heavy
type of the s t one hatchet are scarcely explica ble except as
rst steps in t h e t ransiti o n from the S t one A ge t o the
Br on ze A ge t o be f o llowed soon by the next stage o f
p rogress in which i t is disc o vered th a t t h e new m a te rial is
suited t o a h a ndier a n d less w a steful p a tte rn A n d thus
in the o ther b ran ches o f o u r hist o ry the r e will c o me again
,

16

TH E

S C I ENC E

C U LT U R E

or

g a in in t o view s e ri e s o f fa ct s which may be c o n s is

t e n t ly a rra n ged a s h a vi n g f o ll o wed o n e a n o the r in a
a rt i c ul a r o rde r o f devel o pme n t b u t which will h a rdly be a r
p
b ing t urned r o u n d a n d m a de t o f o ll o w in reversed o rder
Such fo r i n s t a n c e a re t h e fa c t s 1 h a ve here br o ugh t f o rwa rd
in a c h a p t e r n t h e A r t f C o u n ti n g which tend t o p ro ve
t h a t a s t o t hi s p o i n t o f c ul t ure a t le a st
savage t ribes
re a ched t hei r p o si ti o n by le a rn i n g a n d n o t b y unle a rni n g
by elev a ti o n f ro m a l o we r r a the r than b y degrad a tion from
a h i ghe r s t a t e
A m o n g evide n ce a idi n g us t o t race the co urse which the
civil iz a ti o n o f t h e w o rld h as a ctually foll o wed is that g reat
cl a s s o f fa cts t o de n o te which I have f o und it convenien t

t o i n t ro duce the t e r m
su rviv a ls
These a re processes
customs O pini o n s and so f o rth which have been carried o n
by f o rce o f h a bit int o a new state o f society di fferent from
tha t i n w hich they h a d thei r o rigi n al home and they thus
rem a in a s pr oo fs a n d ex a mples o f an o lder condition o f cul
ture ou t o f which a newer has been evolved Thus I know
an o ld Somersetshi re woman wh o se hand loom dates from

the tim e befo re the i n t roducti on of the y i ng Shuttle

which new fangled applia n ce she has never even learnt t o
use and I h a ve see n her t h re w her shuttle fr o m ha n d to
ha n d i n t rue cl a ssic fashion ; this old woman is not a
century behind her times but she is a case o f surviva l
Such examples of t en lead us back t o the habi t s of hundreds
a n d eve n thousands o f ye a rs ago
The o r deal o f t h e Key
and Bible still in use is a survival ; the Midsummer bonre
is a survival ; the Breton pe a sants A ll Souls supper for
the S pi r its o f the dead is a survival The simple keeping
up o f a ncient habits is only on e part o f the transition
fr o m o ld in t o n ew and changi n g times
The se rious
busin es s O f a ncient s o ciety may be seen to sink into the
sport o f l a ter gene ra tions and i t s seri o us belief to linger
on i n n u r se ry f o lk lore while supe r seded habits o f o l d world
life may be mo di ed in t o n e w world forms still powerful for
good a n d evil S ometimes o l d th o ughts a n d p ractices will
a nd

OF C ULTURE

STAGES

17

afresh to the amazement o f a wo rld t ha t th ought

t hem long since dead o r dyi n g ; here surviv a l p a sses in t o
revival as has l a tely happened in s o rem a rkable a way i n
t h e history of mo dern spiritu a lism a subj ect full o f i n
s t ruc t ion from the ethnog r a phe r s p o in t of view The study
of the principles o f su rviv a l h as indeed no small pr a ctic a l
importance for mos t of wha t we call superstition is i n
cluded wi t hin survival a n d in t his w a y lies open to the att ack
I n signi
o f its deadliest enemy a reason a ble expla n a ti o n
c a n t moreover as multitudes o f the facts o f survival a re
in themselves thei r study is so e ffective for t racing t h e
course o f t h e histo ric al devel o pme n t t hrough which a lone it
is p o ssible to un derstand their me a ning that i t becomes
a vit a l p o int o f ethnographic research t o gain the clea rest
p o ssible insigh t in t o their n ature This import a nce must
j ustify t h e det a il here devoted t o a n exami n ati o n o f survival
popular sayings cus t oms
o n the evidence o f such games
superstiti o ns a n d t h e like as may serve well t o bri n g in t o
view the manner o f its o peration
Pr o gress degradation surviv a l revival modication are
all modes o f t h e connexion t ha t binds together the complex
network of civiliz a ti o n
It needs but a glance in t o t h e
trivi a l details of o u r o w n daily life t o set us thinking h ow
fa r we are really its o rigin a tors and h o w far b u t the
tran smitters and modiers o f t h e results of long pas t ages
L o oking round the rooms we live in we may try he r e how
fa r he w h o o n ly knows his o w n time can be capable o f

righ t ly c o mp rehendi n g even that He r e is the ho n eysuckle

o f A ssyria the r e t h e e u r de lis o f A n j o u a c o rnice wi t h a
G reek b o rder r uns r ound t h e ceiling the style o f L ouis X I V
and its parent the R e n a issance share the l oo kin g gl a ss
between them
T ransformed shifted or mutilated such
elements of ar t still car ry t heir history pl a inly st a mped
upo n them ; an d if the history yet fa r the r behind is less e a sy
t o read we a re n o t t o s a y t ha t bec a use we canno t cle a rly
discern i t there is theref o re no hist o ry the r e It is t hus
even wi t h the fashion o f the clothes men we a r
The

b urst

ou t

T II E S C I E N C E

18

C U LT U R E

o r

idic ul o us li t t le t a il s o f t h e G e rm a n p o s tili o n s coa t S how

e s h o w t hey c a me t o dwi n dle t o such a bsurd
O f t hemsel v
ru d ime n t s : b u t t h e E nglis h c le rg y i n a n s b a n d s n o l o n ge r
s o c o n vey t he i r hi s t o ry t
t h e e y e a n d l o o k u n a c c o u n t a ble
e n o u g h t ill n e h a s s e e n t h e i n t e rm e d i a t e sta ge s th ro ugh
w hi c h t h e v c a me d w n f r m t h e m o re s ervice a b le wide
a n d which
c o ll a r s
s u c h a s Mil t o n we a rs i n h is p o rt ra i t

g a ve t hei r n a me t t h e b a n d b o x t h e y used t o b e kept

s h o wi n g
h ow o n e
in
I n fa c t
t h e b o o k s o f c o s tume
g a rme n t g ro w o r sh ra n k by g ra du a l st ages a n d p a ssed int o
a n o t he r ill u s t ra t e w ith mu c h f o rce a n d clearness the nature
o f the ch a n ge a n d g ro wth revival and decay which go o n
f ro m ye a r t o ye a r in m o re important matte rs O f life In
b o o k s a g a i n w e s e e e a ch writer n o t for and by himself but
occupyi ng h i s pr o pe r pl a ce in histo ry ; we look through
e a ch phil o s o phe r m a them a tician ch emist poet int o t h e
b a ckg ro u n d o f h is educ a ti on th ro ugh L eib n itz in t o D e s
c a r t e s th rough D a lt o n i n t o P r iestley th r ough Milt o n into
H o me r Th e s t udy o f l a ngu age h a s pe rh a ps d on e m o re
th a n a n y o t her in removi n g from o u r view o f hum a n th o ught
a n d a c t i o n the ide a s o f chance and arbitrary invention and
i n subs t itu t i n g fo r them a theo ry o f development by the
of
in dividual men t hrough pr o cesses ever
c o o perat i on
re as o n a ble a n d intelligible where the facts are fully known
R udimenta ry as the scien ce o f culture still is the symptoms
a re becoming very str o ng t h a t e v
e n what seem its most
sp o nt aneous a n d motiveless phenomen a will n evertheless
be sh o wn t o c o me within the range of dis t inc t cause and
effect a s ce rt a i n ly as the facts o f mechanics Wh a t w o uld
b e popul a rly t hou g h t m o re i n de n ite an d uncontrolled than
the p r o ducts o f the imag i n a tion in myths a n d fa bles ? Y et
a n y system a tic i n vest i g a tion o f myth o l ogy on t h e b a sis o f
a w ide c o llectio n o f ev i dence will S how plainly en o ugh in
such eff o rts o f fa ncy at once a developme n t fr o m st age to
s t age a n d a p ro ductio n o f unif o rmity o f result f ro m uni
f o rm i ty o f c a use Here as elsewhe r e c a useless spo n tan eity
is see n t o recede fa rther an d f a r the r i n t o shelte r within the
r

'

DEV ELO P M ENT

19

dark precincts of igno r ance ; like chance t ha t still holds its

place among the vulgar a s a re a l c a use o f eve n ts o t herwise
unaccountable while to educated men i t h a s long con
s c i ou s l y mea n t n o thi n g
but this ign o rance itself
It is
o nly when men fail t o see the l i ne o f connexio n in events
th a t they ar e pro n e t o fa ll upo n the n o tio n s o f a rbitra r y
impulses ca useless fre a ks chance and nonsense and i n
denite un a ccount a bility
If childish games purp o seless
customs a bsurd superstiti o ns are se t down as spo n ta n eous
bec a use no on e can s ay exactly h o w they came t o be the
asserti o n m ay remin d us of t h e like e ffect t ha t the ecce n t r ic
habits o f the wild rice
plant h a d on the philosophy o f a
R ed Indian t ribe otherwise disposed t o see in t h e ha r mony
o f n a ture t h e e ffects of o n e controlling pe r sonal will
The
said these Sioux theologi an s made a ll
G rea t Spi r it
t hings except the wild rice ; but the wild rice came by
chance

Man said Wilhelm v

Humb o ldt ever connects
on
on from wha t lies a t hand ( der Mensch k n i i pft immer a n
V o rh a ndenes
The n o tio n o f the continuity of civili
z a t i on c o n t a ined in this m a xim is n o b a rren philos o phic
p ri n ciple but is a t once m a de practical by the considera t ion
th a t they who wish t o unders t and thei r o w n lives ought to
know the stages through which t heir o pi n ions and habits
h a ve become wha t they are A uguste C omte scarcely over
s t a t ed t h e necessity of this study o f devel o pment when he
decl a red a t the beginni n g of his P o sitive Phil o s o phy t ha t

no concepti o n c an be underst o od except thr o ugh its

history and his phr a se will bear extension t o culture at
la rge To expect t o look mode r n life in the fa ce and com
prehend i t by mere inspection is a philos o phy whose weak
ness c an e a sily be tested Im agine a n y o n e expl a ining t h e

trivi a l s aying a little bird t o ld me With o ut knowing of

th e o ld belief in t h e language o f birds and be a sts t o which
D r B a sent in the i n t r o duction t o th e N o rse T a les so
re a s o n a bly t ra ces its o rigin A ttempts t o expl a i n by the
ligh t o f r eason thi n gs which want the ligh t o f hist o ry t o
,

T II E

30
'

s C I EN C E

C U LT U R E

or

sh o w t hei r me a n i n g ma y be i n s t a n c ed f ro m Bl ack s tone s

C o mme n t a ri e s
l o Bl a c k s t o n e s mi n d the ve ry r i ght o f the
c o mm o n er t o t u rn h is b e a s t
u t t o g ra ze o n t h e c o mm o n

ti n d i t s rigi n a ml ex pl a n a t i o n i n t h e feud a l s y s tem

F or
w he n l o rd s o f m a n o rs g ra n ted o u t p a rcel s o f l a n d t o te n a nt s
fo r s e n ie e s ei t he r d o n e o r t o b e d o n e these te n a n ts c o uld
n o t pl o u gh o r m a n u re t h e l a n d wi th ut b ea s ts ; these be a sts
c o uld n o t b e s u s t a i n ed with o u t p a stu re ; a n d p a stu re c o uld
n o t h e h a d b u t i n t h e l o rd s w a s te s a n d o n t h e unincl o sed
f a ll o w g ro u n d s o f themselve s a n d the o ther ten a n ts The
la w t herefo re a n n exed thi s righ t o f c o mm o n as i n sep a r a bly
i n ci d e n t t o t h e g ra n t o f t h e l a nds ; a n d this w a s the original
o f c o mm o n a ppe n d a n t
N o w though the r e is nothi n g
i rra t i o n a l i n this expl a n a ti o n it does n o t agree a t all with
t h e Teu t o nic l a nd l a w which preva i led in E ngl a nd long
bef o re the N o rm a n C o nquest and o f which the r emains have
never wh o lly dis a ppe a red In t h e o ld vill a ge community
even t h e a ra ble l a nd lyi n g i n the gre a t comm o n elds
w hich ma y still be t raced in o u r country had n o t yet passed
i n t o sep a r a te pr o pe rty w h ile the p a stur a ge in the fallows
a n d s tubbles a n d o n t h e waste belo n ged t o the householders
i n c o mm o n
Since th o se days the ch a nge fr o m communal
t o i n dividu a l o wnership has mostly tr a nsformed this old
w o rld system but the righ t which the pe a s a nt enj oys o f
p a stu ri n g his ca t t le o n t h e common still remains n o t as
a c o ncessi o n t o feud a l ten a nts
b u t as possessed by t h e
comm one rs before the lord eve r claimed the o wne rship o f
t h e w a ste
I t is a lw a ys u n safe t o det a ch a custom from its
hold o n p ast events t rea t ing i t as an isola t ed fa ct t o be
simply d i sp o sed o f by some pl a usible explan a tion
I n c a rryi n g on the g re a t task o f r a tio n al ethnography
t h e i n vestiga t io n o f t h e c a uses which h a ve pr o duced t h e

'

'

B l k t n e C mm n t i es on th e L ws o f E n gl n d b k
ch
3
Th
b ov e x m p l r p l c t h a t g i v en in fo m er e di t i on s A n t h e r
x m p l m y b f u n d i n h i x pl n t i on o f t h e o i gi n o f d d n d b k
ch
8 a s d e s i gn d i n t h b l i n d d y o f p o p e y as n x p i t i on f
the
soul s of
h s w er s n t c h e d away b y s udd n d e t h ; s e b l ow p 2 8 7
[N te to 3 d d ]
1

ac

s o

ar

es

s e

suc

eo

or

D E V EL OPM ENT

21

phenomena of culture and of the laws t o which t hey a re

subordin a te i t is desirable t o wo r k o u t as system a tically
as possible a scheme of evolution o f t his culture along its
many lines I n the f o ll o wi n g chapter o n the D evel o pment
o f C ulture
an attemp t is m a de to sketch a theoretical
course of civilization among mankin d such a s a ppe a rs on
the whole most accordant wi t h the evidence By com
p a r i ng the va r ious s t ages o f civilization among r a ces known
t o history with the aid of a r ch aeologic a l inference from the
rem a ins of prehistoric tribes it seems possible t o j udge in
a rough way of an early gener a l c o ndition o f man which
from o u r point o f view is t o be regarded a s a primitive con
di t ion whatever yet earlier s t a t e may in reality have lain
behind it
This hypothetical primitive condition co r re
spends in a considerable degree t o t ha t o f modern savage
t ribes who in S pite o f their di fference a n d dis t ance h a ve
in common cert a in elemen ts o f civiliz a ti o n which seem
If
r emai n s of an early s t a t e o f the hum a n race a t l a rge
this hypothesis be t rue then notwithstanding the con
t i n u al interference o f degener a tion the main tendency of
culture from prim aeval up t o modern times has been from
s a v agery t owards civilization O n the pr o blem of this r ela
t ion of sav a ge t o civilized li fe a lmost every o n e o f t h e
thous a nds o f fa cts discussed in the succee ding chapters has
its di rect beari n g Survival in C ulture placi ng all along
t h e course o f a dvan cing civil i zation way marks full of mean
ing t o those who can decipher their signs even n e w sets up
in our midst prim aeval mo n uments o f barbaric t hough t and
life Its investigation tells strongly in fav o ur of the vie w
t ha t t h e E uropea n may nd a mo n g the G reenland e rs o r
Maoris many a trait for rec o nstructing t h e picture o f his
o w n primitive a n cest o rs
N ext comes th e pr o b lem o f the
O rigin of L a n guage
O bscure a s m a ny p a rts of t his
problem s t ill rem a i n its clearer p o sitio n s lie o pe n t o the
investigati o n whe t her speech t ook its origin a m on g ma n
kin d in t h e savage state and the result o f t h e enqui ry is
that consistently wi t h all known evidence this ma y have
,

T II E S C I E N C E

or

C U LT U RE

F ro m t h e ex a min a ti o n o f the A rt o f C o unt

i n g a fa r m o re de fi n ite c o n s e q ue n c e i s s h o w n
I t ma y b e
a s s e rt e d
a t n o t o n ly i s t hi s imp o rt a nt art
c o n ti d e n t l
t
h
y
fo und i n a rudime n t a ry s t a te a mo n g s a v age t ri b e s b u t th a t
s a tisfa c t o ry evide n ce p ro ve s nume ra ti o n t o h a ve b een de
ve lo pe d by r a ti o n al i n ve n ti o n f ro m thi s lo w sta ge up to th a t
i n w hich w e o ur s elve s p o ssess i t
The exami n a tion o f
Myth o l o gy c o n t a ined i n the r s t volume is fo r the most
p a rt m a de fr o m a s peci a l poi n t o f view o n evidence col
le c t e d fo r a speci a l pu r p o se th a t o f tr a cing the rel a ti o n
betwee n t h e myth s o f sav a ge tribes and their analogues
The issue o f such enquiry
a m o ng mo r e civilized n ations
goes fa r t o pr o ve that the earliest myth maker arose and
o urished a m o n g savage h o rdes setting on foot an art
which his m o re cultu red successors would carry o n till its
results c a me t o b e f o ssilized in superstitio n mistaken for
hist o ry S haped and d raped in poetry o r cas t aside as lying
folly
N o where perh a ps a re broad views of his t orical develop
ment m o re needed than in the study o f religion N o t w i t h
stan di ng all t ha t has been writte n to make the world
the popular ideas of
a cquainted with the lower the o l ogies
thei r place in hist o ry and their relat ion to the faiths o f
higher n a tio n s are still of t h e medi aeval type It is wonder
ful t o co n trast s o me missionary j o urnals with Max M uller s
E ss ays a n d t o set the un a ppreci a ting hatred and r idicule
th a t is l a vished by n a rrow hostile z e a l o n B r a hmanism
Buddhism Z oroas t rism beside the c a tholic symp a thy wi t h
which deep a n d wide kn o wledge can survey t h e se ancien t
religi o us consciousness ; nor
a n d n o ble ph a ses o f m a n s
b ecause t h e religions o f s a v age t r ibes may be rude and
primitive comp a red with the gre a t A si a tic systems do they
lie t o o l ow for i nterest and even for respect The question
re a lly lies between u n de r st a nding and misunderstanding
them
F ew who will give their minds t o m aster the
gene r al principles of savage religion will ever again think
it ridicul o us o r the knowledge o f i t superuous t o th e res t
b een the ease

DEVELOP M ENT

23

mankind F a r f r om i t s beliefs an d prac t ices be i ng a

rubbish heap o f miscell a n eous folly they a re c o nsistent
and logic a l in so high a degree a s t o begin a s soon as even
r o ughly cl a ssied t o displ ay the principles o f the i r f o r m a
tion and developme n t ; and these p rinciples pr o ve t o be
essentially r a ti o nal th o ugh w o rking in a ment a l condition
o f intense and inveter a te ignorance
It is wi t h a sen se o f
a ttempti n g an investigati o n which bears very closely on the
curren t theology o f ou r o w n d ay that I have set myself to
examine system a tically among the lowe r r a ces the deve
lopme n t of A nimism ; t ha t is t o s a y the doc t rine o f souls
and other spiritual beings in general More t h an half of
the present w ork is occupied wi t h a mass o f evidence from
all regions of the world displaying the nature and meaning
o f this gre a t element o f the Phil o s o phy of R eligion
and
tracing its t ransmission exp a nsi o n res t ric t ion mo di ca
t ion along the cou rse of hist o ry int o the mids t o f o u r o wn
modern thought N or are the questions of small practica l
momen t which have to be raised in a similar a ttempt to
trace the development of certain prominent B i t e s and C ere
monies customs so full o f ins t ruc t ion as to the inmos t
powers o f religion whose ou t ward expression and practical
result they are
In these investigations however made rather from an
ethnographic t han a the o l o gical p o in t o f V iew there has
seemed little need o f e n te ring in t o di r ect controversial
argument which indeed I have t aken p a ins to av o id a s far
as p o ssible The connexi o n which runs through religion
fr o m its rudest forms up t o the st a tus of an enlightened
C hristi a nity ma y b e c o nve n ie n tly tre a ted o f wi t h li t t le
recourse t o dogma t ic theology The rites o f s a crice and
pu ricati o n may be studied in thei r stages of developme n t
without entering in t o questi o ns o f their a uthority a n d v a lue
nor does an examina t ion o f t h e successive ph a ses of t h e
worl d s belief i n a futu re life demand a discussion o f the
arguments a dduced for or ag a inst the doc t rine itself The
ethnographic results ma y then be left as m a teri a ls fo r
of

2
1

T II E S C I E N C E

c u LT U R E

or

pro fe s sed t he o l o gi a n s a n d i t will n o t pe rh a p s b e l o ng befo re

evide n c e s f ra ugh t w ith me a n i n g s h a ll t a ke i t s legitim a te
pl ac e T fa ll b a c k o n c e a g a i n o n t h e a n a l o gy o f natur a l
his t o ry t h e t ime ma y s o o n c o me w he n i t will be th o ugh t as
un re a s o n a b le f r a s c ie n t i li c s tude n t o f the o l o gy n o t t o h a ve
a c o m pe t en t a c q u a i n t a n ce w i t h t h e p ri n ciples o f the reli
gi o n s o f t h e l o we r ra ces a s fo r a physiol ogist t o lo o k with
t h e c o n t empt o f p a s t ce n turies o n evide n ce de rived from
t h e l o we r fo rm s o f life d eemi n g the structu re o f me re
i n ve rte b ra te c reatures matter u n worthy o f his philosophic
s tudy
N o t me rely a s a m a tte r o f curi o us re s earch but as an i m
p o rt a n t p ra cti c a l guide t o t h e underst a nding o f the prese n t
the investigati o n int o the
a n d t h e s h a pi n g o f the future
o rigin a n d e a rly devel o pment O f civiliz a tion must be pushed
E ve ry p o ssible a ve n ue o f k n o wledge must be
o n ze a l o usly
expl o red eve ry d o o r t ried t o see if i t is o pen N o kind o f
evide n ce n eed be left u n t ouched on the score of remoteness
o f min uteness o r triviality
The tendency
or c o mplexity
o f m o dern e n quiry is m o re and more toward the conclusion
th a t if la w is a nywhere i t is everywhere To despair o f
what a c o nscientious c o llecti o n and study of facts may lead
t o an d t o decla r e any problem insoluble because di fcul t
a n d fa r o ff is distinctly t o be o n the wro ng side in science ;
a n d he w h o will choose a h o peless t ask may set himself t o
d i sc ove r the l i mits o f disc o very O ne remembers C omte
st a r ti n g in his a cc ou n t o f astr o nomy with a rem a rk o n the
necess a ry limit a ti o n o f o u r kn o wledge o f the s t ars : we c on
e h e tells us the possibility o f determining their f o r m
ce i v
di st an ce size a n d m o vement whilst we should never by
a n y meth o d be a ble t o study their chemic a l c o mpositio n
thei r mine ralogic a l structure & c
H a d t h e phil o sopher
lived t o see the a pplic a ti o n of spectrum a n alysis t o t his
ve ry p ro b lem his p ro cl a mati o n o f t h e dispiriting doctrin e o f
n ecess a r y i g n o r a n ce w o uld perhaps have been recan t ed in
f av o u r o f a m o re h o peful view A nd i t seems t o be with
t h e philos o ph y o f rem o te h u man life somewhat as with the
,

PH I LO S OPHY

OF

PRI

M ZE V A L H I S T O R Y

25

study of the nature of the celestial bodies The pr o cesses

to be made out in the e a rly st ages o f o u r mental ev o lution
li e distant f r om us in t ime as the st a rs lie distant fr o m us
in space b u t the laws o f the universe are not limited wi t h
the direct observati o n o f our senses There is vast m a terial
t o be used in our enquiry ; many workers are now busied
in bri n ging this material into shape though little may
have yet been done in prepo r tion to w h a t remains t o do ;
and already i t seems n o t t oo much t o say that the vague
ou t lines o f a philosophy of prim aeval history are beginning
t o come wi t h in o u r V iew
.

C H A P TER

T H E D EV ELOP M ENT

II

CULTURE

or

u l t u re i n du s t ri al i n t ell c t u a l p ol i t i c l m o ra l D ev el o pm en t
o f c u l t u re i n g re a t m e as u re c rre p o n d s wi t h t ra n s i t i on fro m s a v a g e
t h ro u g h b a rb a ri c t o c i v i l i z e d l i foP o g res s i o n t h e ory D e g e n e ra t i o n
D e v l o p m e n t t h e ory i nc l ud e s b o t h t h e o ne as p ri m ary t h e
t h o ry
o t h e r a s s e c o n d a ry H i s t ori c a l a n d t radi t i on al e v id e n c e n o t a v a i l a b l e
as to l o w s t a g e s o f c u l t u re H i s t o ri c a l e v id en c e a s t o p r i n c i p l e s o f

e
n
c
r
a
t
on
E th n l ogi cal ev id e n c e a s t o ri se a n d f ll i n c u l t u re
i
c
fro m c om p ri o n o f d i tfere n t l e v e l s o f c u l t u re i n b ra n c h e s o f t h e
s a m e ra c e E x t en t o f h i s t o ri c lly rec o rd e d a n t i q ui t y o f c i v i l i z a t i on
P re h i s t o ri c A rc h aeo l ogy e x t en d s t h e a n t i q ui t y o f man in l ow s t ag es
of
S to ne Ag e c o rrob ora t ed by m e ga l i t h i c
c i v i l i z a t i on a w s
of
s t ru c t ur e s
l a k e dw e ll i n g s sh et ea ps b u ri a l p l ac es & c prov e
ori gi n a l l o w c u l t u re t h ro u g h o u t t h e
w orl d S t ag es o f P rog ress i v e
D eve l op m en t i n i ndu st ri a l a rt s

S ta g es

of

IN

tak i ng up the problem o f the development of culture as

a rst proceeding is to
a branch o f ethnological resea r ch
obtain a means of measureme n t Seeking something like a
denite line along which t o reckon pr ogression and retro
a pp a re n tly nd it best in
we
may
re s s i o n in civili zation
g
the classic a ti o n o f re a l t ribes and n a tions pas t and present
C iviliz a tion actually existing among mankind in different
g rades we a re en abled to estimate an d compare it by positive
ex a mples The educated world of E ur o pe a n d A merica
practically settles a standard by simply placing its own
n a tio n s a t on e end of the social series an d savage tribes at
the other a rr a nging the rest o f mankind between these limi t s
acc o rdi ng as they cor respo n d m o re closely t o s a vage or t o
cultured life
The principal criteria o f cl a ssica tion are
t h e absence or presence high or low developmen t of the
i ndustrial a rts especially metal worki ng manufacture of
,

26

SAVAGE

TO C I V I L IZ ED STATE

27

implements and vessels agriculture architecture

the
extent of scien tic knowledge the d e n i t en e ss of m or a l
p rinciples the condition of religious belief a n d ceremony
the degree of social and politic a l organizatio n and so fo r th
Thus on the denite basis o f compared fac t s ethnographers
are able to set up a t least a rough scale of civilizati o n F ew
would dispute that the following races are arranged rightly
in order o f culture zA ustralian Tahi t ian A ztec C hinese
Italian By treating the development of civilization on this
plain ethnographic basis many di f culties may be avoided
which have embarrassed i t s discussion This may be seen
by a glance at the relation whic h t heoretical principles o f
C ivili zation bear t o t h e transitions t o be observed as matter
of fact between the extremes of savage and cultured life
F rom an ideal poi n t o f V iew civilization may be looked
upon as the general improvement o f mankind by higher
organization o f t h e individual and of society to the end of
promot i ng a t once man s goodness power and happiness
This theoretical civilization does in no small measure cor
respond with actual civilization as t raced by comparing
savagery wi t h barbarism and barbarism with modern edu
S o far as we take in t o account only materi al
c a t e d li fe
and intellectual culture t his is especially true A cquaint
ance wi t h the physical laws of the world and the aecom
panying power of adapting nature t o man s own ends are
on the w h ole lowes t among sav a ges mean among barba
rians and highest among modern educated nations Thus
a transition from the savage s t a t e t o ou r own would be
practically t ha t very pr o gress of art an d knowledge which
is one main element in t h e development of culture
But even th o se s t uden t s who hold most str o ngly t ha t t h e
general course o f civiliz a tion as measured along the sca le
o f r a ces from s a v a ges to ourselves is p r ogress towards the
benet of mankind must admit m a ny and manifold ex
Industrial and intellectual culture by no me a ns
ce pt i on s
a dvances uniformly in all i t s branches and in fact excellence
in various of i t s details i s often ob t ained under condi t ions
,

'

T II E D EV E LO PM EN T O F C U LT U R E

28

which keep b ac k c ul tu re a s a wh o le I t i s true th a t the s e

ex c epti o n s s eld o m s w amp t h e ge n e ra l r u le ; a n d t h e E n gli s h
m a n a dmi t ti n g t h a t he d e s n t c lim b t ree s like the wild
A u s t ra li a n n r t ra c k g a me like t h e s a v a ge o f t h e l ra z i l ia n
fo re s t n o r c o mpete w i t h t h e a n c ie n t E tru s c a n a n d the
m o dern C hi n e s e in d el i c a c y o f g o ld s mith s w o rk a n d iv o ry
c a rvi n g n o r re a ch the cl a ssic G reek level o f or a to ry an d
s c ulp t u re ma y y e t c l a im fo r him s elf a gener a l co n dition
B u t the re a ctu a lly h a ve t o be
e an
a bo v
y o f the s e ra ce s
t a ken i n t o a cc o u n t devel o pment s o f science a n d art which
tend directly ag ai n st cultu re To h a ve lear n t t o give p o ison
sec retly a n d e ffectu a lly to have raised a corrupt lite ra ture
t o pestilen t pe rfecti o n
t o have organized a successful
s c h e me t o a rrest f ree enquiry and pre s c ri b e free expression
a re w o rks o f kn o wledge a n d skill whose progress t oward
their g oa l h a s h a rdly conduced t o the gene ral good Thus
even in comp a ri n g mental and a rtistic culture am o ng several
peoples the b a lance o f good an d ill is n o t quite e a sy to
strike
If n o t only knowledge and art but at the same time
mo ral a n d political excellence be t a ken in t o conside r ation
it becomes yet harder to reckon on an ideal sca le the
a dvance o r decline from st a ge t o stage of culture
In fac t
a combined in tellectual an d moral meas ure of human con
diti o n is an inst rument which no student has as yet learnt
properly to h andle E ven gran t ing t ha t intellectual moral
and political life may on a br oa d V iew be seen t o progress
together it is obvi o us that they are far from adva n cing wi t h
equ a l steps It may be t a ken as m a n s rule of duty in the
w o rld t ha t he sh a l l strive t o kn o w as well as he c a n n d
But the p a rti n g
o u t a n d t o do as well as he kn o ws h o w
a s u nde r o f these t w o great pr inciples
t ha t sep a r a ti o n o f
intelligence f rom virtue which a cc o unts for so much of the
wrong doing o f mankind is c o ntinually seen t o happen in
the great movements o f civiliz a ti o n A s one conspicuous
instance of what all history st a nds t o prove if we study
the early ages o f C hristianity we may see men with minds
.

'

R I S E AN D D EC L I N E

29

pervaded by the new religio n o f duty h o liness and love

yet a t the same time a ctu a lly fa lling a w a y in i n tellectu a l
life thus a t once vig o r o usly grasping on e half o f civiliz a t i on
and con t emp t uously cas t ing o ff the othe r Whether i n high
r a n ges o r in low o f human life it ma y b e seen t ha t advan ce
o f culture seldom results at once in unmixed g o od
C ou rage
honesty gene r osity a re virtues which may suffer a t least
for a time by the devel o pment o f a sense o f v a lue o f life
and pr o perty The s a v a ge wh o adop t s s o methin g o f f o reign
civilizati o n too often loses his ruder virtues without gaining
an equiv a lent The white invader or colonis t t hough re pre
se n ting o n t h e whole a higher moral st a ndard t han the
savage he improves o r destroys ofte n represents his st a n dard
very ill and a t best can h a rdly claim to substitute a life
stronger nobler a n d purer a t every poin t t han that which
he supersedes The onward movement from b a rb a rism has
dropped behi n d it more than on e quality o f ba rb a ric char
acter which cultured modern men l oo k back o n wi t h reg r et
and will even strive to regain by futile attempts t o stop the
course of history and t o restore t h e pas t in the midst o f the
present S o it is wi t h social institutions The slavery
rec ognised by sav age and barbarous races is preferable in
kind t o t ha t whic h existed for cen t uries in late E uropean
c o lonies The relation of t h e sexes among many savage
tribes is more he a lthy t han among the richer classes o f the
Mohammedan w o rld A s a sup r eme authority of g o vern
men t t h e s a vage councils o f chiefs a n d elders compare
favourably wi t h t h e unbridled desp o tism unde r which so
many cultured races h a ve gr oa ned The C reek Indians
asked concerning their religi o n replied t ha t whe re a gree

ment was not t o be had it was best t o let every man

paddle his ca n o e his ow n way and after long ages of t h e e
logical s t rife an d persecutio n the modern worl d seems
coming t o think these sav a ges n o t far wrong
A m o ng accoun t s o f savage life i t is n o t indeed u n c om
m o n t o nd details o f admirable moral and social excelle n ce
To t a ke on e p r o mi n e n t ins t ance L ieut Bruij n K o ps and
,

T II E D E V E L O P M E N T O F C U L T U R E

30

M r Wa ll a ce h a ve de s cribed

m o ng t h e rude P a pu a ns o f
t h e E a s t er n A rc hi pel a g o a h a bitu a l tru th fulne s s rightf u l
nes s a n d k i mlli n e s s w hich i t w o uld b e h a rd t o m a tch i n
t h e ge n e ra l m o r a l life o f l e rs i a o r Indi a t o s ay n o thing o f
1
u ma y a c ivilized E l l l O nu l l d i s tri c t
Such
ri b es m a
c
oun t
t
l
y

as th e
b l a mele s s E t hi o pi a n s o f t h e m o de rn w o rld a n d
f ro m t he m a n imp o r t a n t le s s o n ma y b e lea rn t E th n e
g ra ph e rs w h o s e e k in m o de rn s a v a ge s types o f the rem o tely
a n cie n t hum a n r a c e a t l a rge a re b o und by such ex a mples
t o c o n s ide r the rude life o f p ri mze v
a l m a n u n de r f a vour a b le
c o ndi t i o n s t o h a ve b ee n in i t s measure a g o o d a n d h a ppy
life O n the o t her h a nd the pictu res d rawn by s o me
tr a velle rs o f s a v a ge ry as a kind o f paradisiacal state may be
t a ken t o o exclusively fr o m the bright side It is remarked
as t o t he s e ve ry P a pu a ns t ha t E uropeans whose intercourse
wi t h t hem h as bee n h o stile become so impressed with the
w ild b e a st like cunning o f their a tt a cks as hardly t o believe
i n thei r h a ving feelings in common with civilized men
O ur
P o l a r expl o rers m ay well speak in kin dly te r ms o f t h e
i n dustry the h o nesty the cheerful considerate politen ess
o f the E squimaux ; but it must be remembered th a t t hese
rude pe o ple a re on their best behaviour with foreigners a n d
t ha t thei r cha racter is apt to be foul an d b rutal where they
h a ve nothin g t o expect or fear The C a ribs are described
as a chee rf u l modest courteous race and so honest am ong
themselves that if t hey missed a n ythin g o u t o f a house they

s a id quite n a turally There h as been a C h ristian here

Y et the malignant ferocity wi t h which thes e estimable people
t o rtu r ed thei r p risoners of w a r wi t h knife an d re brand
a n d red pepper and then cooked and a t e them in solemn
deb a uch gave f ai r r eason for the name of C arib ( C a n n ibal )
t o b ecome the gene r ic n a me o f m an eaters in E uropean
2
l a n guages S o when we re a d descriptions of the hospit ality
th e gentleness the br ave ry the deep religious feelin g o f t h e
.

G W E l
p 7 9 ; A R Wa ll
R h f t I l es A n t ill pp 4 00 4 80
.

oc

ar

e or

P a p u a n s

es,

a ce ,

a st ern

A rc h i p e l a g o

RI S E A N D D E C L I N E

31

N o r th A merican Indians we admit thei r cl a ims

to

ou r

sincere admir a ti o n ; but we must n ot forget th a t they were

hospit a ble lite r ally t o a fault t ha t their gentleness would
pass wi t h a fl a sh o f anger in t o frenzy t ha t their bravery
w a s st a ined with cruel and tre a cherous malignity th a t their
religi o n expressed itself in a bsurd belief and useless cere
mon y The ideal s a v age o f the 1 8 th centu ry ma y be held
up a s a living rep r oof t o V ici o us and friv o lous L o nd o n ; but
in sobe r f a ct a L ondoner wh o sh o uld a ttempt t o le a d the
a t r ocious life which the real savage m ay lead with impunity
and even respect would be a c rimin a l only allowed t o foll o w
his savage models during his short in terv a ls ou t of gaol
Savage moral standards are real enough but they are far
looser and weaker t han ou rs We may I think apply t h e
often repeated comp a rison of sav ages t o children as fai rly
t o their moral as t o t heir intellectu a l condition
The be t t er
s a vage s o cial life seems in but unst a ble equilibrium liable
t o be easily upset by a touch of distress temptation o r
V iolence a n d then it becomes the worse savage life which
we know by so many dism a l and hide o us examples A lto
gether it may be admitted t ha t some rude tribes lead a life
t o be envied by some barbarous races and even by the
outca sts o f higher nations But t ha t any known savage
tribe would not be improved by j udicious civilization is a
pr o position which n o moralist would dare t o m a ke ; while
the general t enour of t h e evidence goes far t o j ustify the
V iew t ha t o n the whole the civilized man is not only wiser
and more ca pable t han the savage b u t also be t t er and
h a ppier and t ha t t h e b a rb a ri a n stands be t ween
It migh t perhaps seem pr acticable t o compare t h e whole
average of the civiliz a ti o n of tw o peoples o r of the same
pe o ple in di fferent ages by recko n i n g each item by item
t o a so r t of sum t o t a l a n d s t riking a balance between them
much a s an a pp ra ise r compares t h e value o f t w o st o cks o f
me r ch a ndise di ff er a s they may b o th in quantity and
qu a lity But the few rema r ks here ma de will h a ve shown
h o w l oo se must be the w o rki n g ou t o f these rough and ready
,

TH E D EV ELO P M ENT

32

or

C U LT U R E

estim a te s o f c ultu re I n fa c t mu c h o f t h e l a b o u r s pent in

investig a ting t h e p ro gre s s a n d decli n e o f c iviliz a ti o n h as
b ee n I ni s spent i n p rem a tu re a ttempts t o t re a t th a t a s a
wh o le w hich i s a s yet o n ly s u s c epti ble o f d ivided s tudy
The prese n t c o mp a ra t ively n a rro w a rgume n t 0 11 t h e devel o p
men t o f cultu re a t a n y ra t e a v o id s thi s g re a te s t pe rplexi ty
I t t a ke s c og n iz a nce p ri n cip a lly o f k n o wledge a rt a n d
cu s t o m a nd i n deed o n ly ve ry p a rti al c o g n iz a nce within
thi s eld t h e v a s t r a n ge o f phy s ical p o litic a l s o ci a l a n d
ethica l c o n sider a t i o n s b ei n g lef t all b u t u n t o uched Its
s t and a rd o f reck o ni n g p ro g re s s a n d decline is n o t th a t o f
ide a l g o o d a n d evil b u t o f m o veme n t a l o ng a me a sured line
from gra de to grade o f actual sav agery barbarism an d
civiliz a ti o n The thesis which I venture t o s u stai n within
limits is s imply this that the s av a ge st a te in some measure
represe n ts a n early condi ti o n o f mankind o u t o f which the
higher culture has gr a dually been developed or evolved by
p rocesses still in regular o peration as o f o ld the result
showing that on the whole progress has far prevailed over
relapse
O n this proposition the main tendency o f human society
during its long term o f existence has been t o pass from a
s avage to a civilized state N ow a ll must admi t a great
pa r t o f this assertion to be not on ly t r u t h but truism
R eferred t o di rect history a great sec t ion of i t proves to
belo n g n o t t o the dom a in o f specul ation but to that o f positive
knowledge I t is me re matte r of chr o nicle that modern
civilization is a development o f medi aeval Civilization which
again is a devel o pme n t f ro m civiliz a ti o n o f the o rder repre
sented in G reece A ssyria or E gypt Thus t h e higher
culture being cle a rly tr a ced b a ck to wh a t may be called t h e
middle culture the question which r emains is whether this
middl e culture may be tra ced back t o the l o wer cultu re
that is to savagery To af r m t h i s is me rely t o asser t
th a t the s a me kind of devel o pment i n culture which has
gone on inside o u r r ange of knowledge has also go n e on
outside i t i t s c o urse of proceedi n g being un a ffected by ou r
.

PROG RESS AND D EGRADAT I ON

33

having o r n o t having r epo r ters present If a n y on e holds

that human thought and ac t ion were wo rked out in p rim aev a l
times a cco r di n g t o l a ws essenti a lly o ther t han those of the
modern world it is for him t o prove by valid evidence
this anom a lous st a te of things otherwise t h e doc t rine o f
perm a nent principle will hold good as in a stron o my o r
geology That the tendency o f culture has been simil a r
thr o ughout the existence of human socie t y an d t ha t we
m a y f a i r ly j udge fr o m its known his t oric cou r se wha t its
p r ehisto ric c o urse may have been is a theo ry cle a rly entitled
t o p r ecedence as a fundamental principle of ethnogr a phic
research

G ibbon in his R oman E mpire expresses in a few

vigorous sentences his theory o f t h e course o f culture as
from savagery upward Judged by the knowledge of nearly
a ce n tury later his remarks cannot indeed p a ss u n q u e s
E specially h e seems to rely with mispl a ced c on
t i on e d
de n c e on t radi t ions of archaic rudeness to exagge ra te the
l o wness of sav a ge life t o u n derestimate the liability t o decay
o f the ruder arts and in his V iew o f t h e e ffect of high on
low civilization to dwell t oo exclusively on t h e brighter side
But on t h e whole the great his t orian s j udgment seems so
substantially th a t o f the unprej udiced modern student of the
progressionist school that I gladly qu o te the p a ssage he re
at length and t a ke it as a text t o represent the development
theory of culture
The disc o veries o f ancient and modern
navigat o rs and the domestic hist o ry or t radi t ion of the
ag e
most enlighten ed na t ions represent t h e [woma n sa v
n a k ed bo t h in mind and b o dy an d destitute of laws o f
art s of ideas and a lmost o f langu age F rom this a bj ect
c o nditi on pe rhaps the primitive and universal state o f man
he has gradually a risen t o command the animals t o fe r tilise
the earth t o t raverse t h e ocean and t o measure the he a vens
His progress in the improvement and exercise of his ment a l
and co r poreal faculties has been irregular and va r i o us ;
in n itely slow in the beginning and incre a sing by degrees
wi t h red o ubled velocity : a ges o f laborious a scen t h a ve bee n
.

34

D E V E LO P M EN T

THE

or

C ULTURE

f o ll o wed by a m o men t o f r a pid d o wn fall ; a n d the several

c lim a t es o f t h e gl o be h a ve fel t t h e V I e I S S I t u d e s o f ligh t
a n d d a r k n es s
Yet the expe rie n c e o f fo ur th o u s a n d ye a rs
s h o uld e n l a rge o u r h pe s a ml d imi n ish o u r a pprehensi o ns :
we c a n n o t de t e rmi n e t o w h a t he i gh t t h e hum a n s pecies may
a s pi re in t hei r a d v
a n ces t o w a rd s pe r fecti o n ; bu t it ma y
s a fely b e p re s u med th a t n o pe o ple u n le s s t h e f a ce o f n a ture
is ch a n ged w ill rel a p s e i n t o thei r o rigi n a l b a rb a rism The
imp ro vement s o f s ociety may be viewed under a threef o ld
aspec t 1 The p o et o r phil o s o pher illustr a tes his a g e and
c o u n try b y the e ffo rts o f a s i ng le mind ; but these superior
p o wers o f re a so n o r f a ncy a re rare a n d spont a neous produc
t i o n s ; a n d the genius o f H o mer o r C icero o r N ewto n
w o uld excite less a dmir a ti o n if they could be created by
the w ill o f a prince or the lessons o f a preceptor 2 The
b enets o f law a n d p o licy o f t rade and manufactures o f
a rts a n d sciences are m o re solid and perma n ent ; and ma ny
i ndividuals may be qu a lied by educati o n and discipline t o
p ro m o te in their respective stati o ns the interest o f t h e
community Bu t this general order is t h e effect o f skill
and lab o ur ; and the c o mplex machinery may be decayed by
time o r inj ured by violence 3 F ortunately fo r mankind
the more useful o r at least more necessary arts can be
pe rf o rmed without superior talents or na t ional subordina
ti o n ; with o ut the powe rs of on e o r the union o f ma ny
E a ch vill age each family each in dividual must a lways
possess b o th ability and inclination t o perpetuate t h e use
re and o f met a ls ; the propagati o n and service o f
of
d o mestic a n imals ; the methods o f hunti n g and shin g ; the
rudime n ts o f n a vig a ti o n ; the imperfect cul t iva t ion o f cor n
o r o ther nu t ri t ive grain ; a n d t h e simple pr a ctice of the me
chanie t r a des Private genius and public industry ma y be
ex t i rp a ted ; b ut these hardy pl a nts survive the tempest and
s t r i ke an everl a sting ro o t in t o th e most u n fav o ura b le soil
The sple n di d d a ys o f A ugustus an d Traj a n were eclipsed
by a cloud of ignor a nce ; and t h e barb a rians subverted the
laws a n d palaces of Rome But t h e scythe the inventi o n or
.

PRO GR E S S AN D D EG RADAT I ON

35

emblem of S a t urn still con t inued annually t o mow the

harvests o f Italy ; and the human feasts o f the Laes t ri g on s
have neve r bee n renewed o n the coas t o f C ampania Since
the rst disc o very o f the arts war c o mmerce and religi o us
zeal h a ve di ffused a m o ng t h e s a v a ges o f the O ld and N ew
World these i n estim a ble gif t s : they h a ve been successively
pr o p agated ; t hey can never be l o st We may the r ef o re
a cquiesce in t h e ple a sing conclusion t ha t every age o f the
world h a s increased an d still increases the real we a lth
the happiness the knowledge an d perhaps the vi r tue of
1
the hum a n race
This pr o g ressi o n theory o f civilization may be c o ntrasted
wi t h its rival the degenerati o n theory in the dashing
invective of C ount J o seph de Maistre w ritten t oward the

beginning o f t h e 1 9 t h century
N o us parto n s t ouj ours he

says de l h ypo t h es e ban a le que l h o mme s est lev gra

d u e ll e men t de l a ba r ba r ie a la scie n ce e t a la civilisati o n
C est 1e r eve fav o ri c est l e rr e u r m ere e t c o mme dit l ec o le
a is si les phil o s o phes
M
u d es de n o tre si ecle
1e proto
s
e
p
de ce m a lheureux si ecle a vec l h o rri b le perversit que n o us
leur avons c o nnue e t qui s o b s t i n e n t encore malgr les
avertissements q u i l s on t re ens a vaie n t possd de plus
quelques
unes de ces c o nn a iss ances qui o n t d fi ne cessaire
2
me n t appartenir aux premiers hommes & c
Th e
degeneration theory which this eloquent an t agonis t o f

modern ideas indeed s t a t es in an ext r eme shape h a s

received the sanction o f men of g reat learning and ability
It has pr a ctically res o lved itself in t o t w o a ssumptions rst
th a t the his t ory o f culture beg a n wi t h the appe a rance on
e a rth of a semi civilized r a ce o f men a n d second that from
this stage culture has proceeded in t w o w a ys backwa r d t o
pr o duce sav a ges and fo rw a rd t o pr o duce civilized men
The idea o f the original c o nditi o n o f man bein g one o f
more or less high cultu re must have a cert a in p rominence
,

'

G i bb on D e cl i n e a nd F ll

S oi es d e S t
D e M i st r

of

e,

th e

R m
o

an

P t ers b ou rg ,

Empi

re ,

vol ii p
.

ch .

1 50

xxxv iii
.

T H E D E V E LO P M ENT

36

C U LT U R E

or

give n t o i t o n ac c o un t o f i ts c o nsidera b le h o ld o n pu b lic

o pi n i o n
A s t o d e fi n i t e evi d e n c e h o wev e r i t d o e s n o t
s eem t o h a ve a n
I
n deed
I
e t h n l o gi c a l b a s i s wh a t eve r
y
s c a r c ely t hi n k t h a t a s t ro n ge r C O I I I I t o r pe rs u a si o n c o uld b e
u s ed O I I a n i n t e llig e n t s tude n t i n cli n ed t o t h e o rdin a ry
d ege n e ra ti o n t he o ry t h a n t o i n duce h i m t o ex a mine c ri t i
ca lly a n d im pa rt i a lly t h e a rgume n t s o f t h e a dv o c a te s o n his
l t mu s t b e b o rne in mi n d h o weve r th a t the
o w n s ide
g ro u n d s o n w hich this the o ry h as b een held h a ve ge n era lly
b ee n r a t he r the o l o gic a l th a n ethn o l ogic a l
Th e strength
o f t h e po s iti o n i t h a s thus o ccupied may be well inst a nced
f ro m th e the o ries a d o pted by t w o eminen t F rench writers
ce n tury which in a rem a rkable way piece
o f the 1 8 t h
together a belief i n degene ration and an argumen t for pro
D
e
Brosses
whose
whole
intellectual
nature
re ss i on
g
tu rn ed to the progression theo ry argued that by studyi n g
w h a t a ctually n o w happens we m ay tr a ce men upwa r d from
the s a vage st a te to which the ood and dispersion had
1
A nd G og u e t hol d i n g th a t the pre
reduced them
existing ar t s pe rished a t the deluge was thus left f ree t o
w o rk o u t on the mos t th o rough goi n g progressionist
p ri n ciples his the o ries of the i n vention of re cooking
agriculture law and so forth am o ng tribes thus reduced
2
A t t h e present t ime it is
t o a condi t ion o f l o w sav a gery
civi liza t ion to be treated as
n o t unusual fo r the origin o f
matter o f d ogmatic theology I t has happened t o me more
than once t o be assured from t h e pulpit that the theories of
ethn o l o gists who consider man t o h a ve risen from a low
o rigin al co n dition are delusive fancies it bein g reve a led
t ruth that man was o rigin a lly in a high conditi o n N o w a s
a m a tter o f B iblic a l cri t icism i t must be remembered th a t a
l a rge prop o rtion o f modern the o l ogi an s a re far fr o m accept
ing such a dogma
But in i n vestig a tin g t h e p ro blem o f
early civ i li z a tio n the cl a im to gr o und scientic o pinion up on
.

1 5 ; F orm a t i on d es L a n g ues ,

B ross es D i eu x F t i ch es p
p 4 9 vol ii p 3 2
O i gi n e d es L o i s d es A r s
2
r
t
Gog uet
1

De

&c

ol i p
v
.

88

vol i
.

P RO GR E SS AND D EGRADAT I ON

37

a basis o f revelation is in itself obj ectionable It would

be I t hink inexcusable if students w h o have seen in
A st r o n omy and G eology the unhappy results o f attempti n g
to base science o n religion should c o untenance a simil a r
a tt emp t in E thn o l ogy
By lo n g expe rience of the course of human society the
principle o f development in culture has bec o me so i n
gra ined i n ou r ph i l o sophy t ha t ethnologists of wh a teve r
school h a rdly doub t b u t th a t whether by progress or
deg radati o n savagery and civilization are c o nnected as
lower an d highe r st ages of one f o rmation A s su c h then
t w o princip a l theories claim t o accoun t for their relation
A s t o the rst hypo thesis which takes savage life a s in
some sor t represen t ing a n early human s t a t e whence higher
s t a t es were in t ime developed i t has t o be no t iced that
a dv o cates of
this progression theory are apt t o lo o k back
towa r d y e t lower o rigin a l condi t ions o f mankind It has
been truly r emarked t ha t t h e modern naturalist s doctri ne
of progressive development has encour aged a train o f
th o ught singul a rly accordant wi t h the E picurean t heory of
m a n s early existence on ear t h in a condi t ion not far
rem oved from t ha t o f the lower animals O n such a view
savage life itself w o uld be a far a dvanced condit ion If the
adv ance of culture be regarded as taking place along on e
general line t hen exis t ing savagery s t ands direc t ly inter
mediate between animal and civilized life ; if alo n g di ff erent
lines t hen s a vagery and civiliz a tion may be considered as
at least indirectly connected thr o ugh their c o mmon origin
The meth o d and evidence here employed are n o t however
suitable for the di scussion of t his remoter p a r t o f t h e
problem o f civiliz a tion N or is it necessary t o enquire how
unde r t his o r any other theory the s a vage s t a t e rst came
t o be o n ea r th
It is en o ugh that by some means or o the r
i t has a ctu a lly come in t o existence ; and so far as it may
serve as a guide in infe rri n g an early condi t ion o f the
human ra ce a t large so far the a rgument takes the ve ry
pr a cticable sh ape of a discussion t urning r a ther on ac t ual
.

T II E D EV E LO P M EN T

38
th a n

C U LT U R E

O F

im agi n a ry s t a t e s o f s o c iety The s ec o n d hyp o thesi s

whi c h reg a rd s highe r c ul t u re as o r igi na l s ml t h e s a v age
c o n d i t i o n a s pr du c ed f ro m i t by a c o u rs e o f d ege n e ra ti o n
a t o n c e c u t s t h e h a rd kn t o f t h e o r igi n o f cul tu re
It
t a kes fo r g ra n t ed a s upe r n a t u ra l i n te rfe ren c e a s whe re
A rc h b is h o p \Vh a t e l vsimply refe rs t o mi ra c u l o u s revel a t i o n
t h a t c o n d i t i o n a b o ve t h e level o f b a r b a ri s m which b e c o n
side rs t o h a ve b een m a n s o rigi n a l s t a t e 1 I t may b e i n ci
den t a lly rem a rke d h o weve r th a t t h e d o ct ri n e o f o rigi n a l
civiliz a ti o n b es t o wed on ma n by divi n e interventi o n by no
me a ns n ecess a rily i n v o lves the view that this o rigi n al civil
i z a t i o n w as a t a high level
I ts advocates a re f ree t o ch o o se
t heir s t a r ting p o i n t of culture a bove at o r below the savage
c o nditi o n a s may on the evidence seem t o them most
r e a s o n a ble
The t w o theo ries which thus account fo r the relation o f
s av age t o cultu red life may be contrasted a cc o rding t o thei r
m a in cha racter as the p rog ressi o n theory and the degr a da
Y et of course the pr og r essi on theory recog
t i o n the o ry
and the degradation theory recognizes
n i z e s deg r a d a ti o n
p rog ressi o n a s powerful influe n ces in the course of culture
U n der p ro pe r limitat i ons the principles o f b o th the o ries are
confo rm a ble t o histo rical knowledge which shows us on
the o n e h and th a t the s t a t e of the h igher na t ions was
re ached by pr o gression f r om a l o wer state an d o n the
o the r hand t ha t culture gai n ed by prog r ession ma y be l o st
by degr a d a ti o n If in t h i s enquiry we should be obliged t o
at any ra t e we need n ot begin there
e n d in the d a rk
His t o ry taken as o u r guide in expl a i n i ng t h e di fferent sta ges
o ffers a theory based o n actu a l experie n ce
o f civiliz a tion
This is a development the o ry i n which bo t h advance an d
rel a pse h a ve their a ck n o wledged pl a ces
But so far as
hist o ry i s t o be o u r criterion pr o gressi o n is prim a ry and
deg rad a tion sec o nd a ry ; culture mus t be gai n ed bef o re it
,

W h a t ely E s say o n t h e O i gi n o f C i v i l i sat i o n in M i s c ell an eo u s

ar
L ec t ures
H is e v id n c e i s e x am i n e d in d e ta i l i n my E ly H i st ory o f
M a n k i n d c h V ii S ee al s o W C oo k e Ta yl or N a t ura l H i s t ory o f S oc i et y

CO M BI N ED R ES U LTS

39

can be lost Moreover in striking a b a l ance between the

e ff ects o f forward and backward m o vement in civiliz a tion
i t must be borne in mind how powerfully the di ffusion o f
culture a cts in preserving the results o f pr o gress fr o m the
a t t acks o f degene ration A pr o gressive movement in culture
spreads and becomes independen t o f t h e fate o f i ts o rigi
What is p r oduced in some limi t ed dist r ict is dif
n a t ors
fused over a wider and wider a r ea where t h e process o f

e ffectual st a mping out bec o mes more and more di fcult

Thus it is even possible for the habits and inven t ions o f
races long extinct to rem a in as the c o mm o n property o f
surviving nati o ns ; and the destru ctive act ions which make
such havoc wi t h the civilizations o f particul a r districts fail
to destr o y the civ
iliz a tion of the world
The enquiry as t o t h e relat ion o f sav a gery to b a rb a rism
and semi civilization lies a lmost entirely in pr ae historic or
ex t ra his t oric regi o ns This is of cou rse an unf a v o ur a ble
condition and must be frankly accepted D irect his t ory
hardly tells any t hing of the changes o f savage cultu r e
except where in con t ac t wi t h and under t h e dominan t
inuence of foreign civilization a state o f things which is
li t t le to our present purpose Pe r iodic a l examinations of l ow
races o t h erwise left isola t ed t o work ou t their ow n destinies
would be interesting evidence t o the s t uden t of civiliz a ti o n
if they could be made ; but unfortun a tely t hey canno t
The lower races wanting documentary memorials loose i n
preservi n g tr a dition and ever ready t o clothe my t h in its
shape can seldom be trusted in their stories of l o n g p a st
ages History is oral or written record which can be
s a tisfactorily traced i nt o c o ntact wi t h the events it de
scribes : and perh a ps no account o f the course o f culture in
i t s lower st ages can satisfy this stringent criteri o n
Tr a di
tions may be u rged in supp o rt eithe r o f the pr o gressio n
the o ry or o f the degr a d a ti o n theo r y These t raditions may
be par t ly true and must be partly u n true ; but wh a teve r
truth or u n tru th they ma y cont a in there is such di fculty
in sep a rating man s rec o llection o f wh a t w a s f r o m his S pe c u
.

40

D E V E LO P M ENT

THE

CULTURE

or

l a t i o n a s t o w h a t migh t h a ve b ee n th a t ethn o l o gy seems n o t

l i kel y t o g a i n mu c h by a t t empt s t o j udge o f e a rly s t a ge s o f
civili z a t i o n o n a t ra di t i o n a l b a s is Th e p ro b lem i s o n e
ag e
w hi c h h a s o c cupied t h e ph ilO S O ph ic mi n d even in s a v
and
b a rb a ric li fe a n d h a s b ee n s o lved by s pe c ul a ti o n s
t ra d i ti o n s whi c h a re i n g re a t
a sse r t ed
a s f a ct s
a n d by
me a su re me re re a l i zed t he o rie s Th e C hi n e s e c an s h o w
w i t h a l l d u e gr a vi ty t h e r ec o rds o f thei r a n cie n t dyn a sties
a n d t ell I I S h o w i n o ld time s their a ncest o rs dwel t in c a ves
till under
c l o t hed t hemselves i n le a ve s
a n d a t e ra w e s h
such a n d such rule rs they were t aught t o build huts
1
p rep a re ski n s fo r g a r ments a n d make re
L uc retius can
desc ribe to us i n his fa mous lines the l a rge boned h a rdy
l a wless pri mze v
a l r ace o f ma n living the roving life of the
wild b easts which they overcame with stones a n d heavy
clubs devouring ber ries and a c o rns ignoran t as yet of re
a n d a g ricultu re an d the use o f skins fo r clothing
F rom
this st a te the E picu rea n poe t t races up the developmen t of
cul ture beginning outside but ending inside the r a nge O f
2
To the s a me class belong t hose legends
hum a n memory
w hich starting fr o m an ancien t s a vage state describe its
elevation by divine civilizers : this which may be called
the supernatu ra l prog r essio n theory is exemplied in the
f a milia r culture tr a ditio n s o f Peru and It aly
But other minds f o llowing a di fferent ide a l track from
the p r ese n t to the pas t have see n in a far di fferent shape
the early st ages o f human life Th e s e men whose eyes a re
a lways tur n ed t o l oo k back o n the wisdom o f the a ncients
th o se w h o by a common confusion o f thought ascribe t o
men o f o l d the wisd o m o f old men those wh o hold fast t o
some once honoured scheme of life which new schemes are
superse di n g bef o re their eyes a re apt t o c a rry back their
th o ught o f prese n t degener a ti o n i n to fa r g o ne ages t ill t hey
re a ch a peri o d of prim aeval glory The P a rsi looks b a ck t o
the happy rule o f K ing Y ima when men an d ca tt le were
i mmo r tal when water and t rees neve r dried up an d food
C g t vl iii p 2 7 0
H
S t i 3
L
t v 9 23
,

ne

ucre

se e

o r.

E V I D EN CE O F D EC L I N E

41

was i n exh a ustible when there was no cold n o r hea t no

1
e n vy n o r O ld age
The Buddhist looks b ack t o the ag e o f
glori o us so a ri n g beings who had no s i n no sex n o w ant o f
food till the unh a ppy hour when t as t ing a delicious scum
t ha t f o rmed upon the surface o f the ear t h t hey fell i n to
evil and in time became degraded to eat rice to bear
children t o build h o uses t o divide property and t o
est a bli sh caste I n after ages record preserves details o f
the con t inu i ng course o f degener a ti o n
It was K ing
C h e t i y a wh o t old t h e rst lie and the citizens who he a rd of
i t n o t knowing wha t a lie was asked if i t we r e white black
Me n s lives grew sh o rter an d sh o rter and i t was
o r blue
Ki n g Maha S ag a r a w h o a fter a b r ief reign o f
years
2
made the dismal disc o very o f t h e r st grey h a ir
A dmitting t h e imperfectio n o f the his t orical record a s
reg a rds the lowest stages o f culture we must bear i n mind
t ha t it tells bo t h w a ys
N iebuhr a t t acking the progression
i s t s o f t h e 1 8 t h ce n tury remarks th a t they have o verlooked

the fa ct th a t no s i ngle ex a mple can be br o ught f o rw a rd of

s a v age pe o ple having independently become
a n actu a lly
3
W hately appropriated t his rema r k which indeed
civilized
fo r ms the kern el o f his well kn o w n L ecture on the O rigin of

C ivilisatio n : F acts are stubborn t hings he says and

that no a uthentic a ted ins t ance can be produced o f s a v ages
that ever di d eme rge unaided fr o m t ha t s t a t e is no th eory
b u t a statement hitherto never disproved o f a matter o f
f act
He uses t his as an a rgument in support o f his
gener a l c onclusion that man could n o t have risen i n d e pen
d e n t ly from a savage t o a civilized s t a t e and that sav a ges
4
a r e degener a te descend a n ts o f civilized men
But he omits
t o ask the cou n ter question whethe r we n d one r ecorded in
s t ance o f a civilized people falli n g independently int o a savage
,

Av es t a

B l eeck vol ii p 5 0
H rd y
M n u l f B ud h i sm pp 6 4 1 2 8
N i b u h B Omi sc h G es h i c h t p t i p 88 N u d s h b en i
ii b erseh e n
d s k i n e i n z i g s B ey pi el vn
i n m wi kl i h wi l d n V o lk
u fz uw i s n i st w l h es f e y ur C ul t u ub e g eg n g n w ar
W h t el y E s y n O i g i n o f C i v i l i t i n
1

t ran s
a

S p i gel
e

s a

e e

a z

85

r,

ar

sa

s e

T II E D E VE LO P M E N T

42

or

C U LT U R E

s t a t e 1 A n y s uch re c o rd dire c t a n d wel l v o uched Wo uld b e o f

high i n t eres t t o e t h n o l o gis t s t h o ugh o f c o u rs e i t Wo uld n o t
c o n t ra dic t t h e d e v
o h q n ne u t t lI e o r
f
o r p ro vi n g l o s s i s n o t
y
l u t whe re i s s uch a rec o rd t o b e
dis p ro v
i ng p revi o u s g a i n
f o u n d ? The d e fe c t o f h is t o ri c a l evi d en c e a s t o t h e t ran s i
t i o n b e t w ee n s a v a ge ry a m l h i ghe r cul tu re is a t w o sided fa c t
o n ly h a lf t a ke n i n t o A rc h b i s lm
W
h
tely
sided
a rgu
a
s
o
n
e
p
me n t F o rt u n a tely t h e defect i s by n o me a n s fa ta l
Th o ugh his t o ry may n o t a cc o u n t directly fo r the exi s t ence
a n d expl a i n the p o siti o n o f s a v a ge s it at least gives evide n ce
whic h b e a rs closely on the matter M o reover we a re in
v a ri o us w a ys e n a b led t o study the l o wer course o f cul ture o n
evidence w hich cannot h a ve been tampered with t o support
a the o ry
O ld tr a ditional lore however untrustworthy as
di rect reco r d o f events contains m o st faithful incidental
descripti o ns of man n ers and cust o ms ; a rch aeol o gy displays
o ld structures an d buried relics o f the rem o te p a st ; philo
l ogy brings o u t the undesigned history in l an gu a ge which
ge n e ra ti o n after gene ratio n have handed down with o ut a
th o ugh t o f i t s having such signicance ; the ethnological
survey o f the races of the world tells m u ch ; the e t h n og ra
h
i
p c al comp a riso n o f their conditi o n tells more
A r r est and decline in civilization are to be recognised as
among the m o re f requent and powerful op erations o f na t ional
life That knowledge arts and institutions should dec a y in
cert a in districts th a t peoples once pr o g ressive should lag
behind and be passed by a dv a ncing neigh bo urs that some
times even societies o f men should recede in t o rudeness and
misery all these are phenomena wi t h which m o dern hist o ry
is f a m i li a r In j udgin g o f the relati o n o f the lower t o the
highe r st ages o f civiliz a tion i t is essential t o g a in some idea
h o w fa r i t may have been a ffected by such degene ra ti on
Wh a t kind of evidence can direct o bserv a tion a n d hist o ry
give as t o the degrada t ion o f men f ro m a civilized condi ti o n
t o w a rds that of s a v agery ? In ou r g r eat ci t ies the so called

d a n ger o us classes a re su n k in hideous mise ry an d de

p ra vity
If we h a ve t o st r ike a b a l a nce betwee n the
.

E V I D ENC E OF D ECL I N E

43

P a pu a ns of N ew C a ledoni a and the commu n ities of E u ro

pe an begg a rs and thieves we may s a dly ackn o wledge th a t
we have i n o u r midst s o methin g wo rse t han s a v agery But
i t is n o t savage r y ; it is b roken down ci vilizatio n
N eg a
tiv
e ly the inma t es of a Whitechapel c a sual ward an d o f a
Hottent o t k r aal agree in their wan t o f th e k n o wledge and
virtue o f t h e higher culture But positively t heir men t a l and
mor a l ch a r a cteristics a re utte rly di ffere n t Thus the sav a ge
life is essenti a lly dev o ted t o gaining subsistence fr o m na t ure
which is j ust wh a t the pr o leta r ian life is n o t Their rel a
tions t o civilized life the on e o f independence the other
o f dependence a r e abs o lutely o pp o site
To my mind the

popular phrases about city savages a n d street A r a bs

seem like c o mparing a ruined house t o a builder s y a rd
It is more t o the purpose t o no t ice how war and misrule
famine and pestilence have a gai n and again devas t a t ed coun
t ries reduced their population t o miser a ble rem n ants and
l o we r ed their level o f civilization and how the isolated life
of wild c o untry districts seems s o metimes ten ding t owards
sav a ge r y
S o fa r as we know however none o f these
causes have ever really repr o duced a s a v a ge communi t y
F or an ancien t account of dege n eratio n under adverse cir
c u ms t a n ce s O vid s menti o n o f the u n happy colony o f T o mi
o n the Bl a ck Sea is a case in poin t
t hough perhaps n o t
t o be t aken t o o literally
A mong its mixed G reek and
ba rb a ric popula t ion harassed and c a rried o ff in t o sl a very by
the Sa r mati a n horseme n much a s t h e Persians till la t ely
were by the Turkomans the poet describes the neglect o f
t h e ga r de n er s craft the decay o f textile ar t s the barbaric
clothi n g o f hides
,

h aec l o ca s u n t u llo pre ti osa m etall o

H ost i s ab ag r i c ola vi x s i n i t i ll a fod i
P u rp u ra seep e t u o s f u lg e n s praet ex i t a m i c t u s
S e d n o n S a r m a t i c o t i n g i t u r i ll a m a ri
V e lle ra d u ra f eru n t pe c u d e s e t Pal la d i s u ti
A rte Tom i t an ae n on d i d i c e re n u r u s
F e m i n a pro la n a C e r i al i a m u n e ra f ran g i t
S u pposi t o q u e g ra v e m v e rt i c e p or t at a q u a m
N e e t ame n

44

D E V E LO P M EN T O F C U LT U R E

TH E

i t ib us u l m u s
N o n h ie pa m pi n c i s a m ic i t u r v
N u l lu p re m u n t ru m o s o n d e re o m a s u o

:
.

l r is t ia d e fo rm e s pa ri u n t a b s i n t h i n r a m pi ,
Tc r ruq u e d e f ru c t u q u a m s i t a m a ra d o c c t

'

"
.

C a se s o f ex c e pti o n a lly lo w c iviliz a ti o n in E u ro pe ma y

rh a ps h e s o me t ime s a c c o u n ted fo r b y degene ra ti o n o f thi s
e
p
ki n d B u t t h e y s eem m o re O f t e n the relics o f a n cient n u
b a r b a ri s m
c h a n ged
Th e evide n ce f ro m wild p a rts o f
I rel a n d t w o o r three ce n tu rie s a g o is interest i ng f ro m this
p o i n t o f view A c t s o f P a rli a ment we re passed ag a inst the
i nvete ra te h a bits o f f a s t ening ploughs t o the h o rses t a ils
a n d o f b urni n g c a t s f ro m the s tr a w to save the trouble o f
threshi n g In the 1 8 t h centu ry Ireland could still be thus
described in sati re :
.

W es te rn i sl e ren o w n e d for b ogs

F o r t or i e s a n d fo r g re a t w ol f d o g s
F o r d ra w i n g h obb i es b y t h e t a i ls
A n d t h re s h i n g c o rn w i t h e ry a i l s
Th e

Mo ry s on s description

the wild or meere Irish

a bout 1 6 0 0 is amazing
The very lords o f t h em he says
dwelt in poor clay houses o r ca bi n s o f boughs covered with
turf In many parts men as well as women had in very
w i nter time but a line n rag abou t the l o ins and a woollen
mantle o n their bodies so th a t i t would turn a man s
stomach t o see a n old wom a n in the m o rni n g befo re break
fast He notices their habit o f bu rning oats from t h e
straw and m a king cakes thereof They had no t a bles but
set their meat on a bundle of grass They feasted on fallen
h o rses an d seethed pieces o f beef and pork wi t h the u n
w a shed entr ails o f be a sts in a h o ll o w tree l a pped in a raw
c o w s hide a n d s o set o ver the re a n d they dr a nk milk
3
warmed with a stone rst ca s t in t o the r e
A nother

F yn es

of

O vid E x P
W C T yl

H i s t ory o f G reec e vol x ii p 6 4 1

2
a
or
N a t H i s t o f S oc i et y v
ol i p 2 0 2

3
Eyn e s Mory s o n
I t i n erary ; L o nd o n 1 6 1 7 p art iii p 1 6 2 & c J

E van s in A rch aeolog i a vol xl i S ee d esc ri p t i on of h id e b o i l i n g

a m on g t h e wi l d I ri s h
about
I nt ro du ct i on o f
1 5 5 0 in A n d re w B oord e
K n o wl d g e e d b y F J F u rn i vall E a rly E n gl i s h T e x t S oc 1 8 7 0
1

iii

o nt o ,

8 ;

s ee

ro t e ,

S A VA G E A N D BARB A RI C S U R V I VAL

45

dist r ict remarkable for a barbaric simplicity of life is the

Heb rides Till o f l a te years there were to be f o und there
in actual use earthen vessels u n glazed an d m a de by hand
without the p o tte r s wheel which might pass in a museum
as indi fferent specimens of savage manufacture
These

are still m a de by an o ld woman at Barvas for

c ragg an s
sale as curiosit i es
Such a modern state of the potter s
art in the H ebrides ts well with G eorge Buchanan s state
me n t in the 1 6 t h century that the islanders used to boil
1
meat in the beast s own p a unch or hide
E a rly in the
1 8 th century Martin mentions a s prevalent there the ancient
way o f dressing corn by burning it dexterously from the ear
which he notices to be a very q uick process thence called

2
=
gr a ddan ( G aelic g r a d quick )
Thus we see that the

habit of burning out the grain for which the meere Irish
were reproached w a s really the keeping up o f an o l d K eltic
art not without its pr a ctical use S o the appea r a nce in
modern K eltic districts of other widespre a d arts o f the l o wer
culture hide b o ili n g like that of the Scythians in H ero d o
tus and stone boiling like that o f the A s sin ab oi n s o f N orth
A merica seems t o t not s o well with degradation from a
high as with survival from a low civilization The Irish
and the Hebrideans h a d been for ages under the in uence
of comparatively high civilization which nevertheless ma y
have left unaltered much of the older and ruder habit o f the
people
Instances of civilized men taking t o a wild life in out
lying districts of the world a n d ce a s i ng to o btain or want
the appli a nces of civiliz a ti o n give m o re distinct evidence o f
degrada tion I n co n nexion with this st a te o f things t a kes
pl a ce the n earest kn o w n appr o ach to an independen t dege
n e ra t i o n from a civilized to a sav a ge st a te
Th i s h a ppens
in mixed races whose standard of civilizati o n may be m o re
o r less below th a t of the higher r a ce
The mutinee rs of the
.

H i st ori a E di n b urg h 1 5 28 p 7 S ee
p 27 2
o l iii p
63 9
i n Pi n k er t o n v
o f W e s t er n I s l an d s

R eru m S co t i c aru m

o f M a n k i n d , 2 md e d

B u c h an a n
Ea rl H i s t ory
y
M art i n D escri p t i on
1

46

run

Bo un t y

E V E LO P M E N T

C U LT UR E

or

wi t h t hei r P o lyne s i a n wives fo u n ded a small b ut

1
o
o
i
i
I
Th e mixed
n o t s a v a ge c mmu n i t y
s l a nd
n l t e a rn s
P o r t ugue s e a n d n a t ive ra c e s o f t h e E a st I n die s a n d
A f rica lea d a life b e l o w t h e E u ro pe a n s t an d a rd b u t n o t a
s a v a ge l i fe ?
Th e G a u c h o s o f t h e S o u th A meric a n P a mp a s
a mixed E ur o pe a n a n d I n d ia n ra c e o f eque s t ri a n he rdsmen
a re de s c ri b ed a s si t ti n g a b o ut o n o x skulls m a ki n g b roth in
h o rn s w ith h o t ci n de rs he a ped ro u n d livi n g o n me a t with
vege t a bles a n d al to gethe r le a din g a f o ul b rut a l
out
3
c o mfor t less degenerate but n o t s a v age life
O ne step
bey o nd th i s brings us t o the c a ses o f individual civilized
men b eing a bso rbed in savage tribes and a dopting the
savage life 0 11 which they exercise little inuence for i m
provement ; the child ren of these men may c o me distinctly
under the c a tegory o f savages
These cases o f mixed
breeds h o weve r do not show a low culture actu a lly
pr o duced as the result o f degeneration from a high on e
Their the o r y is th a t given a higher and a lower civiliz a tion
exist i ng am o n g t w o r a ces a mixed race between th e t w o
m ay take to the lower or an intermediate c o ndition
D egener a tion probably operates even m o re activel y in
th e lower than in the higher culture
Ba r b a rous n a ti on s
an d s a vage h o r des with their less knowledge and sca n tier
applian ces would seem peculi a rly ex posed t o degradi ng
inuences
I n A fric a for instance t here seems to have
been in modern centuries a falling o ff in culture pr o bably
due in a consider a ble degree t o foreig n inuence
Mr
J L Wils o n contrasti n g the l 6 t h and 1 7 th century a c
c o unts o f powe r ful n egr o ki n gdoms i n West A f rica with
the present small communities with little or no t raditio n
more extended politic a l o rganizatio n
o f their foref a t hers
4
looks especially to the sl ave tr a de a s the dete rior a tin g cause
,

B w M u t i n y o f t h e B u n t y ; W B di Pi t i rn s I l n d

W ll
M l y A rc h i pelag o vl i pp 4 2 4 7 1 ; vol ii pp 1 1 4 3

ol
L t h am
ii pp 4 9 2 5 ; D an d C L i vi ng st on e
D s cr
v
48
E x p t Z am b es i p 4 5

S ou t h y H i t o y o f B r z i l vol ii i p 4 2 2

J L W ils n W
p 1 89
1

a rro

ro

a a

s a

ca

e,

ac e ,

REMAINS

PA S T C I V I L IZ AT I O N

or

47

In South E ast A f rica also a c o mparatively high b a rb a ric

culture which we especi a lly associate with the old d e sc ri p
tions o f the kingd o m o f M on o m o t a pa seems t o h a ve fa llen
aw a y not c o unti n g the remark a ble ruins o f buildin gs of hewn
st o ne tted w i th o ut m o rta r which indica te the intrusion o f
more civilized fo r eigners int o the g o ld region H In N orth
A merica F ather C ha rlev o ix r emarks of the I roquois o f the
l as t centu ry th a t in o ld times they used to build their cabin s
bette r than o ther nati o ns and better th a n they d o them
selves now ; they c a rved rude gures in relief on them ; but
since in v a rious expeditions almost all their villages h a ve
been bur n t they have not taken the t r ouble to restore them
2
o
in their l d condition
The degradation of the C heyenne
Indi a ns is matter o f history Persecuted by their enemies
the Sioux an d dislodged at last even from their fortied
vill a ge the he a rt of the tribe was broken Their numbers
were thinned they no longer dared t o establish themselves
in a permanent a bode they gave up the cultivation o f the
soil and became a tribe o f w a ndering hunters with h o r ses
for their only valuable possession which every year they
bartered for a supply of corn beans pumpkins an d
E urope a n merchandise and then retu rn ed into the hea r t
3
o f the prairies
When in the R ocky Mountains L ord
Milton and D r C he a dle came upon an outlyin g fr a gme n t
o f the S h u sh w a p race
without horses o r d ogs shelte ri n g
themselves under rude temp o rary slants of b a rk o r m a tti n g
falling year by ye a r into lower m i sery and r a pidly dyi n g
o u t ; this is an o ther example of
the degen eration which
4
no doubt has l o wered or dest r oyed ma ny a s a vage people
There are tribes who are the very outcasts o f s a vage life
There is reas o n to look upon the miserable D igger Indi a ns
o f N o rth A merica and the Bushmen o f South A fric a as
-

A sh a n o
g

h rop ol og i e vol ii p 3 5 9 see 9 1 ; D u C h ai llu

l n d p 1 1 6 ; T H B en t R ui n e d C i t i e s o f M s h on a l an d
C h l e v o i x N o u v e ll e F ran c e vol Vi p 5 1

I rv i n g A st o i vol ii c h v

M i l t on an d C h e d l e N o t h W es t P ssag e b y L n d p 2 4 1 ; W i t z
vl iii p p 7 4 6
1

Wa it z

nt
.

ar

r a,

48

D EV E LOPM ENT

run

C U LT U R E

or

per s ecu t ed remn a n t s o f t ri b e s w h o h a ve s een happier

l
d ay s
The t ra d i ti o n s o f t h e l o we r ra ces o f their a n ce s
t o rs b e t t e r li fe ma y s me t im e s b e re a l re c o lle c t i o n s o f a
Th e A lg o n qu i n I n di a n s l o o k back
n o t fa r d i s t a n t p a s t
t o o ld d a y s a s t o a g o lden a g e when life w a s b etter th a n
n o w w hen they h a d b e t te r l a ws a n d le a de r s a n d ma n n e rs
2
le s s rude
A nd i n deed kn o wi n g wh a t w e d o o f their
his t o ry we may a dmi t t h a t they h a ve c au s e t o remembe r
Well t o o migh t t h e rude
i n mise ry h a ppiness g o n e by
Kamchad a l decl a re that t h e w o rld is gr o wi n g w o rse a n d
w o rse that men are bec o ming fewer a n d viler an d f o o d
sca rcer for the hunter a n d the bear a n d the reindeer are
hurryin g away from here to the h a ppier life in the regions
3
below
It would be a valuable contribution t o the study
es
o f civiliz ation to have the action of decli n e an d fall i n v
t ig a t e d o n a wider a n d more exact basis o f evidence th a n
has yet been attempted The c a ses here st a ted a re prob
ably bu t p a rt o f a l ong se ries which migh t be brough t
forwa r d to pr o ve degeneration in cul ture to have been by
no means indeed the primary cause of the existence o f
b a rb a rism a n d savagery in the world but a secondary
action l a rgely an d deeply a ffecting the general devel o p
ment o f civiliz a ti o n I t may perhaps give no unfai r idea
to comp a re degener a ti o n of c u l t u re b o th i n its kind o f
oper a tion a n d in its immense extent to denudation in the
geol ogic a l history o f the ea r th
In j udging o f the relations betwee n savage and civilized
life something may be lea rn t by glanci n g o ver the divisions
hum a n r a ce
F or this e n d the cl a ssica tion by
o f the
f a milies o f l an gu ages may be co n venie n tly used if checked
b y the evide n ce o f bodily ch a racte ristics N o doubt speech
b y itself is a n insufcient guide i n tracing n a ti o n a l descent
a s witness the ext r eme c a ses o f Jews in E ngl a nd an d three
parts neg r o races in the West Indies neve r theless speaking
the

E ly H i

y o f M an k i n d p 1 87

S c h ool cra ft Algi c

vol i p 5 0

S t ell er K a m t sc h a tk a p 2 7 2
ar

s t or

LANG U AG E AND C I V I LIZ ATI ON

E n glish

49

their m o ther t o n gue Still u n de r o r din a ry c i r

cu m s t an c e s co n nexio n o f S peech does i n dic a te m o r e or less
co n nexio n o f a n cestr a l r a ce
A s a guide in tr a c ing the
history o f civiliz a ti on language gives still better evidence
fo r c o mm o n l a ngu a ge t o a great extent inv o lves common
culture The r a ce domin a nt enough t o maint a in o r imp o se
its l a ngu a ge usu ally more o r less m a intains or imp o ses its
civilizati o n a lso
Thus the common descent o f the lan
guages of Hindus G reeks a n d Teut o ns is n o doubt due in
great measure to c o mmon ancest ry but is still more closely
bound up with a c o mmon s o ci a l and i n tellectual hist o ry

with wh a t Pr o fess o r Max M uller well calls thei r spi r itual

rel a ti o nship
The wonde r ful permanence o f language
often enables us t o detect am on g remotely an cient a n d
distan t tribes the tr a ces o f con n ected civilizatio n H ow
such grounds d o sav a ge a n d civilized tribes appe a r
on
to st a nd rel a ted within the various groups o f mankind
c o nnected historically by the possession o f kindred
langu ages ?
The Semitic f a mily which represents o n e of the oldest
known civili z a ti o n s o f the w o rld includes A r a bs Jews
Phoenicians Syri a ns & c an d has a n e a rlier a s well a s a
later c o n n exion i n N o rth A f ric a This family t a kes in some
rude tribes but n o ne which would be cl a ssed as s a vages
The A ry a n family h a s existed i n A sia and E ur o pe cert a inly
for many th o usand ye a rs a n d the r e ar e well known and
well m a rked tr a ces of its e a rly barb a ric conditi o n which h a s
pe r haps survived with least ch a nge a m o ng secluded tribes i n
the valleys o f the Hindu K ush and Him a lay a There s eems
a gai n n o kn o wn case o f any full A ry a n tribe h a vi n g b ecome
sav a ge The G ypsies an d o ther o utca sts a re no doubt
p ar tly A ry an in blood but their degr a ded condition is n o t
savagery In I n dia there are tribes A ry a n by l a n gu age
but w hose physique is rather o f indigen o us type and wh o se
ancestry is mai n ly fr o m indigenous st o cks with mo r e o r less
mixtu re o f the d o min a n t Hindu
Some t ribes c o mi n g
under this c a tegory as amo n g the Bhils an d K ulis o f the
as

50

D E V E LO P M E N T

THE

C U LT U R E

O F

l l m b a y P reside n c y s pe a k d i a l e c ts w hi c h a re l l i n d i i n
vc a b ul a ry a t le a st whe t he r o r n o t i n g ra mm a ti c a l s tructure
pe
le
hemselves
a re l o wer i n culture th a n
a nd
e t t he
o
t
y
p
s o me l l i n du iz c d n a ti o n s w h o h a ve ret a i n ed their o rigin a l
D ra vi d i a n s peech t h e T a mil s fo r i n st a nce Bu t these a ll
a ppe a r t o s t a n d a t highe r s t a ges o f civiliz a ti o n th a n a n y
wild fo re s t t ribe s o f t h e peni n sula w h o c a n be reck o n ed as
n e a rly s a v a ge s ; a ll s uch a re n o n A ry a n both i n bl oo d and
1
I n C eyl o n h o wever we have the remarkable
speech
phe n o me n o n o f me n le a di n g a sav a ge life while speaking an
A ry a n di a lect This is t h e wild p a rt o f the race o f V edda s

or
hunte rs o f wh o m a rem n ant still i n habit t h e fo res t
l a nd These people a re dark ski n n ed an d a t nosed sligh t
and ve ry small o f skull an d ve feet is a n
o f fr a me
They are a shy harmless simple
a ver age m a n s height
pe o ple livi n g principally by hunting ; they lime birds t a ke
sh by p o isoning the water and are skilful in getti n g wild
ho n ey ; they have bows with i r on pointed a rrows which
wi t h thei r hunti n g dogs are the i r most v a lu able possessions
They dwell in c av
e s or bark huts and their very word fo r a
house is Singhalese for a hollow tree (r u ku la ) ; a p a tch of
b ark was f o rmerly their dress but now a bit o f linen hangs to
their waist c o rds ; their pl a ntin g of p a tches of ground is s a id
t o be rece n t
They count o n their ngers a n d produce re
with the simplest ki nd o f re d rill twirled by hand They
a re m o st t ruthful a n d honest
Their monogamy an d conj ugal
delity contrast strongly with the opposite habits o f the
m o r e civilized Si n gh a lese A remark a b le V edda m a rriage
custom s a n ctioned a m a n s t a king his younger (n o t elder )
sister as his wife ; siste r mar riage existi n g among the Singh a
lese but being conned t o the r o y a l family
Mistaken
st a teme n ts have been made a s t o the V eddas havi n g n o
religi on n o pe r s o nal n ames no langu age Their religion
i n f a ct corresp o nds with the animism o f the ruder t ribes o f
India ; s o me o f their n ames are rem a rk a ble a s being Hindu
o

a rt

S ee

ii

G C m pb ll
.

E t h ol gy
n

of

I n di

a,

in

J u
o

rn

A s S oc
.

B e n ga l

1 86 6 ,

LAN G UA G E AN D C I V I LIZ AT I O N

51

but not i n use am o ng the modern Singh a lese ; their l a ngu age
is a Singh a lese di a lect The r e is n o doubt a tt a chi n g t o the
usual o pinio n that the V edd a s are in the m a in descended

fr o m the y akk os o r demons ; i e from the indige n o us

tribes o f the island L egend and l an gu age c o ncur t o m a ke
prob a ble a n admixture o f A ryan blood a cc o mp a nying the
a doption
O f A ry a n S peech but the evidence o f bodi ly
char a cteristics sh o ws the V edda race t o be principally o f
indigenous pre A ryan type 1
The Tatar family of N orthern A sia an d E u r ope (Tur a nian
if the word be used in a restricted sense ) displ ays evidence
of quite a different kind This wide lying g ro up o f t ribes
and nations has members nearly o r quite t o uchi n g the
sav age level in a ncient a n d even modern times such a s
O sty a ks Tunguz Sam o yeds L apps while more o r less
high ran ges of culture a re rep resen ted by M o ng o ls Turks
and Hu n ga rians Here h o wever it is unquesti o n a ble th a t
the r ude tribes represent the e a rlier condition o f the Tata r
r ace at large
from which its more mixed an d civilized
peoples mostly by adopting the foreign culture o f Buddhist
M o slem and C hristi a n n a tions a n d partly by intern a l
devel o pment are well known t o have rise n The eth n ol o gy
o f South E astern A si a is somewhat O bscu r e ; but if we may
classify under one heading the native races o f Sia m Burma
& c the wilder tribes may be considered a s representing
earlier conditions for the higher culture o f this regi o n is
o bviously f o reign especi a lly of Bu ddhist o rigin
The M a l a y
r ace is als o rema r k a ble f o r the r a nge o f civilizatio n r e r e
p
sented by tribes classed as bel o ngi n g to it If the wild
tribes of the M a l ayan peninsula a n d B o rneo be c o mp a r ed
with the semi civiliz ed nations of Jav a a n d Sum a t ra it
appea rs that par t o f the race survives t o represent a n e a rly
.

V e d d a h s

in T
J B i l ey
Et h S c
vol ii p 2 7 8 ; s vl iii
p 7 0 E K n x H i st o i l R l t i on o f C yl on L n d o n 1 6 8 1 p t iii h p i
S ee A Th om so n O t l gy o f t h e V dd
i n J o ur n A n t h o p I n t 1 88 9
ol x i x p 1 2 5 ; L d e Z o
O i gi n f V e dd s i n J u n C eyl n B n h
y
R y l A s i t i c S c vol V ii ; B F H t s h orn e i n F ortn i g h t ly R ev M r 1 8 7 6
[N ot e t o 3 rd e di t i on ]
1

e a

sa ,

ar

as,

s eo o

r.

r ca

ee

ar

ra

T H E D E V E LO P M E N T

52

C U LT U R E

te while p a rt i s fo u n d i n p o s s e s s i o n o f a civiliza
h a ve b ee n m o s tly
t i o n h i c h t h e li rs t gl a n c e s h o ws t
b o r ro wed f ro m Hi n du a n d M s lem s o u rce s S o me f o rest
t ri b e s o f t h e pe n i n sul a s eem t o b e represen tative s o f t h e
M a l ay r a c e a t i t s l o we s t level o f cu l tu re h o w fa r o ri gi n al
a n d h o w fa r deg ra ded i t i s n o t e a s y t o s a
A m o n g them
y
t h e very ru d e O ra ng S a b i mb a w h o h a ve n o a g ricultu re a n d
n o b o a ts
give a rem a rk a b le a cc o un t o f them s elve s th a t
they a re desce n d a n ts o f shipw recked M a l ays f ro m t h e Bugis
c o unt ry but w e re s o h a r a s sed b y pi ra tes th a t t h e y g a ve up
civiliz a ti o n a n d cultiv a ti o n a n d vowed n o t to eat f o wls
which betr ayed them by their cr o wing S o they plant
no thi n g bu t e a t wild f ruit a n d vegetables an d all anim a ls
but the f o wl This if a t all f o u n ded on f a ct is an i n teresti n g
c a se o f degenerati o n But savages usu a lly i n ven t myths to
acc o un t fo r peculiar habits as where in the same district
t h e Biduand a K a ll a n g account for their n ot cultivati n g the
ground by the st o r y th a t their ancest o rs vowed n o t to make
pl a nt a ti o ns A n o ther ru de pe o ple o f the Mal a y pen i n sula
a re the J a k u n s
a simple kindly r a ce a mong wh o m some
trace their pedigree to a pair o f white monkeys while othe r s
declare that they are descend a nts O f white men ; and indeed
there is some ground fo r supposing these latter to be re a lly
o f mixed race for they use a few Portuguese words and a re
1
p o rt exists o f some refugees havi n g settled up the c o unt ry
The Mela n esia n s P a pu a ns and A ustralian s represent gr a des
o f savagery sp r ead each o ver its o w n vast a re a in a com
l
o mogeneous
ns
f
a
ra t i v
h
w
a
L
astly
the
relatio
o
e
y
p
y
s a vagery t o highe r co n ditions are remark a ble but obscure
on
the A merican c o ntinents
There a re seve ral great
li n guistic f a mi lies wh o se members we re discovered i n a
savage st a te throughout : such are the E squimaux A lgon
quin a n d G ua ra n i g roups O n the o ther h a nd there were
th ree a ppare n tly unco nnected districts o f semi civiliz a ti o n
re a ching a high b a rb a ric level viz in Mexico an d C e n t ra l
A meric a Bogot a an d Peru Between these highe r and
J u n I n d A h i p vl i pp 2 9 5
9 ; vl ii p 23 7

sa

v age

o r

s ta

rc

PROPA GATI ON O F C IVI LIZ ATI ON

53

lower c o nditi o ns were r a ces at the level of the N atchez of

L ouisian a a n d the A palaches o f F lorida L inguistic c on
n e x i on is not u n kn o wn between the more advanced peoples
1
But denite evidence
an d the lower races a r o und them
S h o wing the higher culture to have arisen fr o m the lower
or the lower to have fallen f r om the high er is scarcely forth
coming B oth o per a tions may in degree have h a ppened
It is apparent fr o m such general inspecti o n o f this e t h n o
l ogic al problem th a t i t would repay a far cl o se r study
th a n it has as yet received A s the evidence stan ds at
present it appe a rs that when in any r ace some br a nches
much excel the rest in culture this m o re O ften h a ppens
by elevation than by subsidence But this elev a ti o n is
much more apt t o be produced by foreign than by n a tive
C ivilization is a plant much o ftener prop a g a ted
a cti o n
th a n devel o ped A s r egards the lower r a ces this a cc o rds
with the results o f E urope a n interc o urse with savage tribes
duri n g the last three o r four centuries ; so fa r a s these
tribes have survived the process they have assimilated more
o r less o f E u r opean culture and r ise n t o w a rds the E ur o
pean level as in Polynesi a South A frica South A merica
A nother import a nt point becomes man ifest from this
ethnol o gica l survey The fact that during so many th o u
sand years o f known existence neithe r the A ryan nor the
Semitic race appears to have thr o wn O ff any direct savage
tells with s o me f o rce against the p r obability
o ffsho o t
o f deg r a datio n t o the
s a v a ge level ever h a ppening f r om
high level civilization
With regard t o the o pinions of older writers on ea rly
civilization whether pr o gress i o n i sts or degen erationists it
must be borne in mind that the evidence a t their dispos a l
.

x i on b e t w ee n t h e A z t ec l a n g u ag e a n d t h e S on ora n
fa m i ly e x t en di n g N W t o w ard t h e s o u r c e s o f t h e M i s s o u ri s e e B u sc h

m n n S p u ren d er A z t ek is c h e n S pra c h e i m N ordli c h en M e x i c o & c i

A b h d er Ak d d er W i ssen s ch 1 8 5 4
B erl i n 1 8 5 9 ; a l so Tr Et h S oc vol
ii p 1 3 0 F o r t h e co n n e x i o n b e t w e en t h e N at c h e z an d M a y l a n g u ag es

s ee D a n i e l G
B ri n t o n i n Am eri can H i st ori c l M aga z i n 1 8 6 7 V 0 1 i
p 1 6 ; an d My t h s o f t h e N ew W orl d p 2 8
1

F or t h e

c on n e

e,

n
.

54

TH E

DEVELO PM ENT O F C U LT U R E

fell fo r sh o rt o f even t h e miser a bly imperfect d a ta n o w

a cc e s si ble
C riticizi n g a n 1 8 t h ce n tury ethn o l ogis t is l ik e
c ri t icizing a n 1 8 t h cen tury ge o l o gi s t Th e o lder writer may
h a ve b ee n fa r a b lc r th a n h is m o der n c ritic bu t h e h a d n o t
t h e s a me m a teri a l s
E speci a lly h e w a nted the guid a n ce
o f P reh i s t o ric A rc h ae o l o gy
a depa r tme n t o f rese a rch only
es t a bl i shed o n a s cie n t ic fo o t i n g w i thi n t h e l a st few ye a rs
I t is essenti a l t o g a in a cle a r view o f t h e be a ring o f this
newe r k n o wle dge o n the O ld p ro blem
C h ro n o l ogy though reg a rdi n g as more o r less ctitious
t h e immense dyn a stic schemes o f the E gypti a ns Hindus
a n d C hine s e p a ssing a s they do into mere ciphering book
sums w i t h ye a rs fo r units neve r theless admits th a t existing
m onuments carry b a ck the t races of compar a tively high
civiliz a ti o n t o a distance o f above ve thousand yea rs By
piecing t ogether E astern and Western documentary evidence
i t seems th a t the great religi o us divisi o ns O f the A ryan r a ce
to w hich modern Br a hmanism Z a r a thustrism and Buddhism
a re due
belong to a period o f remotely ancient histo ry
E ve n if we cannot hold with Professor Ma x M uller

in the p r eface to his transl a tion of the R ig V ed a th a t

this c o llection o f A rya n hymns will take and ma inta in for

eve r its positi o n as the most a ncient o f books in the lib r ary
o f m ankind
and if we d o not a dmi t the stringency o f
his reckonings o f its date in centuries B C yet we must
gr a nt th a t he sh o ws cause t o refer i ts c o mpositi o n to a very
a n cient period where it then pr o ves tha t a c o mp a ratively
high b a rba ric culture alre a dy existed The linguistic a rgu
ment for the remotely ancient common origin o f the Indo
E ur o pean n a ti o ns in a deg ree as t o their bodily descent
a n d i n a g reater degree a s t o their civiliz a tion te n ds towa r d
the same result So it is a gain with E gypt The calcula
ti o n s O f E gypti a n dyn a sties in th o us a nds o f ye a rs 1l o w
ever di sput able in det a il a re based o n fa cts which at
rate authorize the recepti o n o f a long chr o nol ogy
an y
To go n o fu r ther tha n the identicati on O f two o r three
E gyptian names mentioned in Bibli cal and C lassical
.

LI MITS OF CH RONOLOGY

55

history we g a in a strong impression o f remote an tiquity

Such a re the names o f Sh i sh an k ; o f the P s a mmi t i ch o s li n e
whose O belisks a re t o be see n in R o me ; o f Ti rh a k a h K ing
of E thi o pia whose nu rse s co fn is i n the F l o rence Museum ;
o f the city o f R ameses plai n ly c o nnected with th a t g r e a t
R amesside line which E gyptol o gists ca ll the 1 9 t h D y n a sty
Here before classic culture had a risen the culture o f E gypt
culminated and behind this time lies the s o mewh a t less
advanced age of the Pyr a mid kings and behind this ag a in
the inde n ite l a pse o f a ges which such a civiliz a tio n r equi r ed
for its producti o n
A g a in th o ugh no p a rt of the O ld Tes
tament can satisfact o rily prove fo r itself an a n tiquity o f
c o mposition a ppr o a ching that of the earliest E gypti a n
hier oglyphic insc riptions yet all critics must a dmit th a t the
older of the hist o rical books give o n the on e h a n d contem
i
n
ora r
d
cume
ts
showi
g
c
nside
ble
culture
the
o
n
n
r
o
a
p
y
Semitic world at a date which in c o mp a riso n with cl a ssic
history is ancient ; while o n the o ther han d they a ffo rd
evidence by w ay o f chr o nicle c a rrying b a ck ages fa r the r the
record of a somewh a t advanced barbaric civilizati o n N o w
if the devel o pment theory is to accou n t fo r phenomena such
a s these
its ch r o n ological dema n d must be no sm a ll o n e
and the more S O when it is a dmitted that in the lowe r ranges
o f culture p r ogress w o uld be e x tremely slow in c o mp a ris o n
with th a t which experience shows a mo n g nati o ns a lre a dy fa r
adv a nced O n these conditions o f the rst appe a r an ce o f
the middle civiliz a ti o n being thrown b a ck t o distan t
antiquity and of slow development being required t o
pe r form its he a vy t a sk in ages still more remote Prehist o ric
A rch ae o l ogy chee r fully takes up the pr o blem A nd indeed
far fr o m being dismayed by the vastness o f the period
required on the narrowest c o mput a ti o n the prehist o ric
a rch ae o l o gist shows even too much dispositio n t o revel in
c a lculations of thousands o f ye a rs as a n a ncie r d oes in
reck o nings o f thousands o f p o u n ds in a li b er a l and m a y b e
s o mewh a t r eckless w a y
P rehist o ric A rch ae o l ogy is fully a liv e t o f a cts w hich m ay
,

56

b ea r

O I

D E V E L O PM E N T

TH E

C U LT U R E

dege n era t i o n i n culture Such a re the col o s s al

hum a n fi gu re s o f hew n s t o n e i n E a s ter I s l a nd which m a y
p o s s i b ly h a ve b ee n s h a ped by t h e a nce s t o rs o f t h e exi s ting
i s l a n de rs h o s e p re s e n t re s o urc e s h o weve r a re q uite n u
1
e q u a l t o t h e exe c u t i o n o f s uch g i g a n tic w o rks
A much
m o re imp o r t a n t c a se i s t h a t o f the f o rme r i n h a b itan ts o f the
i n d i s tricts whe re the n a tive t ribes
Mi s s i s s i ppi V a lley
k n o w n i n m o de rn times ra n k a s s a v a ges the re formerly
d w e l t a ra ce w hom eth n ol ogi s t s c all the Mou n d Builde rs
f ro m t h e a m a z i ng exte n t o f thei r m o u n ds an d enclosures
o f which there is a si n gle gr o up o ccupying a n area o f f o ur
squ a re miles The regula rity o f the squ a res and ci rcles
an d
t h e repetition of encl o sures simil a r in dimensi o ns
r a i s e interesti n g questio n s a s t o the methods by which
these we re plan n ed o u t To have constructed such w o rks
the M o und Builders must have been a numerous p o pul a tion
mainly subsisti n g by a g ricultu re and i n deed vestiges O f
their a n cient till age are still t o be f o und They did not
however i n i ndustri a l arts a pproach the level o f Mexico
F or instance thei r use o f native copper hammered int o
shape fo r cutting instruments is similar to that of some
o f the savage tribes farther north
O n the wh o le j udging
by their ea r thworks elds pottery st o ne impleme n ts
an d other remains
they seem to h a ve belonged t o those
h i gh s a vage o r barb a ric tribes O f the Southern St a tes o f
wh o m the C r eeks a n d C he rokees as described by B a rtram
2
m a y b e t a ken a s typic a l
If an y o f the wild r o vi n g
hu n ti n g t ribes n ow f o u n d livi n g ne a r the huge e a r thwo rks
o f the M ound B uilders are t h e descendants o f this somewhat
adv a n ced r a ce t hen a ve ry consider a ble degradation has
t a ken pl a ce The questi o n is a n o pen on e The expla n ation
o f the t ra ces o f tillage may pe r h a ps in this case be like
J H L mp y i T
f P hi t i C
g
N w i h 1 8 68 p 6 0
J L i t P lm i J u Et h S
vl i 1 8 6 9

S q ui
d D vi
M
i
S m i th i
f M i i i p pi V ll y
&

C t vl i 1 8 4 8 ; L u bb k P h i t i T i m
h p V ii ; W i t z

A
vl iii p 7 2 ; B t m C k
k
d Ch
i
t h p l gi

v
S
l
Et h l
iii p t i S P t i l d t i v M t l gy
T Am
1 8 7 7 p 1 22
[N t t 3 d d ]
on

n on

re

e r,

e r an
o

o n r. ,

ro

o o

on

s,

e,

o e

oc

on

re

ar

re s s ,

ss ss

a r ra

oc .

s or c

oc

no

re

rn .

e r.

r.

ra n s . o

s or c

ec

or

es ,

re e

e r e,

c.

an

son a n

ero

uc

ee

e ro o

PREHISTORIC

A R C H ZE O L O G Y

57

th a t o f the r em a ins of o l d cultiv a tion terr a ces in B o rne o

the w o rk o f C hi n ese c o l o n ists whose descen d ants h a ve
m o stly been me r ged in the mass o f the population an d
1
f o llow the n a tive habits
O n the other h a nd the evi
dence o f locality may be misleading a s t o r a ce A traveller
i n G reenl a nd comi n g 0 11 the ruined st o ne buildings a t
K akor t ok would n o t a rgue j ustly th a t the E squim a ux
a re degenerate descend a nts O f a ncesto r s
cap a ble of such
a rchitecture
for in fa ct these a re the r emai n s o f a church
2
and baptistery built by the a ncient Scandinavian settlers
O n the whole it is rem a rk a ble how little o f colourable
evidence of dege n e r ation has been disclosed by a r ch aeology
Its n egative evidence tells stro n gly the o ther w ay A s a n
i n sta n ce m ay be q uoted S i r J o h n L ubb o ck s a rgument ag a inst
the ide a th a t tribes now ignor a nt of metallurgy and p o tte ry

forme rly possessed but h a ve since lost these a rts

We
m ay a ls o assert o n a general p r opositi on th a t n o weapo n s
o r instruments o f metal have ever been found in any country
inhabited by sav ages wholly ig n o rant O f metallurgy A still
stronger c a se is a fforded by pottery P o ttery is n o t easily
destroyed ; when known at all it is a lways a bundant and it
possesses two qualities namely those o f being easy to break
a n d yet di fcult to destr o y which render it very valuable in
a n a rch aeol o gic a l p o int O f V iew
M o re o ver it is in most
c a ses a ss o ci a ted with buri als It is the r efore a very si g n i
c a n t f a ct that no fr a gment o f p o tte r y has ever bee n fou n d
3
i n A ust ra li a N ew Zeal a n d o r i n the P o ly n esian Isl a nds
How di fferent a state o f things the p o pul a r dege n e r ation
the o ry would lead us t o expect is p o i n tedly suggested by

Sir C harles Lyell s s a rc a stic sentences in his A ntiquity O f

M an
H a d the o rigin a l stock o f m a nkind he argues been
re a lly end o wed with superior intellectu a l powers and in spired
kn o wledge while possessi n g the s a me imp ro va ble nature as
thei r p o ste rity h o w ext reme a p o int o f a dv a nceme n t would
-

1
3

J oh n L i f i n F o est s of F r E st vl ii p 3 2 7
R fn Am eri c s A c t i sk c L a n d es G a ml e G g a p h i e p l
L u bb ck ( L d Av b u y ) i n R p t f B i t i h A c i t i
St

or

eo

or

sso

V ii

on ,

v iii

12 1

58

D EV EL O PM EN T

TH E

C U LT U RE

or

l n s t e a d O f the r udes t p o tte ry o r i n t

h a ve r ched
t o o l s s o i rregul a r i n f o rm a s t o c a u s e t h e u n p ra cti s ed e y e
t o d o ubt whe t he r they a ll o rd u n mi s t a k a b le ev i dence O f
desig n w e sh o uld n o w b e fi n d in g s culptu red f o rms su rp a ss
ing i n b e a u ty t h e m a s terpi e ce s o f l h idia s o r l ra x i te lc s ;
lines o f b u ried ra il w ays o r electric te l eg ra ph s f ro m which
the b e s t e n gi n eers o f o u r d a y migh t g a in i n v a lu a b le hints ;
a s t r o n o mic a l i n s truments a n d micr o s c o pes o f m o re a dva n ced
c o n s t ructi o n th a n a n y kn o w n i n E u r o pe a n d o ther i n dic a
t i o n s o f pe r fecti o n i n t h e a rts an d sciences such as the
ni n etee n th c entury h as n o t yet witnessed S till fa rthe r
w o uld the triumphs o f i n ventive genius b e found to have
bee n carried w he n the la t e r deposits now a ssigned to the
a ges o f br o nze and iro n were formed
V ainly sh ould we be
strai n ing o u r imagi n atio n s t O guess the possible uses and
me a n ing o f such relics machines perhaps for navigating
the a i r o r explo ri n g the depths O f the o cea n o r for c alcula
ti n g a rithmetic a l p roblems beyond the wants O r even t h e
1
co n ceptio n s o f liv ing m a thematic i a ns
The master key to the investig a ti o n o f man s prim aeval
c o nditi o n is held by Prehistoric A rch aeo l ogy This key is
the evidence o f the Stone A ge pr o ving that men o f remotely
a ncient a ges we r e i n the s a v a ge state
E ver since the long
delayed rec ogniti o n O f M B o ucher de Perthes disc o veries
( 1 84 1 and onward ) o f the i n t implements i n the D rift
gr a vels o f the Somme V alley evidence has been accumul a ting
over a wide E uropean a re a to S how that t h e ruder S tone
A ge rep resented by implements of the P a l aeolithic or D rift
type preva i led among s avage tribes O f the Q uaternary
period the contempor a ries o f the mammoth and the woolly
rhinoce ro s i n ages for which G eology asserts an antiquity
far m ore remote than Hist o ry ca n a vail to subst a nti a te for
the hum an ra ce M r J o hn F rere had a lre a dy w ritte n i n
1 7 9 7 respecting such i n t instruments discovered at Hoxne

in Suff o lk
The situ ati o n i n which these we ap o n s we re
f o u n d may tempt us t o refer them to a very remote period
L y ll A t i q ui ty f M
h p xix

t hey

'

a n,

AN D NEO LITHIC PERIODS

P A L XE O L I T H I C

59

indeed even bey o n d that of the present wo r ld

The
vast l a pse o f time thr o ugh which the history o f L o nd on h a s
represented the hist o ry O f human civilization is t o my mind
o n e o f the most suggestive facts disclosed by arch aeology
There the a ntiquary excavating bu t a few yards deep
ma y descend from the d eb ri s rep r esenti n g o u r modern
life t o relics o f the a rt and science of the Middle A ges to
signs o f N o rm a n S a x o n R o m a n o B r itish times t o traces
of the higher S t o ne A ge A nd o n his way f r o m Temple
B ar to the G re a t N o rthe r n Stati o n he passes nea r the spot

( opposite to bl a ck M a ry s ne a r G rayes i n n l a ne ) where

a D rift i mplement O f bl a ck in t was found with the S kelet o n
of an elephant by Mr C o n yers a bout a century an d a h a lf
a o
o f the L o nd o n mammoth and
the
relics
side
by
side
g
2
the L o nd on s a vage
I n the gr a vel beds o f E ur o pe the
laterite o f India and other m o re superci a l localities where
relics o f the P a l aeolithic A ge are f o und what pri n cipally
testies t o man s condition is the extreme rudeness o f his
stone implements and the absence O f even edge grinding
The natur a l inference th a t this indicates a low sav age state
is conrmed in the caves of C entral F r a nce There a r a ce
O f men w h o h a ve left i n deed really artistic p o rt raits o f
themselves an d the reindeer and mammoths they lived
a m o ng seem a s m a
r om the rem a ins o f their
be
j
udged
f
y
we a pons implements & c to h a ve led a life s o mewh a t of
E squimaux type but lower by the wan t O f d o mestica ted
a nimals
The districts where impleme n ts of the rude
primitive D rift type are found a re limited I n extent It is
to a ges later in time and more advanced in devel o pment
th a t the N e o lithic o r Polished Stone Peri o d be l onged
when the manufactu r e O f stone instruments was much
impr o ved and grindi n g a n d polishing were generally int ro
d u ce d
D u ri n g the l o n g pe ri o d o f p rev a le n ce o f this st a te
o f t h ings M a n a ppears t o h a ve S pread alm o st o ve r the whole

1
3

F re e
J Ev
p 33 5
r

cd . ,

in

an s ,
.

A rc h aeol og i a , 1 80 0

i n A rc h aeol og i a , 1 86 1 ;
.

L u bb oc k

P re h i st ori c Ti m es

2n d

T II E D E V E L O P M E N T O F C U L T U R E

60

h a b i t a b le e a r t h The ex a mi n ati o n O f dis t rict a fte r district

o f t h e w o rld h a s n o w a l l bu t e s t a b li s hed a unive rs a l ru l e
t h a t t h e S t o ne A g e ( bo ne o r s h e ll bei n g the o cc a si o n a l
s u b s t i t utes fo r s t o n e ) u n de rlies t h e Met a l A e everywhere
g
E ve n t h e di s t rict s f a med i n hi s t o ry a s se a ts o f a ncien t
c iviliz a t i o n s h o w
like o ther regi o n s thei r tr a ces O f a yet
m o re a rc h a ic S t o ne A ge A s i a Mi n o r E gypt P a lesti n e
I n di a
C hi n a fur n ish evidence f ro m a ctu a l specimens
hi s t o ric a l me n tio n s and survivals which demonstrate the
f o rmer prev a lence O f c o ndi ti o n s o f s o ciety which h a ve their
1
a n a l o gues
among
modern s a vage t r ibes
The D uke O f

A rgyll i n his Primeval Ma n while a dmitting the D rift

implements as h a vi n g been the ice h a tchets and rude knives
O f l o w t ribes o f men inhabiting E u r ope toward the end o f

the G l a ci a l Pe r iod concludes thence that it would be ab o ut

a s safe t o a rgue from these implemen ts as to the condi
t i o n o f Man at that time i n the c o untries o f his Primeval
Home a s it w ould be in o u r o w n day to argue from the
h a bits and a rts O f the E skimo as to the state o f civilization
2
in L ondon o r in Paris
The progress o f A rch aeology fo r
ye a rs past however has been continually cutt i ng away the
ground o n which such an argument as this can stand till
n o w it is all but u tterly driven o ff the eld
Where n o w is
the district of the earth that c a n be pointed to as the

P rimev a l Home o f M an a n d that does not S how by rude

sto n e impleme n ts buried in its soil the s a vage conditi o n
of
its former inhabit ants ? There is scarcely a known
provin ce O f the world o f which we cann o t say cert a inly
savages once dwelt he r e an d if i n such a case an e t h n o
l og i s t asserts th at these sav ages were the descend an ts o r
successors o f a civilized n a tion the burden o f proof lies on
h im
A gain the B ronze A ge and the I ron A ge belong in
great me a sure to history but their relation t o the S tone
A ge p ro ves the soundness o f the j udgeme n t o f L ucr etius
when a tt ach i ng experience of the present to memory a n d
.

S ee

E ly H i

A rgyll

ar

y o f M nk i nd
P ri m e v a l Ma n p 1 2 9
s t or

2n d

ed

h p v iii
a

STONE

BRONZ E

AN D I RON AGES

in fe r ence fr o m the p a st h e propounded what is

tenet
the St on e Br o nze an d Ir on

of a rch aeology the successi o n

A ges
,

Ar m a
Et

61

of

n ow a

i q u a m an u s u n g u e s d en t e sq u e f u e ru n t
l ap id e s e t i t e m s i l v
a ru m f rag mi n a ra m i
an t

P ost e ri u s fe rr i vi s e st aeri sq u e re p e rt a
E t p r i or ae ri s e rat q u a m f e rr i c og n i t u s u su s

Throughout the vari o us topics of Prehistoric A rch aeology

the force and convergence o f its testim o ny upon the develop
ment o f culture are overpowering The relics discovered i n
gravel beds caves shell mou n ds terramares lake dwellings
earthworks the results of an expl o ratio n of the supercia l
soil in man y count ries the compariso n of ge o logic a l evi
dence o f hist o ric a l documents O f modern s a vage life
c o rr o b o rate a n d explain o n e another
The meg a lithic
structures menhi rs cromlechs dolmens and the like only
known to E ngland F r a nce A lgeria as t h e work of races o f
the mysterious past have been kept up a s matters o f m o dern
construction and recognized purpose among the ruder i ndi
genous tribes of In di a The series o f a n cient l a ke settle
ments which must represent S O many centuries O f successive
p o pulati o n fringing the S h o res O f the Swiss l a kes have their
surviving represent a tives among the rude tribes O f the E a st
Indies A frica an d S o uth A merica O utlying savages are
still heaping up shell
m o unds like those o f far past Scandi
navian antiquity The buri a l mounds stil l t o be seen i n
civilized countries have served at once as museums O f e a rly
culture and as pro o fs o f its savage o r barb a ric type It is
en o ugh with o ut entering farth er here int o subj ects fully
discussed in mo dern S pecial works t o cl a im the general
support given to the development theory o f culture by Pre
histo r ic A rch aeology I t w a s with a true appreciatio n o f
the b e a ri n gs of this science that o n e o f its f o u n de r s the
vener a ble Professor Sven N ilsson decl a red i n 1 8 4 3 i n the
,

Lu cre t D e
.

R um N tu
er

ra , V .

1 281

62

D E V EL O P M E N T

THE

C U LT U R E

or

Int ro ducti o n t o his P rimitive Inh a bi t a n t s O f Scandin a vi a

t h a t we a re u n a b le p ro pe rly t o u n d e rs t a n d t h e s igni fi c a n ce
o f t h e a n t i ui t ie s o f a n
q
y i n dividu a l c o u n try w i t h o u t a t the
s a me t ime cle a rly re a liz i n g t h e ide a th a t they a re t h e f ra g
men ts o f a p ro g ressi v
e s e ries o f civiliz a ti o n a n d th a t t h e
hum a n ra c e h a s a l wa y s b ee n a n d s till i s st e a dily a dv a n ci n g
l
in c iv
i liz a t i o n
E n qui ry i n t o the o rigi n a n d e a rly devel o pme n t o f t h e
m a teri a l a r t s as j udged o f by c o mpa ring the v a rious st ages
a t which they a re f o und exi s ting le a ds to a c o rresponding
result N o t t o t a ke this a rgument u p I n its full range a
fe w typic a l det a ils may s erve to S how its gener a l character
A m o n gst the various st ages o f t h e arts it is only a minority
which sh o w o f themselves by me re i n spectio n whethe r they
M ost such facts
a re in the li n e o f pr o g r es s o r of decline
may be comp a red t o a n Indian s canoe stem an d stern alike
s o that on e canno t tell by lo o kin g a t i t which way i t is set
3 n t t here a re some which like our o w n b oa ts
t o go
dis t i n ctly p o int i n the di rection o f their actual course
Such f a cts are p o inters in t h e study o f civilization an d in
every branch o f the enquiry should be sought o u t A go od
ex a mple o f these pointe r facts is recorded by Mr Wa ll a ce
In C elebes whe re the bamboo houses are a pt to le a n with
the p r evalent west wind the n a tives h ave found ou t th a t if
they x some crooked timbers in the sides o f the house it
will not f a ll They choose such a ccordingly the crookedest
they can nd but they do not kn o w the r a tionale o f the
c ontrivan ce and have not h it on the ide a that st ra ight poles
xed slanting w o uld have the same e ffect in m a king the
2
structure rig id
In f a ct they h a ve gone half way t o ward

inventing what builders call a strut but h a ve stopped

S ee

L y e ll , A n t i q ui t y o f Man , 3 rd e d 1 863 ; L u bb oc k , P reh i s t or i c

2 n d ed 1 8 0
Tra n s o f C on gress of P re h i s t ori c Arc h aeol ogy
.

T i m es
7 ;

S te v en s F l i n t C h i p s
1 8 7 0 ; N i l sso n
P i m i ti ve
( N orwi c h

I n h ab i t n ts o f S ca n di n a vi (ed b y L u bb oc k
F a l c on
P l aeo n t o

l o gi c l M e m i s
L t e t n d C h i s ty
R l i q ui ae Aq i t n i c ( d b y
T R J on es ) ; Kel ler L ak e D w ll i n gs (Tr an d E d b y J E Le e ) & c & c

W ll ac e I n di an A c h i p el ag vol i p 85 7

o r

ar

er ,

ae

o,

PROGRES S

BY

IN VENTI ON

63

sh o rt N ow the mere sight o f such a house would show

th a t the pl a n is not a rem n a n t o f higher a rchitectu re b ut a
h a lf m a de inventi o n This is a f a ct in the li n e o f pr og r ess
but not of decline I have mentioned elsewhere a number
of simil ar cases ; thus the a daptation of a c o rd t o the re
drill is obviously an improvement o n the simpler i n s t ru
ment twi rled by hand and the use o f the S pin dle for
m a king thread is an improvement o n the clumsier art o f
hand twisting ; 1 but to r eve rse this position and supp o se the
hand drill t o have c o me i nt o use by leavin g o ff the use of
the c o rd o f the cord drill or that people wh o knew the use
o f the spindle left it O ff and painfully twisted thei r thread by
hand is a bsurd A g a in the appear a nce o f a n art in a par
t i c u l a r locality where it is h a rd to account for it as borrowed
from elsewhere and especially if it concerns some speci a l
native product is evidence of its being a n ative i nventi o n
Thus what people can claim the inven tion of the hammock
o r the still more admirable discove r y of the extraction o f
the wh o les o me cassava from t h e p o isonous manioc but the
natives of the South A merican and West Indian districts to
which these things belong ? A s the isolated possession O f
an art goes to prove its invention where it is found S O the
a bsence o f an art goes t o prove that it w a s never present
The onus probandi is on the o ther S ide ; if anyone thin ks
th a t the E ast A frican s ancest o rs h a d the l a mp and the
p o tte r s wheel and th a t the N orth A meric a n Indians once
possessed the ar t o f making beer fr o m their maize like the
Mexica ns but that these arts have been l o st at a n y r ate let
him show cause for such an opi n io n I need n o t perhaps go
so far as a facetious ethnologic al f rien d o f mine w h o a rgues
th a t the e x istence o f savage tribes who do not kiss their
women is a proof of p rim aev a l ba r barism for he says if
they had ever known the practice they could not possibly
have forgotten it L astly and p rincipally a s experie n ce
shows us th a t a rts o f civilized life are developed through
successive st a ges o f improvement we may assume th a t the
.

E ly H i
ar

s t or

of

M a nk i nd pp

1 9 2 , 24 3 , & c

&c

T H E D EV E L O PM EN T

64

O R

C U LT U R E

e a rly d evel o pme n t o f eve n s av a ge a r t s c a m e t o p a s s i n a

s imil a r w a
ndi ng
s t a ge s
i
v
a nd th us
f
a ri o u s
f a n a rt
y
w e ma y a rra n ge th e s e s t a ge s i n a
a m o n g t h e l o w e r ra c e s
s e r ie s
p ro b a b ly re pre s e n ti n g t hei r a ctu a l se q u e n ce in
his to ry I f a n y a rt c a n b e t ra ced b a ck a m o ng s avage t ribes
t O a rudime n t a ry s t a t e i n which its inventi o n d o es n o t seem
b ey o nd t hei r i n tellec t u a l c o ndit i o n a n d e s peci ally if i t m ay
b e p ro duced b y imit a ting n a ture o r f o ll o wing n a ture s di rect
sugges t io n the re is fa ir re a s o n t o suppose the very o rigin o f
the art t o h a ve bee n re a ched
P ro fes s o r N ilss o n l o oki n g at the rema rkable simil a rity
o f t h e hu n ti n g a n d fi shi n g i n struments o f the l o wer races o f
m a n ki n d c o n siders them t o have been c o n trived insti n ct
iv
A s an ex a mple h e takes
e ly by a s o r t O f n a tur a l necessity
1
the b o w a n d a rr o w
The i n stance seems a n unfortunate
in the fa ce o f the fact that the supposed b ow a n d
one
a rrow making i n stinct fails among the natives o f Tasm a ni a
to wh o m it would h a ve been very useful nor have the
A ustr a li a ns an y b o w O f their own inventio n E ven within
the Papu an regi o n the bow so prevalent in N ew G ui n ea
is absent o r a lmost s o fr o m N ew C aledoni a It
seems t o me th a t D r Klemm in his dissert a tions on
Implements a n d VVeapo n S and C olonel L a ne F ox in
his lectu r es o n P r imitive Wa r fare t a ke a m o re inst ructive
line in tr a cing the e a rly development o f a rts not t o a
bl i nd instinct but t o a selection imitatio n and gradual
ad apt a tio n and impr o vement o f O bj ects and o pe ra ti o ns
which N a ture the i n struct o r O f p rim aev al man sets before
him Thus Klemm tr a ces the stages by which p rog ress
appears to have been made from the rough stick to th e
nished spe a r or club from the n a tu ra l sharp edged or
r o u n ded stone t o the a rtistica lly fa shio n ed cel t spe a r head
2
r
o
hammer
L ane F ox tr a ces c o nnexi o n th r ough the v a rious
types O f we a po n s pointi n g o u t h o w a f o rm o nce a rr ived
at is r epeated in various sizes like the spe ar he a d and
.

N il
Kl e mm

sso n ,

P ri m i t i v e I n h a b i t a n t s o f S c an di n a v i a p 1 0 4
Allg C u lt u rwi s sen sch a ft p art ii We rk z eu g e u nd W a ffe n

P ROG RES S

INVENTION

BY

65

rrow point ; how in rude conditions o f the a r ts the s a me

instrument serves di fferent purp o ses a s where the F uegi an s
use their arrow heads also fo r knives and K a rs ca rve
with their ass agais till separ a te f o rms are adopted fo r
speci a l purp o ses ; an d h ow i n the history o f the striking
cutting a n d piercing instruments used by mankind a
continuity m ay be t r aced which indi c a tes a gradual pro
n ings to the
development
from
the
rudest
b
egin
re ss i v
e
g
most a dv anced improvements o f mode rn skill To show
how far the early development o f w a rlike a rts may have
been due to man s imit a tive f a culty he p o ints ou t the
an a logies in methods o f w a rf ar e among animals and m e n
classifying as defensive appli a nces hides solid plates
j ointed plates scales ; a s o ffe n sive weapons the piercing
strik i ng serrated poiso n ed kinds & c ; an d under the he a d
ight conce alment leaders outpos ts w ar
o f str a t a gems
1
cries and s o forth
The manuf a cture o f st o ne implements is now almost
perfectly underst o od by a r ch ae o l ogists The p r ocesses used
by modern savages have been O bserved and imitated Sir
J o hn E v a ns for i n st a nce by blows with a pebble p ressure
with a piece o f stag s horn sawing with a i n t ak e boring
with a stick an d sand an d gr i n ding on a stone surfa ce
succeeds i n repr o ducing a ll but th e nest kinds of stone
2
implements
O n thorough k n owledge we are n o w able to
refe r i n g reat measure the remarkable similarities o f the
st o ne scrapers ak e knives hatchets spe a r and arrr o w
he a ds & c as found i n distan t times and regio n s t o the
similari ty O f n a tural models O f materi a ls an d o f require
ments which belong to savage life The hist o ry o f the
Stone A ge is clea r ly seen to be on e o f devel o pme n t B egin
ning with the n a tur a l S harp stone the transition to the
a

La n e F ox ( Pi tt i v ers ) ,
ec t ures o n P ri m i t i v e
S er v i c e I n st , 1 8 6 7 9
2
v an s i n Tra n s o f C ong ress o f P re h i s t ori c
1

Wa rfare J ou rn U n i t ed

Et h

Soc

vol i p
.

Sm i ths i

Rau i n

191

1 29

o n an

Rp
e

or t s ,

A rc h aeol ogy ( N orwi c h

1 86 8
Si r E B e l c h e r i n Tr

,
.

66

TH E

D E V E L O PM EN T

C U LT U RE

or

rude s t a rti fi c i a lly s h a ped s t o n e impleme n t i s impe rc epti b ly

gr a du a l a n d o n w a rd f ro m thi s rude s ta ge much i n de pe n
den t p ro g ress i n d i ffere n t d i re c ti o n s is t o be t ra ced till the
m a n u fa c t ure a t l a s t a rrive s a t a dmira b le a rtis t ic perfectio n
b y t h e t ime t h a t t h e intr o ducti o n o f metal is supersedi n g i t
S O w ith o the r impleme n ts a n d f a brics O f which the st a ges
a re k n o w n th rough their wh o le c o urse o f development f rom
The club is tra ced
t h e me re s t n a tu re t o the fullest a r t
f ro m t h e rudest n a tu ra l bludge o n up to the we a pon of
Pebbles held in the h a nd to
fi ni s hed s h a pe a n d c a rvi n g
h a mme r with a n d cutti n g i n st ruments o f stone sh a ped o r
left s m o o th a t o n e end to b e held i n the hand may be seen
in museums hinting t h a t the importan t a rt O f xing i n s t ru
me n ts in h an dles w a s the result o f i n vention n o t O f instinct
The s t o ne h a tchet used as a we a po n p a sses int o the b a ttle
The spear a p o inted stick o r pole has its p o int
axe
h a rdened i n the re a n d a further improvement is to x on
a sh a r p poi n t o f h o rn b o n e o r chipped st o ne
Stones a re
ung by h a nd an d then by the sling a contrivance widely
but n o t unive rsally known among savage tribes F r o m rst
t o l a st i n the history o f w a r the spe a r o r l a nce is grasped as
a thrusting weapo n
Its use as a missile n o doubt began
a s e a rly but it has ha r dly su r vived so far in civiliz a tion
Thus used it is most often thrown b y th e u n aided arm but
a sli n g fo r the pu rpose is known to v a rious s a v a ge tribes
The sh o rt co rd with an eye used i n the N ew Hebrides and

ca lled a becket by C a pt a i n C ook a nd a whip li ke i n

strument n o ticed i n N ew Zeal a nd are used for spear
thr owing
But the more usu a l inst rument is a wo o den
h a ndle a f o ot or two l on g This spe a r thr o wer is known
ac ross the high northern di stricts o f N orth A meric a a mong
s o me tribes o f South A me rica and a m o n g the A ustr a lians
These l a tte r it h a s been a ss e r ted could n ot have i n vented
i t in their present st a te o f b a rba r ism But the r emark a ble
feature O f the m a tte r is th a t the spe a r thr o we r bel on gs espe
A mo n g the highe r
c i a l ly to s a vage r y a n d not t o civiliz a ti o n
n a ti o ns the n e a rest a pp roa ch to i t seems t o h a ve bee n the
,

PROGRESS

BY

IN VENTION

67

classic a mentum a thong a ttached to the middle of the

sh a ft o f the j avel i n to throw it with The highest pe o ple
k n own to h a ve used the spe a r thrower prope r were the
nations o f Mexico and C entral A merica Its existence
am o ng them is vouched for by representati o ns in the

mythological pictures by its Mexican name atlatl a n d

by a beautifully artistic specimen o f the thing itself in
the C hristy M useum ; but we do n o t hear of it a s in
pr a ctical use after the Spanish C onquest
In fact the
history of the instrument seems in absolute O ppositi o n to
the degra da tion theory representing as it does a n inventio n
belonging to the lower civilization and s carcely a ble t o
survive bey o nd N e a rly the s ame may be said o f the blow
tube which a s a serious we a pon sca r cely r a nges above rude
t ribes o f the E ast Indies an d South A meric a though kept
up in sport at higher levels The A ustrali a n boomerang
has been claimed a s derived from some hypothetic a l high
culture whereas the tr a nsition stages through which it is
connected with the club are t o be observed in its o w n
country while n o civilized race possesses the we a pon
The use of spring traps o f boughs of switches t o lli p
small missiles with an d of the remarkable darts o f the Pelew
Isl a nds bent an d made to y by the ir o w n spring indicate
inventions which may h a ve led to that o f the b o w while
the a rrow is a miniature fo rm O f the j a velin The pr a ctice
of poisoni n g arrows after the manner O f stings and serpents
fangs is no civilized device but a characteristic o f lower
life which is gener a lly discarded even at the ba r baric st a ge
The art o f narcotizing sh re m
embe red but not appr o ved
by high civilization belongs t o many savage tribes who
might e a sily discove r it in an y forest po o l where a suit a ble
pl a nt had fallen in The art of se t ting fences t o catch sh
at the ebb of the tide so common among the lower r a ces is
a simple device for a ssisting n a ture quite likely t o o ccur t o
the s a v age in whom sh a rp hu n ge r is no mean a lly o f dull
wit Thus it is with other a r ts F ire making co o ki n g
p o tte ry the textile a r ts a re t o b e t ra ced a l o n g lines o f
,

'

68

D EV ELO PM E N T O F C U LT U R E

TH E

g ra du a l imp ro vemen t Mu s ic b egins with the r a ttle a n d

t h e d rum whi c h i n o n e w a y o r a n o ther h o ld t h e i r places
f ro m e ml t o e n d o f c iviliz a t i o n while pipe s a n d s t ri n ged
i n s t rume n ts re pre s en t a n a dv a nced mu s ic a l a rt which is still
devel o pi n g S o wi t h a rchitectu re a n d a gr i c u ltu re C o m
plex e la b o ra te a n d h i ghly re a s o n ed a s a re t h e uppe r stages
o f the s e a r t s i t i s t o b e remembe red th a t their l o we r st a ges
b egi n w ith mere di rect imita ti o n o f n a ture c o pyi n g the
w hi c h n a tu re p ro vides a n d the p ro p ag a ti o n O f
s helte rs
pl a n t s w h ich n a tu re pe r fo rms Without enume ra ting t o
t h e s a me purp o s e t h e r em a ini n g industries o f sav age life i t
may b e s a id gene ra lly that their fa cts resist rather than
They
requi re a t he o ry o f degradation fr o m higher cultu r e
a g r ee w ith a ml O fte n necessit a te the same V iew o f develop
men t which we k n o w b y experience to acc o unt for the origin
a n d p ro g ress o f the a r ts a m o ng o urselves
I n the v a rious b ra nches o f the pr o blem wh ich will hence
f o r w a r d o ccupy o u r a ttention that o f determining the
relati o n o f the ment a l condition O f s a vages t o that of civi
li z e d me n it is an excellent guide and s a feguard to keep
befo re o u r minds the the o ry o f devel o pment in the m a teri a l
Th ro ugh o ut al l the manifest a tio n s o f the hum a n
a rts
intellect facts will b e found to fa ll into their places on the
s a me general li n es o f evoluti o n Th e n o t i o n o f the i n tel
lectual state o f sav ages a s res ul tin g fr o m deca y O f previ o us
high knowledge seems to have as little evidence in its
f a vour a s that stone celts are the degener a te successors of
Shefeld a xes o r e a rthen grave mounds degr a ded C opies o f
E gypti a n pyr a mids The study of savage and civilized life
alike avail us t o t race in the e a rly hist o r y O f the human
intellect n o t gifts o f t ranscendent a l wisdom but rude
sh rewd sense t a king up the f a cts o f common life and
sh a pin g f ro m them schemes o f p rimitive phil o s ophy
It
will b e seen ag a i n and agai n by ex a mini n g such t o pics a s
l a ngu age mythology custom r eligi o n that sav age opinion
is i n a m o re o r less rudimen t a ry st a te whi le the civilized
d t i l i E ly H i t y f M k i d h p Vi i i x
S
.

ee

e a

ar

s or

an

GEN ERA L TEND EN CY

69

mi n d still bears vestiges n either few nor slight o f a p a s t

co n diti o n from which savages r ep r ese n t the le a st and
civilized men the g reatest a dv a nce Th r oughout the wh o le
v a st r a nge o f the history o f human thought an d h a bit while
civiliz a ti o n h a s t o c o ntend n o t o n ly with su rviv a l f ro m
lower levels but a ls o with degene ra ti o n w i thi n i t s o w n
b o r ders it yet proves c a pable o f o ve rc o ming b o th a n d
taking its o w n c o urse Histo ry within its pr o pe r eld and
ethn o gr a phy over a wider ra nge combi n e t o S h o w th a t the
ins titutions which can best hold their o w n in the w o rld
gr a dually supersede the less t ones and that this i n
cessant conict determines the general r esultan t c o urse o f
culture I will venture to set fo r th in mythic f a shi o n h o w
pr o gress abe rr atio n an d retr o gressi o n i n the general c o urse
We m ay
O f cultu r e cont r a st themselves in my o w n mind
fa ncy ourselves lookin g on C ivilization a s in personal
gu r e she traverses the w o rld ; we see her lingering o r
r esting by the w a
and
O
ften
deviating
i
n to p a ths th a t
y
b ri n g her toili n g b a ck t o where she had p a ssed by l o n g
direct o r devious her path lies f o rw a rd and if
ag o ; but
n e w an d then she tries a few b a ckw a rd steps h e r walk soon
falls in to a helpless stumbling It is not acco r di n g to her
n a ture her feet were n o t m a de to plan t uncert a in steps
behind her for both i n her fo rward V iew and i n her o n wa r d
g a it she is of truly human type
,

C H APTE R

III

S URVI VA L I N C ULT URE

S u v i v l n d S u p ti t i n C h i l d re n s gam es G am es o f c h ance T radi

ti n i
y i n g N u r ery p m sP ro v e rb sR idd l e S ig ni an c n d
u rvi v l i n C u s t m s n e z i n g fo rm u l ri t e o f f u n d t i on s ac ri c
p ej udi c e g i n t s v i n g a d o wn i n g man
a

ers

sa

oe

s :

a,

e,

W H EN a cust o m a n a r t o r an o pinio n is fairly st a rted

i n the wo r ld d istur b i ng inuences may l ong a ffect it so
sligh tly th a t i t may keep its course from gener a tio n t o
ge n e ra tio n a s a stre a m once settled in its bed will ow o n
This is me r e permanence of culture ; and the
fo r a ges
special w o nder about it is that the change and r ev o lution
o f huma n a ffa i rs sh o uld have left s o m a ny O f its feeblest
rivulets to run s o long O n the Tatar steppes six hun
d red years ago it w as an O ffence t o t r ead on the threshold
o r t o uch the ropes i n entering a tent an d so it a ppears t o
1
be still
E ightee n ce n tu ries ago O vid mentions the vulg a r
R o man obj ecti o n to marri ages i n May which he n ot u n
r eason a bly explains by the occurrence i h th a t month of the
fune ral rites o f the L emur a li a :
,

vi d u ae

v i rg i n i s ap t a
T e m p ora Q u ae n u psi t n on d i u t u rn a f ui t
H a c q u o q u e d e ca u sa s i t e p ro v e rb i a t an g u n t
2
r
l
i
M e n se m al as Ma i o n u b e e v
o gus a t
N ec

t aed i s

ea

dem

n ec

"

The saying that marriages

in

May are unlucky survives

W i ll d e Rub ru q u i s i n Pi n k ert on vol V ii pp 4 6

S i b eri an O v erl an d R ou t e p 9 6
2
O vid ; F as t v 4 87 F o r m od ern I ta ly a n d F rance
M ri l E t ud es d A rc h ol p 1 2 1
1

67 , 132 ;

Mi c h ie

70

s ee

E dl est an e d a

CUSTOMS

71

this day in E n gl an d a st riki n g ex a mple h ow a n ide a

the me a ning of which h a s perished fo r ages m ay c o nti n ue
t o exist simply because it has existed
N o w there a r e thousands o f cases o f this ki n d which
h a ve become so to spe a k landma r ks i n the c o urse of
cultu re When i n the process of time the r e h as c o me
ge n er a l ch a nge in the c o ndition of a pe o ple it is usu al
notwithst a nding to nd much that m a nifestly h a d n o t its
o r igin in the new state o f things but h a s simply lasted o n
i n to it O n the strength of these survivals it becomes
possible to decl a re that the civilizati o n of the people they
are observed a mong must have been derived from an earlier
st ate in which the proper home and me anin g of these
things are to be fou n d ; an d thus collections o f such fa cts
are to be worked as mines o f hist o ric kn o wledge In deal
i n g with such m a teri a ls
experience O f wh a t a ctually
h a ppens is the m ain guide an d direct hist o ry has t o te a ch
us rst an d f o rem o st h o w o l d ha b its h o ld thei r gr o und in
the midst o f a new culture which cert a inly would never
have brought them in but on the c o ntrary presses hard t o
thrust them out What this direct i n formation is like a
single example may sh o w The D a y a ks O f B o rneo were
not accustomed t o chop wood as we d o by notching ou t
V S haped cuts
A ccordingly when the white man i n truded
among them with this among o the r n o velties they ma rked
their disgust at the i n n o v a ti o n by levying a ne o n an y O f
their own people who S hould be c a ught ch o pping in the
E ur o pean f a shi o n yet so well a w a re were the n a tive wood
cutters th a t the white ma n s plan w a s an improvement on
their o w n th a t they would use it surreptiti o usly when
1
they could trust on e another n o t to tell
The a ccou n t is
twenty years O ld and very likely the foreign chop may have
ceased t o be an o ffence against D ayak conservatism but its
prohibition was a striking inst a nce o f su r vival by a ncestr a l
autho rity in the very teeth o f common sense
Such a
p r oceedin g a s this would be usu a lly and n o t improperly
J u
I d A h i p ( d b y J R L g ) vl ii p l i v
to

rn .

rc

an

S U RV I V A L I N C U LT U R E

de s c ri b ed a s a s upe rs t i t i o n ; a n d i n deed thi s n ame would

b e give n t o a la rg e p ro p o rt i o n o f s u rviv a l s such fo r in s ta n ce
a s ma
b
e
c
o lle c t e d b y t h e hu n d red fro m b o o k s o f f o lk l o re
y
a n d o c c ul t s c ie n c e
Bu t t h e te rm supe rs ti ti o n n o w implie s
a rep ro a c h
a n d th o ugh t h i s rep roa ch ma y b e o ften c a st
d ese rvedly o n f ra gme n t s o f a de a d l o wer cultu re e m
b e d ded i n a livi n g highe r o n e y e t i n m a n y c a ses i t w o uld
b e h a rsh a n d eve n u n true
F o r the ethn o gr a pher s pur
p o se a t a n y r a te i t i s desi rable to intr o duce such a te rm

as
s u rviv a l
simply t o den o te the hist o ric a l fac t which

i s n e w spoiled fo r exp res s i n g

s upe rstiti o n
t h e w o rd
M o re o ve r t he re h ave t o be i n cluded as p a rtia l surviv a ls
the m a ss o f c a s es whe re e n o ugh o f the O l d habit is kept up
fo r i t s o rigin t o be rec og n iz a ble though in taki n g a new
fo rm it h as been s o a d a pted to new circumst ances a s still to
h o ld i t s pl ace o n its o w n merits
Thus i t w ould b e seld o m reason a ble to call the children s
games o f m o der n E u ro pe superstitions though many o f
them are su rviv a ls and indeed remarkable ones If the
g a mes o f children an d o f grown u p pe o ple be examined
with an eye to ethnological lessons to be gained from them
o n e o f the r st things th a t strikes us is how m a ny o f them
are o nly spo r tive imitati o ns o f the serious business o f life
A s children in modern civilized times play at di ning and
drivi n g ho r ses and going t o church so a m a in amusement
o f savage children is t o i mit a te the occupati o ns which they
wil l ca rry o n in earnest a few ye a rs later and thus their
g a mes a re in fa ct the i r lessons The E squim a ux child ren s
sports a re shooting with a tiny bow a n d arr o w at a mark
a n d buildi n g little sn o w huts
which they light up with
1
sc raps O f l amp wick begged fro m their mothe rs
Miniatu re
b o omerangs an d spe a rs are among the t o ys of A ustralian
child ren ; and eve n a s the fa the rs keep up a s a rec o gnized
me a n s o f getti n g themselves wives the pr a ctice O f ca rrying
them o ff by violence so pl ayi n g a t such S a bine marriage
h a s bee n n oticed a s o n e o f the regul a r g a mes o f the little
Kl mm C l t G h i h t vl ii p 209
,

ur

esc

e,

S P O RT I V E I M I T A T I O N

73

n a tive b oys an d girls

N ow it is quite a usual thi n g in
the wo rld for a g a me t o o utlive the serious pr a ctice o f which
it is a n imit a ti o n The b ow a n d arrow is a c o n spicu o u s
inst a nce A ncie n t an d widesp r e a d in s av a ge cultu re we
t ra ce this instrument th r o ugh ba rba ric and cl a ssic life an d
onw a rd t o a high medi aeval level But n ow when we l o o k
on a t an archery meeting o r go by count ry lanes a t the

S e a s o n when toy bows and arrows a re in am o ng the

childr en we see reduced to a mere sportive surviv a l the
ancient weapon which amo n g a few sav a ge tribes still keeps
its deadly place in the hunt and the battle The c ro ss b o w
a comp a ratively late and loc a l imp r ovement o n the long
bow h a s dis a ppe a red yet m o re utterly f r om p r actic a l use ;
but a s a t oy i t is in full E uropea n se rvice and likely to
rem a in so F or a ntiquity a n d wide di ffusion in the wo rld
thr o ugh s a vage up t o cl a ssic and medi aev a l times the S li n g
ranks with the b o w and a rr ow But in the middle ages it
fell o u t of use as a practical weapon a n d it was all i n vain
th a t the 1 5 t h century poet commended the art o f slinging
a m o ng the exe r cises o f a goo d soldier :
1

se e e k

th e

I t fall e t h

o ft e ,

Me n h arn ey se d

And

yf

in

m ult i t u d e

s t ee l

may

n ot

w i t h st on d e ,

m i g h t y c as t O f s t o n y s
s t o n y s i n e ffec t e a re e v e ry w h e re
2
sl n e s ar e n o t n o o u s for t o b e are
y g
y

Th e

And

w i t h s l y n g e o r h on d e
o t h e r sh o t t h e re n o n e

c a st o f s t on e ,

an d

Perh a ps as serious a use o f the sling a s c an now be pointed

out within the limi t s O f civilization is amo n g the herdsmen
o f Spanish A me r ic a w h o sli n g so cleve r ly that the saying is
they c an hit a be a st on eithe r horn a n d turn him which
way they will But the use of the rude old weap o n is
especi a lly kept up by boys at pl a y wh o are h ere agai n the
represent a tives O f remotely ancient culture
A s g a mes thus keep up the rec o rd o f primiti ve w a r like
,

O ld ld
e

l A s t rol a b e ,
2

S u tt
tr

in

Tr E h
t
.

vol i p
.

S po

411

rt s a n d

S oc

iii
v
ol
.

p 266 ;
.

D um

P as t i m e s b ook ii c h a p ii

on t

d U rv
i ll e ,

V oy d e
.

SU RVI VA L

74

C U LT U R E

1N

t s o they repr o duce i n wh a t a re a t o nce sp o rts a n d

li t tle c hild re n s le s s o n s e a rly s t a ge s i n t h e his t o ry o f child
like t ri b es o f m a n ki n d E n gli s h child re n del igh ti n g i n t h e
imi t a ti o ns o f crie s o f a n i ma ls a n d s o forth a n d N e w Z e a
l a n de rs pl ayi n g t hei r fa v o urite g a me o f imitati n g in ch o rus
t h e s a w his s i n g the a dze chippi n g the mu s ke t re a ri n g a n d
t h e o the r i n s t rume n t s m a ki n g thei r p ro pe r n o i s e s a re
a l i ke s h o wi n g a t i t s s o u rce the imit a tive eleme n t s o imp o r t
1
a n t i n t h e f o rm a ti o n o f l a n gu age
When we l o o k into the
the
e a rly developmen t o f t h e a r t O f c o u n ting
a n d see
evide n ce o f t ribe after tribe h a ving O bt a i n ed nume rals
th rough the primitive stage O f count i ng on their ngers we
n d a cert a i n ethnog ra phic interest in the g a mes which
te a ch this e a rliest n umer a ti o n The N ew Zealan d game o f

t i is desc r ibed a s played by counti n g o n the ngers a

num b er bei n g called b y o n e pl ayer and he having i n st a ntly
t o touch the p ro pe r nger ; while in the Samoan g a me o n e
player h o lds o u t so m a ny ngers and his o pp o n e n t must do
2
the s a me instantly o r lose a p o int
These may be native
Polynesi a n games or they may be o u r o wn children s
games borrowed In the E nglish nursery the child learns
to say h o w many ngers the nurse shows and the appointed

formul a o f the game is B u ck B u ck how man y h o rns do I

hold up ?
The game of o n e h o ldin g up n ge r s and the
o thers hol di n g up ngers to match is mentio n ed in S trutt
We may see small sch o olb o ys in the la n es pl a yi n g at the
guessing g a me where on e gets o n an other s back a n d holds
up ngers the o the r must guess how man y It is i n te rest
i n g to n o tice the wide di st ributi on and l o ng perma n ence o f
these t ri es in history when we read the following p a ss age
f r o m Petronius A r biter w ritten in the time o f N e rO

Tri ma lc h i o n o t to seem moved by the loss kissed the

boy an d bade him get up o n his back Without delay the
ar s,

w
Ne

P ol ac k
Z eal an d ers vol ii p 1 7 1

2
P ol a c k i b id ; W il k es U S E x p vol i p 1 9 4 S ee t h e ac c ou n t o f

T on ga I s V 0 1 ii p 3 3 9 ; a n d Y a t e N ew
t h e g am e o f l i e g i i n M ar i n er
Z ea l an d p 1 1 3
1

COUNTING GAMES

b oy climbed

75

horseb a ck o n him an d sl a pped him on the

shoulders with his h a nd laughing and ca lling ou t bu cca

1
?
bu cca
quot sunt hic
The simple c o u n ting g a mes
pl ayed with the nge r s must not be confounded with the
ad di tion game where each player throws o u t a h a nd and
the sum o f a ll the nge r s sh o wn has to be called the
successful caller scoring a p o int ; e a ch should c a ll the
t o t a l before he sees his adve rs a ry s h a nd so th a t the skill
lies especially in shrewd guessing This game a ffo rds e n d
less amusement t o Southern E urope where it is known

i n Ita li a n as morr a and in F rench a s mourre an d it is

popula r in C hin a under th e n a me of ts a z met o r guess

how many
S O peculiar a game would h a rdly h a ve been
invented twice over in E urope and A sia an d a s the C hinese
term does n o t a ppear t o be ancient we may t a ke it a s
likely that the Portuguese merchants i ntr o d u ced the
game int o C hin a as they ce r t a inly did into J a p a n The
a ncient E gyptian s
as their sculptu r es S how used t o pl ay
a t s o me kind
of n g e r g a me and the R om a ns had the i r

n g e r as h i n g
mi ca re di g i t i s at which butchers used
to g a mb le with their customers for bits of meat
It
is n o t clear whether these were morra or some o ther
?
g a mes

When Scotch l a ds playi n g a t the game o f t appi e

t o u si e t a ke o n e an o ther by the forelock and s a y

Will ye
3
?
be my man
they know nothing of the o ld symb o lic
manner o f receiving a bondm an which they are keeping up
in survival The w o oden drill for making re by friction
which S O many rude or anc i e n t r a ces are known to have
used as their common household instrument an d which
lasts on a m o ng the modern Hindus as the time hon o ured
sacred means o f lighting the pure s a cricial a me h a s bee n
on

P e t ron Arb i t ri

S a t i rae

or

bu cco)

rec

B ii c h l er,

( ot h er

64

re a

di n gs

C mp
o

ba coca

D vi

vol

i p 3 1 7 W i lk i n son

E gyp t i an s vol i p 1 8 8 ; F ac ci olat i L ex i c on s v mi care ; & c

3
J am i eson D i c t of S c ot t i s h L an g s v
2

a re

ar e

s,

C h i n ese

A n c i en t

S U RV I V A L I N C U LT U R E

76

fo u n d s u rviv i n g i n Swi t ze rl a n d a s a t o y a m o ng the child re n

w h o m a de fi re wi t h i t i n s p o r t m u ch a s E s quim a u x w o uld
1
h a ve d o n e in e a rn e s t
I l l ( l o t h la n d it is o n re c o rd t h a t t h e
a n cien t s a c ri fi ce o f t h e wild b o a r h as a ctu a lly been c a r ried
o n i n t o m o de rn t i me i n s p o rt i ve imit a ti o n
b y l a d s i n ma s
u
e
r
i
n
o the s wi t h t hei r f a ces blacke n ed a n d p a i n ted
l
a
d
c
g
q
wh i le t h e vi c tim w a s pe rs o n a ted b y a b o y r o lled u p i n fu rs
a n d pl a ced up o n a se a t with a tuft O f p o in ted st ra ws in h i s
?
m o uth t o imitate the b ristles o f the b oa r
O n e i n n o cen t
lit t le child s s p o r t o f o u r o w n time is str a ngely mixed up
with a n ugly st o ry o f a b o ut a thous and ye a rs a g o The
g a me i n questi o n is thus pl ayed in F ra n ce
The child ren
st and in a ri n g o n e ligh ts a spill O f p a per and p a sses i t on

petit b o nh o mme vit enco re and so

t o the next sayi n g
e ach s ayi n g the wo r ds an d passing o n
o n r o und the r i n g
the a me as quickly as may be for the o n e in wh o se hands
the spill g o es ou t has to pay a forfeit and it is then pro

cl aimed th a t petit bonhomme est m o rt

G rimm me n
tions a similar game i n G ermany played with a bu rn ing
stick and Halliwell gives the nursery rhyme which is said
wi t h it when it is pl ayed i n E ngland :

Jac k s al i v e

I f he

d i es

v ery
y o u r h an d

an d

in

N ow as all readers

in

g oo d
y ou

h e al t h
m u st l ook
,

t o y o u rs el f

of

C hurch history know it used to be a

favourite engi n e of contr o versy forthe a dherents o f an esta
bli sh e d faith to accuse heretical sects o f celebrati n g hideous
o rgies as the mysteries o f their religion The Pagans told
these stories o f the Jews the Jews told them o f the
C h r istians and C hristians themselves reached a bad emi
n e n c e i n the a r t of slander i ng religious opponents wh o se
moral life often seems i n fact to h ave been exception a lly
pure Th e Manich aea ns w ere an especial mar k fo r such
which were p a ssed on t o a sect c o nsidered a s
a spersi o ns
thei r successors the Paulici a ns whose name reappea rs in
,

'

E ly H i

5 73

ar

s t or

of

M an k i n d p 2 4 4 & c ; G ri mm

3
G ri mm i b i d p 1 20 0

D ut h
e

sc

H I STORI C GAM ES

77

the middle ages in con nexion with the C athari To these

latte r app ar ently fr o m a n expressi o n in o n e o f thei r reli
g i o u s formulas was given the n a me o f Boni H o mi n es which
became a recognized term for the A lbigenses It is clear
th a t the early Paulicians excited the an ger of the o rthodox
by o bj ecti n g t o sac red images and c a lling those who vene
r a ted them idolate rs ; and abou t A D 7 0 0 John o f O sun
P a tri a rch o f A r me n ia wrote a di a tribe a g a inst the sect
urging accusatio n s o f the regular anti Manich aean type but
with a peculiar fe a ture which brings his st a tement into the
p resent si n gula r conne x ion
He decl a res th a t they blas

im a ge worshippers
that
ph e mou sly call the orthodo x
they themselves w o rship the sun ; th a t m o r eover they mix
Wheaten our with the blood o f infa nts and therewith cele

b r ate thei r c o mmunion a n d when they h a ve slain by the

worst o f de a ths a boy the rs t born o f his m o ther thr o w n
fr om h a n d to hand among them b y tur n s they vener a te
him in whose h a nd the child expi res as having a tt a ined to
the rst dignity o f the sect
To explai n the correspond
ence o f these a trocious details with the nursery sport it is
pe rhaps the m o st likely supposition not that the game o f

Petit B o nh o mme keeps up a recollection o f a legend o f

the B oni Homines but th a t the game was known t o the
children of the eighth century much a s it is now and that
the A rmenian Patri a rch simply accused the P a ulicians o f
1
play i ng at it with live b a bes
.

P o p u l a r

p 1 1 2 ; G ri m m ,

H a ll iwell
D M p 8 1 2 B as ti an
Rh y mes
M e n sc h v
p 1 0 6 Jo h an n i s Ph i lOS O ph i O z n i en si s O p era ( An e b er)
ol iii

V en i c e 1 8 3 4 pp 7 8 8 9
I n fa n t i u m s a n g ui n i s i mi la m c ommi s c en t es i ll e
g i t i mam c o mm u n i on em d eg l u t i u n t ; q u o p c t o p orc o ru m s u o s foet u s i m
man i t er v
c ra
e sc e n t i u m
e d ac i t a t e m
e x su pera n t
Q ui q u e i ll oru m c a d a v
s u p er t ect i c u lm e n c ela n t es a c s u rs u m oc u l i s i n c oe l u m d e x i s respi c i e n t e s
j uran t a l i en o v erb o a c s en s u A lti ssz mu s a wa i t S ol e m v ero d e prec ari
vol e n t e s aj u n t S al i ca le L u ci cu le ; a t q u e a reo s v
a o s u e d ae m on e s c l a m
g q
i n v o c n t j u x ta Ma n i ch aeoru m S i m on i s q u e i n c an t at ori s errore s S i m i l i t er
e t p ri m
u m pari en t i s foemi n ae pu eru m d e m a n u i n m a n u m i n t er eo s i n vi c em
proj e ct a m q u a m p e ss i m a m ort e oeci d eri n t i l lu m i n c uj u s m a n u e x s pi ra
veri t p u er a d p ri m a m s ec t ae d i g n i t a t em prove c t u m ven era n t u r ; a t q u e per
u t riu sq u e n o m en u d e n t i sa n e j u rare Ju ro d i c u n t p er u n i gem tu m l i u m
e t i t eru m
Tes tem h a beo ti bi g l i a m ej s i cuj u s ma n u m u mg i t u s li s
1

'

or

en

S U RV I V A L I N C U L T U R E

78
I t ma y

n o ther interesting group o f

s p o r t s a s s u rviv a ls fr o m a b ra nch o f s a v a ge philosophy o n ce
o f high r a nk though n o w f a llen into merited decay
G ames
o f ch a n ce c o r re s po n d s o
closely with arts o f divinati o n
bel o n gi n g already t o s av age culture that there is force in
a pplying t o several such games the rule that the serious
pr a ctice comes rst a n d in time may dwi n dle to the sp o rtive
su rv iv a l
To a modern educated ma n drawi n g l o ts o r
t o ssi n g up a coin is an appe a l to ch a nce that is to i g n o
r a nce ; i t is c o mmitting the decision of a question to a
mech a nical pr o cess itself in no way u n natur a l o r even
extr a o rdinary but merely so d i i c u l t to follow that no on e
c a n say beforehand what will come o f i t
But we also know
t hat this scientic d o ctrine O f chance is not that O f early
civilizatio n which has little in common with the ma t h e ma
t i c i a n s theory o f pr o b a bilities but much in common with
such sacred divination a s the choice of Matthias by l o t as
a twelfth apostle o r in a later ag e the M oravian B re t h ren s
rite o f choosing wives for their young men by casting lots
with praye r I t was to no blind ch a nce that the Maoris
looked when they divined by throwing up lots t o nd a
1
thief a mong a suspected company ; or the G uinea negroes
when they went to the fetish priest who shu fed his bu n dle
?
o f little strips o f leather a n d g a ve h i s sac r ed omen
The
crowd with uplifted h ands pray t o the gods when the heroes
cast l o ts in the cap o f A treides A g a memn o n to know w h o
sha ll g o f o rth to do battle with Hektor and help the wel l
?
gre a ved G reeks
With praye r to the g o ds an d l o oking u p
t o he a ven the G erm a n priest or father a s T a citus rel a tes
drew three lots fr o m a m o ng the marked fruit t r ee twigs
scattered o n a pure white garment and interpreted the
b e p o ssible

t o t ra ce

m s u u m tr a d i d z t
C on t ra h os [t h e ort h od o x ]
prae su mu n t i mpi e t a t i s s u ae b i l em , a t q u e i n sa n i e n t es ,
b l as ph e mi a S cu lp ti co la s v
o can t
'

sp i r i t u

au

ex

d a c t er

m al i

vomere

p i ri t u s

P ol ac k vol i p 2 7 0

B os m an Gu i n ese K u s t l et t er x
.

399
3

En g

T ran s

H o m er I l i d V ii
.

171

Pi n d a r

Py t h

iv

33 8

in

Pi n k ert on vol xv i
,

D I V INAT ION AND GAM ES

nswer fr o m thei r sig n s 1 A s in a n cien t It a ly o ra cles g a ve

2
resp o nses by g raven lots s o the modern Hindus decide
disputes by casting lots in front of a temple a ppe a li n g

L et j ustice be shown ! Show

t o the gods with cries o f
3
the i nn o cent !
The uncivilized man thinks th a t lots o r dice are adj usted
in their fa ll with reference to the meaning he may cho o se to
attach to it a n d especially he is a pt to suppose spiritual
beings stan ding o ver the diviner or the gambler shu fing the
lots o r turning up the dice to make them give their a nswers
This view held its pl a ce rmly in the middle a ges and
l a ter i n hist o ry we still nd g a mes o f ch a nce looked o n as
results of supern a tur a l O peration The general change from
medi aeval t o m o dern noti o ns in this r espect is well sh o wn
in a r emark a ble w o rk published in 1 6 1 9 which seems t o
have done much toward bringing the change about Thom a s
G a t ak e r a Purita n mi n ister in his treatise O f the N ature
and U se of L ots st a tes in o r der to combat them the fol
lowin g among the cur r ent obj ections made against g a mes O f
ch a nce
L o ts may not be used but with great reveren ce
because the disposition o f them c ommet h immediately from

G od
the nature o f a L ot which is a frmed t o
bee a w orke o f G ods speci a l l and immediate providence a
s a cred o racle a divine j udgement or sentence : the light use
o f it therefore to be an abuse o f G ods name ; and so a sinne
a g a inst the third C o mma n deme n t
G a t a k e r in o pposition

to this a rgues that to expect the issue and event o f it as

by ordinarie meanes fr o m G o d is common to all actions :
to expect it by a n imme di ate and e x t rao rdi n ari e w orke is no
m o re la w fu ll here than elsewhere yea is indeed mere super
4
s t i t i on
It took time however for this opin i o n to become
prevalent in the educ a ted world A fter a lapse of fo rty
ye a rs Jeremy Tayl o r c o uld still bring ou t a remn a nt o f the
a

T c it G m ni 1 0
S m i t h s D i c o f G r an d R o m
a ts

R b e t O i en t l I ll u s t t i n s p 1 6 3
G t k
pp 9 1 1 4 1 s ee L ec ky H i t y
a

er

a.

a a

r s,

er ,

ra

ora

ulum

s or t es

s or

of

R ti
a

on a

l i sm vol i p

3 07

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

80

O lde r

ti o n i n the c o u rse o f a ge n er a lly re a s o nable argu

me n t i n fa v o ur o f g a me s o f ch a n ce when pl ayed fo r ref resh

ment a n d n o t fo r mo n e y
I have he a rd he says f ro m
them th a t h a ve skill in s uch thi n g s there are such s t ra n ge
cha n ces s uch p ro m o ti n g o f a hand by f a n cy and li ttle arts
o f ge o m a n cy
c o n s t a n t wi n n i n g o n o n e side such
s uch
u n re a s o n a b le l o s s e s o n th e o the r a n d these stra n ge c o n
t i n g e n c i e s p ro duce s uch h o rrible eff ect s th a t it is n o t
impr o b a ble th a t G o d h a th pe rmitted the c o nduct o f such
g a me s o f ch a n ce t o the devil w h o will order them S O where
he c a n d o m ost mischief ; b ut with o ut the instrument a lity
1
o f m o n ey he c o uld d o n o thing at a ll
With wh a t vitality
the n o tion o f supernatural interfere n ce in g a mes o f chance
eve n n o w su rvives in E ur o pe is well sh o wn by the still
ou rishi n g arts O f g a mbler s magic The f o lk lore o f o u r
o w n day c o ntinues t o te a ch that a G ood F riday s egg is t o
be ca rried fo r luck in gaming and that a turn o f o ne s chair
will t urn one s fo r tune ; the Tyrolese knows the cha r m fo r
getting f ro m the devil the gift of winning at cards a n d dice ;
there is still a g re a t s a le o n t h e c o n t i n en t for books which
S h o w h o w to discover fr o m dreams good numbers fo r the
lottery ; and the Lusatia n peasa n t will even hide his lottery
tickets unde r the alt a r
cl o th that they may receive the
blessing with the sacrament and so stand a better chance
?
o f winn i ng
A rts o f di vination and games of chance are so similar i n
principle th a t the ve ry s a me instrument passes from on e
use t o the other This a ppe a rs in the a cc o unts ve ry
suggestive f rom this point O f V iew of the P o lynesian a rt O f

divination by spinning the niu o r coc o nut

In the
T o ng a n Islan ds in M a ri n er s time the p rincip a l purp o se
for which this was s o lemnly performed was to enquire if a
sick pe rs on would rec o ver ; p r ayer was m a de a l o ud t o the
p a tr o n god o f the family t o di rect the nut which was the n
S pu n an d i ts di rectio n a t rest i n dic a ted the intention O f the
no

my T yl o r D u c t or D u b i t n t i um i n W ork s vol
e \V t t k e
D e u t sc h e V olk sa b ergl a u b e pp 9 5 1 1 5
a

ere

Se

xi

vp
.

178

33 7

DIV INATION AND GAMES

ther o cc asi o ns when the coc o nut w a s me rely

spun for amusement n o pr aye r w a s made an d n o c redit
given t o the result He re the se rious a n d the sp o rtive use
I n the
o f this rudiment a ry teetotum a re found togethe r
S a m o an Isl a nds h o wever a t a later d a te the R ev G
Turn er nds the practice passed int o a di fferent stage A
p a rty sit in a circle the c o co n u t is sp u n in the middle
a n d the o r a cul a r answer is accordi n g t o the pers o n t o w a rds
wh o m the monkey
face o f the fruit is tur n ed when it st o ps
but where a s f o rmerly the Samoan s used this as an a rt of
divinati o n t o discover thieves n o w they only keep it up a s a
1
way of casting lots a n d as a g a me o f fo r feits
It is in
fa vour of the V iew O f seri o us divin a tion bei n g the earlier
use to n otice th a t the N ew Ze a l a nders though they h a ve
no coco nuts keep up a trace of the time when their
ancesto rs in t h e tr o pic a l islands had them an d divined with

them ; fo r it is the well known Poly n esi a n word niu i e

coco nut which is still retained in use am o ng the M a o r is
for other kinds o f divi n ati o n especi a lly that perf o rmed with
sticks Mr T ayl o r who poi n ts ou t this curi o usly n eat
piece o f ethn o logic a l eviden ce r eco r ds an o ther c a se to the
present pu rp o se A meth o d o f divination was t o cl a p the
h a nds t o gether while a p ro per ch a rm w as repe a ted ; if th e
ngers went clea r i n it was f avour a b le but a check w a s an
ill omen ; o n the questi o n o f a pa r ty cr o ssing the country
in war time the locking o f a ll the n gers o r the st o pp a ge
of s o me or all were n a tur a lly i n terpreted to mean cle a r
p a ss age meeting a tr a vellin g p a rty o r bei n g st o pped alto
gether This qu a int little symbolic a rt o f divin a ti o n seems

2
now only to survive a s a g a me ; it is c a lled pu n i pu n i
A simil a r connexi o n betwee n divin a ti o n an d g a mbli n g is
S h o wn by mo re f a mili a r i n struments The hucklebo n es o r
astr aga li we r e used in divin a ti o n in a n cient R o me bei n g
c on verted into rude dice by n umberi n g the fou r sides a n d

d
o
g

On

81

M arin er To n g a I s la n d s vol ii p 2 3 9 ; T urn er P o ly es i p

W ill i a m s F ij i vol i p 2 2 8 C o m p a re C ran z G ron l a d p 2 3 1

2
R T yl o r N e w Z e al an d pp 2 0 6 3 4 8 3 8 7
I G
1

a,

21 4 ;

S URV I V A L I N C U LT U R E

82

even w hen t h e R o m a n g a mbler used t h e t a li fo r gambli n g

h e w o uld inv o ke a g o d o r h i s mis t re s s befo re h e m a de his
1
thr o w
Such implement s a re n o w m o stly used fo r play
b u t n eve rthele s s t hei r u s e fo r d ivi n a ti o n was by n o me a ns
c o n fi ned t o t h e a n cie n t w o rld fo r huckle b o nes a re men
t i o n e d i n t h e 1 7 t h c e n tu ry a m o n g the f o r tune telli n g i n s t ru
2
men t s which y o u n g gi rl s divi n ed fo r hu s b a nds with a n d
N eg ro s o rce rers s till th r o w dice as a mea n s o f detecti n g
3
th i eves
L o ts s e rve t h e t w o purp o ses equ ally well The
C hi n ese gam b le by lo ts fo r cash a n d sweetme a ts whilst
t h e y a ls o s e ri o u s ly t a ke o mens by s o lemn appeals t o the
l o ts kept re a dy fo r the purpose in the temples and pro
fe ss i o n a l divi n e r s sit in the m a rket places thus t o O pen the

1
future to thei r customers
Playi n g cards are still in E ur o

pe a n use fo r divination That early sort known as tarots

which the F rench dealer s license to sell cartes e t t a rots

still keeps in mind is said to be preferred by fortune tellers
t o the common k i n d ; for the tar o t pack with its more
nume rous a n d complex gures lends itself to a greater
variety o f omens In these cases direct histo ry fails to tell
us whethe r the use o f the inst r ument for omen or play came

rst In this respect the history of the G reek k o ttab os

is instructive This a rt O f divi n atio n consisted in inging
wine ou t of a cup int o a metal basin so me distance o ff with
o u t spilling any
the th r ower s aying o r thinking his mis
tress s n a me a n d j udgi n g fr o m the clear or dull splash o f
the wi n e o n the metal what his fortune in lov e w o uld be ;
but i n t i me the magic p a ssed o u t of the process a n d it
5
bec a me a me re game o f dexte rity played for a priz e
If
this be a t ypic a l case a n d the rule be relied on th a t the
se ri o us use p recedes the playful then g a mes o f chance
ma y b e conside red surviv a ls in principle o r detail from

S m i t h s D i c rt t l u
B an d P o p ul A t i q ui t i s vol ii p 4 1 2
D C L i v i gst o e E x p t o Z am b es i p 5 1

D l i tt l e C h i s vol ii pp 1 0 8 2 8 5 7 ; see
.

oo

n e e,

A s i e n v0 1 iii pp 7 6
S m i t h s D i c art

ar

1 25

c ott a b os

3 84 ;

ast a n ,

O est l

POP U LA R

SAVI N GS

83

c o rresponding pr o cesses of m agic a s divinati on i n sport

made gambling in earnest
Seeking more ex a mples of the l a sti n g o n o f xed habits
among m a nkind let us gl a nce a t a group o f time h o n o u r ed
tr a diti o n a l s ayings O l d saws which h a ve a speci a l interest
as c a ses of survival E ven whe n the re a l signic a ti o n o f
these phr a ses h a s fa ded out O f men s minds an d they h ave
sunk into sheer nonsense o r have been o verl a id with some
modern supercial me an ing still the o ld formulas a re
handed on O ften g a ining mo r e in mystery than they lose in

sense
We may hear people talk o f buying a pig in a
poke whose acqu a intan ce wi t h E nglish does n o t extend to
knowing what a poke is A nd cert a inly those who wish t o s a y
th a t they have a g reat mind to something an d who express

themselves by decl a ring that they h a ve a month s mind

t o it c a n have n o c o n ception of the h opeless n onsen se they

a re m a king o f the o ld term o f the

month s mind which
was re a lly the m on thly service for a de a d m a n s soul
whereby he w a s kept in mind o r remembr an ce The proper

sense of the phrase sowing his wild oats seems ge n e rally

lost in ou r m o de r n use o f it N o d o ubt it once implied that
these ill weeds would spring up in later years and how hard
it would then be t o r o o t them out L ike the enemy in the
p a rable the Sc a ndinavian L o ki the mischief
m a ker is pro

ve rb i a lly said in Jutlan d to sow his oats ( nu s a ae r L o kken

re ) is
sin
and the name o f L oki s o a ts ( Lok e sh av
1
given i n D anish t o the wild oats ( aven a fatu a )
Sayings
which have their source in some obsolete cust o m or t a le of
c o u r se lie especially o pen t o such ill us age It has bec o me

mere E nglish to t a lk o f a n u n licked cub w h o wants

licki n g int o shape while few remember the expl a n a ti o n o f
these phr a ses f rom Pliny s st o ry th a t bears are born a s
eyeless h a irless sh a peless lumps o f white esh an d h ave
?
afterw a rds t o b e licked into f o r m
A gain in relics of old magic and religion we h ave some
.

1
2

G i mm D u tsc h My th p
Pli n v iii 5 4
r

22 2

S U RV I VA L I N C U LT U R E

84

times t o l o o k fo r a deepe r se n s e i n conventi o nal phra se s

th a n t hey n o w c a rry o n thei r fac e o r fo r a real me a ning i n
what n o w s eem s n o n s e n se H o w a n ethn o gr a ph i c a l rec o rd
ma y be c o me em b o died i n a p o pul a r s ayi n g a T a mil pr o ve rb
n e w cu rre n t in S o uth Ind i a will s h o w pe r fectly
O n occa
si o ns whe n A hi t s B a n d C c ries o u t at the blow the
b ys ta nde rs will s ay Ti s like a K o ra v
a n eating a s a foetid a
when his wife lies in ! N o w a K o ra v
a n b elo n gs t o a l o w

ra ce i n M a d ras a n d is de fi n ed a s gipsy wanderer a ss

driver thief e a te r O f rats dweller in mat tents f o rtune
teller a n d suspected char a cter ; and the explan ati o n of
the pr o ve rb is th a t where a s native women ge n erally eat
as a fce t i d a as strengtheni n g medicine after childbirth amo n g
the Ko ravan s it is th e husb a nd who eats it to fortify himself
o n the occasion
This in fact is a variety o f the world

wide custom o f the couvade where at childbirth the

husb a nd undergoes medic a l tre a tment in m a ny cases being
put t o bed fo r days It a ppears that the K o rav
a n s are
a m o ng the r aces pr a ctising this qu a int custom
and th a t
their m o re civilized Tamil neighbours struck by its oddity
but unc o nsci o us o f its n ow forgotten meaning h a ve taken it
1
up int o a pr o verb
L et us now apply the same sort o f
ethnogr a phical key to dark sayings in o u r own modern

lan guage The maxim a hai r o f t h e d og t h at bit you

was o riginally n either a metaphor nor a j o ke but a m a tter
O f fact recipe f or curing the bite o f a d o
g o n e o f the many
i nst a nces o f the a ncient hom oeopathic doctrine that what
hurts will a ls o cu r e : it is mentioned in the Scandi n avi a n

2
E dda D og s hai r he a ls dog s bite
The phr a se raising
the wind n ow passes as humorous sl a ng but it once i n
all seriousness described on e of the most dreaded o f the
sorcerer s a rts pr a ctised especially by the F inl a nd wizards
of whose un canny power o ver the weather ou r s a ilo rs have
not t o this d ay f o rg o tten thei r old terror The ancient
,

"

F m l
ro

e n era
2

e t t er o f

l d e ta i l s o f

the

a mal , 1 3 8
H av

H J S t ok e s N egap ata m t o Mr F M
C o u v a d e i n E a rly H i t ory o f M a n k i n d p

Mr

Je n n i n gs
29 3

POP ULAR

SAVI N GS

85

ceremony o r ordeal of p a ssing thr o ugh a re o r le aping o ve r

b u rn ing br a nds h as been kept up s o v i g o ro usly i n the

B r itish Isles th a t J a mi e s on s de r iv a ti o n o f the phr a se t o

h a ul o ver the c oa ls fr om this rite appears i n no w ay far
fetched It is not l o ng S i n ce an I rishwoman in N ew Y ork
was t r ied for killing her child ; she had m a de it stand o n
burning coals to nd out whethe r it was r e ally her o w n o r a
1
changeling
The E nglish nurse who says to a fretful child

Y ou got out o f bed w r ong foot forem o st this m o rni n g

seldom or never knows the meanin g o f her s a ying ; but this
is still plain in the G erm a n f o lk lore rule th a t t o get out o f
2
bed left foot rst will bring a b a d day o n e of the man y
ex a mples o f th a t simple a ssociation of ideas which connects
right an d left with good and b a d respectively To co n clude

the phrase che a ti n g the devil seems t o bel ong t o that

fa mili a r series o f legends where a man m a kes a c o mp a ct
with the end but a t the l a st moment gets off se c t free by
the interp o siti o n o f a saint or by some a bsurd evasion
such a s whistling the gospel he has bound himself n o t t o
s a y or refusing to c o mplete his b a rgai n at the f a ll o f the
le a f on the plea that th e sculptu red le a ves in the church
are still o n the n boughs
O ne f o rm o f the medi aeval
comp a ct was for the demon when he had taught his black
a r t to a class o f schol a rs to seize o n e o f them fo r his pro
fe ss i o n al fee by letting them all ru n fo r their lives a n d
catchi n g the l ast a st o ry obviously connected with a nother

popul a r s aying : devil t a ke the hi n dm o st

B ut even a t
this g a me the stupid end ma y be che a ted a s is told in the
f o lk lore o f Sp a in a n d Scotland in the legends o f the
M a rq u es de V illan o a n d the E a rl O f S o u t h e sk w h o attended
the D evil s magic schools at S a l a ma n c a an d P a du a The
a pt scholar o nly le a ves the m a ster his shadow to clutch as
f o llowing hindmost in the race and with this unsubst a ntial
p ayment the demon must needs be satised while the

J mi
a

m a n ce s
2

eson ,

l st

ser.

W u t tk e ,

i h D i ct i

c ot t s

83

on a r

s.

V olk sab erg l anb e ,

131

v
.

c oals

R Hu
.

nt ,

P o p u

l ar

Ro

S U RV I V A L I N C ULT U R E

86
new

le s s

m a de m agician goe s fo rth free bu t ever after shadow

,

I t seems a fa i r i n fe re n ce t o thi n k folk l o re ne a res t t o its

source whe re i t has its highest pl a ce a n d me a nin g Thus
i f s o me o ld rhyme o r s a yi n g has in o n e pl a ce a s o lemn
imp o r t i n phil o s o phy o r religio n while elsewhe re it lies at
the level o f the nu rs e ry there is s o me gr o und fo r t re a ting
the s e ri o u s ve rs io n a s the m o re origin a l a n d the pl a yful o n e
The a rgume n t is n o t safe
a s its me re li n geri n g su r viv a l
b ut yet is n o t t o be quite ove r lo o ked
F or insta n ce
there a re t w o poems kept i n remembra n ce among the
m o dern Jews a n d p ri n ted a t the end o f their book o f Pass
O n e is that known
o ve r services i n Heb r ew a n d E nglish

as 1 1 3 1 11 ( C had g a dy a ) : it begins A kid a kid my

father bought fo r two pieces O f money an d it goes on to
tell how a c a t c a me and ate the kid and a dog came a n d bit
the c a t a n d s o o n to the end
The n came the H o ly O ne
blessed be He ! a n d slew the angel of death wh o slew the
butcher who killed the o x t hat drank the water th a t
quenched the re that burnt the stick th a t beat the d og
th a t bit the c a t that ate the kid that my father bought for
two pieces of money a kid a kid This compositi o n is in
the S e ph e r Hagg a dah and is looked on by some Jews as
a pa ra ble concer n ing the past and future of the Holy L and
A ccor di n g to on e in terpret a tion P a lestine the kid is de
vou re d by B abylon the cat ; Babylon is overthrown by
Persia Persia by G reece G reece by R ome; till at last the
Turks prevail i n the l a nd ; but the E domites (i e the
nations of E ur o pe ) sh a ll drive ou t the Turks the angel O f
de a th sh all destroy the enemies o f Isr a el an d his children
shall be resto red u n der the r ule o f Messi a h Irrespectively
O f a n y such particul a r inte rp ret a tio n the s o lemnity o f the
en din g may incl i ne us t o thi n k th a t we re a lly h a ve the com
posi t ion here i n someth i ng like its rst fo rm an d th a t it
-

R hh l z D u t h G l u b d B u h vl i p 1 2 0 R C h m b
P p u l
f S tl
R h ym
d M i ll
u ; G i mm pp 9 69 9 7 6 ;
1

oc

es

ar

W u t t k e,

115

sc

er

co

an

e un

ra

s ce

an e o

ers ,

V ERSES

87

was written to c o nvey a mystic meaning If so then it

follows th a t ou r fa mili a r n ursery t a le o f the O ld w o m an who
couldn t get her kid ( o r pig ) ove r the stile an d w o uldn t
get home till midnight must b e con side red a br o ken d o w n
a dapt a tion o f this o ld Jewish p o em
The other c o mpositi o n
is a c o unting poem an d begins thus :
.

W ho

kn o w e t h

I (sa i t h I srael ) kn o w O n e
O n e i s God wh o i s o v e r h e a v e n an d e ar t h
W h o k n o w e t h t w o ? I (sa i t h I srael ) k n o w t w o
T w o t ab l es o f t h e co v e n an t b u t O n e i s ou r God
t h e h ea v en s an d t h e e art h
on e

wh o i s

v er

(A nd so forth

is

ccumul a ting up t o the last verse which

,

W h o

kn o w e t h t h i rt een ? I (sa i t h I srael ) k n o w t h i rt e en :

T h i rte e n d i v i n e a tt r i b ut es t w el v e t r i b e s e l e v en s ta rs t en co m
man d me n ts n i n e m on t h s p re c e d i n g c h i l d b i rt h e i gh t d ay s pre
c e di n
g c i rc u m c i s i on se v e n d ay s o f th e w e e k s i x b ook s o f th e
M i sh n ah ve b o ok s O f t h e Law fo u r m at ron s t h ree p at ri arc h s
t wo t ab l es o f t h e c o v en an t ; b u t O n e i s ou r God w h o i s o v er th e
h ea v e n s an d th e eart h
,

This is o n e o f a fa mily of counting p o ems appa rently

held in much fav o ur in medi aeval C h r istian times for they
are n o t yet quite f o rgotten in country places A n old La tin

version runs : U nus est D eus & c an d on e o f the still

surviving E nglish forms begins O ne s O ne all a l o ne and

evermore shall be so thence reck o ning o n as far as

Twelve the twelve a postles

He r e b o th the Jewish and
C hristian f o rms are o r have been serious so it is possible
that the Jew may have imitated the C hristi an but the
nobler form o f the Hebrew p o em here again gives it a
claim t o be thought the earlie r 1
The o ld p rove rbs brought dow n by l o ng inherit a nce into
our m o de rn talk a re fa r f r om being insig n icant in them
se lves fo r their wit is o fte n as f r esh and their wisd o m as
-

M en d e s
J e wi s h
H a ll iw ell
d )
,

th e
shi n

S erv i c e fo r t h e F i rs t N i g h t s o f P a sso v er L o n d o n 1 8 62 i n
(
,
,
i n t erp re t a t i o n t h e w ord sh u n m ,
i s c o m p are d wi t h

Nu

y R h ym es p

rs er

288

P o p u l ar R h ym es p

S U RV I V A L I N C U LT U R E

88

pe r t inen t a s i t ev e r w a s I lc y o n d the s e p ra ctic a l qu a litie s

p ro ve rb s a re i n s t ruc t ive f r t h e p la c e i n c t lm o g ra ph y which
t hey o c c upy
Th e i r ra n ge i n civiliz a ti o n i s limi ted ; they
s eem s c a rcely t o bel o n g t o
t h e l o west tri b e s b u t a ppe a r
fi rs t i n a s e t tl e d fo rm a m o n g s o me o f t h e highe r s a v age s

The l ij ia n s w h o w e re fo u n d a fe w ye a rs si n ce l ivi n g i n wh a t
h
a re lue o lo i s t s m i gh t c a ll t h e uppe r S t o n e A ge
a ve some
g
well m a rked p ro ve rb s They l a ugh a t w a nt o f f o rethought

b y t h e s ayi n g th a t Th c N a k o n do pe o ple c u t the m a st

fi rs t ( i e b efo re t h ey had bu i lt the ca n o e ) ; an d whe n a
p o o r ma n looks wistfully at wh a t he cann o t buy they s a y

1
Bec a lmed a n d l o o king at the s h
A m o n g the list o f

the N ew Ze a l a n de rs w h a ka t a u ki o r proverbs o n e de

sc ribes a l a zy glutton : D eep th roat but sh a llow sin ews ;

a n other s ays th a t the lazy o ften prot by the w o rk O f the in

d us t ri o u s : The l a rge chips made by Ha r dw o o d f a ll to the

A crooked p a r t
s h a re o f Sit still ;
a third mo ralizes that
o f a stem o f t o etoe can be see n ; but a c r o o ked p a rt in the
2
h e a rt c an not be seen
A mong the Basutos of South

A frica Wa ter never gets ti r ed of running is a rep roach

t o ch a tterers ; L ions gr o wl while they ar e eating means

th a t the re a re people who never will enj o y an ything ; Th e

sowi n g m o n th is the he a d a che month describes t h e s e
lazy folks w h o make excuses when work is t o be d o ne ;

The thief eats thunde rb o lts means that he will bring

?
down venge an ce fr o m he a ven on himself
West A frican
n a tions ar e especi a lly strong in pr o verbia l philosophy ; s o
much so that C a pt a in Burt o n a mused himself through the
r a iny seaso n a t F er n and o P 0 i n compiling a volume o f
4
n a tive p ro ve rbs a mo n g which there are hundreds a t about
as high an intellectual level as th o se o f E u r ope
He e d
from the sword and hid i n the sc a bb a r d i s as g oo d a s o u r
,

F ij i
,
a
r

W il l i am s
V ol i p 1 1 0
S h ort l a n d T di t i o n s o f N Z p 1 9 6
3
C a sa l i s E t ud es s u r la l an gu e S ec h u an a

R F B urto n W i t a n d W i s d o m from W est A fri ca

ol ii p 2 4 5
v
1

S ee

a so

Wait z

PRO V ERBS

O f the frying

O ut

89

i n t o the re ; a n d He who h a s
only his eyebrow for a cross bow c a n neve r kill a n an im a l

is more pictu resque if less terse th a n o u r H a r d w o rds

break n o bo n es
The O ld Buddhist a ph o rism th a t He
who i n dulges in enm i ty is like one w h o throws a shes to
wi n dward which c o me b a ck to the s a me pl a ce and cove r
him all ove r is put with less prose and a s much point in

the neg r o s ayi n g A shes V b a ck in the face o f him w h o

thr o ws them
Whe n some on e tries to settle an a ffair in
the absence o f the pe o ple c o ncerned the negr o es will obj ect

th a t Y ou ca n t shave a m a n s he a d when he is n o t the re

while to expl a in th a t the m a ster is not to be j udged by the

folly o f his serva n t they s ay The rider is n o t a f o ol

bec a use the ho rse is

I n g ra titude is alluded to i n The
swor d knows not the he a d o f the smith ( who made it )

and yet m o r e fo rcibly elsewhe r e When the c a lab a sh h a d

saved t hem ( in the fami n e ) they s a id let u S cut it for a
d r inking cup
The popular c on tempt fo r po o r men s

wisdom is put ve ry neatly i n the maxim Whe n a p o o r

man makes a proverb it does n o t sp r ead while the ve r y
mention of m a kin g a proverb as something likely to happe n
shows a land where proverb m a king is still a living a rt
T ranspl a nted t o the West Indies the A frica n keeps up this

a rt
as witness these s a yings : Behind dog it is dog but

before d og it is Mr D og ; an d Toute c ab i n e t t e tini

m a ri n g o uin
E very cabin h a s its mosquito
The prove rb h a s n o t ch a nged its ch a r acter in the c o urse
O f hist o ry ; but h a s ret a ined fr o m rst t o l a st a precisely
denite type The pr o verbi a l sayings r ec o rded am o ng the
highe r n ations o f the world are to be recko n ed by tens o f
th ousands an d have a l a rge a n d well kn o wn liter a ture o f
thei r o w n But though the r a nge o f existe n ce o f p roverbs
extends int o the highest levels o f civiliz a tio n this is sca rcely
t r ue Of their development A t the level o f E ur o pe an culture
in the middle a ges they h a ve indeed a v a st importan ce in
popula r educa tion but their period o f actual gr o wth seems
already a t an end C e rvantes raised the pr o verb monger s
-

n
a
p

S U RV I V A L

90

N C U LT U R E

cr a f t t o a pitch i t neve r su rp a ssed ; b ut i t must not be fo r

g o tten th a t t h e i n c o mp a ra ble S a n c h o s w a res were m o stly
hei rl o o m s ; fo r p ro v
e rb s w e re even then si n ki n g t o rem n a nts
o f a n ea rlier c o nditi o n o f s o ciety
A s s uch they su rvive
a m o n g o urselves w h o g o o n usi n g much the s ame r elics o f
a n cest ra l wi s d o m a s c a me o u t o f the s q u ire s inexh a u s tible
bu dget O ld s a ws n o t t o b e lig htly altered o r m a de a n ew i n
o u r changed m o de rn times
We c a n collect a n d use the
b u t m aking new o n es has bec o me a feeble
o l d p ro verbs
s piritless imit a ti o n like o u r a ttempts t o invent new myths
o r new nursery rhymes
R iddles st a rt near proverbs in the history o f civilization
and they travel o n long t ogether though at last towards
di e re n t ends
By riddles are here meant the old fashi o ned
problems with a real a nswer intended to be discove red such
as the typical e n igma of the Sphinx but not the mode rn
verbal conundrums set i n the traditi o n a l form o f question
a n d an swer a s a way of bringin g in a j est a propos o f no

th i ng The o rig i nal kind which may be dened as sense

riddl es are found at h o me among the upper sav ages and
ra n ge on into the l o wer and middle civilization ; an d while
thei r g rowth stops at this level many a ncient specime n s have
l a sted on i n the modern nursery and by the cottage reside
The re is a pla in reason why riddles s hould belong only to
the higher grades O f savagery th eir making requires a fa ir
powe r of ideal comparison and k n owledge must h a ve m a de
co n siderable advance befo r e this process could become s o
familiar as to fall from earnest i n t o sport
A t last in
a far h i gher state o f culture riddles beg i n to be l o o ked
their gr o wth ce a ses an d they o nly survive
o n a s triing
in remnants for children s pl a y
Some examples ch o sen
among various races from s a v age ry upw a rds will sh o w
more ex a ctly the place in mental histo ry which the riddle
occupies
The followin g are specimens from a collection o f Zulu
riddles recorded with quain tly simple native comments o n

the phil o sophy o f the matte r

Q G uess ye some men

RIDDLES

91

who are many an d form a row ; they d a nce the weddin g

da nce adorned in white hip dresses ? A

The teeth ;
we c a ll them me n w h o fo r m a row fo r the teeth st an d
like men who a re made ready for a wedd i ng da nce that

they may d a nce well When we say they are adorned

with white hip dresses we put th a t in that pe o ple may
n o t a t once think O f teeth but be drawn aw a y f r om them

by thinking It is men who put on white hip dresses

and continually have their th o ughts xed o n men & c

Q G uess ye a man who does n o t lie down a t n ight : he

lies down in the morning until the sun sets ; he then
a w a kes
and works all night ; he d o es n o t work by d ay ;

?
A
he is not seen when he works
The closing p o les

o f the cattle pen

Q G uess ye a man wh o m men do n ot
like t o laugh for it is known that his laughter is a very
g r eat e v
il and is followed by l a mentation and an end
of rej oici ng Men weep a n d trees a n d gr a ss ; and every
thi n g is he a rd weeping i n the tribe where he l a ughs ;
and they say the man h a s laughed who d o es not usually

laugh ? A F ire It is called a man that wh a t is said

may n o t be at o nce evident it bei n g concealed by th e

word ma n
Men say many things searching out the
meaning in rivalry and missin g the mark A riddle is
1
good whe n it is not discernible at o nce & c
A mong
the Basutos riddles are a recognized part O f education
and are set like exercises to a wh o le c o mp a ny of puzzled

children
Q D O y ou know wh a t throws itself from

A
the m o untain t op without bein g broken ?
A w a ter

fall
Q There is a thing that travels fast without legs
or wings
a n d no cli ff nor rive r
nor wall can stop it ?

A
The voice
Q N ame the ten trees with ten a t

A
stones on the top O f them
The ngers
Q Who
is the little immov a ble dumb boy w h o is dressed up wa rm

?
A
in the day a n d left naked at night
The bed
2
clothes peg
F rom E ast A frica this Swahili riddle is an

1
2

C all w y N urse y T al es & c o f Z u l u s vol i p 3 6 4 &

C a al i s Et ud es sur l a l an gu e S ec h u an p 9 1 B s u t os p
a

a
,

a,

c.

3 37

S UR V IVA L IN C U LT U RE

92

My h e n h a s l aid a m o n g th o rn
A
A

l
F ro m W e s t A f ri c a thi s Y o ru b a o n e : A
p i n c a pple
l o ng s len d er t ra di n g w o m a n w h o n eve r get s t o m a rket ?

A
A c an o e ( i t s t o p s a t t h e l a n di n g pl a ce )
I II P o ly
I s l a nde rs a re given t o riddle s
n e s ia
th e S amo an
Q

There a re fo u r b ro the rs w h o a re a lw a y s h e a ri n g a b o ut

?
A
Th c S a m o a n pill o w which is a y a r d
t hei r f a t he r

o f th ree i n ch b a mb oo resti n g o n f o ur legs

Q A white
he a ded ma n s t a n ds above the fence an d reaches to

?
A
the heave n s
The smoke o f the oven
Q A

?
ma n w h o st a nds betwee n t w o r a venous sh
A
The
3
o
m
Z
c
to n gue
There
is
a
ulu
riddle
like
this
which
(
pares the t on gue to a man living in the midst o f enemies
ghting ) The f o llowing are O ld Mexican enigmas : Q

?
A
Wh a t a re the ten sto n es on e has at his sides
The

n g e r nails
Q Wh a t is it we get into by three pa r ts

an d
ou t
of
by on e ?
A
A shi r t
Q What goes

?
A
through a v a lley an d drags its entr a ils after it
A
1
needl e
These riddles found among the l o wer r a ces do n o t di ffer
at all i n n a ture from th o se that have come down sometimes
modernized i n the setting into the nu rse ry lore o f E ur o pe

Thus Sp a nish children still ask Wh a t is the dish o f nuts

that is gathered by day and scatte red by n ight ? ( the

stars ) O ur E n glish riddle O f t h e p a ir o f tongs : L o ng

legs crooked thighs little head a n d no eyes is primitive
enough t o h a ve been made by a South Sea Isl a nder Th e
f o ll o wi n g is o n the s a me theme a s o n e O f the Zulu riddles :

A ock of white sheep O n a red hill ; He re they go there

they go ; N o w they stand still ? A nothe r is the ve ry

anal ogue o f o n e of the A ztec specimens : O ld Mother

Tw i t ch e tt h a d but on e eye A nd a long tail which she let y ;
ex ample : Q

s ?

"

S t eere S w h i l i Tal s p 4 1 8
B u rt on W i t an d W is d om fro m W est A f i c a p 2 1 2

Tam er
o
P lyn es i a p 2 1 6 S ee P ol ck N ew Z eal n d ers vol ii
a

17 1

a
a
n
s
r
a
t
o
S h g u , H i i d e N u e va Espa a , i n Ki n gsb orou g h s A nt i q ui t i es

o f M e x i c o, v
ol v
ii p 1 7 8
4

RIDDLES

93

And

every time she went over a g a p She left a bit o f h er

t a il i n a t r ap
S o thoroughly d o es riddle maki n g belong to the my t h o
logic st age o f th o ught th a t an y poet s simil e if not t oo far
fetched needs o nly inversion to be made a t o n ce int o an

enigma
The Hin d u c a lls the Sun S apt asv
a
ie
seven
horsed while with the same thought the O ld G erm a n riddle

asks Wh a t is the cha riot drawn by seven white a n d seven

black horses ? ( the ye a r drawn by the seven d a ys an d
1
nights O f the week ) Such t o o is the G reek riddle of the
t w o S isters D ay and N igh t who gave birth each to the oth er
to be bo rn of her again :
,

Curr ant, di v7) pi ta

5% T e x o a 67r d 7

E tc i
-

Tfp/ r pa v
,

T LK T e t

7 0

86

T eK

o T a t
v
;

and the enigm a of K le o b ou l os with its other like fragments

o f r udime n tary myth o logy :
,

E 39 6

a ari

jp

'
a o l. T

H a i deg
2

A eoi v
a m t O
'

O n e i s th e fa t h e r
,

3% OU CI OeK a

pmj KO

H L IEV Ae v
k a i ga O

72 01 3 6
-

"

7 0 V

K oiO T cp

d Ot xa 6 330 9 X o v
O at

!
w 556 31 a 27 8 a trr e ff Aa t I/a t
I /T

'

o iiO

'

a t

'

'

I/

'

SE7

I "

d7ro <f> 6 fv
ov
0 w d
in G o a t

t w lv
e th e

h i l d ren an d b orn u n t o eac h

M a id e n s t h i rt y w h os e form i n t w a i n i s p art e d as u n d e r
W h i t e t o b e h ol d o n t h e on e s id e bl ac k t o b e h ol d o n t h e o t h e r
A ll i m m o rt al i n b e i n g y e t d o o m e d t o d w i n d l e an d p e r i s h
an d

on e ,

Such questi o ns a s these m ay be fa i rly guessed now a s in o ld

times a n d must be distinguished from th a t sca rce r class
which requi r e the divination o f some u n likely event t o s o lve
them
O f such the typical e x ample is S a mson s riddle
a n d there is an O ld Sc a ndinavi a n o n e like it
The story is
th a t G e s t r f o und a duck sitting on her nest in a n ox s
horned skull and thereupon propou n ded a riddle desc ribin g
with ch a r a cteristic N o rthma n s met a pho r the o x with its
h o r n s fa ncied a s alre a dy made into drinki n g h o rns The
f o llowing translation does not exaggerate the quaintness of
,

'

G i mm p
r

699

2
.

Di o g

L a ert i
.

91 ;

A t h en a gora s x
,

45 1

S UR V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

94

J o yi n g i n children the b ill go o se grew

A n d h e r lmi ld i ng tim b e rs t o gethe r d rew ; The biti n g g ra ss
s he a re r s c reened h e r b e d With the m a ddeni n g drink st re a m
1
o ve rhe a d
M a n y o f the o l d o ra cul a r resp o nses a re puzzles
o f p re c i s ely thi s ki n d
Such is the st o ry o f the D elphic
o ra cle
which o rdered Temen o s to nd a man wi th th ree
eye s t o guide t h e a rmy which i nj uncti o n b e fullled b y
meeting a o n e eyed man 0 11 ho rseb a ck ? It is curi o us to
n d this ide a a gain in Sc a ndinav ia whe re O din sets Ki n g

H e i d re k a riddle
Who are they two that fa re to the
Thi n g with three eyes ten feet and on e tail ? the answer
bei n g the o n e eyed O din himself on his eig h t footed horse
3
Sleipnir
The close bearing O f the doctrine of survival o n the study
o f ma n n ers a n d customs is c o nstan tly coming in to view
in e t lm og ra ph i c research It seems scarcely too much t o
a ssert o nce for all that meaningless customs must be sur
vi va l s that they had a practic a l o r at least ceremonial
intention when and where they rst arose but a re n ow fallen
into absur dity f rom having been carried on into a new state
of society where their original se n se has been discarded
O f course new customs intro duced in particul a r a ges may
be ridiculous or wicked but as a rule they have discernible
motives E xplan a tions o f this kind by rec o urse t o some
forgotten meaning seem on the whole to account best for
O bscure customs wh ich some ha v
e set down to mere out
breaks o f sp o ntane o us folly A cert a in Zimmermann who

published a heavy G eog raphica l History o f Mankind in

the 1 8 t h century r emarks a s follows on the prevalence of
simila r nonse n sic a l an d stupid customs in dist a nt coun
the

igi n a l

or

Ma n n h ard t s

Z ei t sc h r fur

D u t h My t h l gi
e

N 6g

fo r t h u n

er

B a rn gi orn

H lift h u

su er

en n

sc

o o

axi n ,
g as v
b a r b ut i mb r s a

S ee

H ist

ro t e ,

Ma n n h ard t

of

G re

Z ei t sc h r

ec e ,

1c
.

vol iii p

n Os

m an

i h a lm s b i t sk almi r

Th o l a d ry kkj ar d ry n h rOnn y r
2

e,

v
ol ii p
.

2, & c

REA SONABLEN ES S OF CU S TOM S

95

tries
F or if two cle v er heads may each for himself hit
u o n a clever inventio n or disco v
ery then it is far likelier
p
conside r ing the m u ch larger total of fools and blockheads
that like fooleries sho u ld be given to two far distant lands
If the n the i n ve n tive fool be likewise a man o f impo r tance
and in u ence as is indeed an ext r emely fre qu ent case
the n both nations adopt a simila r folly and then cent u r ies
after so m e his torian goes th r o u gh it to extract his evidence
for the derivation o f these two nations o n e from the
1
o ther
S t r o n g views as to the folly of mankind seem to have
bee n in the air abo u t the time o f the F rench R evol u tion
L ord C hester eld was no do u bt an extremely di fferent
pe r son from ou r G erman philosopher b u t they were q u ite
at on e as to the abs u rdity o f c u stoms A dvising his son
as to the eti q u ette of co u rts the E arl writes th u s to him

F o r example it is respectf u l to bow to the King o f

E n gland it is disrespectf u l to bow to the King o f F rance ;
it is the r u le to co u rtesy to the E mpe r or ; and the prostra
tion of the whole body is re qu ired by E astern M onarchs
These are established ceremonies and m u s t be complied
with ; b u t why they were established I defy sense and
reason to tell u s It is the same among all ranks whe r e
certain c u stoms are received and m u st necessa r ily be com
plied with tho u gh by no means the res u lt of sense and
reason A s for instance the very abs u rd tho u gh almost
u niversal cu stom of d r inking peo ple s healths C an there
be anything in the world less relative to any other man s
health than my d r inking a glass o f wine 2 C ommon sense
certai n ly never poi n ted it o u t b u t yet common sense tells
2
me I m u st confo r m to i t
N ow tho u gh it m ight be
dif cu lt eno u gh to m ake sense of the m inor details o f
co u rt eti qu ette L o r d C h e s t e r e l d s exam ple from it o f
,

E A W Zi mm rm
.

1 7 7 8
83

vol iii
.

S ee

A ss c i t i on 1 8 7 0
E l of C h s ter ld
o

ar

&
G eogr p h is ch e G es ch i cht d s M s ch
Pr f ss or R ll es to s I g r l A ddr ss Bri t is h

an n ,

o e

u a

n au

L tt rs t h is S
e

on ,

v
ol ii
.

en ,

en

l x v iii

c. ,

'

90

U R V I VA L

I N

C U LT U R E

i rr ationality o f mankind is a sing u larly u nl u cky o n e

I n de e d if any o n e we r e told to s e t fo r th in few wo r d s t h e
re la t i o ns o f t h e p e o pl e t o their r u le r s in d i lle re n t states o f
s o ciety h e m igh t a n swer that me n g r ovel o n their faces
be fo re the Ki n g o f S ia m k n eel o n one knee o r u ncover
befo r e a E u r o pea n m o n arch and sh ake the hand o f the
P r esiden t o f the U ni t ed S tates as tho u gh it we r e a p u mp
handle
These are ceremo n ies at once i n telligible an d
signi cant
L ord C heste r eld is more fort u nate in his
second insta n ce fo r the c u stom o f dri nking healths is really
o f obsc u r e
o rigin Y e t it is closely connected with an
ancien t rite practically abs u rd indeed b u t done with a
c o nscio u s and serio u s inte n tion which lands it qu ite o u tside
the r egion o f nonsense This is the c u stom of po u ring ou t
libations and d r inking at ceremo n ial ban qu ets to gods and

the dead Th u s the o ld N orthmen dra n k the minni o f

Thor O di n and F reya and o f kings likewise at their
f u ne r als The c u stom did n o t die o u t with the conversion
o f the S candi n avian and Te u tonic nations
S u ch form u las

as G od s minne ! a bowl to G od in heaven ! are on

record while in like manner C hrist M ary and the S ai n ts
were dr u nk to in place o f heathe n gods and heroes and
the habit of drinking to the dead and the living at the
same feast and in similar terms goes far to prove here a

common origin for both ceremonies

The minne was
at once lo v e memory and the tho u ght o f the absent

a n d it long s u r v i v ed in
E ngland in th e mi n n y i n g o r

my n d e days on which the memory o f the dead was cele

b ra t e d by services or ban q u ets
S u ch evidence as this
fai rly j u sti es the writers older and newer who have
t r eated these ceremonial drink i ng u sages as in their nat u re
1
sac ri c i a l
A s for the practice o f simply drinki n g the
health o f living m e n its ancient history reaches u s from
se v eral dist r icts inhabited by A ryan nations The G reeks
the

W are n d

al l i us ,
S e e H y l t en C a v
ri mm,
5 2 5 , 1 20 1
Bran
1

pp

d vl ii pp
,

W i rd arn e ,

oc h
.

vol i pp

3 1 4 , 3 25, & c

16 1 70 ;
-

D R I N K I N G HEA LTHS

97

in symposi u m drank to on e another and the R o m a n s

adopted the habit ( v
ro
inare
G
r
eec e more bibe r e )
i
v
rav
o
e
w
p
p
p

The G oths cried hails ! as they pledged each othe r as

we have it in the c u r io u s rst line o f the verses D e

c on v
ii s b arb a ri s
iv
in the L atin A nthology which sets
down the sho u ts of a G othic drinking bo u t of the fth
cent u ry o r so in words which still partly keep their sense
to an E nglish ear :
,

'

I n te r
N on

ai ls

au

Go t i cu m

d et

ma tz i a i a dri n ccm
q u i sq u am d ig n o s e d u ce re v e r s u s
sca i a
p

A s for o u rselves tho u gh the old drinking sal u tation

of

w aes h ael ? is no longer v u lgar E nglish the form u la

re m ains with u s sti ffened into a no u n
O n the whole
there is pres u mptive tho u gh not co n cl u sive evidence that
the c u stom of drinki n g healths to the living is histo r ically
related to the religio u s rite o f drinking to the go ds and
the dead
L et u s now p u t the theory of s u rvival to a somewhat
severe test by seeking from it some explanation of the
existence in practice o r memo ry within the limits o f
modern civilized society o f th r ee remarkable gro u ps of
c u stoms which civilized ideas totally fail to acco u nt fo r
Tho u gh we may not s u cceed in giving clear and absol u te
ex planations of thei r mo tives at any rate it is a step in
advance to be able to refer their origins to savage o r
barbaric anti q u ity
L ooking at these c u stoms from the
mo de r n practical point o f view o n e is r idic u lo u s the others
a r e atrocio u s and all are senseless The rst is the prae
tice of sal u tation on sneezing the second the rite o f laying
the fo u ndations o f a b u ildi n g o n a h u man victi m the third
the prej u dice aga i nst saving a d r owning man
In interpreting the c u stoms co n n ected with sneezing it
is ne edf u l to recognize a prevalent doctrine of the lower
races o f which a f u ll acco u nt will be given in another
chapte r A s a man s so u l is considered to go in an d o u t
o f his body s o it is with other spi r its
u larly s u ch as
artic
p

98

U RVI VA L I N C U LT U RE

e n te r int o pati ents and possess the m o r a lllic t the m with

disea s e A mong t h e less c u l tu r ed races the connexion o f
thi s idea wi t h s n eezi n g is bes t show n among the Z u l u s a
peo ple fi rmly pe r s u ad e d that ki n dly o r a n g ry spirits o f the
dead h o v er ab o u t them do the m good o r harm s tand
v isi b ly bef o re the m i n d r eams enter i n to them and ca u se
diseases in them Th e followi n g partic u lars are abridged
f r om the n ati v e s tatements taken down by D r C allaway

\Vhen a Z u l u sneezes he will say

I am now blessed
The I d h lo z i ( ancest r al spirit ) is with me ; it has come to
me L et me haste n a n d praise it for it is i t which ca u ses
me to sneeze ! S o he p r aises the manes of his fa m ily
asking for cattle and wives and blessings S neezing is a
sign that a sick person will be r estored to health ; he

re tu r n s thanks after s n eez i ng saying Y e people o f o u rs

I ha v e gained that p r osperity which I wanted C onti n u e
to look on me with favo u r "
S neezing reminds a man
that he sho u ld name the I t on g o (ancest r al spirit ) of his
people witho u t delay beca u se it is the I t on g o which ca u ses
him to sneeze that he may perceive by sneezing that the
If a man is ill and does no t sneeze
I t on g o is with him
those who come to h i m ask whether he has sneezed or not ;

if he has no t sneezed they m u rm u r saying The disease

is g r eat ! If a child sneezes they s ay to it G row ! it

is a sign of health S o then i t is said sneezing among
black m en gives a m an st r ength to remember that t he
The
I t on g o has e n tered into h i m and abi de s w i t h him
Z u l u di v i n e r s o r sorcerers are very apt to sneeze which
they rega r d as an indication of the presence o f the spirits

whom they adore by saying

M akosi ! (i e lo r ds o r
masters ) It is a s u ggestive exam ple o f the transition of
s u ch c u sto m s as these f r om one religion to another that
the A makosa who u sed to call o n their divi n e ancestor
U t i x o whe n they s n eezed si n ce thei r conversio n to C hris

P r ese r v e r look u po n me ! o r C reato r o f

t i an i t y say
heave n a n d ea r th
E lsewhere i n A f r ica s imila r ideas

f A maz u l
C ll w y R l i g i
pp 6 4 2 225 2 6 3
.

on o

u,

N EEZING

99

are m entioned
S ir Thomas B rowne i n his V u lga r
E r r ors made well known the story that when the Ki n g
acclamations o f blessi n g passed
o f M o n o m o t apa sneezed
from mo u th to mo u th thro u gh the city ; b u t he sho u ld
have mentioned that G o di gn o from whom the o riginal
acco u nt is taken said that this took place when the king
1
dran k or co u ghed o r sneezed
A later acco u nt from the
other side o f the continent is more to the p u rpose I n
G u inea in the last centu ry when a principal pe r sonage
sneezed all present fell on their knees kissed the ea r th
cla pped their hands and wished him all happiness and
2
prosperity
With a di fferent idea the neg r oes of O ld
C alabar when a child sneezes will sometimes exclaim

F ar from yo u ! with an appropriate gest u re as if throw

3
ing off some evil
P olynesia is another region where
the sneezi n g sal u tation is well marked In N ew Zeala n d
a cha r m was said to prevent evil when a child sneezed ; 4

if a S amoan sneezed the bystande r s said L ife to yo u ! 5

while in the Tonga n gro u p a sneeze on th e starting of an
6
expedition was a most evil presage
A c u rio u s A merican
instance dates from H ernando de S oto s famo u s expedition
into F lorida when G u ach oy a a native chief came to pay

him a visit
While this was going on the caci qu e
G u ach oy a gave a great sneeze ; the gentlemen who had
come with him and were lining the walls o f the hall amo n g
the S paniards there all at once bow ing their heads openi n g
their a r ms and closing them agai n and making othe r
gest u res o f great veneration and respect sal u ted him with

d i fferent words all di r ected to one end saying The S u n

g u a r d thee be with thee ; enlighte n thee magnify thee
protect thee favo u r thee defend thee prosper thee save
thee and other like phrases as the words came and fo r a
.

1
2

3
4
5
6

V i t Pa tris Gon z li S y l v i ae C ol Ag ri pp 1 6 1 6 ; l i b ii 0 x
B os m n G u i n e l etter x v iii i Pi n k ert on vol x v i p 4 7 8
B rt on
W i t a n d W is d om from W e s t A fri c
p 373

S h rt l d T r d s f N e w Z e l n d p 1 3 1

e
4
T r r P ly si p 3 8 ; see l s o W i ll i m s Fiji vl i p 2 5 0
M ri er T n g a Is vl i p 4 5 6

Godi g nu s ,
a

a,

cr

a,

an

u n
a

ne

a,

a a

S U R V I VA L I N C U LT U R E

100

g o o d s pace the r e li n ge r ed t h e m u rm u r o f these wo r ds amo n g

t he m w h e r eat t h e gov e r n o r w o n d e r i n g said to the gentle

me n a n d ca ptai n s with h i m
D o yo u n o t s e e that all the
w o r ld is o n e ?
This matte r was well no ted a mong the
S pania rds that am o n g so barbaro u s a people sho u ld be
u sed the same ce r emonies
or greater than among those
who hol d the m sel v es to be ve r y civilized Whence it may
be believed that this ma n ne r o f sal u tation is nat u ral a mong
all n ations and n o t ca u sed by a pestile n ce as is v u lgarly
said & C 1
I I I A sia and E u rope the sneezing s u perstition extends
2
u
th ro gh a wide r an ge of r ace age and co u ntry
A mong
the passag e s r elating to it in the c la ss 1c ages of G reece and
R ome the following are some o f the most characteristic
3
the l u cky sneeze o f Telemachos in the O dyssey ; the
soldier s sneeze and the sho u t o f adoration to the god which
rose along the ranks and which X enophon a ppealed to as
4
a fa v o u rable omen ; A ristotle s remark that people con
sider a sneeze as divine (T OV u evw r a p/1 5V 9 6 5vy o d/Ae ea ail a t )
5
b u t not a co u gh & c ; the G reek e pigram on the man with
the long nose who did not say Z ei! 0 1 30 0 1 when he sneezed
6
for the noise was too fa r off for him to hear ; P etroni u s

A rbiter s mention of the c u stom o f saying S al v e ! to o n e

7
wh o sneezed ; and P liny s qu estion C u r s t e rn u t amen t i s
apropos o f which h e re mark s that e v en Tibe
s a l u t a mu s ?
8
ri u s C aesar that saddest of m e n exacted this observance
,

"

Fl ori d a vl iii ch x l i
A m n g d iss rta ti on s o n t h e s u bj e ct s ee e s p e c i lly S i r T h os Bro wn e
P eu d od i
E pi d mi c ( V lg r E rr rs ) b ok i v ch a p ix ; Br n d

P o pu l ar A n t i q i t i e s
vol iii p 1 1 9 & c
N ew
R G H a l i b u r t on

M t eri l s f r t h e H is tory o f M n H l i f x N S 1 8 6 3 ; E n cy c l op aed i a

h
s n ez i n g ; W ern s d or f D R i t u S t ern u t n t i b u
ed )
t
B i t t a n i ea ( 5
b en pre c n d i L i p z ig 1 7 4 1 s ee l s o Gri mm D M p 1 0 7 0 n o te
H m r O dy ss x v ii 5 4 1
X n op h n A n b sis iii 2 9
A ris t t Pro b l em xxxiii 7
B n ck v
o l iii p 9 5
A n t h ol og i G c
P tr n A b S t 9 8
P l i m xx viii 5
1

G rc i l
a

as o

de la

H is t

ga,

d e la

'

ox a

ree

a,
.

ru

ar

N EEZI N G

101

S imila r r ites of s n eezing have long been observed in E astern

1
A sia
When a H i n d u s n eezes bystanders say L ive !

and the sneezer r eplies With y ou ! It is an ill omen to

which a m ong others the Th u gs paid great regard on
starting on an expedition and which eve n compelled them
?
to let the t r avellers with them escape

The Jewish s n eezing for m u la is Tob i m c h ayi m ! i e

3
G oo d life !
The M oslem says P raise to A llah ! when
he sneezes and his f r iends compliment him with pro per
form u las a cu stom which seems to be conveyed from r ace
4
to race whereve r Islam extends
L astly the c u sto m
ranges thro u gh me di mval into mo der n E u ro pe To cite old

G erman exa m ples D ie H eiden n ich t e n d o rft en niesen d a

man doch spri c h e t N u h e l u

Wi r sp r echen swe r
5
n i u se t G ot helfe di r
F o r a N or m a n F r e n ch i n stan ce in
E ngland the followi n g lines (A D 1 1 0 0 ) may se r ve which

show o u r old form u la w aes h ael ! ( may yo u be well !

u sed also t o avert being taken ill after a
sneeze I

un e

pu r

f ey z e

est e rn u e r

Tan t o t q u i d e n t mal t rou e r

6
S i u esh ei l n e d i e z a pre z
.

In the R u les o f C ivility (A D 1 6 8 5 translated from the

F rench ) we read
If his lordship cha n ces to sneeze yo u

are n o t to bawl o u t G od bless yo u si r b u t pu lling o ff

yo u r hat bow to him ha n dsomely and make that o b sec ra
7
tion to yo u rself
It is n oti ced that A nabaptists a n d

D ie

d es

O rig i n es ;

B as ti an O est l A si en vol ii p

2
W ard H i n d o o s vol i p
1

N oe

Die

d es

Mig

1 29

Sl

465
3

Jud i s c h er
4

an e ,

vol iii p
.

L xi c
e

on

S p rs t i t i s
u

142 ;
1 20

C h al d ai cu m

ra

a.

an

90

D b is
u

S pri c h w ort er , & c

vol i
.

D t s ch
eu

in

Tr E th
.

S oc

G rimm , D
pp 1 0 7 0 , 1 1 1 0
an u e

l d es Pec c h s , i n W e dg w ood , D i c

w ass ai l
7
Bran d v0 1 iii p

Te n dl au ,

&c

P eu pl e s d e l I n d e
,

on

V orz e i t F nk f M 1 8 6 0 p 1 4 2
M o d ern Eg y p t i s vol i p 2 82 S ee G ran t

Ramaseea n a ,

e e ma n ,

B u x t orf,

n e,

126

En g l is h E tymol og y

v
.

S U R V I VA L I N C U L T U R E

10 2

Q u akers re j ected these with o ther sal u tations b u t they

r emai n ed in t h e c o de o f E n glish good manne r s amo n g high
a n d l o w t ill hal f a cen t u ry o r so ago and a r e so little for
g o tten n o w that mo st people still s ee the point o f the sto r y
o f the ddle r and h i s wife whe r e his sneeze and he r hea r ty

G o d bles s y o u ! b r o u gh t ab o u t the r e m oval o f the ddle

ca s e
G n t t hilf ! m a y s till be hea r d in G e r ma n y and
F elicit a i n Italy
I t is not s t r a n ge that the existence o f these abs u rd
c u stoms sho u ld have been for ages a p u zzle to c u r io u s
en qu irers E s pecially the legend mongers took the matter
i n ha n d and their attempts to de v ise historical explanations
a r e o n r eco r d i n a gro u p of philoso phic myths
G reek
Jewish C h r istian P romethe u s prays for the preservation
o f his a r ti cial man when i t gives the rst S ign o f life by a
sneeze ; Jacob prays that man s so u l may n o t as heretofore
depa r t f r om his body when he sneezes ; P ope G regory prays
to a ve r t the pestilence in those days whe n the air was so
deadly that he who sneezed died of it ; an d from these
imaginary events legend declares that the u se of the s n e e z
ing form u las was handed down It is more to o u r p u rpose
to notice the existen ce o f a co rresponding set o f ideas and
c u stoms connected with gaping A mon g the Z u l u s repeated
yawning and sneezi n g are classed together as sig n s o f
1
approaching spi r it u al possession
The H ind u when he
gapes m u st sna p his th u mb and nger and repeat the name
o f some G od as R ama : to neglect this is a sin as great as
?
the m u rder o f a B r ahman
The P ersians asc r ibe yawning
sneezing & c to demo n iacal possession A mong the modern
M oslems generally when a man yawns he p u ts the back o f

his left hand to his mo u th saying I seek r ef u ge with

A llah from S atan the acc u r sed ! b u t the act o f yawning is
to be a v oided for the D evil is in the habit o f leaping into
?
a gapin g mo u th
This may very likely be the meanin g o f
,

'

C ll aw ay p 2 6 3
P e n d N m h
tr

an e ,

c.

Ward
S a c y ch 1xiii ; M au ry
2

de

M gi
a

e,

&c

3 02 ;

N E EZI N G

103

the Jewish proverb O pen no t thy mo u th to S atan 1 The

other half of this idea shows itself clearly in Joseph u s sto r y
his ha v ing see n a certain Jew na m ed E leazar c u r e
of
demo n iacs in V espasian s time by drawing the demons ou t
thro u gh their nostrils by means o f a ring containing a r oot
1
The acco u nt of the
o f mystic virt u e mentioned by S olomon
sect o f the M essalians who u sed to spit and blow their noses
to expel the demons they might have drawn in with their
breath ? the records o f the medi aeval exorcists drivi n g o u t
3
devils thro u gh the patients nostrils and the c u stom still
kept u p in the Tyrol of crossing oneself when o n e yaw n s
4
lest somethi n g evil sho u ld come into one s mo u th i n volve
simila r ideas In comparing the modern K a r ideas with
those o f other districts o f the world we n d a distinct notio n
of a s n eeze being d u e to a S pi r it u al p r ese n ce This which
seems in deed the key to the whole matter has been well
bro u ght i n to view by M r H alib u rto n as displayed in Keltic
folk lore in a gro u p o f stories t u rning on the s u perstition
that any on e who sneezes is liable to be carried o ff by the
fairies u nless their power be co u nteracted by an invocation

5
as G o d bless yo u !
The correspo n ding idea as to yawn
ing is to be fo u nd i n an Icela n d folk lo r e legend whe r e the
troll who has transformed herself into the shape of the

bea u tif u l q u een says When I yawn a little yawn I am a

neat and tiny maiden ; when I yawn a half yaw n then I
am as a half troll ; when I yawn a whole yaw n then am
6
I as a whole troll
O n the whole tho u gh the sneezi n g
s u perstition makes n o approach to u niversality among man
kind its wide dist r ib u tion is highly re m arkable an d it wo u ld
be an interesting problem to decide how fa r this wide di s t ri
b u t i on is d u e to independent growth in several regions

G Bre ch r

Ju d
2

v iii 2
M ig n e
B a s ti a n
.

4
6

T lm d p
a

H r si s s v
vl ii pp 1 1 5 3 22
M
W t t k D eu t s ch e V o lk s b rg l au b e p 1 3 7
H l i b u r t on p c i t

P ow ell n d M ag nu ss en L eg en d s o f I c el an d
u

D i e d es
e n s ch

e,

168 ;

J o s ep h

D a s Tra n sc e n d e n tal c i m

2n d

s er.

448

An t

S U R V I VA L I N C U L T U R E

1 04

fa r t o e rmv
e y a n c e f ro m r ace t o r ace a n d h o w far to
I l e r e i t h a s o n ly t o b e m ai n tained
a n c e s t r al inh e rita n c e
that it w a s n o t o r i g i n ally a n a r bit r a ry a n d meaningless
c u sto m b u t t h e w o rki n g o u t o f a pr inci ple 1 The plain
s tate ment by the m o de r n Z u l u s ts w i th the hints to be
gai n e d fr o m t h e s u pe rs tition a n d folk lo r e o f o ther races t o
c o n n ect the n o ti o n s a n d practices as to s n eezi n g wi th the
ancie n t a n d savage doct r i n e o f pervad i n g and invadi n g
a n d t r eated accordi n gly
S pi r its co n side r ed as goo d o r evil
The li n ge r ing s u r v
ivals of the qu aint old for m u las in modern
E u r ope see m an u nco n scio u s r ecord o f the ti m e when the
ex pla n ation of sneezing had not yet been given over to

physiology b u t was still i n the theological stage

The r e is c u rr ent in S co tland the belief that the P icts
to whom local legend attrib u tes b u ildings o f prehistoric
anti q u ity bathed thei r fo u n dation stones with h u man
blood ; and legend e v en tells that S t C ol u mba fo u nd it
necessa ry to b u ry S t O ran alive beneath the fo u ndation o f
his monastery in order to propitiate the s pirits of the soil
who demol i shed by night what was b u ilt d u ring the day
S o late as 1 8 4 3 in G ermany when a new bridge was b u ilt
at H alle a notion was abroad among the peo ple that a child
was wanted to be b u ilt into the fo u ndation These ideas o f
ch u rch or wall or bridge wanting h u ma n blood or an i m
m u r ed victim to make the fo u ndation steadfast are n o t only
widespread in E u r o pean folk lore b u t local chronicle o r tra
dition asserts them as matter of historical fact in dis t rict
after district Th u s when the broken dam of the N ogat
had to be re paired in 1 4 6 3 the peasants o n the advice t o
th r ow in a li v ing ma n are said to have made a beggar d r u nk
and b u ried him there Th u r i n gian legend decla r es that to
make the castle o f L iebenstein fast and impregnable a child
was bo u ght fo r hard money o f its mother and walled in It
h ow

c a s es i n w h i ch a s n eez e is i n terpre t e d u n d er s p ec ia l c on d i ti on s as
w i th r e feren c e t o ri g ht a n d l e ft
&c
e arly morn i n g
(see P l u t arch D e
a s th e y b el on g t o ord i n a ry
a re n o t c o n si d ere d h ere
Ge n i e S o c ra t i s
o m e n d i v i n a t i on
1

Th e

FOUNDATION SACRIF ICE

105

was eating a cake while the masons were at work the sto r y

goes a n d it cried o u t M o the r I see thee still ; the n

late r M other I see thee a little still ; an d as they pu t

in the last stone M other now I see thee no more

The
wall of C openhage n legen d says sank as fast as it was
b u ilt ; so they took an innocent little girl set he r o n a chair
at a table o f toys and eatables and as she played an d ate
twelve master maso n s closed a va u lt over he r ; then with
clanging m u sic the wall was raised and stoo d rm ever
after Th u s Italian legen d tells o f the b r idge of A rta that
fell in and fell in till they walled in the master b u ilde r s
wife and she spoke her dyi n g c u rse that the b r idge sho u ld
tremble like a flowe r stalk henceforth The S lavonic chiefs
fo u nding D e t i n e z accor ding to o ld heathen c u stom se n t o u t
men to take the rst boy they met a n d b u ry him in the
fo u ndatio n S ervian legend tells how three brothe r s com
b i n e d to b u ild the fortress of S k a dra ( S c u ta r i ) ; b u t year
after year the de m on ( V ila ) razed by night what th e th r ee
h u ndred masons b u ilt by day The end m u st be appeased
by a h u man sacri ce the rst of the three wives who sho u ld
come bringing foo d to the workmen A ll three brothers
swo r e to keep the dreadf u l secret from their wives ; b u t the
two eldest ga v e traito r o u s war n ing to theirs and it was the
yo u n gest brother s wife who came u ns u specting and they
b u ilt her in Bu t sh e en treated that an opening sho u ld be
left fo r her to s u ckle he r baby thro u gh and for a twelve
month it was bro u ght To this day S ervian wives visit the
tomb of th e good mother still marked by a st r eam of water
which t r ickles milky with li m e dow n the fortress wall
L astly the r e is o u r ow n legend o f V o r tigern who co u ld no t
nish his towe r till th e fo u n dation stone was we t ted with
the blood of a child born o f a mo ther witho u t a father A s
is u su al in the history o f sacri ce we hear of s u bstit u tes for
s u ch victims ; empty cof ns walled u p in G ermany a la m b
walled in u nder the altar in D enmark to make the ch u rch
stand fast and the ch u rchyard in like manner ha n dselled by
b u rying a live horse r st In mode r n G r eece an evident
,

10 0

I N C U LT U R E

s U RV I V A I .

r e lic o f the idea s u r v i v es i n the s u pe r sti tio n that the rs t

S l ( l l C is laid will die withi n the
p a s s e r b y aft e r a
ye a r whe r e fo r e t h e mas o n s will compr o mise t h e debt by
killing a la m b o r a black cock on the sto n e With m u ch
the sam e idea G e r ma n legend tells o f the bridge b u ildi n g
e n d cheated o f his p r omised fee a so u l by the device o f
m a king a cock ru n r st across ; and th u s G erman f o lk lore
says it is well befo r e ente r i n g a new ho u se to le t a cat o r
1
F rom all this it seems that with d u e allow
d o g ru n i n
ance for the idea having passed into an often repeated and
varied mythic theme yet written and u nwritten tradition do
r
eserve
the
memo
ry
o f a bloodthirsty barbaric rite which
p
no t only really existed in ancient times b u t l ingered long in
E u r opean history If n e w we look to less c u lt u red co u ntries
we shall nd the rite carried on i n ou r o w n day with a
distinctly r eligio u s p u rpose either to p r opitiate the earth
spirits with a victim o r to convert th e so u l o f the victim
himself into a protecting demo n
In A frica in G alam a boy and girl u sed to be b u ried
alive befo re the great gate of th e city to make it impreg
nable a p r actice once execu ted on a large scale by a B am
barra tyrant ; while in G reat B assam and Y a rri ba s u ch
?
sacri ces were u s u al at the fo u ndation o f a ho u se o r village
In P olynesia E llis hea r d of the c u stom i nstanced by the
fact that the central pillar o f on e of the temples at M aeva
?
was planted u pon the body o f a h u man victim
In B orneo
-

W S co tt M i n s trel s y of S c ottis h B or d er F orb e s L es l i e E arl y Ra c es

1 9 4 4 87
Grimm D eu t s ch e M yth ol ogi e pp 9 7 2
ol i pp
o f S c o tl a n d
v

M en s ch vol pp 9 2 4 0 7 vol iii pp 1 0 5 1 1 2 B owr i ng

1 0 9 5 ; B a s t i an
S erv i an P o p u l ar P o etry p 6 4
A re vi e w o f th e F irs t E d i t i on o f t h e

I t is
pres en t w ork i n N a t ure J u n e 1 5 1 87 1 c on ta i n s t h e fol l owi n g
n ot
for e x a m pl e man y y e ars si n c e t h e pre s en t L or d L e i g h wa s a cc u s e d o f
h a vi ng b ui l t a n ob n o xi ou s p ers on o n e a cc ou n t i f w e rememb er ri g ht
sa i d e i g ht o b n o xi ou s p ers on s i n t o t h e fou n d a t i on o f a bri d g e a t S t on el e i g h
O f c ou rs e s o pre p o s t ero u s a ch arg e c arri e d o n i t s fa c e i t s o wn s u f c i en t
re fu ta t i on ; b u t t h e fa ct th a t i t wa s brou g ht t all is a si n g u l ar i n s ta n c e o f
t h e a l mo s t i n cre d i b l e vi ta l i ty o f ol d tra d i t i o n s
W a i t z vol ii p 1 9 7
P e ly m R e s v
3 E ll is
ol ii p 3 9
ol i p 3 4 6 ; Ty erm n a n d B e n n e t v
1

O U NDAT ION SACRIF I CE

107

a m ong the M ilana u D ayaks at the erection o f the la r gest

ho u se a dee p hole was d u g to recei v e the rst post which
was then s u spended over it ; a slave girl was placed in the
excavation ; at a signal the lashings we r e c u t and the
eno r mo u s timber descended cr u shing the gi r l to death a
sacri ce to the spirits S t John saw a milder form o f the
D ayaks set u p a
r ite pe r formed when the chief o f the Q q
ag s t a ff near his ho u se a chicken being thrown in to be
1
cr u shed by the descending pole
M ore c u lt u red nations of
S o u thern A sia have carried on into modern ages the rite of
the fo u ndation sac ri ce A 1 7 t h cent u ry acco u nt of Japan
menti ons the belief there that a wall laid o n the bo dy o f a
willing h u man victim wo u ld be sec u re from accident ; accord
i n g l y when a great wall was to be b u ilt some wretched
slave wo u ld o ffer him self as fo u n dation lying down i n the
?
trench to be c r u shed by the heavy stones lowered u pon him
When the gates o f the new city of Tavoy in Tenasserim were
b u ilt abo u t 1 7 8 0 as M ason relates on the e v idence of an
eye witness a criminal was p u t in each post hole to become
a protecting demon Th u s it appears that s u ch stories as
that o f the h u man victims b u ried for spirit watchers u nder
the gates o f M andalay o f the q u een who was drowned
i n a Bu rmese reservoi r t o make the dyke safe of the
hero whose divided body was b u ried u nder the fo r tress o f
Th a t u n g to make it i m pregnable a r e the reco r ds whether
in histo r ical or mythical form of the act u al c u stoms of the
,

F a r

E a s t vol i p 4 6 ; s e e B a s t i an v
ii p 4 0 7 I am
ol
i n d eb t ed t o Mr R K D ou g l as for a p erfect e x a m pl e o f o n e mean i n g o f th e

fou n d a t i on s acri c e from t h e C h i n es e b ook Y uh h e a k e ( J ew elled

Ca sk e t o f
B e fore b eg i n n i n g t o b u il d t h e w orkmen s h o ul d
s a cri c e t o t h e g o d s o f t h e n e i g h b ou rh o o d o f t h e earth an d w oo d S h ou ld
t h e c arp e n t ers b e v e ry a ppre h en si v e o f t h e b u i ld i n g fa ll i n g th e y w h en
xi n g a p o s t s h ou ld t a k e s o me th i n g l i v i n g a n d pu t i t b en ea th a n d l ow er
t h e p o s t o n i t a n d t o l i b era t e [t h e e v i l i n u en c e s ] th e y s h ou ld s tri k e t h e
p o s t wi th an ax e a n d rep ea t
I t is w e ll i t is w e ll
Ma y th o s e w h o l i v e wi th i n
B e e v e r w arm a n d w e ll fe d
2
C aron J a p an i n Pi n k ert on vol v ii p 6 2 3
1

St J h
.

n,

S U R V I VA L IN C U LT U R E

10 8

d o mi n i o n w he n R a j ah S ala Byne
w a s b u il d i n g t h e fo r t o f S ialk t in t h e Pu n j ab t h e fo u n da
tio n o f the s o u th eas t bas ti o n gav e way so r epeatedly that
he had r ec o u r s e t o a s o o thsaye r who ass u red h i m that it
wo u ld n ev e r stand u ntil th e blood o f an only son was shed
th e r e w here fo r e t h e o n ly s o n o f a widow was sac r i ced ?
It is th u s plai n that hide o u s rites of which E u r ope has
scarcely kept u p m o r e than the d i m memory have held fast
thei r ancient p r actice a n d meaning in A f r ica P olynesia and
A sia amo n g races who rep r esent in grade if not in c h ro
n o lo
ea
r
lier
s
tages
o
f
civilization
gy

When S i r Walte r S co tt in the P irate tells o f B ryce the

pedla r r ef u si n g t o help M o r da u nt to save the shipwrecked
sailor from drowning and even re m onst r ating with him on
the r ash n ess of s u ch a deed he states an o ld s u perstition o f

the S hetlanders
A re yo u mad ? says the pedlar ; yo u
that have lived sae lang in Zetla n d to risk the savi n g of a
drowning man ? Wot ye not if y ou bring him to life again
h e will be s u re to do yo u some capital i n j u ry ?
We r e this
inh u man tho u ght noticed in this on e district alone it might
be fancied to have had its rise in some local idea now no longer
to be explained Bu t when mentions of similar s u perstitio n s
are collected among the S t Kilda islanders and the boat m en
o f the D an u be among F rench and E n lish sailors and even
g
o u t o f E u rope and a m ong less civilized races we cease to
thi n k o f local fancies b u t look for some widely accepted
be lief of the lowe r c u lt u re to acco u nt for s u ch a state of
thi n gs The H ind u does not save a man from drowning in
the sacred G a n ges and the islanders of the M alay archipelago
3
share the cr u el notion
O f all people the r u de Kamchadals
have the p r ohibition in the m ost re m arkable fo r m They
hold it a great fa u lt says K rach e n i n n i k ow to save a drow n
l

land

\Vi t h i n

o ur

wn

F M s on B urma h p 1 0 0 ; B s ti n
A si en vol i pp 1 9 3 2 1 4
v
ol ii pp 9 1 2 7 0
vol iii p 1 6 ; R ob rt s O ri en t l I ll u s tr t i n s p 2 8 3

B s t i n M en s ch vol iii p 1 0 7 A mo d ern Arnau t s tory i s g i v en

b y Pro f L i eb re cht i n P h i l o l ogu s vol xxiii
p 682
en
B s ti
M s ch vol iii p 2 1 0 ; W ar d H i n d oos vol ii p 3 1 8
1

O est l

an ,

DRO WNI NG

1 09

i n g man ;

he who delivers him will be d r owned himself

S teller s acco u nt is more extraordi n ary and probably a pplies
only to cases where the victim is act u ally drowni n g : h e says
that if a man fell by chance into the wate r it was a g r eat
sin for him to get o u t for as he had been destined t o drown
he did wrong in not d r owning wherefore n o o n e wo u ld let
him into his dwelling n o r speak to him no r give him food
o r a wife b u t he was reckoned for dead ; and even when a
man fell into the water wh il e others were standing by far
from helpi n g him ou t they wo u ld drown him by force N ow
these ba r barians it appears avoided volcanoes beca u se of the
spirits who live there and cook their foo d ; for a like reason
they held it a sin to bathe i n hot springs and they believed
with fear in a sh like spirit o f the sea whom they called
?
Mi t g k
This S pirit u alistic belief among the Kamchadals
is no do u bt the key to their s u pe r stition as to rescu ing
drowni n g me n There is even to be fo u nd in modern
E u ropean s u pe r stition n o t only the practice b u t with it a
lingering s u rvival o f its ancient S piritu alistic sig n i cance
In B ohemia a recent acco u nt ( 1 8 6 4 ) says that the shermen
do n ot vent u re to snatch a drowning man from the waters

They fear that the Waterman (i e water demon ) wo u ld

take away their l u ck i n shing and drown themselves at
?
the rst opport u nity
This explanation o f the prej u dice
against saving the water S pirit s victim m a y be con rmed
by a mass o f ev
idence f r om va r io u s districts of the world
Th u s i n discu ssi n g the doctrine Of sac r i ce it will appear
that the u s u al ma n ner o f maki n g an o fferi n g to a well rive r
lake o r sea is simply to cast pro perty cattle o r m e n into
the water which personally o r by its indwelling spi r it takes
?
possession o f them
That the accidental drowni n g o f a
man is held to be s u ch a seiz u re savage an d civilized folk
lore show by many examples A mong the S io u x Indian s
1

Kra c h e n i n n ik o w , D es c r d u K a mch a t k a , V o y

tell er K a ts ch a t k a pp 2 6 5 2 7 4
.

J V
C h ap
.

m
Gro h ma n n A b erg l a u b en
,

VI II

un d

en

S i b ri

e,

vo l iii p
.

G ebr ch e
au

au s

B oh m e n p

12

72

S U RVIVAL IN CULTURE

1 10

i t is U n k taho the water monster that drowns his victims in

l
flo o d o r r a pid ; i n N e w Zealand h u ge s u pernat u ral re ptile
m o nsters called Taniwha live i n river bends and those who
2
a re d r o w n ed a re said to b e p u lled u nder by them ;
the
S ia m ese fea r s the F u n k o r water s piri t that seizes bathe r s
3
in S lavo n ic lands
a n d d r ag s them u n de r to his dwelling ;
it is To pi e le c ( the d u cker ) by whom men are always
4
dr o wned ; when so m e one is drowned in G erma n y peo ple

recollect the religion o f their a n cestors and say The

rive r spirit clai m s his yea r ly sacri ce o r more simply

6
The n i x has take n him :
-

I c h

l
au b e
d i e W e ll e n v e r s ch l i n g e n
g
A m E n d e F i s ch e r u n d Ka h n ;
U n d d a s h a t mi t i h r e m S i n g e n
D i e Lo re l e i g e t h an
,

F rom this poi n t o f view it is obvio u s that to sa v e a sinking

man is to snatch a victim from the very cl u tches o f the
water spirit a rash de ance of deity which wo u ld hardly
pass un avenged In the ci v ilized world the r u de ol d theo
logical conception of drowning has long been s u perseded
by physical explanation ; an d the prej u dice against resc u e
from s u ch a death may have now almost o r altogether
disappeared Bu t archaic ideas drifted on into modern
folk lore and poetry s till bri n g to o ur view an appa r en t
connexion between the primitive doctrine and the s u rviving
c u stom
A s the social development o f the world goes o n the
weightiest tho u ghts and actions may dwindle to me r e
s u rvival O r igi n al meani n g dies ou t grad u ally each ge n e
ration leaves fewe r a n d fewer to bear it i n mind till it falls
o u t of p op u lar memo r y and in after days ethnog r aphy has
to attempt more o r less s u ccessf u lly to resto r e it by pieci n g
-

D a c o a h
t
,

E a s tman
pp 1 1 8 1 2 5

R T a yl or N e w Z ea l an d p 4 8
B as t i a n O est l A si en vol iii p 3 4
W iss en s ch a ft d e s S l a wis ch e n
H an u sc b
G rimm D eu ts ch e M y th p 4 6 2
,

My th

u s,

29 9

DROWNING

111

together lines o f isolated o r forgotten facts C hildren s

spo r ts pop u lar sayings abs u rd c u stoms may be practically
u n i mportant b u t a r e not philosophically i n signi cant bear
i n g as they do on some o f the most instr u ctive phases o f
early c u lt u re U gly and cr u el s u perstitions may p r o v e to be
relics o f p r imitive ba r barism for in keeping u p s u ch M an is
like Sh akspe are s fox

W h o , n e e r so t ame, so ch e ri sh d , an d l o c k d

W i l l h a v e a w i l d t ri c k o f h i s an c e s t or s

u p,

C H AP TE R I V

S U R V I V A L I N C U L T U R E (con ti n u ed )

O ccul t S c i en c es M ag i c al p ow ers a ttri b u t e d b y h ig h er t o l o w er ra c es

M ag i c al pro c esse s b as ed o n A ss oci a t i on of I d eas O men sA ug ury & C
O nei roman c y H aru s p i c a t i on S c apu l i man c y C h iroma n c y & c
C arto ma nc y & c
R h a b d oman cy D a cty l i oman cy C o s c i noma n cy & c
A s tro l og yI n t ell ee t ua1 c on d i ti o n s a cc ou n t i ng for t h e p ersis te n ce o f
M ag i c S urv i va l pass es i n to Re v i v a l Wi tchcra ft orig in a t i ng i n
s a v ag e c u l ture c on t i nu es i n b arb ari c c i vi li z a t i on ; i ts d e c l i n e i n early
me d i aev a l E urop e foll ow e d b y re v i v a l ; i t s pra ct i c e s a n d c ou n t er
practi c e s b e l ong t o e arl i er cu l tureS p iri tu al is m h as i ts s ourc e i n
early s ta e s o f c u l t ure
a ft
n
n
c
l
o
s
e
c
nn
e
xi
o
w
i
th
wi
tchc
r
S piri t
i
o
g
ra pp i ng a nd S p i ri t wri t i ng R i si ng i n t h e ai rP erforman c es o f t i e d
me d i u ms Pra ct i c a l b eari n g o f t h e s tu d y o f S urv i val
.

examining the s u rvival o f opinions in the midst o f

conditions of society becoming grad u ally estranged f r om
them and tending at las t to s u ppress the m altogether m u ch
may be learnt f r om the history o f o n e o f the most pernicio u s
del u sions that ever vexed mankind the belief in M agic
L ooking at O ccu lt S cience fro m t h i s ethnographic point o f
v iew I shall instance some of its branches as ill u strati n g
the co u rse o f intellect u al c u lt u re Its place in histo r y is
brie y this It belongs in its m ai n principle to the lowest
known stages of civilization and the lower races who have
not partaken largely o f the ed u cation of the wo r ld still
main tain it i n vigo u r F r o m this level it may be traced
u pward m u ch o f the savage art holding its place s u b
s t a n t i a lly u ncha n ged
and many new practices being in
co u r se of time developed while bo th the older an d n ewer
developme n ts have lasted o n m o r e o r less among mode r n
c u lt u r ed nations B u t d u ring the ages i n which prog r essive

1 12

ANTIQ UITY

MA G I C

or

1 13

races have been learning to s u bmit their opi n ions to close r

a n d closer experi m ental tes ts occ u lt scie n ce has been b r eak
ing down i n to the co n ditio n of a s u r v ival in which state we
mostly n d it a m o n g o u r sel v es
The mode r n edu cated wo r ld rej ecting occu lt science as a
contemptible s u perstition has p r actically com m itted itself
to the opinion that m agic belo n gs to a lower level of
civilization It is ve r y i n str u cti v e to nd the s o u ndness o f
this j u dgment u n desig n edly con rmed by n atio n s whose
ed u cation has no t adva n ced far e n o u gh to destroy thei r
belief in magic itself In an y co u ntry an isolated or ou t
lying r ace the lingeri n g s u rvi v
or O i an older n ationality is
liable to the re pu tation of so r cery It is th u s with the
L avas of B u rma s u pposed to be the broken down remai n s
1
o f a n ancient c u lt u red race and dreaded as man tigers ;
and with the B u das of A byssin ia who a r e at o n ce the smiths
?
Bu t
an d potters sorcerers and were wolves o f thei r dist r ict
the u s u al and s u ggestive state o f thi n gs is that n ations who
believe with the sincerest terro r in the r eality of the magic
art at the sa m e time cannot S h u t their eyes to the fact that
it more essentially belongs to an d is more thoro u ghly at
home among races less civilized than themselves The
M alays o f the P enins u la who ha v e adopted M ohammeda n
religion and civilization have this idea of the lower t r ibes
of the land tribes mo r e or less Of their ow n race b u t w h o have
remained i n their early savage conditio n The M alays ha v e
enchan ters o f their o w n b u t consider them inferior to the
so r cerers o r poy an g s belonging to the r u de Min t i ra ; to these
they will resort for the c u re o f diseases and the wo r ki n g of
misfort u ne and death to their e n emies It is i n fact the
best protection the M i n t i ra have against thei r stronge r
Ma lay neighbo u rs that these a r e caref u l n o t to o ffend them
fo r fear o f their powers of magical r evenge The J ak u n s
again ; a r e a r u de and wild race whom the M alays despise
as i n del s and little higher than a n imals b u t who m at the
,

B a s t i an
A si en vol i p 1 1 9
L i fe o f N th P earc e ed b y J J H a ll s vl i p
,

O est l
a

28 6

S U RV I VAL I N C U LT U RE

1 14

sa m e time they fea r e xt r e m ely To the M alay t h e Jak u n

seems a s u pe r n at u r al b e i n g skilled i n divi n atio n s o r ce r y
and fascinati o n a ble t o d o e v il o r g o od acc o r d i n g to his
pleas u r e wh o s e blessi n g will be f o llowed by the mos t
f o rt u n ate s u ccess a n d his c u rse by the most d r eadf u l con
se q u e n ces ; h e c a n t u r n towards the h o u se o f a n ene my at
wh a te v e r dista n ce a n d beat two sticks together till that
enemy will fall S ick and die ; he is skilled in herbal ph y s i o ;
he has the power o f cha r ming t h e e r ces t wild beasts
Th u s it is that the M alays tho u gh they despise the Jak u n s
1
ref r ain in many circ u mstances f r om ill treating them
In
India i n l o n g past ages the do m inant A ryans desc r ibed t h e

r u de indige n es o f the land by the epithets of possessed of

2
magical powe r s changing their shape at will
To this
day H ind u s settled in C hota N agp u r and S ingbh u m rmly
belie v e that the M u ndas have powers o f witchcraft whereby
they can transform themselves i n to tigers and other beasts
o f p r ey t o devo u r th eir e n emies
and can witch away the
li v es of man and beas t ; it is to the wildest and most
3
savage o f the tribe that s u ch powers are generally ascribed
In S o u thern India again we hea r i n past times o f
H ind u ized D r avidians the S u dras of C anara living in fear
4
o f the demoniacal powers o f the slave caste below them
In ou r own day among D ravidian tribes o f the N ilagiri
district the Todas and B adagas are in mortal dread o f the
K u r u mbas des pised and wretched fo rest o u tcasts b u t
gifted it is belie v ed with powers of destroyi n g men and
?
m
ani als and property by witchcraft
N orthern E u rope
brings the like contrast sharply into V iew Th e F inns and
L ap ps whose l o w Tatar barbaris m was characterized by
so r ce r y s u ch as o u rishes still amo n g thei r S iberia n kins
.

'

r I n d A rch i p vol i p 3 2 8 ; vol ii p 2 7 3 ; s ee vol i v p 4 25

2
M u i r S a n sk ri t T e x ts part ii p 4 3 5

3
D al t on K ol s i n Tr E th S oc vol vi p 6 ; see p 1 6

J a s G rd er Fa i th s o f t h e W orld s v E x orc is m

S h ortt Tri b es o f N ei lg h erri es i n Tr E th S oc vol v ii pp 2 4 7

2 7 7 ; S i r W E ll i o t i n
b an s C o n g re ss o f Pre h is tori c A rch aeo l og y 1 868
p 25 3
1

ou n

SORCERERS

LO W ER RACES

or

115

folk were acco r di n gly obj ects of s u perstitio u s fea r to their

S candinavian neighbo u r s an d opp r essors In the m iddle
ages the name of F i n n was as it still r emai n s among sea
fa r i n g m e n e qu ivalent t O that of so r ce r e r while L a plan d
witches had a E u r o pean celeb r ity as practitio n e r s of the
black a r t A ges after the F i n n s had risen i n the social scale
the L apps retained m u ch o f their old half
sa v age habit of
life an d with it nat u r ally their witchcraft S O that even the
m agic gifted F inns r evered th e occ u l t powe r s o f a people
more ba r baro u s than themsel v es R ii h s writes th u s early

in the last cent u r y : There are still sorcere r s in F i n land

b u t the ski lfu ll es t o f them believe that the L apps far

excel them ; o f a well ex perienced magician they say That

is qu ite a L ap p and they j o u rney to L apland for s u ch
1
knowledge
A ll this i s of a piece with the s u rvival o f
s u ch ideas amo n g the ignorant elsewhe r e in the civilized
world M a n y a white man in the West I n dies and A frica
dreads the incantations Of the O bi man an d E u rope

ascribes p owers o f sorcery to des pised o u tcast races

ma u dite s G ypsies and C ag o t S To t u rn from n ations to
sects the attit u de o f P rotestants to C atholics in this matte r

is instr u ctive I t was re m arked in S cotland : The r e is

on e opinion which many o f the m ente r tain
that a
po pish priest can cast o u t devils an d c u r e madness and
that the P resbyte r ian clergy have n o s u ch power
So
B o u rne says of the C h u r ch of E n gland clergy that th e
v u lga r thi n k them n o conj u r ers an d say n one can lay
?
spi r its b u t p o pish p r iests
These acco u nts a r e not recent
b u t i n G e r many the sa m e state of things appears to exist
still P rotestants get the aid of C atholic p r iests and monks
to help them against witchcraft to lay ghosts co n sec r ate
3
herbs and disco v er thieves ; th u s with u nconscio u s i r o n y
j u dgin g the relation o f R ome toward m odern civilization
The pr i n cipal key to the u n de r standi ng o f O ccu lt S cience
,

F R h s F i n l n d p 2 9 6 ; B s ti n M en s ch vl iii p

n
Br d P p A n t vl iii pp 81 3 ; see p 3 1 3
W u ttk
D u ts ch e V lk s b rg l b p 1 2 8
p
u

e,

au

e,

s ee

202

S U R V I VAL I N C U LT UR E

1 10

is t o c o nside r i t as based o n the A ssociati o n of Ideas a

fac u l ty w hich lies at the ve r y fo u n dation of h u man r easo n
b u t i n n o s mall d eg r ee o f h u man u n r eason also
M an as
i
n a l o w in tell e ct u al c o n dition ha v ing come to associate
e
t
y
i n t h o u gh t t h e s e thi n gs which he fo u nd by experience to be
c o n n e cted in fac t pr o ceeded er r o n eo u sly to i n vert this
acti o n a n d to concl u de that association in th o u ght m u st
i n vol v e S i mila r con n exio n i n reality H e th u s attempted
t o disc o v e r to fo r etell and to ca u se events by means o f
processes which we c an now see to have only an ideal
signi cance B y a vast mass of evidence f r om savage
ba r baric and civilized life magic arts which have res u lted
from th u s mistaki n g an ideal for a real connexion may be
clearly traced fro m the lower c u lt u re which they are o f to
1
the higher c u lt u re which they are i n
S u ch are the
practices whereby a distant person is to be affected by
acting o n something closely associated with himhis
prope r ty clo thes he has wo r n and above all cu tt i ngs of his
hair and nails N o t only do sa v ages high and lo w like the
A u st r alian s an d P olynesians and barbarians like the nations
of G u inea live in deadly terror o f this spitef u l craft n o t
only have the P a r sis their sacred ritu al prescribed fo r b u ry
ing thei r c u t hair an d nails lest demo n s an d so r cerers
sho u ld do mischief with them b u t th e fear o f leaving s u ch
cli ppin gs and pa r i n gs abo u t lest their former owner S ho u ld
be har m ed thro u gh them has by no means died o u t of
E u ropea n folk lo r e an d the G erman p easant d u ring the
days between his child s birth an d baptism obj ects to lend
a n ything o u t o f the h o u se lest witchcraft S ho u ld be wo r ked
?
th r o u gh it o n the yet u nconsecrated baby
A s the negro
fetish man when his patient does not come in perso n can
,

x am i n t i on O f n u merou s mag i c a l art s mo s t ly c o mi n g u n d er

th is c a t eg ory see E arly H is t ory o f M a n k i n d ch a p s v i an d x

f
S ta n bri dg e A b or o V i ct ori a i n Tr E th S oc vol i p 2 9 9 E ll is

Pol n R e s v
i p 3 6 4 ; J L W i l s on W A fri c a p 2 1 5 ; S p i eg e l
ol
y

A v e s t a
vol i p 1 24 ; W u ttk e D eu t s ch e V o lk s b erg l au b e p 1 9 5 ;

g e n era l re fere n c e s i n E arly H is t ory o f M a n k i n d p 1 2 9

1

F or

an

MAGI CAL AS SO CI AT I ON OF

I D EA S

1 17

divine by m eans of his dirty cloth or c a p i n stead 1 so the

modern clai r voyant professes to feel sym pathetically the
sen satio n s of a distan t pe r so n if co mm u nicatio n be made
thro u gh a lock of his hair o r an y obj ect that has been in
?
contact with h i m
The S imple idea o f j oi n in g two obj ects
with a cord taking for gra n ted that this comm u n icati o n will
establish connexion o r carry i n u en ce has bee n wo r ked o u t
in va r io u s ways i n the wo r ld In A u st r alia the n ative docto r
fastens one e n d o f a stri n g to the aili n g part o f the patient s
body and by s u cking at the other end p reten ds to draw ou t
?
blood fo r his relief
In O rissa the Jeypore witch lets
down a ball of thread thro u gh her enemy s roof to reach his
body that by p u tti n g the o the r end in her o w n mo u th she
4
may s u ck his blood
When a rei n deer is sacri ced at a
sick O styak s te n t doo r the patient holds in his hand a
5
n

cord attached to the v ictim o ffered fo r his b e e t

G r eek
history S hows a S imilar idea when the citize n s o f E phes u s
ca rr ied a rope seven f u rlongs fro m their walls t o the tem ple
o f A r temis th u s t o place themselves u nder her safeg u a r d
against the attack of C roes u s ; and in the yet mo r e striking
sto r y o f the K y l on i an S who tied a cord t o the stat u e of the
goddess when they qu itted the asyl u m and cl u n g to it
for protectio n as they c r ossed u nhallowed gro u n d ; b u t by
ill fate the cord of safety broke and they were mercilessly
6
A nd in ou r o w n day Bu ddhist priests in
pu t to death
solemn ceremony pu t themselves i n comm u nication with a
sac r ed relic by each taking hold o f a long thread fastened
7
near it a n d aro u nd the te mple
M agical arts in which the connexion is that o f mere
analogy o r symbolis m a r e e n dlessly n u mero u s thro u gho u t
,

B u rt on
a n d W from W e s t A fri c a
p 4 11

W Greg ory L e tters o n A n i ma l M ag n et is m p 1 28

E yre A u s tra l i a vol ii p 3 6 1 C ll i n s N ew S ou th Wa l e s vol i

,

S h rtt
o

Tr E th S vl v i p
M s ch vl iii p 1 1
7

in

oc.

B a s ti a n
en
o
S e e G ro t e v
o l iii pp
113 3 51
H ardy E a s t ern M on ach ism p

27 8

24 1

pp 5 6 1 , 5 9 4
4

S U R V I VA L I N C U LT U R E

1 18

the c o u rse o f ci v ilizati o n

Thei r c o mm o n theory may be
r eadily made o u t f ro m a fe w ty pical cases and the n ce
ap plied e o n lid e n t ly t o t h e ge n e ral m a s s Th e A u s tralian
will o bse r v e the t r ack o f an i n sect near a grave to ascertain
t h e di r e ctio n whe r e the s o r ce r e r is t o be fo u n d by whose
1
c raf t the m a n d ied
The Z u l u may be seen chewi n g a bit
o f w o o d i n o r de r by this sy m bolic act to soften the heart of
the ma n h e wan ts to b u y o xe n f r o m o r o f the woman he
The O bi ma n of Wes t A f r ica makes his
w a n t s fo r a wife ?
packet o f g r a v e d u st blo o d an d bo n es that this s u ggestive
?
r ep r esentatio n o f death may b r i n g his e n emy to the grave
The Kho n d sets u p the iron arrow o f the War go d in a
basket o f rice an d j u dges from its s tanding u prigh t that war
m u st be kept u p also o r from its falling that the qu arrel
may be let fall t o o and when he tort u res h u man victims
sacri ced to the E arth goddess h e rej oices to see them shed
ple n tif u l tea r s which betoken copio u s S howe r s to fall u pon
1
his la n d
These are fair examples o f the symbolic magic
o f the lower races an d they are f u lly rivalled in s u pe rs t i
tions which still hold their g r o u nd in E u rope With qu aint
sim plicity the G er m an cottager declares that if a dog howls
lookin g downward it portends a death ; b u t if u pward then
?
a recovery from sickness
L ocks m u st be opened and bolts
d r awn in a dying man s ho u se that hi s so u l may n o t be
6
held fast
The H essian lad thinks that he may escape the
conscription by carrying a baby girl s cap i n his pocket a
7
symbolic way of r ep u diating manhood
M odern S ervians
da n ci n g an d S i n gi n g lead abo u t a little girl d r essed in
lea v es and o w ers an d po u r bowls of wate r over her to
8
make the rain come
S ailors becal med will sometimes
.

T r

O ld e ld i n
E th S oc vol i ii p 2 4 6

Grou t Z u l u l a n d p 1 3 4
S ee S p e c i men a n d d e s cri p t i on i n t h e C h ris t y M u s eu m

M a c p h erson I n d ia pp 1 30 3 63
V o lk s a b er l a u b e p 3 1
W u t tk e
g

R H u n t Po p Rom o f W o f E n g l an d 2 md ser p 1 6 5 ; Bran d

vol ii p 2 3 1

6
G ri mm D M p 5 6 0
W u t tk e p 1 0 0
,

An t

Po p

MAGI CA L ASSOCIATION OF IDEAS

1 19

whistle for a wind ; b u t in other weathe r they hate

?
whistlin g at sea which raises a whistli n g gale
F ish
says the C or n ishman sho u ld be eaten fro m the tail
towards the head to b r ing the other sh e S heads towards
the S ho r e for eating them the wrong way t u rns them from
?
the coast
H e who has c u t himself S ho u ld ru b the
knife with fat and as it d r ies the wo u nd will heal ; this i s
a li n geri n g s u rvival f r om days when recipes for sym pathetic
?
m
n
u
i
n
oi t ent were to be fo nd
the P harmacop oeia
F a n cifu l
as these notions are it S ho u ld be bo r ne i n m i n d that they
come fairly u nder de nite mental law dependi n g as they do
on a principle o f ideal association o f which we can qu ite
u nderstand the mental action tho u gh we deny its practical
res u lts The clever L o r d C heste r eld too cl e ver to u nder
stand folly may again be cited to prove this H e relates in
o n e o f his letters that the king had been ill and that p eo ple
gene r ally expected the illness to be fatal beca u se the oldest

lio n in the Tower abo u t the king s age had j u st died

So
wild an d ca pricio u s is the h u man mind he exclai m s by
way of comment Bu t indeed the tho u ght was neither wild
n or capricio u s it was S imply s u ch an arg u ment f r om analogy
as the ed u cated wo r ld has at length painf u lly learnt to be
wo r thless ; b u t which it is no t too m u ch to declare wo u ld
to this day carry co n sider able weight to the mi n ds o f fo u r
fths o f the h u man race
A glance at those m agical arts which have been system a
shows the same u nderlyi n g
t i z e d into pse u do scie n ces
n g o m ens fro m seeing and meet
r
i
The
a
r
t
of
taki
n ciple
p
ing animals which i n cl u des a u g u ry is famili ar to s u ch
4
5
savages as the T u pis of B r azil and the D ayaks o f B orneo
extends u pwa r d th r o u gh classic civilizatio n
The
an d
M aoris may give a sample o f the character of its r u les they
,

1
2
3

Bra n d ,

Hun t

ol
v

i bi d

i ii

148

24 0

Bran d vol iii p 3 0 5

Maga lh a n es d e Ga n d a v
o p 1 2 5 ; D O rb i g n y v
ol ii p

2
2
S t J oh n F ar E a s t vol i p 0 ; J ourn I n d
W u t tke ,

1 65 ;

357

1 68

A rc h i p

vol ii
.

1 20

S U RV I VA L IN C U LT U R E

h o ld i t u n l u cky i f an o w l ho o ts d u ri n g a c o ns u ltati o n b u t a
c o u ncil o f w a r i s enco u r aged by pr os pect o f victo ry when a
hawk fli e s o v e r head ; a [ligh t o f bi r d s to the righ t o f the
w a r sa c ri c e is p r o piti o u s if t h e villages of the t r ibe a r e i n
that q u a r t e r b u t i f t h e o men is i n the ene my s di r ection
?
t h e w a r w ill be give n u p
C o mpa r e these with t h e Tatar
r u l e s a n d i t is o b v i o u s that simila r tho u ghts lie at the
s o u r ce o f b o th
H e r e a certain little owl s c r y is a s o u n d Of
te rr o r altho u gh the r e is a white o w l which is l u cky ; b u t o f
all birds the white falcon is most prophe tic and the Kalm u k
bows his thanks fo r the good omen when on e ies by o n the
right b u t seeing one on the left t u rns away his face and
?
expects calamity
S o to the negro o f O ld C alabar the cry
o f the great king sher bodes good o r evil according as it is
?
hea r d o n the r ight o r left
H e r e we have the Obvio u s sym
b ol i s m o f the righ t and left hand the fo r eboding of ill from
the owl s dolef u l no te and the s u ggestion o f victory from
the erce swooping hawk a tho u ght which in old E u rope
made the bird of p r ey the warrior s omen o f con qu est

M ea n i n g of the same kind appears in the A ngang the

o m ens taken from meeti n g ani mals and peo ple e spe c i a llvon
r st going o u t in the morning as when the ancie n t S laves
held meeting a sick man or an O ld woman to bode ill l u ck
A n y o n e who takes the tro u ble to go into this s u bj ect in
detail and to st u dy the classic medi aeval and oriental codes
o f r u les will nd that the p r i nciple of direct symbolism still
acco u nts for a fair proportion o f them tho u gh the rest may
have lost their early signi cance o r may have been origin ally
d u e to some other reason or may have been arbitrarily
in v e n ted (as a considerable proportion o f s u ch devices m u s t
necessa r ily be ) to ll u p the gaps in the system It i s still
lai
n to u s why the o m en of the c r ow sho u ld be di fferen t on
p
the r ight or left hand why a v u lt u re sho u ld mean ra pacity
a sto r k concord a pelican piety an ass labo u r why the
,

2
6

Y t N w Z l d p 9 0 ; P l c k vol i p 2 4 8

Kl mm C ul t ur G ch vl iii p 2 0 2
B urton W i t nd W is d om from W e s t A fri c p 3 81
a

e,

ea a n
-

es

o a

a,

O ME N S A N D D R E A MS

1 21

erce co n q u ering wolf S ho u ld be a goo d omen and the tim id

,

ha r e a bad on e why bees types of an obedient nation

sho u ld be l u cky t o a ki n g while ies ret u rni n g howe v e r
often they a r e dri v en off sho u ld be S igns of import u n ity and
?
imp u dence
A nd as to the general principle that a n i m als
are omino u s to those who meet th e m the G er m an peasant
who says a ock o f sheep is l u cky b u t a herd o f swi n e u n
l u cky to meet and the C ornish m iner who t u r n s away i n
ho rr or when he meets an o ld woman o r a rabbit o n his way
to the pit s m o u th are to this day keeping u p relics o f ea r ly
savagery as gen u ine as any int implement d u g ou t of a
t um u l u s
The doctrine o f d r eams attrib u ted as they are by the
lowe r and middle races to spirit u al interco u rse belongs in
so far rather to r eligion than to magic Bu t oneiromancy
the art o f taki n g omens f r om d r eams by analogical i n t e rpre
O f the leading pri n ciple o f s u ch
t at i o n has its place he r e
mystical explanation no better types co u ld be chosen than
the details an d inter pretatio n s of Joseph s dreams ( G e n esis
xxxvii xl
o f the sheaves a n d the s u n and moon a n d
eleve n sta r s of the vin e and the basket o f meats Of the lean
and fat kine and the thin and f u ll corn ears O neiromancy
th u s sy m bolically interpreting the things seen in d r eams is
not u nknown to the lower races A whole A u stralian tribe
has been known to decamp beca u se o n e o f them dreamt o f
a certai n kind o f o w l which d r eam the wise men declared
?
to forebo de an attack from a certain other tribe
The
Kamchadals whos e minds ran m u ch on d r ea m s had special
inte r pretatio n s o f some ; th u s to dream of li ce o r dogs b e
?
tokened a visit of R u ssian trav ellers & c
The Z u l u s ex
n ce havi n g ta u ght them the fallacy o f expecting direct
r
i
e
e
p
f u l lment o f dreams have in some cases tried to m end
,

De

D e

C rn li s Agr i pp
O ccu l ta P h i l o s op h i a i 5 3 ;
V a n i ta t e

S c i en t 3 7 ; Gri mm D M p 1 0 7 3 ; H n u scb S l aw M y th p 2 85 ;
Bran d vol iii pp 1 84 2 2 7
O ld ld i n Tr E th S c vol iii p 2 4 1

S tell er K amt s ch tk a p 27 9
1

S ee

a,

S U R V I VA L IN C U LT U RE

1 22

r u shi n g t o t h e o ther ext r e me I f they d r eam of

a sick ma n that h e i s d e ad a n d they s e e th e earth po u r ed
i n t o t h e g r ave a n d hea r t h e f u n e r al la me n tati o n a n d s e e all

his things d es t r o yed the n they say B eca u se we have

d r ea m t o f his d eath he will no t die
Bu t i f they dream
S O the
i t is a S ign o f a f u ne r al
o f a weddi n g da n ce
M ao r is h o ld that a ki n sma n dream t o f as dyi n g will r ecover
?
B o th r aces th u s
b u t t o see h i m well is a S ig n o f death
w o r k o u t by the sa m e c r o oked logic that g u ided o u r own

a n ces tors the axiom that dreams go by co n traries

It
c o u ld no t be ex pected in looking over the lo n g lists of pre
copts o f classic o r iental and modern pop u lar d r eam inter
r e t a t i o n to detect the original sense of all their readings
p
M any m u st t u rn on all u sions intelligible at the time b u t now
obsc u r e The M oslem dream interpretation o f eggs as c on
cerni n g wo m en beca u se o f a sayi n g o f M ohammed abo u t
wome n being like an egg hidden in a nest is an example
which will serve as well as a score to S how how dream r u les
may t u r n on far fetched ideas n o t to be r ecognized u nless
the key happens to have been preserved M any r u les m u st
have been taken at random to ll u p lists of ome n s and o f
contingencies to match them
Why sho u ld a drea m of
roasting meat S how the dreame r to be a back biter o r
la u ghter in S leep presage dif cu lt circumstances o r a d r eam
i c o r d the death o f relatives ? Bu t the
o f playing on the c l a v
other side o f the matter the stil l apparent nonsensical
ratio n ality o f so many d r eam omens is m u ch more re mark
able I t can only be co n sidered that the same sy m bolis m
that lay at the root of the whole del u sion favo u red the keep
ing u p an d new making o f s u ch r u les as carried obvio u s
mea n i n g Take the M oslem ideas that it is a good ome n to
d r eam of somethi n g white or green o r o f water b u t bad to
dr ea m o f black o r r ed o r of re ; that a palm tree i ndicates an
A rab and a peacock a k i ng ; that he who dreams o f devo u r
ing the stars will li v e free at some g r eat man s table Take

the classic r u les as in the O n e i roc ri t i c a of A rtemidor u s

matters by

C ll wa y
a

e
R l

of

Am zu l
a

u,

pp

23 6 , 2 4 1

R T yl r
.

Z p

334

HA RUS PI CATI ON

1 23

and pass on thro u gh the medi aeval treatises down to s u ch a

dream dictionary as servant m aids still b u y in penny chap
books at the fair and it will be seen that the ancie n t r u les
s till hold their places to a remarkable exten t while half the
mass o f precepts s till S how their o riginal mystic S igni ca n ce
mostly direct b u t occasionally according t o the r u le o f con
A n o ffensive o do u r signi es annoyance ; t o wash
t rari e s
the han ds denotes release from anxieties ; to embrace o n e s
best beloved is very fort u nate ; t o have o n e s feet c u t o ff
preven ts a j o u rney ; to weep in sleep is a S ign o f j oy ; he
w h o dreams he hath lost a tooth S hall lose a friend ; and he
that dreams that a rib is taken ou t o f his side S hall ere long
see the death o f his wife ; to follow bees betokens gain ; to
be married signi es that some o f yo u r kinsfolk are dead ; if
that shall be j ealo u sy and
o n e sees many fowls togethe r
chiding ; if a snake p u r s u e him let him be o n his g u ar d
against evil women ; t o dream o f death de n otes happiness
and long life ; to dream of swimming and wadi n g in the
water i s good so that the head be kept above water ; to
dream o f crossing a bridge denotes y o u will leave a goo d
S it u ation to seek a better ; t o dream yo u see a dragon i s a
sign that y o u S hall S ee some great lord yo u r master o r a
?
magistrate
H ar u spication belongs among the lower races especially
2
to the M alays and P olynesians an d to vario u s A siatic
tribes 3 It is mentioned as practised in P er u u nder the
Incas ? C aptain Bu rton s acco u nt from C entral A frica
pe r haps fairly displays its symbolic princi ple H e de
scribes the mganga o r sorcerer taking an ordeal by killi n g
-

O n e i rocri t i c a

C o c k ay n e , ee ch d oms , & c ,
;

i tera tu re & c o f rea m s Bra n d

S e a el d

Artemi d ru s
L
o f E arly
E ng l n d vol iii
L
D
vl iii
;

H a ll iw e ll Pop R h ym es
p 2 17 &c & c

2
S t J h n F r E s t vol i pp 7 4 1 1 5 ; E ll is Poly n Res vl i v
p 1 5 0 ; P l ck N ew Z eal n d ers vl i p 2 5 5

G e rg i R is e i m R ss R ei ch vol i p 2 8 1 ; H ook er H i m l y n

J o rn l s vol i p 1 3 5 ; A s Res vo l i i i p 27 ; L th am D eser E th

v
ol i p 6 1
C i e za d L eon p 2 8 9 R i v ero a nd Tseh u d i Peru p 1 8 3
1

a a

o a

1 34

URVIVA L

and

N C U LT U RE

plitting

a f o wl and ins pecti n g its inside : if black

ness o r blemish a ppears abo u t the wi n gs i t denotes the
t r eache ry o f child r e n a n d kinsme n ; the backbone co n victs the
m o the r and g r and m o t he r ; t h e tail shows that the c r imi n al
?
I n a n cient R ome where t h e a r t held so
is the wife & c
g r ea t a place i n p u blic a ffai r s the sa m e so r t o f inter pr etation
was u s u al as wi tness the omen o f A u g u st u s where t h e livers
o f t h e v ictims we r e fo u n d folded and the divine r s prophesied
?
h i m acc o r di n gly a do u bled empire
S ince th en h a ru spi c a
tion has died o u t more completely than almost any magical
rite yet even now a characteristic relic o f it may be noticed
in B randenb u rg ; when a pig is killed and the S pleen is
fo u nd t u r ned Over there will be ano ther overthrow namely
3
i
n
a death
the family that year
With har u spication m ay
be classed the art o f di v ini n g by bones as where N orth
A merican Indians wo u ld p u t in the re a certain at bone
o f a porc u pi n e and j u dge from its colo u r if the porc u pine
4
h u nt wo u ld be S u ccessf u l
The principal art of this ki n d is
di v ination by a sho u lder blade tech n ically called sc apu li
mancy o r omoplatoscopy
This art related to the o l d
C h i n ese divination by the cracks of a tortoise
shell on the
re is especially fo u nd in vog u e in Tartary Its S imple
symbolism is well shown in the elaborate acco u nt with
diagrams gi v en by P allas
The S houlder blade is pu t
on the re till it cracks in vario u s directions and then a

long split lengthwise is reckoned as the way o f life

while c r oss cracks on the right and left s tand for di fferent
kinds and deg r ees o f good and evil fort u ne ; o r if the omen
is only taken as to some special event then lengthwise splits
mean going on well b u t c r osswise ones stand fo r hindrance
white ma r ks porte n d m u ch snow black ones a mild wi n te r
& c ? To nd this q u aint a r t lasting o n into m o dern times
s

C en tr a l

A fr vol ii p 3 2 ; W i tz vol ii pp 4 1 7 5 1 8
S ee C i c d e Di v
ii 1 2
73
i n at i o n
3
W t tk e
V o lk sab erg l u b e p 3 2
L J eu n e
N o vl le Fran c e v
ol i p 9 0

J H P l a th Rel d a l ten C h in es en p rt i p 8 9 ; Kl emm C u lt r

Ges c h
v
ol
iii pp 1 0 9 I 9 9 v
ol
i v p 22 1 ; Ru b ruq u i s i n Pi n k ert o n
1

B ur ton
P l i u xi

e,

PA L M I S TRY

125

in E u rope we can hardly go to a better place than o u r o wn

co u n t r y ; a p r ope r E n glish term for it is r eadi n g the s peal
bo n e
In Ireland C a m den desc r ibes the
lookin g thro u gh the blade bone of a S heep to nd a da r k
s pot which foretells a death and D rayton th u s c o mme m o
rates the art i n his P oly olb i on :
,

s h ou ld e r of a ram from off th e righ t S i d e p a r d

W h i ch u s u a ll y th e y b o il e t h e s p a d e b on e b ein g b ar d
W h i ch w h en t h e w i z ar d t ak e s a n d g a z in g t h e ru pon
T h i n g s l on g t o c o me foresh o w es as th in g s d on e l on g ag on e
y th

C hiromancy or palmistry seems m u ch like this tho u gh it

is also mixed u p with astrology It o u rished in an cient

G reece and Italy as it still does in India where to say It

is w r itten on the palms o f my hands is a u s u al way of ex
p r essing a sense of i n evitable fate C hi r omancy t r aces in
the markin gs o f the palm a line o f fort u ne a n d a lin e of l i fe
nds p r oof of melancholy in the intersectio n s on the sat u rn
ine mo u nt presages sorrow and death from black spots in
the n g e r nails and at last ha v ing exha u sted the powers o f
this childish symbolism it completes its system by details
o f which the abs u rdity is no longer relieved by even an
ideal sense The ar t has its modern vo taries n o t merely

among G ypsy fort u ne tellers b u t i n what is called goo d

2
society
It may agai n and again th u s be noticed in magic arts
that the associ atio n o f ideas is Obvio u s u p to a certa i n point
Th u s when the N ew Zealand sorcerer took omens by the
way his divining sticks (g u ided by S pirits ) fell he q u ite
n at u rally said it was a goo d omen i f the stick represe n ting
his ow n t r ibe fell o n t o p of that representing the enemy
a n d vice vers a
Z u l u diviners still work a similar p r ocess
with their m agical pieces of stick which rise to say yes and
,

vol vi i p
.

65 ;

G rim m,

M A W lk r M c d i

D M p

1 0 67 ;

R F B u rt on
.

p 169
Bran d vol iii p 3 3 9 F orb s L s l i vol ii p

M ry M ag ie & c p 7 4 ; Br n d vo l i ii p
C orn el i u s A g ri pp D O cc l t P h i l os p h ii 2 7
a

a e

on a ,

au

a,

Si dh p
n

1 89 ;

'

e,

4 91

3 48, &c

S ee

g ur

in

S U R V I V A L IN C U LT U RE

fall to s ay no j u m p u pon the head or sto mach o r other

a ff ected pa rt o f t h e patie n t s b o dy to sh ow whe r e his c o m
plai n t is a n d l i e p o i n ti n g t o wa r ds the ho u se o f t h e docto r
w h o c a n c u re h i m
S o likewi s e whe r e a similar device was
pr a ctised age s a g o i n the O ld Wo r ld the res po n ses we r e
t aken f r o m s taves which ( by the O pe r atio n o f dem o ns ) fell
?
backwa r d o r fo r ward to the righ t o r left
Bu t when
p r ocesses o f this ki n d a r e developed to complexity th e
sys te m has o f co u r se to be completed by mo re a r bit r ary
arrange ments This i s well shown in o n e of the divinato r y
a r ts mentioned i n the las t chapter fo r thei r connexion with
ga m es o f cha n ce I n cartoma n cy the art of fo r t u ne telling
with packs o f cards the r e is a so r t o f nonsensical sense in
s u ch r u les as that t wo qu ee n s mean f r iendship an d fo u r
mean chatteri n g o r that the knave o f hearts prophesies a
brave yo u n g man who will come into the family to be u se
f u l u nless his p u rpose be re v
ersed by his card bei n g u pside
down Bu t of co u r se the pack can only f u rnish a limited
n u mber o f s u ch co mparatively rational interpretations and
the rest m u st be left to s u ch arbitrary fancy as that the
seven of diam onds means a prize in the lo tte r y an d the
?
ten of the same s u it an u nexpected j o u rney
A remarkable gro u p of divining i n str u m ents ill u strates
another princi ple In S o u th E as t A si a the S ga u Karens
at f u neral feasts hang a ba n gle o r metal ring by a thread
over a brass bas i n which the relatives of the dead ap proach
in s u ccession and s trike on the edge wit h a bit Of bamboo ;
when the o n e who was most beloved to u ches the basin the
dead man s s pi r it respo nds by twisti n g an d stretching the
string till it breaks and the ring falls into the c u p or at
3
least till it rings against i t
N ea r e r C entral A sia in the
,

N w
e

Re

R T ayl or
Z ea l a n d p 2 0 5 ; S h ortl an d p 1 3 9 ; C a ll aw a y
p 3 3 0 & c ; Th eoph y la ct i n Bran d vol i i i p 3 3 2
l i g i o n o f A ma z u l u
C ompare men t i on s o f si mi l ar d e v i c e s ; H erod ot i v 6 7 (S cy th i a ) ; B urton
C en tra l A fri c a vol ii p 3 5 0
2
Mi g n e s Di e d es S c i e n c e s O cc u l t e s

3
M a s on K aren s i n Jo urn A s S oc B eng a l 1 8 6 5 p art ii p 2 0 0 ;

B a s ti an O es t l A si n vol i p 1 4 6
1

D I V I N I N G I N S T R U ME N T S

1 27

north east corner o f India among the B o do and D himal the

professio n al exo r cist has to nd ou t what deity has en te r ed
into a patient s bo dy t o pu nish h i m fo r some impiety by an
attack of illness ; this he discovers by settin g thirteen leaves
ro u nd him on the gro u nd to r ep r ese n t the go ds a n d then
holdin g a pen d u l u m attached to his th u m b by a st r i n g till
the god in q u es tion is pers u aded by invocation to declare
himself making the pend u l u m swing towards his rep r esenta
?
tive leaf
These m
ystic arts ( not to go i n to the qu estio n
how these t r ibes ca m e to u se them ) are r u de forms o f the
classical dactyliomancy o f which so c u r io u s a n acco u nt is
given in the t r ial of the cons pirators P a t ri c i u s a n d H ila r i u s
who worked it to nd o u t who was to s u pplant the empe r o r
V alen s A ro u n d table was ma r ked at the edge with the
lette r s of the al phabet and with praye r s and mystic cere
monies a ri n g was held s u s pended over it by a th r ead and
by swi n gi n g o r stoppi n g towards certain lette r s gave the re
?
D actyliomancy has dwindled
s pon s i v
e wo r ds of the o r acle
in E u rope to the a r t of nding o u t what O clock it is by
holding a ring hanging inside a t u mble r by a thread till
witho u t conscio u s aid by the operato r it begins to swing

and strikes the ho u r

F ather S cho tt in his P hysica
C u riosa
refrains with commendable ca u tion fro m
ascribing this phenomenon u niversally to demoniac in u ence
It s u rvives among o u rselves in child s play and tho u gh we

are no conj u rers we may learn somethi n g from the little

instr u ment which remarkably displays the e ffects o f i n
sensible movement
The operator really gives slight
i n pu lse s till they acc u m u late to a considerable vib r ation as
in ringing a ch u rch bell by very gentle p u lls exactly timed
That he does tho u gh u nconscio u sly ca u se and direct the
swings may be shown by an attem p t to work the i nstr u ment
with the o perato r s eyes S h u t which will be fo u nd to fail the
directing power bei n g lost The action of the famo u s divin
i n g ro d with its c u rio u sly versatile sensibility to water o r e
-

1
2

H od g s

on,

Ammi a n

A b or

of

M rc e ll i n
a

In dia p
xxix 1

170

S ee

M c p h rs
a

on ,

1 06

( K h on d s )

1 28

S U RV I V A L IN C U LT U RE

treas u r e a mi thie v es seems to belo n g partly to tricke ry by

e ls and partly to mo r e o r less con
p r ofessio n al D o u s t e rs w i v
scio u s directi o n by honester Ope r ato r s It is still k n own
in E n gla n d a n d i n G e r m any they a re a pt to hide it in
a baby s cl o thes a n d so get i t ba ptized for greater c f h
?
To c o n cl u de this g r o u p o f divi n ato r y instr u men ts
c i e n cy
cha n ce o r the O pe r at o r s di re ction may determin e the action
o f o n e o f t h e most familiar of classic a n d me d i rc v
a l ordeals
the s o called coscino mancy o r as it is desc r ibed in

H u dibras t h oracle o f sieve and shears that t u r n s as

certai n as the S pheres
The S ieve was held ha n ging
by a th r ead o r by the p oints o f a pair of S hears st u ck into
its rim and it wo u ld t u rn o r swing or fall at the mention
o f a thief s name and give similar S igns for other p u rposes
O f this ancient rite the C hristian ordeal o f the B ible and
key still i n fre qu ent u se is a variation : the proper way
to detect a thief by this is to read the 5 0 th P salm to the

appa r at u s and when it hea r s the verse When tho u sawest

a thief then t h e n consenteds t with him it will t u rn to the
?
c u lprit
C o u nt de M aistre with his u s u al fac u l ty o f taking an
arg u ment u p at the wrong end tells u s that j u dicial
astrology no do u bt hangs to tr u ths o f the rst order which
have been taken from u s as u seless Or dangero u s o r which
3
we canno t recog n ize u nder their new forms
A sober
examination o f the s u bj ect may rather j u stify the contrary
Opinion that it is on an error o f the rst order that astro
logy depends the error o i mistaking ideal analogy for real
connexion A strology in the immensity o f its del u sive
i n u ence on mankind and by the comparatively modern
perio d to which it remained an h ono u red branch of philo
,

De la

C h e vreu l
B gu e tt D i v i n a to i re d u Pen d u l e d i t E x pl orateur
n nt s
P ris 1 8 5 4 ; Bran d vol iii p 3 3 2 ; G ri mm
e t d es T b l e s T
D M p 9 2 6 H B W oo d w rd i n G ol og i c l
N o v1 8 7 2 W u tt ke
p 94
C orn el i u s Ag ri pp a D e S peci b s Mag i ae xxi Bran d vol iii p 3 5 1

G ri mm D M p 1 0 6 2
S oir s d e S t Pet ersb u rg vl ii p 2 1 2
D e M is tr
1

our

e,

,
,

A ST R O L O GY

1 29

s ophy may claim the highest rank among the occu lt

sciences It scarcely belongs to very low levels of civiliza
tion altho u gh o n e o f its f u ndamental conceptions namely
that o f the so u ls or animating intelligences o f the celestial
bodies is rooted in the depths o f savage life Y et the fo l
lowing M aori specimen o f astrological reasoning is as real
an arg u ment as co u ld be fo u nd in P aracels u s o r A gri ppa nor
is there reason to do u bt its being home
made When the
siege o f a N e w Zealand pa is goi n g on if V en u s is near the
moon the natives nat u rally imagine the two as enemy and
fortress ; if the planet is above the fe e will have the u ppe r
hand ; b u t if belo w then the men of the soil will be able to
?
defend themselves
Tho u gh the early history o f astrology
is obsc u re its great development and elaborate sy s t e ma t i z a
tion were u ndo u btedly the work o f civilized nations o f the
ancient and med i aeval world A S migh t be well s u pposed
a great part of its precepts have lost their intelligible sense
o r never had any
b u t the origin o f many o thers is still
To a considerable extent they rest on direct
evident
symbolism
S u ch are the r u les which connect t h e s u n
with gold with the heliotrope and p aeony with the cock
which heralds day with magnanimo u s animals s u ch as the
lion and b u ll ; and the moon with S ilver and the changing
cham aeleon and the palm tree which was considered to
se n d o u t a monthly S hoot D irect symbolism is plain in
that m ain p r inci ple o f the calc u lation o f nati v ities the

notion of the ascendant in the horoscope which reckons

the part of the hea v ens rising in the east at the moment of
a child s birth as bei n g connected with the child itself and
prophetic o f its f u t u r e life 2 It is an old story that when
t w o bro thers were once taken ill together H ippokrates the
physician concl u ded from the coincidence that they were
twins b u t P o se i don i o s the astrologer considered rather that
they we re born u nde r the same constellation : we may add
,

S h rt l d Tr d s
an

&c

of

N ew

Z e a l an d p

138

C i c ro D e D i v i L u c i n D e
O cc u l t S c i n c s
D e O cc u l t P h i l s p h i
S ib ly
I K
2

S ee

o o

C orn el i u s A g ri pp
Br n d vo l iii
a

a,

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

that e i t h e r a rg u ment wo u ld be tho u ght reasonable by a

sa v age O ne o f the most instr u ctive astrological doctrines
which has kept its place in modern pop u lar philosophy is
that o f the sympathy o f growing a n d declini n g n at u re with
the waxing a n d waning moon A mong classical p re cepts
a r e these : to set eggs u nder the hen at new moon b u t to
r oo t u p trees when the moon is o n the wane a n d after
midday The L ith u anian precept to wean boys on a wax
i n g b u t girls on a waning moon no do u bt to make the
boys s t u rdy and th e girls slim and delicate is a fair match
for the O rk n ey islanders obj ection to marrying except with
a g r owing moon while some even wish for a flowing tide

The following lines from T u sser s F ive H u ndred P oints

o f H u sband r y
S how neatly in a S i n gle case the two con
t ra ry l u nar in u ences
S o w e p e a s o n an d b e an s i n t h e w an e o f t h e moon e
\Vh o s o w e th th e m s oon e r h e s o w e th t oo s oone
T h at th e y w i th t h e p l an e t may re s t an d ri s e
A n d o u ri s h w i t h b e ari n g mo s t p l e n t i f u l w i s e
.

The notion that the weather changes with the moon s

qu arterings is still held with great vigo u r in E ngland
Y et the meteorologists with all their eagerness to catch at
any r u le which at all answers to facts qu ite rep u diate this
o n e which indeed appears to be simply a maxim belonging
to pop u lar astrology J u st as the growth and dwin dling o f
plants became associated with the moon s wax and wane
S O changes o f weathe r became associated with changes o f
the moon while by astrologer s logic, it did not matter
whether the moon s change we r e real at new and f u ll or
imaginary at the intermediate qu arters
That ed u cated
people to whom exact weathe r r ecords are accessible S ho u ld
still nd satisfaction in the fancif u l l u I i ar r u le is an i n
t e re s ti n g case of intellect u al s u r v ival
In s u ch cases as these the astrologer has at any rate a
real analogy dece ptive tho u gh it be to base his r u le u pon
.

P li n

v
o l iii p
.

x vi

75 ;

1 44

x v iii

75 ;

G ri mm

67 6

Bra n d vol ii p
.

169

A ST RO LO GY

Bu t most

13 1

his pse u do science seems to res t o n even

weake r and more arbitrary a n alogies not o f things b u t o f
names
N ames of stars and co n stellations o f S igns de
noting regions of the S ky an d periods of days and years
no matter h o w arbitra r ily given are materials which the
astrologer can work u p on an d b r ing into ideal connexion
with m u ndane events
That astronome r s S ho u ld have
divided the s u n s co u r se into imaginary S igns o f the zo diac
was eno u gh to originate astrological r u les that these
celestial S igns have an act u al e ffect on r eal earthly rams
b u ll s crabs lions virgins A child born u nder the S ign
o f the L ion will be co u rageo u s ; b u t on e born u nder the
C r ab wil l no t go forward well in life ; on e born u nder the
Water m an is likely to be drowned and so forth Towards
1 5 2 4 E u rope was awaiting in an agony o f p rayerf u l terro r
a second del u ge pro phesied for F ebr u ary in that year
A S the fatal month drew nigh dwellers by the waterside
moved i n crow d s to the hills some provided boats to save
them an d the P residen t A u ri al at To u lo u se b u ilt himself
a N oah s A rk It was the great astrologer S t oe e r ( the
originator it is said o f the weather prophecies in o u r
almanacks ) who foretold this cataclysm and his arg u ment
has the advantage of bei n g still pe r fectly i n telligible a t
the date in qu estion three planets wo u ld be together in the
a qu eo u s S ign of P isces
A gain simply beca u se astro
n o me rs chose to distrib u te a m o n g the p lanets the names of
certain deities the pla n ets thereby ac qu ired the characters
o f their divine na m esakes
Th u s it was that the planet
M erc u ry became connected with t r avel trade an d theft
V en u s with love an d mirth M ars with war J u piter with

power and j o v iality

Thro u gho u t the E ast astrology
even now remains a science in f u ll esteem The co n dition
o f medi aeval
E u r ope may still be p e r fectly r ealized by
the t r aveller in P e r sia where the S hah waits fo r days
o u tside the walls o f his ca pital till the constellations
allow him to enter an d where o n the days a ppo i nted by the
sta r s fo r letting blood it literally ows in streams from the
of

S U RVI V A L I N C U LT U RE

13 2

barbers S h o ps int o the street P rofessor W u t tke declares

that the r e a re ma n y dist r icts in G ermany whe r e the child s
ho r oscope is still r eg u larly kept with the baptismal c e r t i
cate in t h e family chest We scarcely reach this pitch o f
c o n servatism i n E ngland b u t I ha ppen myself to live within
a mile o f a n ast r o l o ge r a n d I lately saw a g r ave paper
nati v ities o ff ered in all good faith to the B ritish
on

Th e piles of
A ssociation
Zadkiel s A lmanack in the
bookselle r s windows i n co u ntry towns abo u t C hristmas
a r e a symptom how m u ch yet re mains to be done in pop u lar
ed u catio n A S a specimen at once of the s u rvival and o f
the meaning o f astrologic reasoning I canno t do better
than qu o te a passage from a book p u blished in L ondon in

and entitled The H and B ook of A strology by

186 1
Zadkiel Tao S ze
A t page 7 2 o f his rs t vol u me the

astrologer r elates as follows : The M ap of the h eavens

gi v en at page 4 5 was drawn o n the occasion of a yo u ng
lady having been arrested o n a charge of the m u rder o f her
infant brother H a v ing read in a newspaper at twenty
fo u r min u tes past noon on the 2 3 rd J u ly 1 860 that M iss
C K had been arrested on a charge o f the m u rder of her
yo u ng brother the a u thor felt desiro u s to ascertain whether
she were g u ilty o r n o t and drew the map accordingly
F inding the moon i n the twelfth ho u se S h e clearly signi es
the prisoner The moon is in a moveable S ign and mo v es
in the twenty fo u r ho u rs 1 4
S he is therefore swift
in motion These thi n gs indicated tha t the prisoner wo u ld
be very speedily released Then we nd a moveable S ign
in the c u sp of the twelfth an d its r u ler 9 in a moveable
S ign a f u rther indication of S peedy release
H ence it was
j u dged and declared to ma n y f r iends that the p r isoner
wo u ld be imme diately released which was th e fact We
looked to see whether the prisoner were g u ilty o f the deed
or not a n d nding the M oon in L ibra a h u mane S ign and
h aving j u st past the
aspect o f the S u n and u bo th
being on the M C we felt ass u red that S h e was a h u mane
feeling and hono u rable gi r l an d that it was qu ite i m

F UTI L I TY

or

ARTS

MA G I C

133

possible she co u ld be g u ilty of a n y s u ch at r ocity We

declared her to be pe r fectly i n nocent and as the M oon was
so well as pected from the tenth ho u se we decla r ed that he r
hono u r wo u ld be very soon perfectly established
H ad
the astrologer waited a few months longer to have read
the co n fession o f the miserable C onstance Kent he wo u ld
e
r
haps
have
u t a di fferent sense o n his moveable S ig n s
p
p
j u st balances and s u n n y an d j o v ial aspects N or wo u ld
this be a dif cu lt task for these fancies lend themselves to
endless va r iety of new inte r pretation A nd on s u ch fancies
and s u ch i n ter pretations the great scie n ce of the stars has
f r om r st to last bee n based
L ookin g at the details here selected as fai r samples of
symbolic magic we may well ask the qu estion is there in
the whole monst r o u s fa r rago no tr u th o r val u e whatever ?
I t a ppea r s that there is p r actically n one an d that the world
has bee n enthralled for ages by a blind belief in p r ocesses
wholly i r relevant to their s u pposed res u lts and which
might as well have bee n taken j u st the opposite way
P lin y j u stly saw in magic a st u dy worthy O f his especial

attention fo r the very reason that being the most fra u du

lent o f a r ts it had prevailed thro u gho u t the world and
thro u gh so many ages (e o ipso q u o d frau du l e n t i ssi ma
arti u m plu ri mu m in toto t e rraru m orbe plu ri mi s q u e se cu li s
valu i t ) If it be asked how s u ch a system co u ld have held
its gro u n d n o t m erely in independe n ce b u t i n de ance of
its o w n facts a fair a n swe r does n o t seem ha r d to give In
the rst place it m u st be borne in mind that occ u lt science
has n o t existed enti r ely in its o w n strength F u tile as its
arts may be they a r e associated in p r actice with othe r
proceedings by no means f u tile What a r e passed o ff as
sacred omens are often really the c u nnin g man s shrewd
g u esses at the past and f u t u re D ivinatio n serves to the
so r cer er as a mask for real in qu est as whe n the o rdeal
gives him inval u able opport u nity o f exami n i n g the g u ilty
whose trembling hands and e qu ivocating S peech bet r ay at
once their sec r et and thei r u tter belief in his powe r o f
.

S U R V I VA L I N C U L T U R E

13 4

discernin g it P ro phecy tends t o f u l fil i tself as where the

m a gicia n by p u tti n g i n t o a V icti m s mi n d t h e belief that
fatal a r t s hav e bee n p r actised agains t him can slay him
O ften p r iest as
w ith this idea as w i t h a m ate r ial weap o n
well a s magicia n he has t h e wh o le power o f r eligion at his
back ; o fte n a m a n in po we r always a n u n sc r u p u lo u s
in t r ig u e r h e c a n w o r k wi tchcraft and statecraft together
O ften a doctor he
a n d mak e h i s l e ft ha n d hel p his r igh t
can aid his o me n s o f life o r death with re medy o r poiso n

while what we still call conj u rers tricks Of S leight o f

hand have d on e m u ch to keep u p his s u pernat u ral p r estige
F r om the earliest known stages o f civilization p r ofessional
magicians ha v e existed who li v e by their craft and keep it
alive I t has been said that if somebody had endowed
lect u re r s to teach that two S ides of a triangle are together
e qu al to the thi r d the doct r i n e wo u ld have a respectable
following among o u rselves A t any rate magic with an
i n u e n tial profession in terested in keeping it in credit and
power did no t depend for its existe n ce on mere evidence
A nd in the second place as to this evidence M agic has
not its origin in fra u d and seems seldom practised as an
u tter impost u re The sorcerer gen erally learns his time
ho n o u red profession in go od fai th a n d re t ain s his belief in
it more o r less f r om rst to last ; at once d u pe and cheat
he combines the ene rgy o f a beli ever with the c u nning o f a
hy pocrite
H ad occ u lt science been simply framed for
p u rposes of dece ption mere nonsense wo u ld have answered
the p u rpose whereas what we nd is an elaborate and
systematic pse u do science It is in fact a sincere b u t
fallacio u s system o f philosophy evolved by the h u man
intellect by processes still in g r eat meas u re intelligible to
o u r o w n minds and it had th u s an origi n al s tanding gro u nd
in the world A nd tho u gh the eviden ce o f fact was dead
agains t it it was b u t lately and grad u ally that this evidence
was bro u gh t fatally to bear A general s u rvey o f the
practical working o f the system may be made somewhat
th u s A large proportion o f s u ccessf u l cases belong t o
.

ASS OCIATED D E V IC ES

13 5

nat u ral means disg u ised as m agic A lso a certain propo r

tion of cases m u st s u cceed by mere chance B y far the
la r ge r p r oportion howeve r a r e what we sho u ld call fail u r es
b u t it is a part of the magician s profession to keep these
f r om co u nting and this he does with extraordinary reso u r ce
H e deals i n
o f rhetorical S hift and brazen imp u dence
ambig u o u s phrases which give him three o r fo u r chances
for o n e
H e knows perfectly how to impose di f c u lt
condi tions and to lay the blame of fail u re on their neglect
If yo u wish to make gold the alchemist in C entral A sia
has a recipe at yo u r s ervice only to u se it yo u m u st
abstain three days from thin king o f apes ; j u st as o u r
E n glish folk lo r e says that if on e o f yo u r eyelashes comes
o u t an d yo u pu t it on yo u r th u m b yo u will get anything
yo u wish fo r if yo u can only avoid thi n king o f foxes tails
at the fatal mo m ent A gain if the wrong thing happen s
the wiza r d has at leas t a reason why H as a da u ghter
been born when he p r omised a s on the n it is s ome hostile
practitioner who has t u rned the boy into a girl ; does a
tempest come j u st when he is making ne weather then
he calmly de m ands a la r ger fee for s tronger ceremo n ies
ass u ri n g his clients that they may thank h i m as it is for
h o w m u ch worse it wo u ld have been had he no t done what
he did A nd eve n setting aside all this accessory tricke r y
if we look at honest b u t u nscienti c people pr a ctising
occ u lt scien ce i n good faith and face to face with facts
we shall see that the fail u res which condemn it in o u r
eyes carr y co mpa r atively little weight in theirs
P art

escape u n de r t h e elastic pretext o f a little more o r less

as the loser in the lottery consoles himself that his l u cky
n u mber came within two of a p r ize o r the moon observer
points ou t tri u mpha n tly that a cha n ge o f weather has come
within t w o o r th r ee days befo r e or after a q u a r ter S O that
his convenient de nition o f near a m oon s q u arte r applies
to fo u r or S i x days o u t o f every s even P art escape thro u gh
i n capacity to appreciate negative eviden ce which allows
on e s u ccess to o u tweigh half a dozen fail u res
H ow few
.

S URVIVAL IN CULTURE

13 6

ev e n a m o n g t h e ed u cated classes now who

h a \ e tak e n i n t h e d ri ft o f that m e m o rabl e passage in the

The h u man u n der

b egi n n i n g o f the N o v u m O r gan u m
s ta n ding w hen a n y p r o posit i o n has been once laid down
n
n e r al
a n d belief
f
r
m
ge
admissio
o r f r om
i
h
o
e
t
e
r
the
(
pleas u r e it a ffo r ds ) fo r ces e v erything else to add fresh
s u pport a n d co n rmation ; and altho u gh mos t cogent and
ab u ndant instances may exist to the cont r ary ye t either
does no t observe or despises them or gets rid o f and
r ej ects the m by some distinction with V iolent and inj u rio u s
p r e j u dice rathe r than sacri ce the a u thority o f its rs t
co n cl u sions It was well answered by him who was S hown
in a te mple the vo tive tablets s u spended by s u ch as had
esca ped the pe r il o f shipwreck and was pressed as to
whether he wo u ld then recog n ize the power o f the gods

by an in q u iry Bu t where are the portraits o f those who

1
ha v e perished in S pite o f their vows
O n the whole the s u rvival o f symbolic magic thro ugh the
middle ages and into o u r o wn times is an u nsatisfactory b u t
A once es tablished opinion however
n o t a mysterio u s fact
del u si v e c an hold its o wn from age to age for belief can
p r opagate itself witho u t reference to its reasonable o rigin
as plants are propagated from S lips witho u t f r esh raising
from the seed
The history o f s u rvival in cases like those o f the folk lore
a n d occ u lt a r ts which we have been considering has fo r the
most part been a history of dwi n dling and decay A s men s
mi n ds change i n progress i ng c u lt u re o ld c u stoms and
opinions fade grad u ally i n a new and u ncongenial atmo
sphe r e o r pass into states more congr u o u s with the new life
aro u n d them Bu t this is so far from being a law witho u t
exception that a narrow view o f history may often make it
F or the s tream o f civilization winds
S eem to be no law at all
and t u rn s u pon itself an d what seems the bright o n wa r d
c u rre n t of on e age m ay in the n ext spin ro u nd in a whirli n g
th e r e

a re

B a c on N o vu m Org an u m
C i c ero De N a tura D eorum iii
1

Th e

37 ;

ri g i n a l s tory is th t o f Di ag ora s
Di og L a er t lib v i D i og e n e s 6
a

see

WI TCHCRAFT

13 7

eddy o r S pread into a d u ll and pestilential swamp S t u dy

ing with a wide v iew the co u rse of h u man opinio n we may
n o w an d then trace on from the very t u rning point the
change from passive s u rvival into active revival S ome
well known belief o r c u stom has fo r cent u ries shown
sympto m s o f decay when we begin to see that the state o f
society instead o f st u nting it is favo u ring its new growth
and it b u rsts forth again with a vigo u r often as marvello u s
as it is u nhealthy A nd tho u gh the revival be not destined
to hold on inde nitely and tho u gh when opinion t u rns
again its r u in may be mo r e merciless than befo re yet it
may last for ages make its way into the inmos t constit u tion
o f society and even become a very mark and characteristic
o f its time
Writers who desire t o S how that with all ou r fau lts we
a r e wiser an d better than ou r ancesto r s dwell willingly on
the history of witchc r aft between the middle an d modern
ages
They c an qu ote M artin Lu ther apropos o f the

witches who S poil the farmers b u tter and eggs I wo u ld

have no pity on these witches ; I wo u ld b u rn them all
They c an S how the goo d S ir M atthew H ale ha n ging witches
in S u ffolk o n the a u thority of sc r ipt u re and the consenting
wisdom o f all nations ; an d King James presiding at the
tort u re of D r F ian for b r inging a storm against the king s
ship on its co u rse from D enmark by the aid Of a eet of
witches i n sieves who carried ou t a christened cat to sea In
those dreadf u l days to be a blear eyed wizened cripple was
to be worth twenty S hillin gs to a witch n de r ; for a woman
to have what this witch n de r was pleased to call the devil s
mark on her body was pres u mption for j u dicial sentence o f
death ; and not to bleed o r S hed tea r s or sink in a po n d was
to r t u re rst and then the stake R eform o f religion was n o
c u re fo r the disease o f men s minds for in s u ch things the
P u r it an was n o worse than the In qui sito r and no better
P apist an d P r otestant fo u ght with one an o the r b u t both
t u rned agains t that enemy o f the h u man race the hag who
had sold he r self to S atan to ride u po n a b r oomstick an d to
.

S U R V I VA L I N C U LT U R E

13 8
a

s u ck childre n s blo o d a n d t o be fo r life and death o f all

c r eat u res the mos t wretched B u t wi th n e w enlightenment
there ca m e in the ve ry teeth o f law and a u thority a change
in E u ropean o pi n i o n Toward the end o f the seventeenth
cent u ry the hideo u s s u pers tition was breaking down amo n g

o u rselves ; R ichard B axte r o f the S aint s R es t s t r ove

with fanatic zeal to ligh t again at home the witch re s o f
N ew E n gland b u t he st r ove in vai n Yea r by year the
pe rsec u tion o f witches became more hatef u l to the ed u cated
classes and tho ugh it died ha r d it died at las t do w n t o a
vestige
I n o u r days when we read o f a witch being
b u rn t at C amargo in 1 8 60 we point to M exico as a
co u ntry miserably i n th e rear o f civilization A nd if in
E ngland it s till happens that v illage boo rs have to be tried
at qu arte r sessio n s for ill u sing some po or o ld woman who
they fancy has dried a cow o r S poiled a t u rnip c rOp we
comment on the tenacity with which the r u stic mind clings
to exploded follies and cry o u t for more schoolmasters
Tr u e as all this is the ethnographer m u st go wider and
deeper i n his en qu iry to do his s u bj ect j u stice The pre
vai ling beli ef in witchcraft that sat like a nightmare on p u blic
O pi n i o n fro m the 1 3 t h to th e 1 7 th cent u ries far f r om being
itself a prod u ct o f m edi aevalism was a revival from the
re m ote days o f p r im aeval histo ry The d isease that b r oke ou t
afresh i n E u r ope had been chronic among the lower races
for how many ages we canno t tell Witchcraft is part and
parcel o f savage li fe There are r u de races o f A u st r alia
and S o u th A me r ica whose i n tense belief in it has led them
to declare that if men were neve r bewitched and never
killed by violence they wo u ld not die at all L ike the
A u stralians the A fricans will en qu i r e of thei r dead what
so r ce r er S lew them by his wicked arts and when they have
satis ed themselves o f this bloo d m u st atone for blood
In West A f r ica it has been boldly asserted that the belief
in witchc r aft costs more lives than the S lave t r ade ever did
In E ast A frica C a ptain Bu rton a traveller apt to draw his
social sketches in a few shar p lines remarks that what w i th
.

WI TCHCRAFT

13 9

lavery and what with black magic life is p r eca r io u s among

the W a kh u t u an d n o one especially i n old age is safe f r om
being b u rnt at a day s notice and travelling in the co u nt r y
o f the W a z a r am o he tells u s o f meeting every few miles with
hea ps of ashes and charcoal now and then s u ch as seemed
to have be en a father and mother with a little hea p hard by
?
that was a child
E ven in districts of B ritish India a
state o f mi n d r eady to prod u ce ho r rors like these is well
known to exist and to be kept down less by pers u asio n
than by mai n force F r om the level o f savage life we trace
witchcraft s u rvivi n g thro u gho u t the barba r ian and early
civilized wo r ld It was existing in E u rope in the cent u ries
p r eceding the l 0 t h b u t with n o especial pro m i n ence while
laws o f R o t h a r and C harle m agne a r e act u ally di r ected
agai n s t s u ch as sho u ld pu t m e n o r women t o death on the
charge o f witchcraft In the 1 1 t h cent u ry ecclesiastical
in u e n ce was disco u raging the s u perstitio u s belief in so r cery
B u t now a pe r iod of reaction set in
The works o f the
monastic lege n d and miracle mongers mo r e and more e n
c o u ra g e d a banef u l cred u lity a s to the s u pernat u ral
In the
1 3 t h cent u ry when the spirit o f religio u s persec u tion had
beg u n to possess all E u r o pe wi th a dark an d cr u el madness the
doct r ine o f witchcraft revived with all its barbaric vigo u r ?
That the g u ilt o f th u s bringing dow n E u r ope intellect u ally
and mo r ally to the level of negro A frica lies in the main
u pon the R oman C h u rch the records o f P opes G regory I X
an d Innoce n t V II I an d the history o f the H oly I n
T
o prove
o u s here the
u
i
s
i
i
on
are
concl
u
sive
evidence
t
t
q
mai n inte r est of medi aeval witchcraft lies in the extent
and acc u racy with which the theory o f s u rvival explains it
I n the very details o f the bald co nventional acc u sations
that were sworn against the witches there may be traced
S

A sh an

D u C h a illu ,

v
ol i pp
.

57 , 1 13, 121

mm

gO

l an d

pp

4 28 ,

S ee

A fr

G ri
D M ch xxx i v Le c ky

ch p i ; H ors t Z u b er B i b l i o th k
Ra y n a ld
ol ii
v
Greg I X
x l i ii I nn oc V I I I
2

B urt on

4 35 ;

C en tra l

H is t

of

Ra t i on a l ism vol i

A nn a l e s

l x xi v

E cc l si s ti c i
e

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

14 0

t r aditi o n o ften hardly m o di ed f r o m ba r ba r o u s and sa v age

times Th e y r ai s ed s torm s by magic r i tes t h e y had char ms
ag a i n s t the h u r t o f wea po n s they had thei r assemblies o n
wild heath and m o u n tai n t o p they co u ld ride thro u gh the
a i r o n be a s t s a n d e v
e n t u r n int o witch cats and were wolves
them s elves they had fa miliar spi r its they had i n te r co u r se
with inc u bi and s u cc u bi they conveyed thorns pi n s feathers
a n d s u ch thi n gs i n to their victims bodies they ca u sed disease
by dem o n iacal possession they co u ld bewitch by spells and
the evil eye by p r actising on images and symbols on food
N ow all this is sheer s u rvival f r om p res C hris
a n d p r o perty

ol v
i t u r as Bu rchard
tian ages in e r rore pag an o ru m re v
?
o f Wo r ms said of the s u perstition of his time
Two of the
most familia r devices u sed against the medi aeval witches may
se r v e to S how the place in civilization o f the whole c r aft
The O r iental j i n n are in s u ch deadly te rr o r o f i r on that
i ts ve r y name is a charm agains t the m; and S O in E u ropean
folk lo r e iron d r i v es away fairies and elves and destroys
thei r power
They are essentially it seems creat u res
belongi n g to the ancient S tone A ge and the new metal is
hatef u l and h u rtf u l to them N ow as to iron witches are
b r o u ght u nder the same catego ry as elves and nightmares
Iron instr u ments keep them at bay an d especially iron
horseshoes have been chosen for this pu rpose as half the
2
n
stable doors in E gland still sh ow
A gain o n e O f the best

known of E n glish witch o rdeals is the trial by eeting

B o u nd hand and foo t the a cc u sed was u ng
o r swimming
into deep wate r to S ink if innocent and swim if g u ilty and
in the latter case as H u di bras has it to be hanged only for
not bei n g drowned King James who s eems to have had
a notio n o f the real pri m itive meaning o f this rite says in

his D aemonology It appears that G od hath appointed

.

l s o D s n t I n tro d t o N rs e Tal e s M ury M g i e

ch v ii

L n T h ou s n d n d O n e N ig ht s vol i p 3 0 ; G ri mm D M

pp 4 3 5 4 6 5 1 0 5 6 B s t i n M e ns ch vol ii pp 2 6 5 28 7 ; vol i ii p 2 0 4 ;
D W i l s on Preh is t ri c An nals o f S c ot l n d vol ii p 1 2 6 W u t tk
V lk s b erg l u b pp 1 5 2 0 1 2 2 2 2 0
1

S ee
a

a e

e,

e,

e,

W I TCHCRAFT O RD EA L S

14 1

for a s u pernat u r al S igne o f the m onst r o u s i mpi e t i e o f

witches that the water S hall ref u se to receive the m i n
her bosom that have shaken o ff them the sac r ed wate r Of
baptism & c N ow in ea r ly G erman history this sa m e
trial by water was well k n own and its mean i ng recog n ized
to be that the co n scio u s element rej ects the g u ilty ( S i a qu a
i l lu m v
e l u t i n n o x i u m r ec e pe ri t i n n o x ii s u b m e rg u n t u r a q u a
A lready i n the 9 t h ce n t u r y the
c u l pa b i l e s s u pe r n atant )
laws we r e prohibiti n g this practice as a relic o f s u perstitio n
L astly the same t r ial by wate r is recog n ized as one o f the
reg u lar j u dicial ordeals in the H ind u code o f M an u ; if the
water does not ca u se the acc u sed to oat when pl u nged into
it his oath is tr u e A S this ancient Indian bo dy of laws
was itself no do u bt compiled from materials of still earlier
date we may ve n t u r e to take the corres pondence o f the
water ordeal among the E u ro pean and A siatic branches o f
the A rya n r ace as carrying back its origin to a p erio d o f
?
remote anti qu ity
L et u s hope that if the belief in present witchcraft and
the persec u tion necessarily ens u ing u pon s u ch belief once
more come into prominence in the civili zed world they may
appear in a milder S hape than heretofore and be kept down
by stronger h u manity and tolerance B u t an y o n e who
fancies from their present disappearance that they have
necessarily disappeared for ever m u st have read history to
little pu rpose and has yet to learn that revival in c u lt u r e
is something more than an empty pedantic phrase O u r
o w n time has revived a gro u p o f beliefs and practices which
have their roots deep in the very strat u m o f early philosophy
where witchcraft makes its rst ap p earance This g r o u p
o f beliefs a n d p ractices constit u tes what is n o w commonly
k n own as S pi r it u alism
Witchc r aft and S p i r it u alism have existed for tho u sa n ds
o f y e ars i n a closeness of u nio n not u n fai r ly typi ed in this
,

Br n d Po p A nt vl iii pp 1 4 3 W u t tk e V o lk s b rg l b p 5 0 ;
Gri mm D ts ch R h t s lt rt h m er p 9 23 Pi ct t Ori g i s I d E rop
p rt ii p 4 5 9 ; M n n v iii 1 14 5 s Pli n v ii 2
1

eu

ec

ee

au

ne

e,

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

14 2

ve r se f r om J oh n B ale s l 6 t h cent u ry Inte r l u de c o n ce r ni n g

N at u re which b r i n gs u nder o n e head the art of bewitching
vegetables and p o u l try and ca u si n g s u pernat u ral movement
o f sto o ls and crocke r y

w e ll s I c an u p d ry e
C a u s e t re e s a n d h e r b e s t o d y e
A n d s l e e a l l pu l tc ry e
W h e rea s m e n d o th me mo v
e
I ca n ma k e s t o l e s t o d au n c e
A n d e a r th e n po t t c s t o p rau n c e
T h a t n on e s h a ll th e m c n h a u n c e
A n d d o b u t c a s t my g l o v e
Th c y r

The same intellect u al movement led to the decline o f both

witchcraft and spirit u alism till early in the last cent u ry
men tho u ght that both were dying o r all b u t dead together
N ow however no t only are spirit u alists to be co u nted by
tens of tho u sands in A m erica and E n gland b u t there are
among the m se v eral men o f dis ti n g u ished me n tal power I

am well aware that the problem o f the s e called S pirit

manifestations is one to be disc u ssed on its merits in
o r der to arri v e at a di stinct opinion how far it may be con
cerned with facts ins u f ciently appreciated and explained by
science and h ow far with s u perstition del u sion a n d S heer
kna v ery S u ch i nvestigation p u rs u ed b y caref u l obse r v ation
in a scienti c spirit wo u ld S eem apt to throw light on some
most interesti n g psychological qu estions Bu t tho u gh it
lies beyo n d my scope to examine the S pi r i t u alistic e v idence
fo r itself the eth n og r aphic v iew o f the matter has n ev
e rt h e
less its val u e This S hows modern spi r it u alism to be in
great meas ur e a di r ect r evival from the regions o f savage
philosophy and peasant folk lore It is not a simple qu es
tion of the existence of certain phenomen a of mind and
matte r It is that in connexion with these phe n omena a
great phil oso phic
r e l igio u s doctrine o u rishi n g i n the lower
c u lt u re b u t dwi n dli n g i n the higher has re establi shed itself
The wo r ld is agai n swarming with i n t e ll i
i n f u ll v igo u r
gen t and p owe r f u l dise m bodied S pi r it u al bei n gs whose di r ect
,

PIRIT UALIS M

14 3

action o n tho u ght and matter is again con dently asserted

as in those times and co u ntries where physical science had
n o t as yet so far s u cceeded in extr u ding these S pirits and
their i n u e n ces from the system of nat u re
A pparitions have regained the place and meani n g which
they held from the level o f the lower races to that o f medi
wv
The reg u lar ghost sto ries in which spirits o f
a l E u rope
the dead walk visibly and have inte r co u rse with corpo r eal
men are now restored and cited with new examples as

glimpses o f the night S ide of nat u re no r have these

stories changed either their strength to those who are dis
posed to believe them o r their weakness to those who are
no t A S o f o ld men live n o w in habit u al interco u r se with
the spirits o f the dead N ecromancy is a religion and the
C hinese manes worshipper may see the o u ter barba r ians
come back afte r a heretical i n terval o f a few cent u ries i n to
sympathy with his time
hono u red c r eed A S the sorcerers
o f barbaro u s tribes lie in bodily lethargy o r S leep while
their so u ls depart on distant j o u rneys so it is n o t u ncommon
i n mo dern S pirit u alistic narratives for persons to be in an
i nsensible state when their apparitions visit distant places
whence they bring back informatio n and where they com
The S pi r its o f the living as well
mu n i c a t e with the livi n g
as o f the dead the so u ls o f S tra u ss and C arl V ogt as well as
a r e s u m moned by medi u ms to
o f A u g u stine and Jero m e
distant spi ri t c i rc le s A S D r B astian remarks if any cele
b ra t e d m an in E u rope feels himself at so m e moment in a
melan choly mood he m ay co n sole hi mself with the idea that
his so u l has been sent fo r to A m erica to assist at the

ro u gh xings of some backwo odsman F ifty years ago

D r M acc u lloch in his D escription of the Western Islands

o f S co tland
wrote th u s o f the famo u s H ighland second

sight : In fact it has u ndergone the fate of witchcraft ;

ceasing to be believed it has ceased to exist
Y et a gene
ratio n late r he wo u ld have fo u n d it r einstated i n a far
larger r a n ge o f society and u nder far better circ um sta n ces
o f lea r n i ng and m ate r ial
A mong the in u ences
p ros pe r ity
,

S U R V I V AL IN C U LT U R E

14 4

which have combined t o b r ing abo u t the S pirit u alistic renais

s au c e a pr o mi n ent place may I think be given to the eff ect
prod u ced on the religio u s m ind o f E u rope a n d A merica by
the inte n sely ani mistic teachings o f E man u el S wede n borg
in the 1 8 th cent u r y
The position o f this remarkable
visionary as to so me of the partic u lar S pirit u alistic doctrines

may be j u dg e d o f by the following statements from The

Tr u e C hristia n R eligion A man s S pirit is his mind which
li v es after death in co m plete h u man form and this spirit
may be conveyed from place to place while th e body re
mai n s a t rest as o n some occasions happened to S wedenborg

h i mself
I have co n v ersed he says
with all my rela
tions and f r iends likewise with kings and princes and men
of learni n g after their depart u r e o u t o f this life and this
now for twenty seven years witho u t interr u ption
A nd

fo r eseeing that many wh o read his M emorable R elations

will believe them to be ctions of imagination he protests in
tr u th they are not ctions b u t were really seen and heard ;
no t seen and heard in any state of mi n d i n S leep b u t in a
?
state o f complete wakef u lness
I S hall have to speak elsewhere o f some o f the doctrines
o f modern S pirit u alism
where they seem to fall into their
places in the st u dy o f A nimism H ere as a means o f ill u s
t ra t i n g the relation o f the newer to the older S p i r i t u alistic
ideas I p r opose to glance over the ethnography of two o f the
most pop u lar means o f comm u n i cating with the spi r it world
by rapping a n d w r iting and t w o o f the prominent spirit
manifestations the feat o f rising in the a i r and the trick of
the D avenport B r others
The elf who goes knocking and ro u tin g abo u t the ho u se

at night and whose s pecial G erman nam e is the P olter

?

geist is an O ld and familiar personage in E u ropean folk lore

F r om of o ld s u ch u nexplained noises have been ascribed to
the agency o f pe r sonal S pirits who mo r e often than n o t a re
,

S w d b rg
e

en

1 5 7 , 2 81, 8 5 1
2

Th e

Tr

ue

C h ris t i an R e l i g i on L on d on
,

G ri mm D u ts ch e M y th pp
,

4 7 3, 481

1 85 5 , N

o s.

156,

S P I R I T M A N I F ES T A T I O N S

14 5

considered h u man so u ls The mode r n D ayaks S iamese a n d

S inghalese ag r ee with the E s t h s as to s u ch ro u ti n g and r a p
?
pi n g being ca u sed by S pi r its
Knocki n gs m a y be co n sidered
mysterio u s b u t harmless like those which in S wabia a n d
F ran c o n i a are expected d u r i n g A dvent o n the A n k l Opfe rl e i n S

2
N achte o r L ittle K n ocke r s N ights
O r they may be

u sef u l as when the Welsh mine r s think that the

k n ocke r s
they hear u nde r g r o u n d a r e i n dicati ng the rich v eins o f lead
?
and silve r
O r they may be simply an n oyi n g as when in
the ninth cen t u r y a malig n ant S pirit i n fested a parish by
knocki n g at the walls as if with a hammer b u t being ove r
co me with litanies and holy wate r confessed itself to be
the familiar Of a certain wicked priest and to have been in
hiding u nde r his cloak Th u s in the se v e n teenth cent u ry
the fa m o u s demo n d r u mm er o f Tedwo r th commemorated
by G l an vil in the S a d u c i sm u s Tri u mph a t u s th u mped

abo u t the doors and the o u tside o f the ho u se an d for an

'
ho u r together it wo u ld beat R ou n dh ea ds a n d C u ckold s the
Ta t too and several other P oi n ts of W a r as well as any
4
D r u mmer
B u t pop u lar philosophy has mostly attached
to s u ch mysterio u s noises a fo r ebodi ng of death the k n o ck
being held as a S ignal or s u mmo n s amo n g S pirits as amo n g
men
The R oma n s conside r ed that the ge n i u s of death
th u s an no u nced his coming M ode r n folk lo r e holds either
that a knocking or r u mbling in the oor is an omen o f a
death abo u t to happe n or that dying persons themselves
anno u nce thei r dissol u tion to their friends in s u ch strange

so u nds The E nglish r u le takes in both cases : Three lo u d

and distinct knocks at the be d s head o f a S ick person o r at
the bed s head o r door o f any of his relations is an o m en o f
his death
We hap pen to have a goo d means o f testing
.

'

St J h
o

n,

F ar

O est l
ast, v
ol i p 8 2 ; B a s t i a n , Ps y ch o l og i e , p 1 1 1

23 2 , 2 5 9 , 2 8 8 ; B oecl e r , Eh st e n A b erg l a u b e , p 1 4 7

A si en vol iii pp
B s t i n M n s ch vl ii p
Br n d vol ii p 4 8 6

74

22 7

Gla n v
i l,
S ad u c i s mu s Tri u mph a t u s , p ar t
a pp e ars
t o h a v e b e e n o n e W i ll i am D rurv;

ii

s ee

b l e d ru mmer
P py s D i ry vol i

Th e i n vi si

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

14 G

am o u n t o f act u al co r r espo n dence be tween omen and

e v en t necessa r y t o establish these r u les : the illogical people
who we r e ( and s till a re ) able to disco v e r a co n nexion between

the ticking o f the death watch beetle and an ens u ing

death in t h e h o u se no do u bt fo u nd it e q u ally easy to give a
?
pro phetic i n terpretation to a n y o ther mysterio u s knocks
There is a story dated 1 5 3 4 o f a ghost that answered
q u estions by knocking in the C atholic ch u rch of O r leans
and demanded the removal o f the provos t s Lu theran wife
who had been b u ried the r e ; b u t the affair proved to be a
?
trick o f a F r anciscan friar
The system o f working an
alphabet by co u nted raps is a device familiar to prison cells
where it has long been at once th e despair of gaolers and
a n e v idence o f the di ffu sion o f ed u cation even among the
criminal classes
Th u s when in 1 84 7 the celebrated
rappi n gs began to tro u ble the township o f A rcadia in the
S tate o f N ew Y ork the F ox family of R ochester fo u nders
of the modern spirit u al movemen t had on the on e hand
only to revive the ancient prevalent belief in spirit rappings
which had almos t fallen into the limbo o f discredited s u pe r
s t i t i on s while o n the o ther hand the system o f comm u ni
catio n with the S pirits was ready made to their hand The
system o f a r apping alphabet remains i n f u ll u se and
n u mberless specimens o f messages th u s received are in
print possibly the longest being a novel of which I can

only give the title J u anita N o u velle par u ne C haise A

l I mpri me ri e d u G o u vernement B asse Terre ( G u adelo u pe )
I n the r ecorded comm u nications names dates & c
are often a ll eged to have been stated u nder remarkable
ci r c u mstances while the style o f tho u ght lang u age and
s pel ling ts with the intellect u al qu ality of the me di u m
A la rge p r opo r tion o f the comm u nications being obvio u sly

false a n d S i lly eve n whe n the spirit has anno u nced itself
th e

Bran d vol iii pp 2 2 5 2 3 3 ; Gri mm pp 8 0 1 1 0 8 9 1 1 4 1 ; W u ttk e

pp 3 8 9 2 0 8 ; S h ortl a n d Tra d s o f N e w Z e l an d p 1 3 7 (om i n ou s t i c k i n g

o f i n s e ct d ou b t fu l w h e th er i d ea n a t i v e or i n tro d u c e d b y fo re i g n er s )

2
B a s ti a n M en s ch vol ii p 3 9 3
1

S P I R IT RAPPI NG AND
-

RITING

14 7

in the name o f so m e great statesman moralist o r philo

sopher o f the past the theory has been adopted by S pirit u al
i s t S that foolish o r ly i n g S pirits are apt to personate those
o f highe r degree and give messages in their na m es
S pi r it w r iti n g is of t w o kinds according as it is done
with or witho u t a m aterial instr u ment The rst kin d is i n
f u ll p r actice in C hina where like other rites o f divinatio n

it is probably ancient
It is called descendin g o f the
pencil a n d is especially u sed by the literary classes
When a C hinese wishes to cons u lt a go d in this way he
sends for a professional medi u m B efore the image o f the
god are set candles and incense and a n O ffering Of tea or
mock money In front of this on another table is placed
an oblong t r ay o f d r y sand The writing instr u ment is a
V S haped wo oden handle two o r three feet long with a
wooden tooth xed at its point Two persons hold this
instr u ment each gras pi n g o n e leg o f it and the poin t
resting in the sand P roper prayers and charms ind u ce
the g od to manifest his p r esence by a movement of the
point in the sand and th u s the r esponse is written and
there only remai n s the somewhat di ffic u lt an d do u btf u l task
of
To W hat state o f opinion the rite
deciphe r i n g it
belongs may be j u dged from this : when the sacred apricot
tree is to be r obbed o f a branch to make the S pirit pen an
?
N ot
apologetic inscription is scratched u pon the tr u nk
withstanding theological di fferences between C hina an d
E nglan d the a r t of S pirit w r iting is m u ch the same in

the two co u ntries

A kind o f planchette seems to
?
have been known i n E u ro pe in the seventee n th cent u ry
The instr u m ent which may now be bo u ght at the toy S hops
i s a heart S haped boa r d some seven inches long resting o n
three s u pports of which the two at the wide end are castors
and the third at the pointed end is a pencil thr u st thro u gh
,

C h i n e s e

D ool i tt l e
vol

p 2 52 ; Ps y ch o l og i e p 1 5 9
1

ii

1 12 ;

B a s ti a n

O es t l

A si en vl iii

A u ri fo n

Toeh l a ,

S piri t l is t
ua

Mar

t in a

C h y mi ca ,

1 5 , 1 87 0

c i t e d b y K R H M a c k en z i e
.

in

S U R V I VA L I N C U LT U R E

148

a hole i n t h e boa r d
The i n s tr u me n t is placed on a shee t
of
n
b
w
o
ape
r
w
o
r
ked
pe r sons laying their n ge r s
a
d
t
p
y
lightly o n i t waiti n g till witho u t consci o u s e ffort o f the
o pe r at o r s i t mo v es a n d w r ites answe r s to q u estions
It is
n o t eve ryb o dy who has the fac u lty o f spirit w r iti n g b u t a
powe r f u l medi u m will w r i te alo n e S u ch medi u ms some
times conside r themselves acted o n by some p o we r separate
f r om themsel v es i n fact possessed
E cclesias tical history commemorates a miracle at the
close o f the N icene C o u n cil
Two bishops C h ry sa n t h u s
a n d M s o n i u s had died d u ri n g its sitting and the r emain
y
ing c r owd of F athe r s bro u ght the acts signed by themselves
to the tomb add r essed the deceased bisho ps as if still alive
a n d left the doc u ment
N ext day r et u rning they fo u nd
the two signat u res added to this e ffect
We C h ry san
th u s and My son i u s consenting with all the F athers in the
holy rst and oec u me n ical N icene S ynod altho u gh translated
f r om the body have also S igned the vol u me with o u r o w n
1
hands
S u ch S pi r it writi n g witho u t material instr u ment
has lately been r enewed by the B aron de G u lde n s t u bb
This writer co n rms by new evidence the t r u th o f the
tradition o f all peoples as to so u ls of the dead keeping u p
thei r co n nexion with their mortal remains and ha u nti n g the

places where they dwelt d u ring th eir terrestrial incarna

tion
Th u s F r ancis I manifests himself p r incipally at
F o n t a i n e b l ea u while L o u is X V and M arie A ntoinette roam
abo u t the Trianons M oreover if pieces o f bla n k paper be
set o u t in s u itable places the S pi r its envelo ped in their
ethereal bodies will concentrate by their force o f will
electric c u rr e n ts on the pape r a n d so form writte n

characters
The B a r on pu blishes in his P ne u m atologie
P os i tive a mass o f facsimiles of s pi r it writings th u s
obta i ned
J u li u s and A u g u st u s C aesa r give their names
near thei r stat u es in the L o u vre ; J u ve n al pr od u ces a
l u di cro u s attempt at a copy o f verses ; H eloise at P ere la
.

N i c eph or C al li st
.

172

E cc l si s t H is t v iii
e

23 ;

S t l y E s t r C h rch
an e

e n

U PERN ATURA L L E V I TAT I O N

14 9

C haise informs the world in modern F rench that A bela r d

P a u l w r ites himself
a n d S h e are u nited and h appy ; S t
we may s u ppose
A l <7 7 0 9 a 7 TO O T 0 AO V ( meaning

and H ippokrates the physician ( who spells

a W O O T O AwV) ;
himself H i ppOkrat eS ) attended M de G u lde n s t u bb at his
lodgings i n P aris and gave him a S ignat u re which o f itself
1
m
u
o
f
c red a sharp attack
rhe u atism in a few min u tes
The miracle o f r ising and oating in the ai r is o n e f u lly
recogn ized in the literat u re of ancient India The B u ddhist

saint of high ascetic rank attains the powe r called pe rfec

tion (i rdh i ) whereby he is able to rise in the air as also to
overt u rn the earth and stop the s u n H aving this power
the saint exercises it by the mere determination of his will
his bo dy becoming impondero u s as whe n a man in the c om
mon h u man state dete r mi nes to leap and leaps Bu ddhist
annals relate the pe r fo r mance o f the mi r ac u lo u s su s pen
sion by G a u tama hi mself as well as by other saints as fo r
example his ancestor M aha S ammat a who co u ld th u s seat
hi m self in the air witho u t visible s u pport E ven witho u t
this exalted facu lty it is co n side r ed possible to rise and
move i n the air by an e ff ort of ecstatic j oy (u dw e g a priti )
A remarkable mention of this feat as said to be performed
by the Indian B rahmans occu rs in the third cent u ry bio
graphy of A polloni u s o f Tyana ; these B rahmans a r e de
scribed as going abo u t in the air some two c u bits from
the gro u nd n o t fo r the sake of miracle ( s u ch ambition they
?
despised ) b u t for its being more s u itable to solar rites
F oreign co n j u rers we r e p r ofessing to exhibit this mi r acle
amo n g the G reeks i n the second cen t u r y as witness
Lu cian s j ocu la r acco u nt o f the H ype r bo r ea n conj u re r :
,

'

Pn eu ma t o l o

P osi ti v e et E x p ri men tal e La R a l i t d e s E s pri t s et

l e Ph en om n e M er v e i ll eu x d e l eu r Ec ri t ure D ire ct e d m o n tr s
pa r l e
B aron L d e Gul d en st u b b P aris 1 85 7

H ar dy M a n u a l o f Bu d h i sm pp 3 8 1 2 6 1 5 0 ; E as tern M on a ch is m

2
2
pp 7 2 8 5 3 82 ; KOppen R e l ig i on d es B u dd h a vol i p 4 12 ; B a s ti an
O es t l A si en v
ol iii p 3 9 0
Ph i l os t ra t i V i t a A p oll on T ya n iii 1 5
See
t h e men t i on amon g t h e S a ad h s o f I n d i a ( 1 7 t h c en t u ry )
b y Tra n t i n
M issi on ary Reg is t er J u ly 1 820 pp 2 9 46
1

g ie

S U RV I V A L IN C U LT U R E

15 0

Tho u art jo king said K le o d e m os b u t I was once more i n

c r ed u l o u s tha n th o u ab o u t s u ch thi n gs fo r I th o u gh t nothing
co u ld ha v e p e rs u ad e d me to beli e ve them ; b u t when I firs t
h e w a s o f the H ype rb o
s a w that f o r eig n ba r baria n yi n g
r ea n s he said I belie v ed and was ove r co m e i n spite O f my
r esis ta n ce F o r what was I to do when I saw him ca rr ied
th r o u gh the air i n daylight and walking 0 11 the water and
?
?
u gh
assi
leis
u
rely
and
slowly
th
r
o
the

r
e
What
ng
p
o u s a w the H yperbo rean m a n yi n g
said
his
i
n te r l o c u t o r )
y
(
and walki n g o n the wate r ? To be s u re said he a n d he had
o n u n dressed leathe r b r og u es as they ge n erally wear them ;
b u t what s the u se of talking of s u ch t rieS considering
what o ther manifestatio n s he showed u s sendi n g loves
calli n g u p demons raising the dead and bringi ng in H ekate
he r self visibly an d d r awing down the moon ?
K l e ode mos
then goes on to r elate how the conj u rer rst had his fo u r
m i n ts dow n fo r sac r i cial ex penses a n d then made a clay
C u pid an d sent it ying th r o u gh the air to fetch the girl
whom Glau ki as had fallen i n love with and presently lo
the r e S h e was knocki n g at the doo r ! The
a n d behold
i n terloc u tor howeve r comments in a sceptical vein o n the
It was scarce needf u l he says to have taken the
n arrative
tro u ble to sen d for the gi r l with clay and a m agicia n f r o m
the H yperbo r ea n s an d even the moo n consideri n g that fo r
twe n ty d r achmas S h e wo u ld have let herself be taken to the
H yperboreans themselves ; and she seems moreover to have
bee n affected in q ui te an O pposite way to s pirits for whereas
these beings take ight if they hear the noise o f brass o r
i r on C h r ysis no soo n er hears the C h i nk o f S ilver anywhere
?
b u t she comes toward the so u nd
A nother early instan ce
of the belief in mi r ac u lo u s s u spension is in the life o f
I a mbl i c h u s the g r eat N e o P latonist mystic
H is disciples
says E u n a pi u s told him they had heard a report from his
servants that while in p r ayer to the gods he had been lifted
more than ten c u bits f r om the g r o u nd his body and clothes
changing to a bea u tif ul golden colo u r b u t after he ceased
,

L ci
u

an .

P h i l opseu d es , 1 3

UPERN AT U RA L L EVI TATI O N

15 1

from prayer his body became as before an d then he came

down to the gro un d an d r et u r n ed to the society of his

followers They ent r eated him the r efo r e Why 0 most

di v i ne teacher W h y dost tho u do s u ch thi n gs by thyself a n d
n o t let u s pa r take o f the more perfect wisdo m ?
Then
I amb li ch u s tho u gh n o t given to la u ghter la u ghed at this

story and said to them It was no fool who t r icked yo u

1
th u s b u t the thing is n o t tr u e
A fter a while the p r odigy which the P latonist di sclaimed
became a u s u al attribu te o f C hristian saints Th u s S t
R ichard then chancellor t o S t E dmu nd A rchbishop of
C anterb u ry on e day softly opening the chapel doo r to see
why the archbishop did n o t come to dinner saw him raised
high i n the air with his knees bent and his arms stretched
o u t ; falling gently to the gro u nd and S eeing the chancellor
he complai n ed that he had hinde r ed h i m o f great S pirit u al
delight and comfort S o S t P hilip N eri u sed to be s ome
times seen raised seve r al yards from the gro u nd d u ring his
rapt u ro u s devotions with a bright light S hinin g from h i s
co u ntenance S t Ignati u s L oyola is declared to have been
raised abo u t two feet u nder the same circ u mstances an d
similar legends of devo u t ascetics being n o t only m e t aph ori

cally b u t materially raised above the earth a r e told in the

lives o f S t D ominic S t D u nstan S t The r esa and other
less known sain ts In the last cent u r y D om C a lme t speaks
o f knowing a good mo n k who rises sometimes from the
g r o u nd and remains invol u ntarily s u spe n ded especially o n
seeing some devotional image or hea r ing some devo u t
p r ayer and also a n u n who has Often seen herself r aised in
S pite o f herself to a certai n di stance from the earth
Un
fo r t u nately the g r eat comme n tator does not specify an y
W itnesses as havin g seen the monk and n u n rise in the air
If they only tho u ght themsel v es th u s elevated their sto r ies
can only rank with that of the yo u ng m an mentioned by D e
M aist r e who S O often seemed to himself to oat in the air
that he came to s u spect that gravitation might n o t be nat u ral
,

Eu n a pi u s i n I amb l

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

15 2

ma n

hall u ci n ati o n o f ri s i n g a n d fl o ati n g in the ai r

i s e xt r e me ly c o m mo n a n d a s c e tics o f all r eligions a re espe
c i a lly liabl e t o i t
A m o n g m o d e r n acc o u n ts o f diabolic p o ssessio n also the
r isi n g i n the a i r is d e sc r ibed as taking place no t s u bj ectively
I n 1 6 5 7 R ichard Jones a sprigh tly lad o f
b u t o b j e cti v e ly
twel v e yea r s o ld li v ing at S hepton M allet was bewitched by
one Ja n e i ro o k s ; he was seen to r ise in the air a n d pass
o ve r a ga r d en wall some thi r ty yards
and at other ti mes
w a s fo u nd in a r o om with his hands fi at against a beam at
the t o p o f the room and his body two or three feet f r om the
g r o u n d n i n e people at a time seeing him in this latter
positi o n
Ja n e B r ooks was accordingly condemned and
exec u ted at C hard A ssizes in M arch 1 6 5 8 R icha r d the
S u r rey demoniac o f 1 6 89 was h oisted u p in t h e air and let
down by S atan ; at the beginni n g of his ts he was as it
we r e blow n or snatched o r borne u p s u ddenly from his
chai r as if he wo u ld have own away b u t that those who
held h i m lm n g to his arms and legs and cl u n g abo u t him
O n e acco u nt ( n o t the O f cial medical o n e ) o f the demoniacal
possessions at M orzine in S avoy in 1 86 4 r elates that a
patie n t was held s u spended in the air by an invisible force
d u ring some seconds o r min u tes above the cemetery in
?
the pr esence of the archbishop
M odern S pirit u alists
clai m this power as possessed b y certain disting u ished
livi n g m edi u m s w h o indeed profess to rival in sober fact
t h e aerostatic miracles of Bu ddhist and C atholic legend
The fo r ce employed is o f co u rse considered to be that o f
the S pirits
The perfor m ances o f tied medi u ms have been S pecially re
p r esented i n E n gland by the D avenport B rothe r s who a r e
generally r ecognized by S pirit u alists as gen u i n e media and
t

Th e

A l b n B u tl er L i v e s o f t h e S a i n t s vol i p 6 7 4 ; C alme t D iss s ur

ch p xxi D e M ais tre S oi r e s d e S t P t ersb ou rg
l e s A pp ari ti o n s

vol ii pp 1 5 8 1 7 5 S e e a l s o B a s t i n M e n s ch v
ol
i i p 5 7 8 ; Ps y ch o
l og i e p 1 5 9

2
il
p art ii B a s tia n Psy ch ol og i e
S d ne i s mu s Tri u mph a t u s
Gla n v
1

161

S U PERN AT UR AL UNBI ND I NG

153

attrib u te the reverse opinion so deeply rooted in the pu blic

m i n d to the u ntr u thf u lness of the L ondon and many other
newspapers
The p e r formers were bo u n d fast a n d sh u t by
themselves in a dark cabinet w i th m u sical inst r u men ts
whence not only m u sical so u nds proceeded b u t the coats o f
the medi u ms were taken o ff and replaced ; yet on inspection
their bodies were discovered still bo u nd The spiri t s wo u ld
also release the bo u nd medi u ms fro m their cords howe v er
?
caref u lly tied abo u t them
N o w the idea of s u per n at u ral
u nbindi ng is ve r y ancient vo u ched for as it is by no less a
personage than t h e crafty O dysse u s himself in his advent u re
o n board the ship o f the Thesprotians :
,

Me

v e ss e l s tro n g l y b ou n d
T h e y l ea v e an d s n a tch th eir me a l u p on t h e b e ach
B u t t o m y h e l p t h e g o d s th e m s e l v e s u n w ou n d
My c or d s w i th e a s e th ou g h rml y t w i s t e d rou n d
on

th e

w e ll

b e n ch e d

In early E n glish chronicle we nd it in a story told by the

V enerable B ede A ce r tain I m ma was fo u nd all b u t dead
o n the eld o f battle a n d taken prisoner b u t when he began
to r ecover and was pu t in bonds to preve n t his escaping no
sooner did his bi n ders leave h i m b u t he was lo ose again
The ea r l who owned h i m en qu ired whethe r he had abo u t

him s u ch loosening lette r s ( literas s olu t ori as ) as tales

were told of the ma n replied that he knew na u gh t of s u ch
arts ; yet when his ow n er sold him to another master there
was still no bindi n g h i m The received explanation o f this
strange powe r was e mphatically a S pi r it u al on e H is brother
had so u ght fo r his dead body and nding another like h i m
b u ried it and proceeded t o say masses fo r his brother s so u l
by the celebration whereof i t came to pass that n o o n e
co u ld faste n h i m for he was o u t o f bonds agai n di r ectly
S o th ey sent him home to Kent whence h e d u ly ret u r n ed
his ra n som and his story it is related st i m u lated m any to
de v otio n who u nderstoo d by it how sal u tary are masses to
,

S i i
p i t u al i s t , F eb 1 5 , 1 8 7 0

N ew

Y ork

1 86 4

O rri n A bb ott

Th e

D v p rt Br th rs
a

en

S U RV I VA L I N C U LT U R E

15 4

the redemptio n b o th o f so u l and body A gain there pre

vailed i n S c o tla n d u p t o the 1 8 t h cen t u ry this no tion : when
the l u n atics who had b e e n b r o u gh t to S t F illan s P ool to be
bathed were laid bo u nd in the neighbo u ring ch u rch next
nigh t i f t h e y w ere f o u nd loose in the morning their re
cov
e ry was expected b u t if at dawn they we r e still bo u nd
thei r c u re was do u btf u l
The u ntying trick performed among savages is s o s i milar
to that o f o u r mo u n tebanks that when we nd the N orth
A merican I n dian j u gglers doing both this and the familiar
t r ick o f breathin g r e we are at a loss t o j u dge whether
they inherited these two feats from their savage ancestors
o r borrowed them from the white men The point is not
however the mere performance of the u ntying trick b u t its
being attrib u ted to the help o f spirit u al beings
This
It comes
n otion is tho ro u ghly at home in savage c u lt u re
o u t well i n the E s qu ima u x acco u n t s which date from early
in the 1 8 th cent u ry C ra n z th u s describes the G reenland
angekok setting o u t on his mystic j o u rney to heaven and
hell Wh en he has dr u mmed awhile and made all s orts o f
wondro u s contortions he is himself bo u nd with a thong by
one of his p u pils his head between his legs and his hands
behi n d his back A ll the lamps in the ho u se are p u t o u t
and the windows darkened for no o n e m u st see him hol d
i n terco u r se with his spirit n o on e mu s t move or even scratch
his head that the S pirit may not be in terfered with o r
rather says the missionary that n o on e m ay catch him at
his t r ickery for there is no going u p to heaven in broad
daylight A t last after strange noises have been heard
and a visit has been received o r paid to the t o rn gak or
the magician reap pears u nbo u nd b u t pale and
S p i rit
excited and gives an acco u n t of his advent u r es C a st rn s
acco u n t of the similar p r oceedi n gs o f the S iberian shamans

is as foll ows : They a r e practised he says in all sorts

o f conj u ring tricks by which they know how to dazzle the
simple crowd and inspi r e greater tr u st in themselves O ne
of the most u s u al j u ggleries of the shamans in the G overn
.

U PERNATURA L UNBINDI NG

155

ment of Tomsk consists of the following hoc u s pocu s a

wonder to the R u ssians as well as to the S amoi e ds The
shaman sits dow n o n the wrong S ide o f a dry reindee r
hide
spread in the middle o f the oor There he lets hi m self be

bo u nd han d and foot by t he assistants The S h u tters a r e

closed and the shaman begins to invoke his ministerin g
spirits A ll at once there arises a mysterio u s gho s tliness i n
the dark space V oices are heard from di fferent parts
both within and witho u t the y u rt while on the dry reindeer
skin there is a r attli n g and dr u mming in reg u lar ti m e
B ears growl snakes hiss and s qu irrels leap abo u t i n the
room A t last this u ncanny work ceases and the a u dience
impatiently await the res u lt of the game A few moments
pass in this expectation and behold the shaman walks in
free and u nbo u nd from o u tside N O o n e do u bts that it was
the S pirits who were dr u mming growling an d hissing who
released the S haman from his bonds an d who carried him
1
by secret ways o u t of the y u rt
O n the whole the ethnography o f spirit u alism bears o n
practical opinion s omewhat in this manner B eside the
qu estion o f the absol u te tr u th o r falsity of the alleged
possessions manes oracles do u bles brain waves f u r n itu r e
movings and oa t i n g s i n the air there remains the history
as a matte r o f Opinion H ereby
o f S pirit u alistic belief
it appears that the received S pirit u alis tic theory o f the
alleged phenomena belongs to the ph i losophy o f sa v ages
A S to s u ch matters as apparitions o r possessions this is
obvio u s and it holds in more extreme cases S u ppose a
wild N orth A me r ican Indian looking o n at a spirit S eance
i n L ondon
A S t o the presence o f disembodied S pi r its
manifesti n g themselves by raps noises voices and other
-

B e da H is tori a E cc l esi a s
t i c a i v 22 ; G ri mm D
p 1 1 80 (an old G erman l oo sin g ch arm is g i v en

from t h e M ers eb urg

J Y S i mp s o n i n Pro c An t S oc S co tl an d
v
ol i v
K ea t i n g L ong s E x p t o S t P e ter s R i v er vol ii p 1 5 9 ; E g e d e
G reen l an d p 1 8 9 C ra n z GrOn lan d p 2 6 9 C as t r n R eis eb eri cht e
;
;
1 84 5
9 p 17 3

H omer

O d y ss

xi v

3 45

( W ors l ey

s Tra n s

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

1 BS

acti o n s the savage wo u ld be perfectly at home i n

the pr oceedi n gs fo r s u ch thi n gs a re pa r t and parcel o f his
r ec o g n ized sy s te m o f n at u r e Th e pa r t of the a ffai r really
s t r a n ge t o him w o u ld b e the introd u ction of s u ch art s as
s pelli n g and w r iti n g which do belo n g t o a di fferent state o f
civiliza tion f r om his The iss u e raised by the comparison
ba r ba r ic and civilized spirit u alism is this : D o
o f sa v age
the R ed I n dia n medicine ma n the Tatar necr o mancer the
H ighla n d ghost see r and the B oston medi u m sha r e the
o f belief and knowledge o f the highest tr u th and
ossession
p
import which nevertheless the great intellect u al movement
o f the last two cent u ries has S imply thrown aside as worth
less ? Is what we are habit u ally boasti n g o f and calling new
enlightenment then in fact a decay o f knowledge ? If so this
is a tr u ly remarkable case of degeneration and the savages
whom some ethnog r aphers look o n as degenerate f r o m a
highe r civili zatio n may t u rn on their acc u sers and charge
them with having fallen from the high level o f savage
k n owledge
Thro u gho u t the whole of this varied investigation whether
o f the dwindling s u rvival of O l d c u lt u re o r o f its b u rsting
fo rth afresh in active revival it may perhaps be complained
that its ill u strations sho u ld be chosen so m u ch among things
worn o u t worthless frivolo u s o r even had with downright
harmf u l folly It is in fact so a n d I have taken u p this
co u r se of a r g u ment with fu ll knowledge and intent F or
indeed we have in s u ch en qu iries contin u al r easo n to be
tha n kf ul fo r fools It is qu ite wonderf u l even if we hardly
go below the s u rface o f the s u bj ect to see how la rge a S ha r e
st u pidi ty and u n practical conservatism and dogged su pe rs t i
tion have had i n p r ese r ving for u s t r aces o f the history of
o u r race which p ractical u ti l itarianism wo u ld have r emorse
lessly swept away The savage is rmly obstinately c o n
N o man appeals with mo r e u nhesitating co n dence
ativ
e
se rv
to the great p r ecedent makers o f the past ; the wis dom o f
his ancestors can control against the mos t obvio u s evi d ence
his o w n opinio n s a n d actions We listen with pity to the
physical

EVID ENTIAL VAL U E

S URVIVA LS

OF

157

r u de India n as he maintains against civilized scie n ce an d

experience the a u thority o f his r u de fo r efathe r s We smile
at the C hinese appealing against mo de r n innovatio n to the
golde n p r ecepts of C onf u ci u s who in his ti m e looked back
with the same prostrate reve r ence to sages still m ore
a n cien t co u nselli n g his disciples t o follow the seasons o f
H ea to ride i n the carriage o f Y in to wear the cere m on ial
c a p o f C how
The nobler tenden cy o f advancing c u lt u r e and above all
o f scienti c c u lt u r e is to hono u r the dead witho u t grovelli n g
befo r e the m to p r o t by the pas t witho u t sacri cing the
present to it Y et even the modern civilized wo r ld has b u t
half lea rn t this lesson and an u n pre j u diced s u r vey may lead
u S to j u dge h o w ma n y of o u r ide as a n d c u sto m s exist rathe r
by being Old tha n by being goo d N ow in deali n g with
h u rtf u l s u perstitions the p roof that they are things which
it is the tendency of savagery to prod u ce and of higher
c u lt u re to destroy is accepted as a fair contro v ersial
a r g u ment The mere historical position o f a belief o r
cu stom may raise a pres u mption as to its origin which
beco m es a p res u mption as to its a u thenticity D r M iddle
to n s celebrated L etter from R ome shows cases i n poi n t
H e mentions the image of D ia n a at E phes u s which fell
from the S k y the r eby damaging the preten sions o f the
C alabrian i m age o f S t D ominic which acco r ding to pio u s
tradition was likewise bro u ght dow n f r om heaven H e
n otices that as the bloo d of S t J an u a ri u s now melts mi ra c u
l o u sly witho u t heat s o ages ago the priests of G n a t i a tried
to pers u ade H orace on his road to B ru n du si u m that the
f r ankincense in their t emple had the habit o f melting in
like manne r :
.

d eh i n c Gn a t i a l y mph i s

d e d i t ri su s q u e j ocos q u e
D u m a mma s i n e t h u ra li q uescere l i m i n e s a c ro
P e r s u a d e re c u p i t c re d a t Ju d aeu s A p ella
I

ra t i s e x st r u c t a

on e

go

1
.

C on y ers M i ddl ton

e

L tt r fr
e

R o me

1 7 2 9 ; H e r S at
.

I v
.

98

S U R V I V A L I N C U LT U R E

158

Th u s ethnographe r s no t witho u t a ce r tain grim satisfaction

may at times n d mea n s t o make s t u pid and evil s u pe rs t i
tio n s bear wit n ess agai n s t the mselves
M o r eover i n wo rking t o gain an i n sigh t into the general
laws o f intellect u al mo v ement there is practical gain in
being able to st u dy them rather among anti q u arian relics o f
no i n tense modern interest than among those seethi n g
p r oble ms o f t h e day on which action has to be taken amid
fermen t a n d sharp strife S ho u ld some mo r alis t o r politi
s peak contempt u o u sly o f the vanity o f st u dying
c i an
matters witho u t practical mo m ent i t will gene r ally be
fo u nd that his own mo de o f treatment will consist in
partizan diatribes on the qu estions of the day a proceeding
practical eno u gh especially in con r m in g those who agree
with him already b u t the extreme opposite to th e scienti c
way o f eliciting tr u th The e t lm og raph e r s co u rse again
sho u ld be like that o f the anatomis t who carries on his
st u dies if possible rather o n dead than on living s u bj ects ;
vi v isectio n is nervo u s work and the h u mane inves tigator
hates in icting needless pain Th u s when the s t u dent o f
c u lt u re occ u pies himself in viewing the bearings of exploded
cont r o v e r sies o r in u nra v elli n g the histo r y o f lo n g s u per
se de d inventio n s he is gladly seeking his evidence rather
in s u ch dead old history than in the discu ssions where he
and those he li v es among a r e alive with i n tense party feel
ing and where his j u dgmen t is biassed by the press u re o f
personal sympathy and even it may be o f personal gain or
le ss
S o from th i ngs which perhaps never were of high
importance things which have fallen ou t of pop u lar s i gn i
c a n ce o r even o u t o f pop u lar memory he tries to elicit
gen eral laws of c u lt u re often to be th u s more easily and
f u lly gained than in the arena o f mo dern philosophy and
politics
Bu t the opinions drawn from old o r worn ou t c u lt u re are
no t to be left lyin g whe r e th ey we r e S ha ped It is no more
reaso n able to s u ppose the laws o f mind di fferently con
stit u ted in A u st r ali a and in E ngland in the time o f the
,

EVIDENTIAL VALU E OF S U RVI VALS

159

c ave
dwellers and in the time o f the b u ilders of S heet iron
ho u ses tha n to s u ppose that the laws of chemical co mbina
tion were o f on e sort in the time o f the coal meas u res and
are o f another n e w The thi n g that has been will be ; and
we are to st u dy savages an d old nations to learn the laws
that u nder new circ u mstances are working for goo d or ill in
o u r o w n development
If it is needf u l to give an instance
o f the directness with which anti q u ity and savagery bear
u pon o u r modern life let it be taken in the facts j u st
bro u ght forward o n the r elation of ancient sorcery to the
belief in witchcraft which was not long S ince o n e o f the
gravest facts of E u r opea n history and of savage spirit u alism
to beliefs which so deeply a ffect o u r civilization n ow N o
on e who can see in these cases and in many others to be
b r o u ght before him in these vol u m es how direct and close
the co n nexion may be between modern c u lt u re and the
condition o f the r u dest sa v age will be p r one to acc u se
st u dents who S pend their labo u r o n eve n the lowest and
most tri ing facts o f eth n ography of wast ing their ho u rs in
the satisfaction o f a f r ivo lo u s c u riosity
-

'

C H AP TER V

EMOTI ONA L
El

I MITAT I V E L ANG UA GE

AN D

d irectly e x pr ssi v e S ou n d i n L a ng u g eTes t b y i n d e p n d e n t

c rr s p n d n c i n d is ti n ct l n g u g e s C o n s ti tuen t pro c ss es o f La n

u
e
G
s
t
u
r
e
E
x
p
r
e
ssi
n
o
f
f
t
r
e
&
c
E
m
t
i
n
l
T
n
A ti u
a
o
g g
l t s u n d s v o w l s (l t e mi n e d b y mu si c l q u al i ty an d p i tch c n s on n ts
E mp h sis n d A cc n tP hr s e m l o dy R ec i t ti v eS ou n d W ord s
I n t erj cti on s C a ll s t A n i m l s E m t i o n l C ri e s S en s W ord s form d
fr m I n t erj e ct i on s A i rmat i ve n d N eg a t i ve part i c l es & c

me n t
o

of

ea u

e-

carrying o n the en qu iry into the development o f c u l

t u re evidence o f s ome weigh t is to be gained f r om an
examination of L ang u age C ompa r ing the gramma r s and
dictionaries of races at vario u s grades o f civilization it
appears that in the great art o f speech the ed u cated man
at this day s u bstantially u ses the method o f the savage
only expanded and improved in the wo r king ou t o f details
It is t r u e that the lang u ages o f the Tasmanian and the
C hin ese o f the G reenlander and the G reek differ vario u sly
in s tr u ct u re ; b u t this is a seconda r y diff erence u nderlaid
by a primary S i m ilarity in method na m
ely the expression
o f ideas by a r tic u late so u nds habit u ally all otted to them
N ow all lang u ages are fo un d o n inspection to contain some
a r ticu late so u nds o f a di r ectly natu r al and di r ectly i n t e l li
i
l
i
b
e
k
n d These are so u nds of interj ectional or imitative
g
characte r which have their meaning n ot by inheritance from
parents or adoption from foreigners b u t by being taken u p
di r ectly from the wo r ld of so u nd into the world of sen se
L ike pan to m imic gest u res they a r e capable o f conveying
their meaning of themselves witho u t reference to the pa r ti
I

1 60

NATU RAL OR IGIN OF LANG UAGE

161

lang u age they are u sed in connexion with F r om the

observatio n of these the r e have arise n spec u lations as to
the or i gin o f lang u age treating s u ch exp r essive so u nds as
the f un damental constit u ents of lang u age in general and
considering those of them which a r e still plainly recognizable
as having remained more or le SS in their o r iginal s tate long
co u rses of adaptation and variation havi n g p r od u ced from
s u ch the great mass o f words in all lang u ages in which no
connexion between i dea and so u nd can any longer be

ce r tai nly made o u t Th u s grew u p doct r i n es of a nat u ral

o r igin o f lang u age which dati n g fro m classic times were
de veloped i n the eighteenth cent u ry into a system by that
powerf u l thinke r the P r eside n t C harles de B rosses and in
o u r own time have been expanded and s olidi ed by a school
o f philologers among whom M r
H e n s l ei g h Wedgwoo d i s
?
the mos t pro m inent
These theo r ies ha v e no do u bt been
inca u tio u sly and fancif u lly worked
N o wonder that
st u dents who fo u nd in nat u re real and direct so u rces o f
articu late speech in interj ectional so u nds like a ir ! u g h
h m ! sh
and in imitative so u nds like p am wh i z tomtom
cu ckoo sho u ld have tho u ght that the whole secret of lan
g u age lay within the i r g r asp and that they had only to t
the keys th u s fo u nd into on e hole afte r another t o open
every lock When a philosopher has a tr u th in his hands
he is apt to st r etch it farther tha n it will h e ar The magic
u mb r ella m u st S p r ead a n d s read till it becomes a tent wide
p
eno u gh to S helte r the king s army Bu t it m u st be bo r ne
i n mind that what criticism to u ches in these o pi n ions is
their exagge r ation n o t their reality
That inte rj ections
and imitative words are really taken u p to some exte n t be
it s m all o r large i n to the ve r y body and str u ct u re of l an
g u age no one de n ies S u ch a denial if anyone o ffered it
the advocates o f the disp u t ed theories might dispose of in
the S i n gle phrase that they wo u ld neithe r be p ooh p oo/zed

c u la r

"

Bross es Tr i t d e la F orma t i o n M ca n i q u e d es L n g ues & c

W e d g w o o d O ri g i n o f L a n g uag e
D i c o f E g l is h
( l s t ed

o
o
E tym l g y ( 1 85 9 2n d e d
F rrar C h a p t ers on L a n g u ag e
1

de

16 2

E MO T I O N A L

I MITA TIV E

AN D

AN G UAG E

nor b oom] d o wn I t may be shown within t h e limits o f the

mo s t s t r ict and s o be r a rg u me n t that the the o ry o f the
o rigi n o f la n g u age in n at u r al a ml di r ectly exp r essive s o u n ds
d o es acc o u n t fo r a c o n side r able f r actio n of the existing
copia v
co u ld
e r b o r u m while it raises a pres u mption that
we trace the his tory o f words mo r e f u lly i t wo u ld acco u nt
for far mo r e
111 he r e examining i n terj ectional and imitative so u nds
w ith their derivative wo r ds as well as certain othe r parts o f
lang u age o f a more o r less cognate character I p u rpose to
b r ing f o rward as far as possible n e w evidence derived from
the lang u ages o f savage and ba r baro u s races B y s o doing
i t becomes practicable to u se a check which in great meas u re
stops the main so u rce o f u ncertainty and error in s u ch
en qu iries the habit o f etymologizi n g words O ff hand from
exp r essive so u nds by the u naided and Often i g h t y fancy of
a philologe r B y simply enlarging the s u rvey of lang u age
the province o f the imagination is bro u ght within narrower
limits If se v eral lang u ages which cannot be classed as
dis tinctly of the same family u nite in expressing some
notion by a partic u lar so u nd which may fairly claim to be
interj ectional or imitative their combined a u thority will g o
fa r to prove the cla im a j u st o n e F o r if it be obj ected that
s u ch words may have passed into t he di fferent lang u ages
from a common so u rce o f which the trace is for the most
part lost this may be answered by the qu estion Why is there
n o t a pro portionate ag r eement between the lang u ages in
qu estion th r o u gho u t the far la r ger mass o f words which
can n ot pretend to be direct so u nd words ? If seve r al
la n g u ages have independently chosen like words to exp r ess
like meanings then we m ay reaso n ably s u ppose that we are
not del u ding o u rsel v es in thinki n g s u ch words highly ap pro
They
a
r
e
words
which
a
n swe r the
ri a t e to their p u r p ose
p
co n ditions o f original la n g u age confo r ming as they do to
the sayi n g o f Tho m as A qu i n as that the na m es o f thi n gs

o u ght to agree with thei r nat u res nomi n a de b en t n a t u ri s

rer u m c o ng ru e re
A p plied i n s uc h com parison the l an
.

gu ages

EL F EX PR ES S I V E S O U N D S

163

the lower races contrib u te evidence o f excellent

qu ality to the proble m It will at the sa m e time and by
the same pr oofs a ppear that savages possess in a high
degree the fac u lty o f u ttering thei r minds directly in
emotional tones and inte rj ections o f going st r aight to
nat u re to f u rnish themselves with i m itative so u nds incl u d
i n g re pro d u ctions o f their o w n direct emotional u tterances
as means o f expression o f ideas and o f introd u cing i nto
their formal lang u age wo r ds S O prod u ced
They have
clea r ly th u s far the m eans and powe r of pro d u cing lang u age
I n s o far as the theories u nder consideration acco u nt for
the original fo rmation of la n g u age they co u ntenance the
view that this formation took place among mankind in a
savage state an d e v en for anythi n g appeari n g to the con
t ra r y i n a still lower stage o f c u lt u re than has s u r v ived to
?
o u r day
The r s t step in s u ch i n vestigation is to gain a clear idea
o f the vario u s elements of which S p oken lang u age is made
u
Thes e m ay be en u me r ated as gest u re expression of
p
feat u re emotional tone em phasis force speed & c of
u tterance m u sical rhythm and intonation and the forma
tion of the vowels and conso n ants which are the S keleton o f
artic u late S peech
In the co m mon i n terco u rse of men speech is habit u ally
accom panied by gest u re the hands head and body aiding
and ill u strati n g the spoken phrase S o far as we c an j u dge
the visible ges t u re and the a u dible word have been th u s
u sed i n co mbination S ince times of most remote anti q u ity
of

pri n c i p l s v g n d b rb ri c l n g g e s h ere u s e d for evi

d en c e a r as foll ows 2A fri c : G ll (T t c h ek Gr n d
Y oru b
nd
Z l (D Oh n e
P l yn e si & c
M ri
(B w n Gr
T on g ( M ari n er
F iji ( H z l
( K n d ll V o c b W i ll i ms
wo d
M el n si (G b l n t M l n
A u s tr l i ( Gr y M o re
S h ur m n n
O ld ld
N
A meri c Pim Y k m Cl ll m
Lu mmi C h i n k M oh w k M i cma c ( S mi th s on C on tr vl iii C h i n k
J rg n (G i bb s
S A m ri c a
nd
Q u i ch e ( Br ss eu r G r
T pi (D i z
C ri b ( R o ch f rt
Q u i ch u a ( M ark h m G r a n d
C h i l i n ( F br s
Br z i l i n tri b s (M t i n s Gl ss i l i g
r m
M y d t i l s i P tt D pp l n g & c
1

Amo n g
e

e a

e e

e a

an

e a

a,

a,

ar

e u

oo

a,

ao

e o

ua

a :

u s

u u

a u

th e

ar a

E MO T I O N A L A N D I M I T A T I V E L A N G U A G E

1 64

in t h e histo ry o f o u r race It seem s however that in the

daily inte r co u r se o f the lower ra c e s ges t u r e hol d s a m u ch
m o re i mpo r ta n t pl a c e t ha n we a re a c c u s t o med t o s e e it fi ll
a po sition ev e n enc r o achi n g o n tha t which ar tic u late speech
h o lds a m o n g o u r sel v e s
M r B o n wick con fi r ms by his
expe r ie n c e D r M illigan s acc o u n t of the Ta s manians as

u si n g
sig n s to e ke o u t t h e mea n ing o f monosyllabic
ex pressi o n s and to gi v e fo rce precisio n and cha r acter to
v ocal s o u n ds
C a p tain \Vil s on re m arks o n the u se o f
ges tic u latio n i n m o difying wo r ds in the C hi n ook Ja rgon
There is c o n rmatio n to S pix and M a r ti u s desc r i ption o f
low B r azilian tribes com pleting by signs the meaning o f

their sca n ty sentences th u s maki n g the words wo od g o

se r v e to say I will go into the woo d by pointing the

mo u th like a sno u t in the direction meant The R ev
J L Wilson describing the G re b e lang u age of Wes t
A f r ica remarks that they have pe r so n al prono u ns b u t
S eldom u se them in co n versation
leaving it to gest u r e to
determine whether a ve r b is to be taken in the rst or

second person ; th u s the wo r ds n i n e will mean I do

it or y o u do it according to the signi cant gest u res o f

?
the S peaker
B eside s u ch instances it will hereafter be
noticed that the lower races in co unting habit u ally u se
gest u r e lang u age for a p u rpose t o which higher r aces apply
wo r d lang u age To this prominent conditio n o f gest u re as
a mea n s o f expression among r u de t r ibes and to the
de v elo pm ent o f pantomime in p u blic S ho w and pri v ate
interco u rse a m ong s u ch peoples as the N ea politans of o u r
own day the most ext r eme co n trast may be fo u nd in E n g
la n d whe r e whethe r fo r good o r ill s u ggestive pantomime is
n o w red u ced to so small a com ass in social talk and even
p
in pu b lic oratory
C hanges of the bodily attit u de correspondi ng in thei r
ne gradations with changes o f the fee l ings co mpr ise condi

B wi c k D i ly L i fe o f T s m i s p 1 4 0 ; C p t W i l s o i T r

vl i v p 3 2 2 & ; J L W i l s
E th
J ourn A m er O ri e t l
i
vol i 1 8 4 9 N
4 ;
l s o C r z Gro l d p 2 7 9 ( c i t d b l o w

p
F o o th r a cc o
ts
E rly H is t f M k i d p 7 7
.

on

an an

un

see

on ,

an

n an

n,

an

n a

C O MB I N ED SO U ND A ND G ES T URE

165

tions of the s u rface o f the body post u res of the li mbs and
also especially those ex pr essi v e attit u des o f the face to
which o u r atte n tion is pa r ticu larly directed when we n otice
The V i sible expression o f the feat u r es is a
o n e anothe r
sy mpto m which displays the s peaker s state o f m ind his
feeli n gs o f pleas u r e o r disg u st of pride o r h u mility of faith
o r do u bt an d s o fo r th N ot that there is between the
emotion and its bodily expression an y o r igi n ally inte n tio n al
connexion
It is me r ely that a certai n action o f ou r
physical machinery shows symptoms which we have learnt
by experie n ce to r efe r to a mental ca u se as we j u dge by
seei n g a m an sweat or lim p that he is hot or footso r e
B l u shing is ca u sed by certain e motions an d among E u ro
m
m
eans
it
is
a
v
isible
ex
r
ession
or
sy
pto
of
them
no
t
;
p
p
so among S o u th A me r ican Indian s whose bl u shes as
M r D avid F orbes points o u t may be detected by the hand
o r a ther m o m eter
b u t being co n cealed by the da r k skin
1
can no t serve as a visible sign of feeli n g
B y t u rning these
nat u ral processes to acco u n t men co n trive to a certain
exten t to pu t on partic u lar physical exp r essio n s frowni n g
o r smiling for i nstance in o r der to sim u late the emotions
which wo u ld nat u rally produ ce s u ch expressions or merely
to convey the tho u ght of s u ch emotio n s to others N ow it
is well known to eve r y one that physical expression by
feat u re & c forming a pa r t o f the u nive r sal gest u re lan
g u age th u s serves as an important adj u nct to spoken
lang u age It is not s o obvio u s b u t on exa mination will
prove to be tr u e that s u ch ex pression by feat u re itself acts
as a formative power i n vocal lang u age
E x p r ession of
co u n te n ance has an action beyo n d that of me r e visible
gest u re The bodily attit u de bro u gh t on by a particu lar
s tate o f mind a ffects the position o f the o r gan s of s peech
both the inte r nal larynx & c an d the exte r nal feat u res
whose change can be watched by the mere lo c ker o n E ven
tho u gh the expression of the s peaker s face m ay n o t be seen
by the b e are r the e ffect o f the whole bodily attit u de o f

o
e
F rb s A ymar I n d i n s i n J ourn E th S c 1 8 7 0 vol ii p 2 0 8
,

16 6

M OT I ON A L

AN D

I M I TATI VE LANG UAG E

which it fo rms part is n o t thereby do n e away wi th F or o n

t h e po s i t i o n t h u s t a k e n b y t h e va r i o u s
rg a n s c o nc e r n e d in

d e pe n d s w hat I have he r e called e m oti o n al to n e

S pe e ch
w he r e by the v o ice car ries di r ect e xpression o f the s peake r s
fe e li n g
Th e a sce r tai n ing o f the p r ecise physical mode i n which
certai n attit u des o f the i n ter n al an d external face co m e t o
co rresp o n d t o certai n moods o f mind is a physiol o gical
p r oblem as yet little u nderstood b u t the fact that partic u la r
exp r essions of face a r e acco mpanied by correspondi n g an d
dependent exp r essions o f emotional tone only re qu ires an
obse r ver o r a looki n g glass to prove it The la u gh made with
a s olemn contempt u o u s o r sa r castic face is qu ite di fferent
from that which co m es from a j oyo u s one ; the a ll oh h o
h ey and so o n change their mod u lations t o match the expres
sion o f co u ntenance The effect o f the emotional tone does
not even re qu ire tness in the meaning o f the spoken words
fo r nonsense or an u nknown tong u e may be made to convey
when spoken with expressive i n tonation the feelings which
are di splayed u pon the speaker s face This expression
may even be recognized in the dark by noticing the tone it
gives forth while the forced character given by the attempt
to bring o u t a so u nd not matching even the o u tward play
of the feat u r es c an hardly be hidden by the most expert
vent r il o qu ist and in s u ch forcing the so u nd perceptibly
drags the face into the attit u de that t s with it
The
nat u r e of comm u n ication by emotional tone seems to me
It does n o t appear that
t o be somewhat o n this wise
pa r ticu lar to n
es at all belo n g di r ectly and of themsel v es to
partic u lar emotions b u t that their action depends on th e
vocal o rgans o f the speaker and hearer O ther ani m als
havi n g v ocal organs di ffe r e n t f r om man s have acco r dingly
as we know a different code of emotional tones
An
alteratio n in m an s v ocal o r gans wo u ld bring a correspond
ing alteration i n the e ffect o f tone in exp r essing feeli n g ;
the tone which to u s expres ses s u rprise o r anger might
come to ex press pleas u r e and s o forth A s it is children
.

'

EMOTIONAL TONE

1 67

learn by ea r ly experience that s u ch a n d s u ch a tone indicates

s u ch a n d s u ch an emotion and this they make o u t pa r tly
by ndi ng themselves u ttering s u ch tones whe n their feel
ings have bro u ght their faces to the appro priate attit u des
and pa r tly by observing the expression of voice in others
A t three or fo u r years o l d they are to be seen in the act of
ac qu i r ing this knowledge t u r ni n g ro u nd to look at the
speaker s face and gest u re to make s u re o f the meaning o f
the tone Bu t in later years this knowledge becomes so
familiar that it is s u pposed to have been int u itive Then
when men talk together th e b eare r r eceives from each
emotional tone an indication a signal of the speaker s
attit u de of body and thro u gh this o f his state o f mind
These he can recognize and even repro d u ce in himself as
the operator at o n e end o f a telegraphic wi r e can follow by
noticing his needles the action o f his colleag u e at the
other
In watching the process which th u s enables o n e
man to take a copy o f another s emotions thro u gh their
physical e ffects o n his vocal tone we may admire the pe rfec
tion with which a means s o simple answers an end so com
plex and apparently so remote
B y eliminating from speech all e ffects o f gest u re of
ex pr ession of face and o f emo tional tone we go far toward
red u cing it to that system o f conventional artic u late so u nds
which the g r ammarian an d the co m parative philologist
habit u ally conside r as lang u age These articu late so u nds
are capable o f being ro u ghly set down in signs standin g for
vowels an d consonants with the aid o f accents and other
signi cant marks ; and they may then aga in be read alo u d
from these written signs by any one who has learnt t o give
its pro per so u nd to each letter
Wh at v owels are is a matter which has been for some
1
years well u nders tood
They are compo u nd m u sical tones
s u ch as in the vo x h u mana stop o f the organ are so u nded
,

To n e m n d u n e n 2 md
p
g ,

H el mh ol tz
B k f P h y si l g y p
s ri s p 9 5 & c
1

S ee

oo

o o

6 81 , &c

7 20, & c ;
.

ed .

1 63 ;

Mc Ke n d ri ck

Ma x Mu ll er

L ct r s
e

u e

T xt
e

2 md

1 68

MOTI ONAL

I MITATIVE LA NG U AG E

AN D

by reeds (vibrating t o ng u es ) fitted to o rgan pipes of par

t i c u la r c o nstr u cti o n
Th e man n e r o f fo r mation o f vowels
by the voice is shortly this The r e are sit u ated in th e
lary n x a pai r o f vib r ati n g m embranes called the vocal chords
which may be r u dely i m itated by stretching a piece of sheet
india r u bbe r o v e r the o pen end o f a t u be so as to form two
half cove r s to it like the parchment o f a dr u m split ac r oss
the middle ; whe n the t u be is blown thro u gh the i n dia
r u bber a ps will vib r ate as the vocal chords do in the larynx
In the h u man voice the m u sical
a n d g i v e o u t a so u nd
e ffect o f the vib r ating chords is inc r eased by the cavity o f
the m o n t h which acts as a res onator or so u nding box and
which also by its shape at an y moment modi es the

m u sical q u ality o r timbre o f the so u nd prod u ced This

no t the less felt beca u se its e ffects are not registered in
m u sical notatio n depends on the harmonic overtones aecom
panying the f u ndamental tone which alone m u sical notation
takes acco u n t o f
It makes the di fference between the
same no te on two instr u ments u te and piano for instance
while some instr u ments as the violin can give to on e note
a wide variation of qu ality To s u ch qu ality the formation
This is perfectly shown by the common
o f vowels is d u e
J ew s harp which when str u ck can b e made to u tter the
vowels a e i o u & c by si mply pu ttin g the mo u th in the
proper position for speaking these vowels In this e x pe ri
ment the player s voice emits no so un d b u t the vibrat i ng
tong u e of the Jew s harp placed in front o f the m o u th
acts as a s u bstit u te for the v ocal chords and the vowel
s o un ds a r e prod u ced by the vario u s positions of the cavity
o f the mo u th mo di fying the q u ality of the no te by bringing
o u t with diff erent deg r ees of strength the series o f harmonic
tones of which it is composed
A s to m u sical theory
emotio n al to n e and vowel tone are connec ted In fact an
emotional tone may be de ned as a vowel whose particu la r
m u sical qu ality is that prod u ced by the h u man vocal
organ s when adj u sted to a pa r tic u la r state o f feeli ng
E u ropea n s while u sing mo d u lation o f m u sical pitch as
-

Q UA LI TY

or

V o w E Ls

1 69

a ffecti n g the fo r ce of wo r ds i n a sentence k n ow nothing of

maki n g it alter the dictio n a r y m eani n g o f a word Bu t this
device is known elsewhere especially in S o u th E ast A sia
whe r e rises a n d falls of tone to some extent like those
which serve u s in conveying emphasis qu estion and answer
Th u s in S iamese
& c act u ally give di ffe r ent signi cation
The conse qu ence o f
h d = t o seek h at = pe s t i le n ce 7Ld = v
e
this elaborate system o f tone accent u ation is the necessity
of an accu m u lation o f ex pletive particles to s u pply the
place of the o ratorical or em phatic intonation which being
th u s g iven ove r to the dictiona r y is lost for the grammar
A n othe r conse qu ence is that the system of setting poetry to
m u sic becomes radically di fferent f r om o u r s ; to sing a
S iamese song to a E u ropean t u ne makes the meaning of the
syllables alte r according to their rise and fall in pi t ch and
1
t u rns their sense i n to the wildest nonsen se
In West
A f r ica again the same device appears : th u s in D ahoman
3 6 = horse
so= t h u n d e r ; Y or u ba
bd = w i t h bat
3 0 = stick
2
bend
F o r p r actical p u rposes this ling u istic m u sic is
hardly to be commended b u t theo r etically it is interest
ing as showing that man does no t servilely follow an
int u itive o r i n herited scheme o f lang u age b u t works o u t
in vario u s ways the r eso u rces o f so u n d as a means o f
expression
The theory of consonants is m u ch more obsc u re than that
o f vowels
They are not m u sical vibrations as vowels are
b u t noises acco m panying them
To the m u sician s u ch
noises as the r u shing o f the wind from the organ pipe the
scraping of the violin the s pu ttering of the u te a r e sim ply
tro u blesome as inte r feri n g with his m u sical tones and he
takes pains to di m inish them as m u ch as may be Bu t i n
the art o f lang u age noises of this kind far from bei n g
avoided are t u rned to immense acco u nt by being u sed as
,

a
B
s
t
i
a
i
n
n
Mon a ts b B erl i n
g
A k d J u n e 6 1 8 6 7 n d Roy A si a t i c S oc Ju n e 1 8 6 7

vo l i p 3 1 3 ; B o w e n Y oru b a Gr
B urt on i n Mem A n th ro p

an d D i c
p 5 ; se e J L W i l s o n W
p 461
1

S e e Pa l l c g o i x ,

Gr

mm

Li

E M OT I ON A L AN D I M I TATI V E LA NG UAG E

17 0

c o n so n a n ts i n combination with t h e m u sical vowels A s

to t h e posi ti o n s and m o v e me n ts of t h e V o cal o rga n s i n pro
d uc i n g co n sona n ts a n excelle n t acco u nt with anato m ical
diag r ams is gi v e n i n P ro fess o r M ax M ulle r s second series
o f L ect u res F o r the present p u r pose o f passing in review
t h e vari o u s devices by which the la n g u age make r has c o n
t ri v
e d to m ake so u n d a m eans o f ex p r essi n g tho u gh t per
ha ps no be tter ill u st r atio n o f thei r n at u re can be me n tio n ed
than S ir C harles Wheatstone s acco un t of his speaki n g
1
machi n e ; fo r o n e o f the best ways o f s t u dyi n g dif cu l t
phen omena is to see them arti cially i m itated The i n
str u ment in qu estion prono u nced L atin F rench and Italian

words well : it co u l d say Je vo u s aime de to u t mon

coeu r
Le opo l du s S ec u nd u s B o man o ru m Imperator a n d
so forth b u t it was not so s u ccessf u l with G erman
A s to the vowels they were of co u rse simply so u nded
by s u itable reeds and pipes
To a ff ect them with con
sonants contrivances were ar r anged to act like the h u man
organs
Th u s 19 was made by s u ddenly removing the
operator s hand from the mo u th o f the g u r e and b in
the same way except that the mo u th was not qu ite
covered while an o u tlet like the nostrils was u sed in
forming 772 f and 72 were rendered by modifying the shape
o f the mo u th by a hand ; a i r w a s made t o r u sh thro u gh
small t u bes to pro d u ce the sibilants s and sh ; and the
li qui ds r a n d l were so u nded by the action of trem u lo u s
reeds A s Wheatstone remarks the most importa n t u se of
s u ch ingenio u s mechanical imitations of speech may be to
x and preserve an acc u rate register o f the pron u nciatio n o f
di ff e r ent lang u ages A perfectly arrange d speaking machine
wo u ld in fact represent for u s that framework of lang u age
which co n sists of mere vowels and consonants tho u gh
witho u t most o f those exp r essive ad j u ncts which go to make
u p the conversation of speaking men
O f vowels and co n sonants capable o f being employed in
lang u age man is able to prono u nce an d disting u ish a n
C W i n Lo nd o
d W s t mi s t r R e v i e w O c t 1 8 3 7
.

'

n an

CONSONANTS

17 1

enormo u s variety Bu t this g r eat stock o f possible so u nds

is nowhere bro u ght into u se altogether E ach la n g u age or
dialect o f the world is fo u nd in practice to select a limited
series o f de nite vowels and consonants keeping with
tolerable exactness to each and th u s choosing what we may
call its phonetic alphabet N eglecting s u ch mi n or differ
e n ces as occ u r in the speech of individ u als o r small c o mmu
n i t i e s each dialect o f the world may be said to have its own
phonetic system and these phonetic systems vary widely
O u r vowels for instance di ffer m u ch from those o f F rench
F rench knows nothing o f eithe r o f the so u n ds
a n d D u tch
which we write as th in th i n an d th a t while the C astilian
lisped c the s o called 0 6 0 6 0 is a third consonant which we
m u st again make shift to write as i h tho u gh it is qu ite
distinct in so u n d from both ou r o wn It is qu ite a u s u al
thi n g for u s to nd foreign lang u ages wanti n g letters even
near in s o u nd to some o f o u rs while possessing others u m
familiar to o u r selves A mong s u ch cases are the C hinese
di f c u lty in prono u nci n g r an d the want o f 3 and f in
A u stralian dialects When foreigners tried to teach the
M ohawks who have no labials in their lang u age to pro
no u nce words with p and b in them they protested that it
was too ridic u lo u s t o expect people to sh u t their mo u ths to
speak ; and the P ort u g u ese discove r ers of B r azil r emarking
that the natives had neither f l nor 7 in their lang u age
neatly described them as a people with neither f leg nor
my neither faith law nor king
It may happen t o o that
s o u nds only u sed by so m e nations as interj ectional noises
u nwritten and u nwriteable shall be t u r ned to acco un t by
others in their artic u late la n g u age S omething o f this kin d

occ u rs with the noises called clicks

S u ch so u nds a r e
familiar to u s as interj ections ; th u s the lateral click made
in the che ek ( and u s u ally in the left cheek ) is contin u ally
u sed i n dri vm g ho rses while varieties o f the den tal and
palatal click m ade with the tong u e against the teeth and the
roof o f the mo n t h are com m on in the n u rsery as expressions
o f s u r r ise
n
r
e
roof
or
satisfactio
Th
us
o
the
natives
t
o
p
p
.

I 72

EM OTI ON A L

AN D

I M IT A T I V E L ANG UA G E

of Tie r ra del F u ego ex press n o by a pec u liar cl u ck as

d o als o t h e T u r k s w h o acc o m pa n y i t with t h e gest u r e o f
throwi n g back the head ; and it a ppea r s f r om the ac c o u nts
o f trav e lle r s that
t h e clicks o f s u r prise a n d admirati o n
a mo n g the natives of A u s t r alia are mu ch like those we hea r
at ho me Bu t tho u gh he re these clicki n g n oises are only
u sed i n te rj ectio n ally
it is well known that S o u th A f rican
races have taken s u ch so u nds u p i n to thei r a r tic u late speech
The very
a n d have made as we may say letters of the m
name of H o ttento ts ap plied to the N a ma q u a s an d o ther
kindred tribes a ppea r s to be not a native na m e (as P ete r
Kolb tho u gh t ) b u t a r u de imitative word coined by the

D u tch to express the cli cki n g h ot en tot and the te r m

H otten tons m has been thence adopted as a medical de sc ri p
tion o f o n e of the varieties of stammering N orth Wes t
A merica is a n other dist r ict o f the world disting u ished for
the pro d u ction of strange cl u cki n g g u rgling and gr u nting
letters dif c u lt o r impossible to E u ropean voices M o r e
over there are many so u nds capable o f bei n g u sed in
articu late speech varieties o f chirpi n g whistling blowing
an d s u cki n g noises o f which some are familiar to o u r o w n
u se as calls to ani m als o r interj ectio n al noises o f contempt
or s u r p r i se b u t which no tribe is known t o have bro u ght
into thei r al phabet With all the vast phonetic variety o f
k n ow n la n g u ages the lim its of possible u tte r ance are far
from being reached
U p t o a certain point we can u nde r stand the reasons
which ha v e g u ided the va r io u s tribes o f mankind in the
selectio n of their v a r io u s alphabets ; ease of u tterance to the
speake r co m bi n ed with distinct n ess o f effect to the b e are r
have bee n u n do u btedly amo n g the princi pal of the selecting
ca u ses We m ay fai r ly con n ect with the close u niformity o f
men s organs of speech a ll over the world th e general simi
l a ri t y which prevails i n the pho n etic systems o f the most
di ff erent lang u ages an d which gives u s the power o f ro u ghly
writing dow n so large a pro p ortion o f a n y one lang u age by
m eans of an alphabet i n tended for any other
Bu t while

'

'

'

EL ECTI O N

or

V OCAL

O UNDS

173

we th u s acco u nt by physical similarity fo r the existence o f a

kind of nat u r al alphabet co mm on to ma n kind we m u st look
to other ca u ses to determine the selection of so u nds u sed in
di ffe r ent la n g u ages and to acco u nt for those remarkable
co u r ses o f change w h ich go on in lang u ages of a common
stock p r od u cing in E u rope s u ch variations o f on e o r iginal
word as p a ter f a th er e a ter or in the islands o f P olynesia
o ffering u s the n u meral 5 u nder the strangely va r ied forms
of li ma r tma di ma m ma and h i ma C hanges of this sort
have acted so widely and reg u la r ly that si n ce the en u ncia
tion of G rimm s law their st u dy has become a main part of
philology Tho u gh their ca u ses are as yet so obsc u re we
may at least arg u e that s u ch wide and de nite o pe r ations
can n o t be d u e to chance o r a r bit r ary fancy b u t m u st be the
res u lt of laws as wide an d de n ite as themselves
L et u s now s u ppose a book to be written with a tolerably
correct al phabet for i n stance an ordinary Itali an book or
an E nglish one in some goo d system of phonetic letters
To s u ppose E ngli sh w r itten in the makeshift alphabet which
we still keep in u se wo u ld be o f co u rse to complicate the
matter in hand with a new and needless di f cu lty If then
the book be written in a s u f cient alphabet an d han ded to
a reader his oi ce will by no means stop short at rendering
back into artic u late so u nds the vowels and consonants before
him as tho u gh he were reading over proofs for the press
F o r the emotional tone j u st spoken of has dropped o u t in
writin g down the words i n letters and it will be the reader s
d u ty to g u ess from the meani n g o f the words what this tone
sho u ld be and to pu t it in again acco r dingly H e has more
ove r to introd u ce e mphasis whether by accen t o r stress on
certain syllables o r words thereby altering their e ffect in

the se n ten ce ; if he says fo r example I n ev

e r sold yo u
th at horse a n emphasis on any one o f these six words will
alte r the impo r t o f the whole phrase N ow in emphatic
p r o n u nciatio n two distin ct p r ocesses are to be r emarked
The e ffect prod u ced by cha n ges in lo u dness and d u ration o f
w o rds is di r ectly i mitati v e ; it is a me r e gest u re m ad e with
,

EMOTI ONAL AND I M I TATI V E LANG U AG E

17 4

the v oice as we may no tice by the way in which any o n e

will s peak O f a sh or t sh a m answer a long wea ry year

a lou d bu r s t o f m u sic a g en tle g li d i ng motion as com

pared w ith the like ma n ner in which the gest u re lang u age
w o u ld adapt i ts fo r ce a n d speed to the k ind o f action to be
re pr esented W r itten lang u age can hardly convey b u t by the
con text the striking e ff ects which o u r imi tative fac u lty adds
to s poken lang u age in o u r co n tin u al endeavo u r to make the
so u nd of each wo r d we speak a sort o f echo to its sense
We see this in the difference between writing and telli n g the
little story o f the man who was wo rried by being talked to

abo u t good books

D o yo u mean he asked speaking
shortly with a face o f strong rm approval g ood books ?

Or
with a drawl and a fat u o u s benevolent simper g oo d
1
books
M u sical accent ( a ccen tu s m u sical tone ) is t u rned to
acco u nt as a means o f emphasis as when we give prominence
to a particu la r syllable or word in a sentence by raising or
de pressing it a semi tone or more The reader has to
di v ide his sentences with pa u ses being g u ided in this to
so m e extent by sto ps ; the rhythmic meas u re in which he
will u tter prose as well as poetry is not witho u t its e ffect ;
and h e has again to introd u ce m u sic by speaking each
se n tence to a kind o f imperfect melo dy P rofessor H elm
hol tz endeavo u rs to write down in m u sical notes how a
G e r ma n with a bass voice speaking on B fla t migh t say

Ich b i n s pa t z i e re n gegangen B ist d u s pa t z i e re n gegang

en ?
falli n g a fo u rth ( to F ) at the end o f the a f r mative
sentence and rising a fth ( to f ) in asking the q u estion
2
th u s ranging th r o u gh an octave
When an E nglish speaker
tries to ill u strate in his own lang u age the r ising and falling
tones of S ia m ese vowels he com pares them with the E ngli sh

3
ones o f qu estion and a n swer as in Will yo u go ? Y es
The r u les of this impe r fect m u sical i n tonation i n ordinary
con v ersatio n ha v e bee n as y e t b u t little st u died B u t as a
,

'

2
3

A cc en t u s t t i m i n d i c n d o c n tu s
H l mh l t z p 3 6 4

C asw ll i n B s t i n B rl i n A k a d
es

O b scuri o r . "

Ci c

de

O ra t

E M PHA S I S A N D A C C E N T

17 5

means Of giving sole m nity and pathos to lang u age it has

been more f u lly developed and even systematized u nder
exact r u les O f m elody and we th u s have on the On e hand
ecclesiastical i n toning an d the less conven tional half singing
s o Often to be heard i n religio u s meetings and o n the other
the ancient and m ode r n theat r ical recitative
B y s u ch
intermediate s tages we may cross the wide inte r val from
spoke n p r ose with the m u sical pitch o f its vowels so care
lessly kept an d so obsc u red by consona n ts as to be di f c u lt
eve n to determine to f u ll song in which the consonants
are as m u ch as possible s u ppressed that they may n o t
interfere with the precise and expressive m u sic o f the
vowels
P roceedin g now to s u rvey s u ch parts o f the vocab u lary of
manki n d as appea r to have an i n telligible o r igin in the direct
ex pression o f sen se by so u nd let u s rst examine I n t e rj e c
tions When H o r n e Tooke spoke in words often repeated

since Of the b r u tish inartic u late Interj ectio n he certainly

meant to express his contempt for a mo de o f expression
which lay o u tside his own too na r row V iew of lang u age
Bu t the epithets are in them selves j u sti able eno u gh

I n terj ections a r e u n do u btedly to a certain extent br u tish

in their analogy to the cries Of animals ; and the fact gi v es
them an especial interest to mode r n Observers who are th u s
enabled to trace phenomena belongi n g to the m ental state
o f the lower a n imals u
into
the
midst
Of
the
mos
t
highly
p
c u ltivated h u man langu age It is also tr u e that they a r e

inartic u late s o fa r at least that the systems o f consonants

a n d vowels recognized by gramma r ia n s break down more
hopelessly than elsewhere in the atte m pt to write down
interj ections A lphabetic w r iti n g is far too i n complete and
cl u msy an i nst r u ment to render their pecu lia r and vario u sly
mod u lated so u nds for which a few conventionally written
words do d u ty poo r ly eno u gh In r eading alo u d and some
ti m es even i n the talk o f those who have learnt rather from
books than from the living world we may hear these awkwa r d
imitations a h em ! h ath ! ta sh ! ta t ! p sh a w ! n o w ca r rying
,

EM O T I O NA L AND I M I TAT I V E LANG UAG E

17 6

the u n q u estioned a u thority of words printed in a b o ok and

rep r od u ced letter for letter with a m o s t am u sing acc u racy
B u t when H orne Tooke faste n s u pon an u n fort u nate Italian

g r amma r ia n and desc r ibes him as The ind u strio u s and

exact C i n o mio who does not appear eve r to have had a
s i n gle glimpse o f r easo n it is n o t easy to see what the
pi o neer o f E n glish philology co u ld n d to Obj ect to in
C i n o n i o s obvio u sly tr u e asse r tio n that a si n gle i n terj ectio n
a h ! o r a h t ! is capable o f expressing more than twenty
di ffe r ent emo tions o r inte n tions s u ch as pain e n treaty
threatening sighing disdai n according to the tone in which
1
it is u ttered
The fact that interj ections do th u s u tter
feelings is qu ite beyond disp u te and the philologist s
co n cern with them is o n the on e hand to st u dy thei r action
in expressing emotion and on the other to trace their
passage i nto more f u lly formed words s u ch as have their
place in connected syntax and form part o f logical proposi
tions
In the rst place however it is necessary to separate
from proper interj ections the many sense words which often
kept u p in a m u t ilated o r old fashioned g u ise come so close
to them both in appearance and in u se A mon g classic

!
!
a
e
a
t
h
a ll !
examples are
m
S
u
ch
a
word
is
c
e
de b r e
g
which as the G othic B ible sh ows was originally an a dj ec

tive whole hale prospero u s u sed vocatively j u st as the

a !
Italians c r y br a v
o
br a v
br a m ! br a v
e !
When the
2
A frican negro cries o u t in fear o r wonder mama mama !

he mig ht be tho u gh t to be u ttering a real interj ection a

word u sed to express some passion or emotion o f the mind
as L indley M u rray has it b u t in fact he is si mply calling
grown u p baby as he is for his mother ; and the very sa m e
,

'

pp

me

6 0
3

T k
oo

e,

D i v rsi s

on

P url ey

of

2 md

ed

L d
on

on ,

1 7 9 8,

pt i
.

L k R g i s f C tr l A fri c vl ii p 3 3 3 ; L i v i g

st
M issi ry Tr i S A fri c p 2 9 8 ; G r f M p g w l g (A

B C F M issi s R v J L W i l s
p 2 7 S C ll w y Z l T l s
2

R F B u r t on
.

on

vol i p
.

on a

on e ,

59

on

a,

en

on ,

a,

ee

on

an

u u

a e

I NTERJECTI ONS

177

thing has been n oticed among Indians o f U pper C alifornia

1
m
who as an expression of pain cry a n d ! that is
other
O ther exclamations consist Of a p u re inte rj ection co m bined
with a prono u n as o lu o r ! ai me a h me o r with an adj ective
as a la s ! h ela s ! ( ah weary !) With what ca r e i n terj ections
sho u ld be sifted to avoid the risk of treating as or i ginal
elementa r y so u nds o f lang u age what are r eally nothing b u t
sense words we may j u dge from the way i n which the
common E nglish exclamation well ! well ! approaches the

gen u ine i nterj ectional so u nd in the C optic exp r ession to

make oa eloa ele which signi es to wail L atin u lu la r e
S till better we may n d a lea r n ed traveller i n the 1 8 th
cent u r y qu ite serio u sly r emarking apro pos of the old G reek
battle sho u t dAa Aoi l dh a Aoi ! that the T u r ks to this day
2
call ou t A lla h A lla h A lla h ! u pon the l ike occasion
3
The calls to animals c u stoma r y i n di fferent co u ntries
are to a great extent inte rj ectional in thei r u se b u t to
attempt to ex plain them as a whole is to step u pon as
slip pery gro u nd as lies within the range Of philology
S ometimes they may be in fact p u re interj ections like the
sai nt sch w mentioned as an old G er m an cry to scare bi r ds
as we sho u ld say sh eh o r the a ct with which the Indians
of B razil call their dogs O r they may be set down as
simple imitations o f the animal s o w n cries as the cla ckl a g
to call fowls i n o u r o wn farm yards o r the A u strian calls
l
of
or tl et tl et ! to chickens
o r the S wabian lea a ter
p
h a a t ! to t u rkeys or the shepherd s ba rri ng to call sheep
in India
In o ther cases howeve r they may be sense
words more or less broken down as whe n the creat u re is
spoken t o by a so u nd which seems merely taken from
its o w n common name If an E nglish co u ntryman meets

C u es t Gr of M u t su n L an g p 3 9 i n S mi th s on i n C n tr
vol iii N ea p ol i tan ma mma mt ! e x cl m t i o n o f w on d er &
L i ebr cht
i n Get t i n g Gel A n
1 87 2 p 1 2 8 7
S h a w T r v el s i n B rb ry i n Pi n k rt n vol x v p 6 69

S m f t h e e x mpl s h ere c i ted wi ll b e fo n d i n Gri mm D eu t s ch e

G r vol iii p 3 0 8 ; P o tt D pp l u n g p 2 7 ; W edg w d Ori g i n f L
1

Arro y o d e l a

a,

c. ,

g u ag e

oo

an

178

EM OTIONA L

I M ITAT I V E LANG U AG E

AN D

h e will simply call to h i m s h ip ! s h i p !

S o s r/z ap
is a n A u s trian call to sheep an d hoes
k u h el
t o cow s
In G erman district s g a s g a s ! g a seh
u s ch !
s
s ! are set d o wn as calls to geese
b
l
e
; and when
g
g
g
we no tice that t h e B ohemia n peasan t calls h us g ! to them
w e remembe r that the n a me fo r goose in his lang u age is
h a sa a wo rd familia r to E nglish ears in the name o f J ohn
H u ss The B ohe mian again will call to his dog p 3 p 3 !

b u t then p es means dog

O ther sense words addressed
to animals break down by long repetition into m u tilated
forms When we a r e told that the to to ! with which a

P ort u g u ese calls a dog is short for toma toma !

take
which tells him t o come and take his food we
admit the explanation as pla u sible ; and the coop coop !
which a cockney might so easily mis take for a p u re inter
j e c ti on is only C ome u p ! come u p !
a s tray shee p

d og

pp e W h i t e fo o t c o me u pp e
C ome u pp e Je tt y ri s e an d fo ll o w
Je tt y t o t h e mi l k i n g s h e d

C o me

Lig ht foo t,

Bu t I cannot O ffer a pla u sible g u ess at the origin Of s u ch

calls as h alf h af to ho r ses h il h l h it h l to geese eleclcel d eeleel !
to sheep It is fort u nate for etymologists that s u ch trivial
little words have n o t an im po rtance pro portio n ed to the
di f c u lty of clea r i n g u p their o rigin
The word p u ss !
raises an inte r esti n g philological problem
A n E nglish
child cal li n g p a ss p a ss ! is very likely keeping u p the trace
o f the Old Keltic n ame for the cat Irish p a s E rse p a sag
G aelic p a l s S imilar calls are known elsewhere in E u rope
and there is so m e reason to think
( as in S axon y p 223 p 228
that the cat which came to u s from the E ast bro u ght with
it o n e of its names which is still c u rrent there Tamil p wsei
A fghan p a sh a P ersian p a sh a h & c M r Wedgwood nds
an origi n for the call in an imitation o f the cat s spitting
and remarks that the S ervians cry p i e to dri v e a cat away
whil e the A lbanians u se a similar so u nd to call it The
way in which the c r y o f p a ss ! has f u r n ished a name fo r
,

TO ANIMALS

O A LLs

179

the cat itself comes o u t c u rio u sly i n co u n t r ies where the

animal has been lately introd u ced by E n glish m en Th u s
boosi is the recognized word fo r cat in the To n ga Isla n ds
no do u bt f r om C aptain C ook s ti m e A mo n g Indian t r ibes
Of N orth West A me r ica p wsh p i sh p i sh a ppea r in native
lang u ages with the meani n g of cat ; and not o nly is the
E u ro pean cat called a p a ss p a ss in the C hinook Jargon b u t
in the same c u rio u s dialect the wor d is applied to a

native beast the co u gar now called hyas p a ss p a ss i e

1
great cat
The de r ivation of names of animals in this manner from
calls to them may perhaps not have been u nfre qu ent It
appea r s that h a ss is a cry u sed in S witzerland to set dogs
on to ght as s s ! might be in E ngland an d that the
S wiss call a dog h a ss o r h a a ss possibly from this
We
know the c r y o f di ll ! d i lly ! as a recognized call to d u cks in
E ngland an d it is dif c u lt t o think it a corr u ption o f any
E nglish word o r ph r ase for the B ohemians also call dli d li !
to their d u cks N ow tho u gh di ll or d i lly may n o t be fo u nd
in ou r dictio n aries as the name fo r a d u ck yet the way in
which H ood can u se it as s u ch in o n e o f his best known
comic poems shows perfectly the easy and nat u ral step by
which s u ch transitions can be made
,

F o r D e ath

C ri e d

amo n g

D uc

ad

w a t er l i l i e s

th e

me

to

all

h er

d i ll i e s

In j u st the same way beca u se g ee ! is a u s u al call o f the

E nglish waggoner to his ho r ses the word g ee g ee has b e
come a familia r n u rsery no u n meaning a horse
A nd
n either i n s u ch n u rsery words n or in words coined in j est
,

P i cte t O rig i n e s I n d o E u ro p p ar t i p 3 82 ; C a ld we ll G r o f D ra

v i d i an L a n g s p 4 6 5 ; W e d g w o o d D i e s v pu ss & c M ari n er T on g a
Is
G i bb s Di e o f C h i n ook J arg on S mi th s on i a n C e ll N o 1 6 1

Pa n d osy
Gr an d D i e o f Y a k am a S mi th s on C on tr vol iii ; c omp are

J L W i l s on M p o n g w e Gr p 5 7 Th e H i n d u ch i ld s c a ll t o t h e ca t ma n
ma n ! ma y b e fro m H i n d u st man o ca t
I t mi ci o F r mi te mi n on Ger
mi eze & c
cat
a n d S p mi z ! G er m i n z I & c
p u ss are from i mi ta t i on s
1

S ee

of a

mew

E M OT I ONA L

180

AN D

I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

is t h e evide n ce bea r i n g o n the o r igi n of lang u age to b e s e t

aside as w o r thl e ss ; fo r it may be take n as a maxi m o f
eth n o l o gy tha t what is d o n e am o ng civilized men in j es t
o r a m o n g ci v ilized ch ild r e n i n t h e n u r sery is a t to nd its
p
a n al og u e i n t h e serio u s me n tal e ffo r t o f sa v age a n d there
f o r e of pri nn e v
a l t r ibes
D r ive r s calls to thei r beasts s u ch as this g ee ! g ee h o f
to u rge o n horses an d w eh ! w oh to stop them form part
Of the v e r nac u lar of partic u la r districts The g eh o perhaps
came to E ngla n d i n the N o r ma n F r ench fo r it is know n
i n F rance a n d appea r s i n the Italia n dictionary as g i o !
The traveller who has bee n hea r i n g the dri v ers in the
G risons stop their ho r ses with a lo n g br r r ! may c r oss a
pass and hear o n the o the r side a h i t 11M ); instead The
plo u ghman s calls to t u rn the leaders o f the team to right
and left have passed into proverb I n F rance they say o f
a st u pid clown I l n e n t en d n i a d i a u i a h a rh a a t ! and

the corresponding P latt D e u tsch phrase i s H e weet nich

h a lt ! noch h oh !
S O there is a reg u lar lang u age to
camels as C aptai n Bu rton remarks on his j o u rney to
M ekka : i lch i kh ! makes the m kneel y ah h y ah h ! u rges
them on h a i h a i l ind u ces ca u tion and so forth In the
formation o f these qu aint expressi ons two ca u ses have
been at work
The so u nds seem sometimes thoro u ghly
interj ectional as the A r ab h a i o f ca u tion o r the F rench
h u e ! N o r th G erman j o
Wh atever their origin they may
be made to carry thei r sense by imitative tones exp r essive
to the ea r of both ho r se an d m an as any one will say w h o
hea r s the contrast between the shor t a n d sharp high pitched
h ap ! which tells the S wiss horse t o go faster and the
long d r awn h a a a a / which brings h i m to a stand
A lso the way in which com m on sense words are taken
u p into calls lik e g ee u
w
h
b
a elc ! shows that we may
o
p
ex pect to n d vario u s Old broken fragments o f formal
lang u age i n the list and s u ch on i n s pection we n d acco r d
The followi n g li n es a r e qu oted by H alliwell f r om
i n g ly
the M icro C y n i c on ( 1 5 9 9 )
,

'

TO ANI M ALS

O A L Ls

18 1

A b a s e b o rn e i ss u e of a b a s e r s y e r ,
B re d i n a c o tt ag e , w an d e ri n g i n t h e m y e r,
W i th n ai l e d sh o oes a n d w h ips t a ffe i n h i s h an d ,

W h o w i th a h ey a n d ree th e b ea s t s c o mman d
.

This r ee ! is e qu ivalent to right ( riddle me ree riddle

me right ) and tells the leader o f the team t o bear t o the
right hand
The h ey ! may correspond with h ei t ! o r

!
ca meth er
which call him to bear hither i e to the left
In G e r ma n y h a r ! h d r ! h a r d /1h a r e likewise the same as

her hither to the left

S O s wa d e ! sch wa d e
z wa d er !

to the left are of co u rse simply z u wider

On the

contra r y way
P ai r s o f calls for right and left in
G erman
speaki n g co u n t r ies a r e h ot h a r and h al t !
w i st
This wi s t is an inte r esting example o f the keeping
f
n cien t
u ch
u
a
words
in
s
pop u la r tradition
It is
o
p
evidently a m u t i lated fo r m o f an old G erman word for the
left ha n d w i n i str d A nglo S axon w i n str e a name lo n g
since fo r gotten by mo dern H igh G erman as by ou r own
1
modern E n glish
A s qu ai n t a mixt u re of words and interj ectional cries as I
2
have met with is in the great F r ench E n cyclop aedia which
gives a min u te desc r iption of the h u nter s craft and pre
scribes exactly what is t o be cried to the ho u nds u nder all
If the creat u res
possible contingencies of the chase
u nderstood grammar and syntax the lang u age co u ld n o t be
more acc u rately arra n ged for their ears
S ometimes we
have what seem pu r e interj ectional cries
Th u s to
enco u rage the ho u nds to work the h u ntsman is to call to
them h a h alle h a lle h a lle ! while to bring them u p before
they are u nco u pled it is presc r ibed that he shall call h a i l
hai l
and when they are u nco u pled he is to
o r h a i l ta h a a t
change his cry to h a i l la y la la y la ta ya a ! a call which

Z ah l me t h o d e ,

l is t s o f dri v ers w ord s ee G rimm

P tt

p 2 6 1 ; H ll iw l l D i c o f Arch a i c n d Pro v i n c i l E n g l is h
Br n d vol ii p 1 5 ; Pi ct et p rt ii p 4 89
En cy cl O p d i e ou D i ct i o n n ire R is on n d s S c i en c e s & c

P l n ch es P ris 1 7 6 3 rt C h ss es Th e trad i ti n l cri es

A W k i n Fren ch C ou n try h ou s e
o r l e ss i n u se
S
1

F or

ee

ee

s.

v
.

re e

are

R ecu e i l

s t i ll

de

more

E M O T I ONA L AND I M I TAT I V E LA NG U AG E

s u ggests the N orman orig i nal of the E nglish ta lly h o !

Wi th c r ies o f this ki n d p lain F r e n ch wo r ds are intermixed
h a u l a mi ta u ta u
a let
h a bellemc n t l a i la 1a i la h a u v
r ou te a r ou te ! and so o n
A
nd
sometimes
a r es a r e
s
a
p
p
words have broken down into calls whose sense is no t

q u ite gone like the vois 1e ci and the vo is le c c l est

which are s till to be disting u ished in the sho u t which is to
tell the h u nters that the s tag they have been chas i ng has
a u leci r ev
a ri v
a u leeelez !
made a ret u rn v
Bu t the drollest
thing in the treatise is the grave set Of E nglish words
l
in
very
G
allic
shape
with
which
E
ng
ish dogs are to be
)
(

s poken to beca u se as the a u tho r says there are many

E nglish ho u nds in F rance and it is dif c u lt to get them
to work when yo u speak to them in an u nknown tong u e
that is in o ther terms than they have been trained to
Therefore to call them the h u ntsman is to cry h ere d o d o
h o h o ! to get them back to the right track he is to say
h oup e boy h oup e boy ! when there are several on ahead o f
the rest o f the pack he is to ride u p to them and cry s af
me boy s af me boy ! and lastly if they are obstinate and
will not stop he i s to make them go back with a sho u t Of
-

coba t, eoba t !

H ow

far the lower animals may attach any inherent

meanin g to interj ectional so u nd s is a qu estion not easy to
answer Bu t it is plain that in most o f the cases mentioned
here they only u nderstand them as r ecognized signals
which have a meaning by reg u lar association as when they
remember that they are fed with on e noise and driven away
with another and they also pay attention to the gest u res
which acco m pany the cries Th u s the well known S panish
way o f calli n g the cat is mi z mi z while z ap e z ap e is u sed
to drive it away ; an d the writer Of an old dictionary
maintains that there can be no real di fference between these
words except by c u stom for he declares he has heard that
in a certa i n monastery where they kept very handsome
cats the brother in charge of the refectory hit u pon the
device o f calling z ap e z ap e ! to them when he gave them
.

INTERJECTI ONS

183

their food and the n he drove them away with a stick

crying a n grily mi z mi z ; and this o f co u rse p r evented any
stranger f r om callin g and stealing the m for o n ly he and
1
the cats knew the secret ! To philologists the m anner
i n which s u ch calls to animals become c u stomary in par
t i c u l a r districts ill u strates the consens u s by which the u se
o f words is settled
E ach case of the kind indicates that
a word has prevailed by selection among a certai n society
o f men
and the mai n reasons o f words holding their
g r o u nd within partic u lar limits tho u gh it is s o di f c u lt
t o assign them exactly in each case are probably inherent
tness in the rst place and traditional inheritance in
the second
When the gro u nd has been cleared of Obsc u re o r m u ti
lated sense words there remains behind a resid u e of real
so u nd words o r p u re interj ections
It has long and
reasonably been considered that the place in history o f
these expressions is a very primitive o n e
Th u s D e
B rosses describes them as necessary and nat u ral words
common to all mankind and pro d u ced by the combination
Of man s conformation with the interior a ffections Of his
mind O ne o f the best means o f j u dging the relation
between interj ectional u tterances an d the feelings they
ex press is to compare the voices o f the lower ani mals with
ou r own
To a considerable extent there is a similarity
A s their bo dily and men tal str u ct u re has a n analogy with
ou r o w n so they express their mi n ds by so u nds which have
to o u r ea r s a ce r tain tness for what t hey appear to mean
It is so with t he bark the howl and the whine o f the d og
the hissing o f geese t h e p u rring of cats the crowing and
cl u cking o f cocks and hens B u t in o ther cases as with
the hooting o f owls an d the shrieks of parrots and many
other birds we cannot s u ppose that these so u nds are
intended to u tter a n ything like the melancholy o r pai n
which s u ch cries from a h u man bei n g wo u ld be taken to
convey There are many animals that never u tter an y cry

Al dret e Le g C s t ell n a M a dri d 1 6 7 3 s vv h a re we

,

ua

EM OTIONAL

184

I M I TATI V E LANG UAG E

AN D

what acc o rding t o o u r n otions o f the meaning O f

so u nd s w o u ld ex p r ess r age o r disc o mfo r t ; how far a r e the
roa r s a n d h o wl s o f w ild beasts t o be th u s i n terpreted ? We
m igh t as w e ll imagi n e t h e t u n i n g V i o li n to be i n pai n o r
The connexion
t h e moaning w ind to ex press sorrow
be tween in ter j ection and em o tion de pe n ding o n the physical
st r u ct u re o f the a n imal which u tte r s o r hears the so u nd i t
f o llows that th e general si mila r ity o f in te rj ectio n al u tter
ance a m ong all the va r ieties Of the h u man race is an
im portant manifestation of their close physical and intel
lect u al u n ity
Interj ectional so u nds u ttered by man fo r the expression
feelings serve also as signs indicating these
o f his o w n
feelings to another
A long li s t o f s u ch interj ections
common to races speaking the most widely vario u s lan
g u ages might be set dow n in a ro u gh way as representing
the sighs groans moans cries shrieks and growls by
which man gives u tterance to vario u s o f his feelings S u ch
for i n stance are some of the ma n y so u nds for which a h !
oh ! a hi ! a i e ! are the inexpressive written representatives ;
s u ch is the sigh which is written down in the Wolof lan
g u age of A f r ica as h h i hh e ! in E nglish as h ei g h o ! in G reek

and L atin as e 3 h eu eh eu
Th u s the open mo u thed
wa h wa h
of
astonishment s o common in the E ast
reappears in A merica in the h wa h ! h wa h wa ! o f the
C hinook Jargon ; an d the kind o f groan which is re pre
a e ! is
sented in E u r o pean lang u ages by w eh ! ou a i s ! 0 13a ! v
given in C optic by ou a e in G alla by w a y o in the O ssetic
of the C a u cas u s by v
the Indians Of B ritish
oy ! among
C ol u mbia by w ot
Where the interj ections take n down in
the vocab u laries Of other lang u ages di ffe r from those
recognized in ou r o w n we at any r ate appreciate them
Th u s with the
a n d see h o w they carry their meaning
M alagasy a m ! o f pleas u r e the N orth A merican Indian s
Often describe d g u tt u r al u g h ! the lewi sh ! Of contempt
in the C hinook Ja r gon the T ung u z y o y o ! of pain the
I r ish u b wb ! of distress the native B razilian s teh teh !
bu t

INTERJ ECTI O NS

185

wonder and reverence the h a i y a h ! so well known i n

the P igeon E nglish of the C hinese po r ts and even to
take an extre m e case the interj ections o f s u rprise among
the A lgon qu in India n s where me n say ti a u ! and women
u au !
It is m u ch the same with exp r essions which are
y
not u ttered fo r the speake r s satisfaction b u t are calls
addressed to a n other Th u s the S ia m ese call o f h e ! the

!
!
H ebrew h e h a
for 10 ! behold ! th e h di ! of the

C lalla m I n dia n s for stop ! the Lu mmi h ai ! for hold

eno u gh ! these and others like them belong j u st a s
m u ch to E nglish A nother class o f interj ections are s u ch
as any o n e conversant with the gest u re
signs o f savages
and deaf m u tes wo u ld recognize as being themselves gest u re
signs made with vocal so u nd in short voice gest u res The
so u n d m m m a made with the lips closed is the Obvio u s
ex pression of the man who tries to speak b u t cannot
E ven the deaf and d u mb child tho u gh he cannot hea r the
so u n d o f his own voice makes this noise to show that he
is d u mb that he is mu mu as the V ei negroes Of West
A frica wo u ld say
To the speaking man the so u nd

which we write as mu m ! says plainly eno u gh hold

yo u r tong u e 1 mu m s the word ! and in accordance

with this meaning has served to form vario u s imitative
words of which a type is Tahitian m a mu to be silent
O ften made with a slight e ffort which aspi r ates it and
with more or less contin u ance this so u n d becomes what
may be indicated as m u k m h u & c interj ections
which are conventionally written down as wo r ds h em !
a h em ! h ei n l
Their pr imary sense seems in any case that

of hesitation to speak o f h u m m ing and hawing b u t this

serves with a varied intonation to exp r ess s u ch hesitation
o r refraining from artic u late words as belongs either to
s u rprise do u bt or en qu iry a pprobation o r contempt In
the vocab u lary o f the Y or u bas o f West A f r ica the nasal
interj ection h u rt is rendered j u st as it might be in E nglish

as f u dge ! R ochefort describes the C aribs listeni n g in

r everent silence to their chief s disco u rse and testifying
of

E M OTI ON A L AN D I M ITATI V E LANG UAG E

18 6

their approval with a h u h h u h ! ju st as in his time ( 1 7 t h

cent u ry ) an E n glish co n gregatio n wo u ld ha v e sal u ted a
1
pop u lar preacher
The gest u r e o f blowing again is a
familia r exp r essi o n o f contempt and disg u st and when
vocalized gives the labial i n te rj ections which are written
! ba h !
w
u h !
i
n
Wel
sh
ooh !
a
h
p ! in L ow L atin
p
p g
p
! and set dow n by t r avellers among the savages in
u
u
p pp p
A u stralia as p ooh ! These inte rj ections correspond with
the mass of imitative words which ex press blowing s u ch as
M alay p up u t to blow The labial gest u res of blowing pass
i n to those o f spitti n g of which o n e kind gives the dental
interj ection t t t ! which is written in E nglish or D u tch
tu t t u t and that this is no mere fancy a n u mber Of imita
tive verbs o f vario u s co u ntries will serve to show Tahitian
t u tu a to spit being a typical instance
The place o f inter j ectional u tterance in savage inter
co u rse is well shown i n C ran z s description The G reen
landers he says especially the women accompany many
words with mien and glances and he who does n o t well
apprehend this may easily miss the sense
Th u s when
they af rm anything with pleas u re they s u ck down a ir by
the throat with a certain so u nd and when they deny any
thing with contempt or horror they t u rn u p the nose and
give a slight so u nd thro u gh it A n d when they are o u t of
h u mo u r on e m u st u nderstand more from their gest u res
2
than their words
Interj ectio n and gest u re combine to
form a tolerabl e practical means of interco u rse as whe r e
the comm u nication between F rench and E nglish troops in

the C rimea is described as consisti n g largely o f s u ch

-

T h r pr v i l d i th s d ys

i n d e c en t cu s tom ; w h en t h e pre a ch er
t ou ch ed an y fa v ou ri t e t o p i c k i n a m an n er th a t d el ig ht ed h is au d i en c e t h eir
a pp ro b a t i o n w a s e x p re ss e d b y a l ou d h u m
c on ti n u e d i n pro p ort i on t o th e i r
z ea l or pl ea sure Wh en B u rn e t prea ch e d p art o f h i s c o ngreg a t i on b u mme d
s o l ou dly a n d s o l o n g th a t h e sa t d ow n t o e nj o y i t a n d ru bb e d h is fa c e wi th
Wh en S pra t prea ch e d h e l i k ewi s e wa s h o n oure d wi th
h is h a n dk er ch i e f
t h e l i k e ani ma t i n g h u m b u t h e s tre tc h e d o u t h is h a n d t o t h e c o n g reg a t i on

P e a c e p ea c e ; I pra y y ou p eac e
L i fe of S pra t
a n d c ri e d
Jo h n s on

2
C ran z G ron l an d p 2 7 9
1

e e

o e

an

I N T E R JE C T I O N A L W O R D S

1 87

interj ectional u ttera n ces reiterated with expressive em phasis

1
and considerable gestic u latio n
This desc r i ption well
brings before u s in act u al life a system o f e ffective h u man
interco u rse in which there has not yet arisen the u se o f
those articu late so u nds carrying their meaning by tradition
which a r e the inherited words of the dictionary
When however we look closely into these inherited
s e n s e w ord s themselves we nd that inter j ectio n al so u nds
ha v e act u ally had mo re o r less share in their formation
N o t stopping S hort at the f u nctio n ascribed to them by
grammarians of standing he r e and there o u tside a logical
sentence the inte rj ections have also served as radical
so u nds o u t o f which verbs s u bstantives and other parts O f
s peech have been S haped In tracing the progress o f int er
e
i
o
n
u
ward
into
f
u
lly
developed
lang
u
age
we
begin
c
t
s
j
p
with so u nds merely expressing the speaker s act u al feeli n gs
When howeve r exp r essive so u nds like a h ! u g h p ooh are
u ttered not to exhibit the speaker s act u al feeli n gs at the
moment b u t only i n order to s u ggest to a n other the
tho u ght of adm iration o r disg u st then s u ch interj ections
have little or nothing to disti n g u ish them from f u lly formed
words The next ste p is t o trace the taking u p of s u ch
so un ds into the reg u lar forms of ordinary grammar
F amiliar instances o f s u ch formatio n s may be fo u nd among
o u rselves in n u rsery lang u age where to woh is fo un d in u se
with the meaning Of to stop o r in that real tho u gh hardly
acknowledged par t o f the E n glish lang u age to which belong
s u ch ve r bs as to boo h oo A mong the most obvio u s o f
s u ch words are those which denote the act u al u ttera n ce of
an inte rj ection or pass thence into some closely allied
meaning Th u s the F i j ian women s cry o f lamentation

!
oi le
becomes the verb oi le to bewail oi le ta lea to
lament for ( the men c r y
now this is i n perfect
analogy with s u ch words as u lu la r e to wa i l With di fferen t
grammatical terminations ano ther so u n d p r o d u ces the
Z u l u verb g i g i telca and its E nglish e q u ivalent to g igg le
D W i l s on Pr h is tori c Ma p 6 5
,

n,

18 8

EM OTION A L

AN D

I M IT ATI V E LANG U AG E

The G alla i y a to cry screa m give the battle

c ry has

i t s a n a l og u e s i n G re e k i i
a c ry bite ; waili n g

I n o n rn f u l
n f r o m a c u rio u s
be
take
&c
O O d ca s es ma
y
mode r n dialect w ith a s t r o n g pro pe n sity to the u se of
o b v i o u s s o u n d w o rds the C hi n o o k Ja r g o n O f N o rth West
A m e r ica H e r e we nd ado pted from an Indian dialect

the ve r b to lei s/i h i sh that is to drive cattle o r horses ;

h mn m sta n ds fo r the w o r d s tink verb o r no u n ; and the

la u gh h eeh ee becomes a recognized te r m meani n g fu n o r

am u sement as in ma mook h eeh ee to am u se

to

I n H awaii
make h eeh ee ) and h eeh ee h ou se a tave r n

o n is
to i n s u lt ; in the Tonga Islands ui ! is at o n ce

the exclamation e ! a n d the verb to cry ou t against

In N ew Zealand h e ! is an inte rj ection denoting s u rprise at

a mistake h e as a no u n or verb meani n g error mistake

I n the Q u ich e lang u age o f G u ate
to err to go astray

m ala the ve r bs a y 0 y boy express the idea of to call

i n di ff e r ent ways
In the C a r aj as lang u age of B razil we
may g u ess an interj ectional origi n in the adj ective ci

sorrowf u l a n d can scarcely fail to see a derivatio n from

expressi v e so und i n the verb h a i h a i to ru n away ( the

word a i e a i e u sed to mean an Om n ib u s i n mo dern

F re n ch slang is said to be a co mic all u sio n to the cries
o f the passe n ge r s whose toes a r e t r o dden o n )
The C amacan

India n s whe n they wish to exp r ess the notion o f m u ch

or ma n y hold ou t their ngers and say h i A S this is

an ordina r y savage gest u re expressing m u ltit u de it see m s
likely that the h i is a mere interj ection re qui r i n g the
1
v isible S ign to co n vey the f u ll m eaning
In the Q u ich u a
la n g u age o f P er u a la la u is an i n terj ection of co m plaint at

cold whence the verb a la la u ui u i to com plain o f the

cold
A t the end o f each stro phe of the P er u vian hy mns
to the S un was s u ng the tri u mphan t exclamatio n h a y lli !
and with this so u n d a r e connected the verbs h a y lli u i

to sin g h a y lli cu u i to celebrate a victory

The Z u l u

C omp are

1
-

al ,

'

in th e

s ame d i s tr i ct

C am i i ,

C o to x oki eki e

eu h i ah i a,
'

'

mu l t u s ,

I NT ER JECTI ON A L W ORD S

1 89

ex u ltation which becomes also a ve r b to sho u t

f o r j oy has its a n alog u es in the Tibeta n a la la ! of j oy
and the G reek dAa Aoi which is u sed as a no u n meani n g the

battle cry and even the onset itself dAa Adw to raise the

war c r y as well as H ebrew h i llel to S ing praise whence

h a lleluj a h
a word which the believers in the theo r y that
the R ed I n dia n s were the L ost T r ibes n atu rally recognized
in the native medicine man s chant of h i le li la h ! The Z u l u
makes his panting h a ! do d u ty as an expression o f heat

when he says that the hot weather S ays h a h a ; his way o f

pitching a song by a h a ! h a ! is appare n tly r epresented in

the ve r b h a y a to lead a song h a yo a starti n g song a

fee gi v en to the si n gi n g leader for the h a y a ; and his

inter j ectio n al expression ba bet ! as when o n e smacks his

lips f r om a bitte r taste becomes a verb root mea n i n g to

be bitte r o r sha r p to the taste t o p r ick to smart
The
G alla lang u age gives some goo d examples Of interj ections
passi n g into wo r ds as where the ve r bs bi r r olged a ( to say
br r
and bi r ef a d a ( to make br r have the meaning to be
afraid
Th u s 0 ! bei n g the u s u al answe r t o a call a n d
also a cry to d r ive cattle there are formed f r om it by

the additio n of verbal terminations the verbs oa d a to

answer and of a to drive

If the m ag n i c and h on ori c o of Japanese grammar can
be assigned to an interj ectional o r igin its capabilities in
1
modifying signi cation become instr u ctive
It is u sed

befo r e s u bsta n tives as a pre x of hono u r ; eou u i co u nt r y

th u s becoming oeou u i
When a ma n is talking to his
s u pe r io r s he pu ts 0 before the names o f all obj ects belonging
t o them while these s u pe r io r s d r o p the o i n speaking of
a n ything o f their o w n o r an inferio r s ; amo n g the higher
h a la la

of

'

E ss a i d e

k er C urt i u s
Gr mm ire J p on ais e p 3 4 & c
1 99
I n former d i t i n s o f t h pr s n t w ork t h d i re ct ly i n t erj e ct i n l
ch r ct er f t h e 0 is h ld i n n u n qu l i d m n n r R e fer n c e t o t h e
H C h mb erl i n n d th rs w h ere th is p rt i cl e
g r mm rs o f Pro f B
( on ) is c on n e ct e d wi th th er forms i mpl y i n g a c ommo n roo t l ea v e s t h
rg um n t t o d ep n d w h olly or p art ly on t h e s pp si t i on o f a n i n t erj e ct
t i n l s ou rc e fo th is roo t
[ N te t 3 d cd ]
1

B on

a a

e e

EM OTIONAL AND I M I TA TI V E LANG UAG E

19 0

classe s pe r s o ns o f e q u al rank p u t 0 befo r e the names of

each o t h c r s thi n gs b u t n o t be fo re their own ; i t is polite
t o say 0 b e fo re t h e n a me s o f all wo m e n and well bred
children a re d is ting u ishe d f r o m little peasa n ts by the
w a y in w hich t hey a r e ca r efu l to p u t i t e v e n before the
n u rse r y names o f fathe r a n d m o ther
0 to to 0 m m
which
c o r r e s pon d to the p ap a a n d m a ma O f E u r ope
A dis
t i ncti o n is made i n writte n lang u age betwee n 0 which is pu t
to anything royal and 0 0 which mea n s great as may be
i n sta n ced in the u se o f the word mets lee o r spy ( lite r ally

o m ets ke is a pri n cely o r i m perial spy while

eye
0 0 mets lee is the spy in chief
This inte rj ectional adj ective
00
g r eat is u s u ally pre xed to the name o f the capital
city which i t is c u stomary to call 0 0 Yed o in speaking to
o n e o f its inhabita n ts
or when Of cials talk o f it among
themselves
A nd lastly the o of ho n o u r is pre xed t o
verbs in all their forms o f conj u gation and it is polite

to say omi u a h a i m a tse please to see instead o f the

mere plebeian mi n a h a i m a tse N ow an E nglish child o f
six years o l d wo u ld at once u nderstan d these formations
if take n as i n terj ectional ; and if we do no t incorporate
in o u r gra mm ar the o ! Of admi r atio n and re v
e re n
tial embar r assment it is beca u se w e have n o t chosen
to take advantage o f this r u dimenta r y means of ex
pression A n othe r exclamation the cry of i 0 ! has taken
a place in etymology Whe n added by the G e r man to

his cry Of F ire !

M u rder !
F eu er i o ! Mor d i o ! it
remains indeed as mere an interj ection as th e o ! in o u r

!
s treet c r ies of P ease o
D u st o ! o r the d ! in ol d

G erman w af en d ! to ar m s ! h i lf d ! h e lp l
Bu t th e
Iro qu ois of N o rth A merica makes a f u ller u se of his
m ate r ials an d ca rr ies his i 0
O f admiration into the very
fo r m atio n of com po u nd words addi n g it to a no u n to say
that it is bea u tif u l o r good ; th u s i n M ohawk g a r ou l a
m ea n s a t r ee g a r on ti o a bea u tif u l tree ; i n like manner

ri v er b e au t i fu l z and On ta r i o
hill rock
Oh i o means
bea u tif u l is de r i v ed i n the same way When in the Old
,

'

TRANS ITI ON TO SENSE WORDS

19 1

times o f the F r e n ch occu pation Of C anada there was sent

over a G ove r no r G eneral o f N ew F rance M onsie u r de
M o n tmagny the Iro qu ois rendered his n ame from their

wo r d on on te m o u ntain t r anslati n g him i n to On ont i o o r

G r eat M o u ntain and th u s it came to pass that the name

o f O n on t i o was ha n ded down long after like that O f C aesar
as the title 9 f each s u cceeding governor while for the Ki n g

o f F rance was reserved the yet higher style o f

the great
,

O n on t i o

The qu est of interj ectional derivations for sense words is

apt to lead the etymologist into very rash S pec u lations
O ne of his best safeg u ards is t o test fo r ms s u pposed to be
i n terj ectio n al by asce r taining whether anything S imilar has
come into u s e i n decidedly distinct la n g u ages F or instance
amo n g the fa m iliar so u n ds which fall on the traveller s ear
i n S pain is the m u leteer s cry to his beasts a rr e ! a rr e !
F rom this interj ection a fa m ily o f S panish words a r e

reasonably s u pposed to be derived ; the verb a rr ea r to

drive m u les a rr i er o the na m e for the m u leteer him

?
self and so forth
N ow is this a rr e ! itself a ge n u ine
interj ectional so u n d ? It seems likely to be so for C aptain
Wilson fo u nd it in u s e in the P elew Islands where the
paddlers in the can oes were kept u p t o their work by crying
to them a rr ee ! a r r ee ! S imilar interj ections are noticed
else where with a sense o f mere a f rmation as in an A u s
t ra li an dialect where a r ee ! is set down as meaning

indeed and in the Q u ich u a lang u age where a r i ! means

yes ! whence the verb a r i ni to a f rm

Two other
ca u tio n s are desirable in s u ch en qu iries These a r e n o t to
travel t oo far from the absol u te meaning expressed by the
interj ection un less there is s trong corrobo r ative evidence
-

I n d i a n

vol i p
.

M h wk

Bru y as ,

Trib es Part iii p

3 50

1 6, in

S mi th s

3 28 , 5 0 2 , 5 0 7

C on tr vol iii S ch ool cr ft

C h arl e vo ix N ou v Fr n c e

on

h a v e b een i n tro d u c e d i n t o E u rop e b y t h e M o ors a s i t is

u s e d i n A ra b i c
a n d i t s u s e i n E u ro p e c orr e s p o n d s n ea rly wi th t h e l i m i t s
o f t h e M o oris h c o n q u e s t i n S p a i n a r r e I i n P r o v e n c e a rr i
2

Th e

a rr e

may

EMOTIONA L
and

I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

AN D

ve r ride o r dina ry e tymology by t r eati n g deri

va t i ve w o r ds as th o u gh they we r e r adical Wi th o u t these
ch e cks eve n s o u nd p r i n ci ple b r eaks d o wn i n a pplicati o n as
the f o ll o wi n g t W O exa m ples may sh o w I t is q u ite tr u e that
h m ! i s a c o mmo n inte rj ecti o nal call a n d that the D u tch
ha v
e made a v e r b o f i t h emme n t o hem after a pe r son
may n o tice a si mila r call in Wes t A f r ica in the mma !

which is t ra n slated hall o ! s top ! i n the la n g u age of

F e r n ando P o B u t t o ap ply this as a derivati o n for G e r man

h e mmen
to s top check r est r ai n t o h em in and eve n to
the h e m o f a gar ment as M r Wedgwo o d does witho u t even
1
a pe r haps is travelli n g t oo far beyond the reco r d A gai n
it is qu ite t r u e that so u nds o f clicki n g and smacking of the
lips are common ex p ressions of satisfaction all ove r the
world and wo r ds may be derived from these so u nds as
where a vocab u la r y o f the C hinook lang u age of N orth West

A me r ica exp r esses goo d as t le tole te or e toh te so u nds

which we cannot do u bt to be deri v ed from s u ch clicking
n oises if the wo rds are not in fact attempts to w r ite down
the very c licks themselves B u t it does not fo llow that we
may take s u ch wo r ds as d eli ci es d eli ca tu s ou t o f a highly
organized la n g u age like L atin and refer them as the same
etymologist does to an interj ectional u tterance of s a t i s fa c
2
tio n d li ele ! To do this is to I gno r e altogether the compo
s i t i o n O f wo r ds ; we might as well explain L atin d i leetus
o r E ng l ish
d eli g h t as direct formations fro m expressive
so un d In concl u ding these r ema r ks on interj ectio n s two
o r three g r o u p s of
words may be b r o u ght forward as
examples o f the application o f collected evidence from a
n u mber o f lang u ages mostly of the lower races
Th e af r mati v e an d negative particles which bear in lan

g u age s u ch meani n gs as yes ! i n deed I and no l

no t may have their derivations f r om many di fferent

so u rces It is tho u ght that the A u stralian dialects all
belo n g to a single stock b u t so u nlike a r e the so u n ds they
not

to

W e dg w oo d
I bid p 7 2

O ri

gin

of

a n g u ag e ,

92

A FFI RM ATI VES A ND N E G AT I V E S

193

u se for no ! and yes ! that tribes are act u ally named

from these words as a convenient means o f distinction

Th u s the tribes k n own as Gu r ea ng K a mi la r oi I f og a i
W ola r oi W a i lwu n W i r a th er oi have their names from the

words they u se for no these being g u r e ha mi l ho

w ol w a i l wi r a respectively ; an d o n the othe r ha n d the
P i h a mbu l are said to be so called from their word p i lea

yes
The device o f naming tribes th u s invented by the
savages Of A u stralia and which perhaps rec u rs in B razil in

the name o f the C oea tap u ya tribe ( coca no tap u y a man

is very c u rio u s in its si m ilarity to the medi aeval di v ision o f
La ng u e d oe and La ng u e d oi l according to the words for

yes ! which prevailed i n S o u thern and N orthern F rance

!
00
is L atin h oe as we m ight say that s it ! while the
longer form h oe i llu d was red u ced to oi l ! and then ce to

M any other of the words for yes ! and no ! may

ou i !
be sense words as again the F rench and Italian si is L atin
si c
Bu t on the other hand there is reason to think that
many of these particles in u s e in vario u s lang u ages are not
sense words b u t so u nd wo r ds o f a p u rely interj ectional
kind ; or what comes nearly to the same thing a feeli n g o f
tness o f the so u nd to the meaning may have a ffected the
choice and shapi n g Of sense wo r ds a remark of large a ppli
cation in s u ch en qu iries as the present
It is a n o ld
s u gges tion that the primitive so u nd of s u ch words as n on is
1
a nasal interj ection o f do u bt or dissent
It corresponds in
so u nd with the visible gest u re of clos ing the lips while a
vowel interj ection with or witho u t aspiration belongs
rather to open mo u thed u tterance Whether from this o r
some other ca u se th ere is a re m a r kable tendency among
most distant and vario u s lang u ages Of the world on the o n e
hand t o u se vowel so u nds with soft or hard breathing t o

expr ess yes ! and o n the o ther hand to u se nasal con

sonants to exp r esss n o ! The af rmative form is mu ch

the commoner The g u tt u ral i i ! of the West A u st r alian
the ee ! Of the D arien the a a h ! o f the C lallam the e ! of
D Bro ss e s v
ol i p 2 0 3
S ee W e d g w o d
.

'

E MO T I O N A L A N D I M I T A T I V E L A N G U A G E

194

the Yakama I n dia n s the e ! O f t h e B as u to and the (i i ! o f

t h e Ka n u ri a re some examples o f a wide gro u p Of forms
o f which t h e f o ll o wi n g a r e o n ly
part o f those noted down in
P o lynesian a n d S o u th A merican districts i i ! t ! i d !
! &c
! h e
! h i t ! h oe/
a io ! i0 !
a
r
ra h ! a lt h a !
h
h
e
h
e
!
y
y
&c
The idea has mos t weigh t where pairs o f wo rds fo r

yes ! and no ! are fo u nd bo th confor m ing Th u s in

the very s u gges tive description by D o b ri z h o ffe r among the

A bi po n e s o f S o u th A merica for
yes ! the men and
d ! the women say h ad ! and the Old men
yo u ths say h e

give a gr u n t ; while for no they all say y u a ! and make

the lo u dness Of the so u nd indicate the s trength of the
negation
D r M arti u s s collection o f vocab u laries of
B razili an tribes philologically very distinct contains several
s u ch pairs of a l rmat i v
e s and negatives the e qu ivalents o f

yes !
being in T u pi a ye(t a n ! a a n i ! ; in G u ato
i i l ma u
in J u mana d ea e l md i u
in M iranha h a a
na n i !
The Q u ich u a o f P er u af rms by y ! h u ! and

expresses no
not
not at all by a ma ! ma n a n ! & c

mak ing from the latter the verb ma n a mni to deny

e fo r the a f rmative ma
The Q u ich e o f G u atemala has e o r v
m a n ma n a for the negative
In A frica again the G all a

lang u age has ee ! for yes ! and h n , hi n h m for not " ;

the F e rn an di an ee ! for yes ! and n t for not ; while the

C optic dictionary gives the a f rmative ( L atin sane as

ei e i e and the negative by a long list o f nasal so u nds s u ch
as a n emmen en mmn & c The S anskrit pa r ticles h i !

i ndeed certainly
na
not exempli fy similar forms in
1
Indo E u ropean lang u ages down to o u r o w n a g e ! and n o !
There m u st be some meaning in all this fo r o therwise I
co u ld hardly have noted down incidentally witho u t making
any attempt at a general search s o many cases from s u ch
di ff erent lang u ages only n ding a comparatively small
?
n u m be r of co n tradictory cases
,

A l s o O ra on h a ea mbo M i c ma c mw
2
A d o u b l e c o n tra d i ct i on i n C ari b
c on tr d i cti o n s i n C a to qu i n a h a ng ! Tu p i cem ! B o to c u d o
1

le
Y r b
S ing

h emh em !

o u

AFFI RMATI VES A ND

N E G A TI

ES

B rosses mai ntained that the L atin

De

195

to s ta n d
might be traced to an origin in exp r essive s o u nd
He
fancied he co u ld hear in it an o rganic radical S ign d e s i g
nating x i t y and co u ld th u s explai n why s t ! sho u ld be u sed
as a call to make a man s ta n d sti ll Its connexion with
these so u nds is often spoken o f i n more mo dern books and
o n e imaginative G erman philologer desc r ibes their origi n
among prim aeval men as vividly as tho u gh he had been
there to see A man stands beckoning i n vain to a c om
panion who does n o t see him till at last his e ffort relie v es
itself by the help o f the vocal nerves and invol u ntarily there
breaks from him the so u nd s t ! N ow the other hears the
so u nd t u rns toward it sees the beckoning gest u r e knows
that he is called to stop ; and when this has happened
again and agai n the action co m es to be desc r ibed i n com
mon talk by u ttering the now familiar s t ! a n d th u s sta
1
becomes a root the symbol of the abstract idea to stand !
This is a mos t ingenio u s conj ect u re b u t u nfort u nately
nothing more It wo u ld be at any rate s trengthened tho u gh
not established if its s u ppo r te r s co u ld prove that the
s t ! u sed
to call people i n G e r many p st ! in S pai n is
itself a p u re interj ectio n al so u n d E ven this howe v e r has
never been made o u t The call has n o t yet been S hown t o
be i n u se o u tside ou r o w n Indo E u ropean fa mily of
lang u ages ; and so lo n g as it is only fo u nd in u s e withi n
these li mits an Opponent might eve n pla u sibly claim it as

an abbreviation Of the v e r y sta ! ( S tay !

fo r which
?
the theory pro poses it as an or i gin
s ta re,

vl

e s !
y

n o !

C u l i n o a i y ! A u s tr l i n y o ! for
&c
H o w mu ch
th s e s o n d s d ep en d o n p cu l i r i n t n a ti on w w h o h b i tu ally u s e h m
n o 1 can w e ll u n d rs t n d
e i th er for
r
y s
Tr i t d e l
C
h
r
l
s
Br
ss
s
F orm t i on M c an i q u e d es
e
d
e
o
e
)
(
L ng ue s & c P ri s A n ix vl i p 2 3 8 ; vl ii p 3 1 3 L z r s n d

S t i n th l Z i t s chri ft fu V lk rpsy ch ol g i & c vol i p 4 2 1 H ey s

ys t
F rr r C h p t rs on L n g u g e
S
m d er S pr ch wiss n s ch ft p 7 3
p 202
S i mi l r s ou n d s
s ed t o c mman d si l en c e t o s t o p s p k i n g s w ll
E n g l is h h u sh t ! wh i st ! h i st ! W e l s h ust ! F ren ch h t !
a
t o s to p g i n g
I t l i n i tt ! S w d is h ty t ! Ru ssi n t ! an d t h e L t i n si
w e ll d e s cri b d
ei

for

'

e,

e,
a

a a u

e,

are u

ea

so

EM OTI ONA L AND I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

19 6

That i t is n o t u nfair to ask for f u ller evidence of a

s o u nd bei n g p u r ely in te rj ecti o nal than i ts appeara n ce i n a
si n gle family of lang u ages ma y be shown by examining
a n o the r gro u p o f i n te rj ectio n s which are f o u nd amo n g t h e
re mo tes t t r ibes an d th u s ha v e r e ally co n siderable claims to
rank amo n g the p r ima ry so u nds o f la n g u age These are
the si mple s ibilants 9 ! s h ! h s h ! u sed es pecially to scare
bi rds a n d a m ong me n to express aversion or call for silence
C atli n desc r ibes a party of S io u x I n dians when they came
to the po r t r ait o f a dead chief each p u tti n g his hand over
his mo u th with a h u sh sh ; and when he hi m self wished to

ap proach the sacred medicin e i n a M andan lodge he

was called to refrain by the same h u sh sh ! A mong o u r
sel v es the sibilant interj ection passes into two exactly
opposite senses according as it is meant t o p u t the speaker
hi m self to silence o r to command silence for him to be
heard ; and th u s we nd the sibilant u sed elsewhe r e some
times in the one way and sometimes in the o ther A mong
the wild V eddas o f C eylon i ss ! is an exclamation o f
disapproval as in ancient or mode r n E u rope ; and the verb
sh ara le
to hiss is u sed in H eb r ew with a like sense

they shall hiss him ou t o f his place

B u t in Japan
reverence is expressed by a hiss commanding silence
C a pt i a n C ook remarked tha t the natives o f the N ew
H ebrides expressed thei r admiration by hissing l ike geese

C asalis says o f the B as u tos H isse s are the most u n

e qu i v ocal ma r ks o f appla u se and are as m u ch co u rted in
the A fri can pa r liaments as they a r e dreaded by ou r candi
1
dates fo r pop u lar favo u r
A mo n g other sibilant i n t e rj e c

!
!
tions are T u rkish si t sa ! O ssetic es
303
silence !
,

l i ne q u o te d b y Mr F rrar w h i ch c omp are s i t wi th t h e

g e s t ur e o f t h e n g er n t h e l i p s
I sis et H rp cr t e s d ig i to q u i si g n i cat st
T h is grou p o f i n t rj ct i n s g i n h s n o t b en prov e d t o b e i n u s u tsi d
Ary n l im i t s

C tl i n N rth Am ri c n I n d i n s vol i pp 22 1 3 9 1 5 1 1 62 B ai l ey

i n Tr E th
vol ii p 3 1 8 Job xx v ii 2 3 (Th e v erb sh d a k l s
si gn i e s t c ll b y h iss n d h wi ll h iss n t o th em fro m t h e en d o f t h e
c uri ou s

in th e

o ld

e o

NAT U R A L RO OT WORDS
-

197

F ern a n di an si a ! listen ! t u sh ! Y or u ba si d ! pshaw !

Th u s it appears that these so u nds far from being special to
l i ng u istic family are very wides pread ele m ents o f
on e
h u man S peech
N or is there an y qu estion as to their
passage into f u lly formed wo r ds as in o u r verb t o h u sh

which has passed into the sense o f t o qu iet p u t t o sleep

u sh as
u sh u p
h
h
ad
j
ectively
as
metapho
r
ically
to
(

a matter or G reek g i ft! to h u sh say h u sh ! command

silence
E ven L atin si ler e and G othic si la n to be S ilent
may with some pla u sibility be explained as derived from the
interj ectional s o f silence
S anskrit dictionaries recognize se v eral words which ex
o w n interj ectional derivation ; s u ch are
state
their
l
i
i
l
c
t
p
y

h uman ; ( h um maki n g )
the u ttera n ce Of the mystic

religio u s exclamation h i t m ! and gi gga bela (gi g so u nd ) a

hiss
B esides these Ob v io u s fo r matio n s the interj ectional
ele m ent is present to some g r eater o r less degree in the list of
S anskrit radicals which represent probably bette r than those
of an
y other la n g u age the verb roots o f the ancient A ryan

stock In r u to r oar cry wail and i n ka kh to la u gh

we have the si m pler kind of interj ectional derivatio n that
which merely describes a so u nd A s to the mo r e dif c u lt
ki n d which ca r ry the sense i n t o a new stage M r Wedgwood
makes o u t a s tro n g case for the con n exion of interj ections
of loathi n g and aversio n s u ch as p ooh ! e ! & c with that
large g r o u p o f words which a r e rep r esented in E n glish by

f ou l a n d en d i n S anskrit by the v erbs p i ty to become

1
fo u l to stink and p i g p i y to r evile to hate
F u rther

rth an d b e h old th e y s h al l c ome wi th s p ee d I s v 2 6 ; Jer xix

A l c o c k Th e C a p i ta l o f t h e T y c oon vol i p 39 4 C oo k 2n d V oy
vol ii p 3 6 C a sa l is B a s u t o s p 2 3 4

W e d g w oo d Orig i n O f L an g u ag e p 8 3 D i cti on ary I n tro d p x l ix

an d s v
x
fou l Pro f Ma M ull er L e ctures 2 n d s eri es p 9 2 pro t e s t s
a a i n s t t h e i n d is c ri m i n a t e d eri v a t i on o f w ord s d i re ct ly from s u ch c r i e s a n d
g
i n terj e ct i on s wi th ou t t h e i n t erv en t i o n o f d e t erm i n a t e roo t s A s t o t h e
pres en t t op i c h e p o i n t s ou t th a t L a t i n p u s p u tr i d u s G oth i c f u ls E n g l is h
f ou l fo ll o w G ri mm s l a w a s i f w ord s d eri v e d from a si n g l e roo t A d m i tt i n g
th is h ow e v er t h e q u e s t i on h as t o b e ra is e d h o w far p u re i n t erj ec
t i on s a n d th e i r d ire ct d eri va t i v es b ei n g s elf e x pre ssi v e a n d s o t o s p ea k

ea

EM OT I ONA L AN D I M I TATI V E LANG UAG E

19 8

evide n ce ma y b e he r e add u ced in s u ppo r t o f this theory

Th e la n g u a g e s o f t h e l o w e r r aces u s e the s o u n d p H to

ex pr e s s a n e v i l s mell : the Z u l u re marks that the meat

s ays
( i ny a ma iti 7m ) mea n i n g that i t stinks ; the
pu

Ti mo rese has p oop p u t r id ; the Q u ic h la n g u age has

u ll
o rr u tio n
ol:
c
to t u r n h a d r o t p u s
p
p
p
pu s p oh i r

r o t te n n ess wha t sti n k s ; the T u pi wo r d fo r nasty p u e i

m a y b e co m pa r ed with the L atin p u l id a s and the C ol u mbia

li v
e r name fo r the
sk u nk o p un p u u with S i m ilar names

of s tinki n g a n imals S anskrit p i l l i lrd civet cat and F rench

! words
u
l
o
i
s
m
pole
cat
F
ro
the
F
rench
in
ter
j
ection
p

have long been fo r med belo n gi n g to the la n g u age if not

a u the n ticated by the A cademy in medi ae v al F rench maistre
i
j was a r ecogn ized term for a scavenger and books
a r e n o t yet exti n ct
There has been as yet u n fo r t u nately too m u ch separa
tion between what may be called ge n erative philology which
examines into the u lti mate origins o f words and historical
philology which traces their t r ansmission and change It
will be a great gai n to the science of lang u age to bring these
two bra n ches o f en qu iry into closer u nion even as the
n going on together since
rocesses
they
relate
to
have
bee
p
the earliest days o f speech A t present the historical philo
l og i s t s o f the school of G rim m a n d B opp whose grea t
work has been the traci n g O f o u r I n do E u r opean dialects
to an early A ryan fo r m of lang u age have had m u ch the
advantage in f u l n ess of evidence and st r ictness of t r eatment
A t th e same ti m e it is evident that the views o f the genera
tive philologists from D e B rosses onward embody a so u nd
.

l i vi ng s oun d s e a ff ct e d b y p h on e t i c ch n g s s ch as th t of Gri mm s
l aw w h i ch
t n r t i c u l t e s u n d s n o l on g er ful ly e x p ressi v e i n th em
s el v e s b u t h an d ed d ow n b y mere tra d i t i on T h s p an d f o ccu r i n on e a n d
s am d i l e ct i n i n t erj e ct i on s o f d isg u s t a n d v ersi n p h ! / b i n g
th
j s t s si mi l ar s n d s w ou ld b e i n L on d on I n
u s e d i n V e n i c e o r P r is
tr c i n g th is grou p o f w rd s fr m rly Aryan forms i t mu s t l s o b e n o ti c e d
th t S n s kri t is v ery i mp r f ct g u i d e fo i t s lp h b t h s n o f n d i t c n
h rdl y g i ve t h r l e i n th is m tt r t o l ng u g s p o ss e ssi n g b o th p n d f
ppre c ia t i on f th is c l ss o f i n t erj e ct i on s
n d th u s c p b l e o f n i c er
,

ar

ac

ea

ou

NAT U R A L ROOT WORDS

-

19 9

pri n ciple ,

and that m u ch of the evidence collected as to

e m otio n al a n d other di r ectly expressive words is o f the
highest val u e in the arg u ment B u t in worki n g o u t the
details Of s u ch word formation it m u st be reme m bered that
n o department of philology lies more open to A u g u sti n e s
ca u stic remark on the etymologists O f his time that li ke
the interpretation o f dreams the derivatio n o f words is
set down by each man accordi n g to his o w n fa n cy ( U t
somnior u m i n t e rpre t a t i o ita v
e rb o ru m origo pro c u j u s q u e
i n ge n io praedi cat u r )
,

C H A PTER V I

E M O T I O N A L A N D I M I T A T I V E L A N G U A G E ( con ti n u ed )

I mi t t i v W rd s H m
ct i s m d fr m s d A i m l s m s fr m
i
& M si c l I s tr m t s S
d s r pr d c d W rd s m d i
a

c.

c r es ,

an a

na

en

on

ou n

oun

na

u e

i d t o d a p t s o u n d t o s e n s e Re d u pl i c a t i on G ra d u a ti on o f v o w el s t o
d i fferen c e C h i ldren s L ang u ag e S ou n d w ord s
e x pre ss d is ta n c e a n d
a s re l a t e d t o S e n s e w ord s L a n u a e a n ori g i n a l p rod u ct o f t h e l o w er
g g
C ul ture
fe

lang u age to o u r own day it is

u nlikely that men eve r qu ite ceased to be conscio u s that
some of thei r words were derived fro m i mitation o f the
co m mo n so u n ds hea r d abo u t them In o u r own modern
E nglish for i n stance res u lts of s u ch imitation are evident ;
ies bu z z bees h u m s n akes hi ss a cracker or a bottle o f
ginger beer pep s a cannon or a bittern booms In the
words for animals and for m u sical i nstr u ments in the
vario u s la n g u ages o f the world the imitation o f their cries
and tones is often to be plai n ly heard as in the names Of
the h oop oe the a i a i sloth the h a lea pa r rot the E astern
tomto m which is a dr u m the A frican u lu le which is a u te
the S iamese leh ong bong which is a wooden harmonicon and
in like manner thro u gh a host o f other words B u t these
evident cases are far from r epresenti n g the whole e ff ects o f
i m itation on the growth o f lang u age They form i n deed
the easy ent r a n ce to a philological region which becomes
less p e n etrable the fa r the r it is explored
The o pe r atio n s o f which we see the res u lts before u s in
the act u al la n g u ages o f the wo r ld seem to have bee n some
what as follows M en have imitated thei r o wn emotional
u tte r an ces o r inte rj ection s t h e cries Of animals the tones Of

F RO M the earliest times

of

20 0

I M ITATI VE

O UN D WORDS
-

20 1

m u sical instr u ments the so u nds Of S ho u ti n g howli ng

stampi n g breaking tea r ing sc r aping with o thers which
are all day co m ing to the i r ears and o u t Of these i m itatio ns
many c u rrent words indisp u tably have their so u rce Bu t
these words as we nd them in u se di ffer often widely
Often beyond all recognition from the original so u nds they
sprang from I n the rst place man s voice can only make
a very r u de copy o f most so u nds his ear receives ; his pos
sible vowels are very limited in their range compared with
nat u ral tones and his possible conso n ants still more helpless
as a means o f imitating nat u ral noises M oreover his voice
is only allowed to u s e a part even o f this imperfect imitative
powe r seei n g that each lang u age for its o w n convenience re
stricts it to a s m all n u mber of set v owels and co n sonants to
which the i m itative so u nds have to conform th u s becoming
conventionalized into articu late words with f u rther loss o f
imitative acc u racy N 0 class of words have a more perfect
imitative origi n than those which si m ply profess to be vocal
imitations o f so u n d
H ow ordinary alphabets to so m e
extent s u cceed and to some extent fail in writi n g down these
so u n ds may be j u dged from a few examples Th u s the
A u stralia n imitatio n of a S pear o r b u llet striki n g is given as
toop ; to the Z u l u when a calabash is beate n it says boo ;
the Karens hear the itting ghosts o f th e dead call i n the
wailing voice of the wind r e r e r 0 r 0 ; the Old traveller
P ietro della V alle tells how the S hah of P ersia sneered at
Tim u r and his Tartars with their arrows that went ter ter
certain Bu ddhist heretics maintai n ed that water is alive
beca u se when it boils it says ch i chi ta eh i ti ehi ta a symptom
of V itality which occasioned m u ch theological controversy as
to drinking cold and warm water L astly so u nd words
taken u p into the general invento r y o f a la n g u age have t o
foll ow its organic changes and in the co u rse o f phonetic
transition combination decay and m u tilation to lose eve r
more and mo r e thei r original shape To take a si n gle

example the F rench h u er to sho u t ( Welsh h w a ) may be

a perfect imitative verb ; yet when it passes i n to modern
,

E M OT I O N A L A N D I M I T AT I V E LA NG U A G E

20 2

E n glish h ue and c r y o u r cha n ged pron u nciati o n o f the

v o w e l destr o ys all i mita ti o n o f the call
N o w t o the
lang u age make r s all this was o f little acco u nt They
m erely w a n ted r ec o g n ized words t o exp r ess recognized
th o u ght a n d n o d o u bt a rr ived by r e peat e d t r ials at systems
which we r e fo u n d practically to answer this p u rpose I n t to
the m ode r n phil o l o gist w h o is atte mpting to work o u t the
c o n v e r se o f the pr o ble m a n d to follow backwa r d the co u r se
o f wo rds to o rigi n al imitative so u nd the dif c u lty is mos t
e m barrassi n g I t is not only that tho u sands Of words really
derived from s u ch i m itation may now by s u ccessive change
have lost all safe traces o f their history ; s u ch me r e
de ficiency of knowledge is only a m inor evil What is far
worse is that th e way is thrown Open to an u n lim ited
n u mber of false sol u tions which yet look on the face Of
them f u lly as like tr u th as o thers which we know historically
to be tr u e O n e thing is clear that i t is o f no u se to resort
to viole n t means to r u sh in among the words Of la n g u age
explaining the m away right and left as derived each f r om
some remote application o f an imitative noise The a dv
o
cate o f the Imitative Theory who attempts this tr u sting in
his o w n powe r s o f di scernment has indeed taken in hand a
perilo u s task for in fact Of all j u dge s o f the qu estion at
iss u e he has no u rished and trained himself u p to become the
very worst
H is i m agination is ever s u ggesting to him
what his j u dgment wo u ld like to nd tr ue ; like a witness
answering the qu estions of the co u nsel o n his o w n side he
answers in good faith b u t with what bias we all know
It was th u s with D e B ro sses to whom this departmen t of
philology owes so m u ch It is nothin g to say that he had
a kee n ear fo r the v oice o f N at u re ; she m u st have positively
talked to him in alphabetic lang u age for he co u ld hear the

so un d of hollowness in the sic o f O Koi7 r r w to dig o f

hardness in the ca l O f ca llosi ty the noise o f insertion of a
body between two others in the tr O f tra ns i n tr a
In
e n qu iries s o liable to misleading fancy no pa i ns sho u ld be
spared in secu ring impartial testimony an d i t fort u nately
,

'

'

I M ITATIVE

O U ND WORDS

203

happens that there are available so u rces o f s u ch evide n ce

which when thoro u ghly w o r ked will give to the theo r y o f
i m itative words as near an approach to acc u racy as has been
attai n ed to in any othe r wide philological problem B y
compa r ing a n u mbe r o f lang u ages widely apa r t i n thei r
general system and mate r ials and whose agreement as
to the words in qu estion can only be acco u n ted for by
S imilar formation o f words from si m ilar s u ggestion of so u nd
we obtain gro u ps of words whose imitative character is i n
disp u table The gro u ps h e re co n side r ed consist in general
of imitative words o f the simple r kind those directly con
n e c t e d with the S pecial so u nd they a r e taken from b u t their
exami n atio n to some extent admits o f words being bro u ght
in where th e connexion o f the idea expressed with the
so u nd imitated is more remote This lastly opens the far
wide r and mo r e di f c u lt proble m how far i m itation o f
so u nds is the primary ca u se of the great mass o f words in
the vocab u laries Of the world between whose so u nd and sense
n o direct co n nexion appears
Words which express h u man actions accompanied with
so un d form a very large and intelligible class In remote
a n d most di ffere n t la n g u ages we nd s u ch forms as p u p uf
bu buf f u f uf in u se with the meaning o f p u ng j u ng o r
blowing ; M alay p up u t ; Tongan bu h i ; M aori p up u i A u s
Z u l u f u ta p u ng a
t ra li a n bobu n bw a bu n ; G alla buf a af uf a
u u sed as exp r essive particles ; Q u ich e u ba ;
u u z a (f u
p
p
p
)
p
Q u ich u a p u h u n i ; T u pi yp eu F innish p u hlei a H ebrew
u s te ;
n ian
ei u ; and in n u mbers
D
anish
L
ith
u
a
u a ch
u
p
p
p
1
o f other lang u ages ;
here g r ammatical adj u ncts apart the
signi cant force li es in the imitative syllable S avages have
named the E u ropean m u sket when they saw it by the so u n d
p u describing not the re p ort b u t the p u ff Of smoke iss u ing
fr om the m u zzle The S ociety Isla n de r s s u pposed at rst
that the white men blew thro u gh the ba r rel Of the g u n and
they called it accordingly pup u h i from the ve r b p u h i to
,

Mpo n g we p u nj i na ; Ba su t o f olea C ari b ph ou bae A ra wa c app ud un (i g n e m

su l are )
O th er c a s es a re g i v e n b y W e d g w o o d O r o f Lang p 8 3
1

'

EMOTI ONAL

204

I M I TAT I V E LANG U AG E

AN D

blow while the N ew Zealanders more simply called it a p u

S O t h e A m a xo s a o f S o u th A f r ica call it u mp u f r om the
i mita ti v e s o u n d p H ! Th e C hi n o o k Jargon o f N o rth West
A merica u ses the phrase ma mooh p oo ( make p oo) for a verb

and a six chambered revolver is called toh u m

t o sh o ot

a six p oo
When a E u ropean u ses the wo r d
poo i e
u
n ote the discharge o f a g u n he is me r ely r efer r i n g
de
o
t
g
p
t o the s m ok e blown o u t as he wo u ld speak o f a p u o f
wi n d o r even a powder p uff or a p u ball ; and when a
pis tol is called i n collo qu ial G erman a p uj er the meaning
a
o f the word matches that u sed for it in F r ench A rgot

It has Often been s u pposed that the p ug

s o u f an t
i mitates the act u al so u nd the ba ng O f the g u n and this has
been bro u ght forward to show by what extremely di fferent
words one and the same so u nd may be imitated b u t this is
1
a mistake
These de r ivatio n s Of the name o f the g u n from
th e notion of blowing correspond with those which give
names to the comparatively noiseless blow t u be o f the bird
h u nter called by the Indians Of Y u catan a p u b in S o u th
A merica by the C hi qu itos a p u cu n a by the C ocamas a p u
na
L ooking into vocab u laries O f lan g u ages which have

s u ch verbs to blow it is u s u al to nd with them other

words a ppare n tly r elated to them and expressing more or

less distant ideas Th u s A u stralian p oo yu p u yu smoke ;

Q u ich u a p u h u cu n i to light a re p u ngu i n i to swell

u yu
uhu u
u hu
nt
u ha
a
clo
u
d
M
aori
to
pa
;
y
p
p
p
p

to swell ; T u pi p up u pup ur e to boil ; G alla bu be

wind bu bi z a to cool by blow i ng ; Kan u ri ( root f u )

r ud u
un i n
u
to
blow
swell
a st u ffed pad or bolster
f
f g

& c ba bu te bellows ( bu bu te f u ng i n I blow the

Z u l u ( droppin g the pre xes ) p u ku p u hup u f r othing foam

when ce p u hup u ku an empty f r othy fellow p ap u ma to

b u bble boil f u a clo u d f u mf u blow n abo u t like high

grass in the wind whence f u mf u ta to be conf u sed thrown

into disorder f u to bellows f u ba the breast chest then

g u ratively bosom conscie n ce

.

"

S ee

W e dg w o o d

Di c

I n trod p v iii
.

I M ITATI V E

O U N D WORDS
-

20 5

The gro u p of words belonging to the closed lips o f which

mu m mu mmi ng mu mble are among the many forms belo n g
1
ing to E u ropea n la n g u ages are worked ou t i n like ma n ner

among the lower races V ei mu mu d u mb ; M pongwe

i ma mu
d u mb ; Z u l u moma ta ( from m oma
a motion

with the mo u th as in m u mbling ) to move the mo u th o r

lips ma ma ta to close the lips as with a mo u thf u l o f

water mu mu ta mu mu z a to eat mo u thf u ls o f corn & c

with the lips sh u t ; Tahitian ma mu to be silent omu mu

to m u rm u r ; F ij ian n omo n omo n omo to be silent ;

C hili an nomn
Q u ich e mem m u te
t o be silent ;

whence memer to become m u te ; Q u ich u a a mu d u mb

silent a mu lli n i to have something in the mo u th a mu l

la y a eu n i si mi eta
to m u tte r to gr u mble
The gr o u p

represented by S anskrit sh ame the so u n d of spitting

P ersian th u h er d a n (make th u ) to spit G reek r r um may

be compared with C hi n ook ma moole toh tooh ( make toh
tooh ) ; C hilian tu v
cutu n
t
u v; Tahitian tu tu a
make
G alla
(
)
i wu ; Y or u ba tu
A mong the S anskrit verb roots none

carries its imitative nat u re more plainly than lesh u t o

sneeze ; the following analogo u s forms are from S o u th
A merica zC hilian echi u n
Q u ich u a a eh h i n i and from
vario u s lang u ages Of B razilian tribes teeh a a i h a i tseh u
a teh i a n n a tseh u n
a r i ti seh u n e & c
A nother imitative verb
is well sho wn in the N egro E nglish dialect of S u rinam

n am
to eat ( pron n y a m) nja m uj a m foo d ( en hem
g
nj a nj a m ben
de spri n kh an nanga boesi honi
an d his
meat was loc u sts and wild
In A u stralia the

a ng
imitative verb to eat reappears as g n a m
In A frica

the S u s u lang u age has n i mn i m to taste and a simila r

formation is observed in the Z u l u n a mbi tu to smack the

lips after eating or tasting and the n ce to be tastef u l to be
pleasant to the mind
This is an excellent instance o f the
transition of mere imitative so u nd to the expression o f
mental emotion and it cor r esponds with the imitative way
i n which the Y akama la n g u age in speaking of little chi l d r e n
,

'

S ee

W e dg woo d

Dic

s.

v
.

I nu m ,

&c

EM OTI ONAL AND I M I TATI V E LANG UAG E

20 6

pe t a nimals exp r es s e s the verb to lo v e as ne m no sh a

I n m o re civilized co u n t ries these forms
( t o make u m
are m o stly co n n ed t o baby la n g u age The C hinese child s
word fo r eati n g is 7 m m i n E n glish n u rse ries n i ne is no ticed
a s answe ri n g the sa m e p u r pose and the S wedish dictionary

e v en recognizes ua mrm m a tid bi t

A s fo r imitative na mes o f animals derived f r om their cries
o r n oises they are to be met with in eve r y lang u age from

the A u stralia n t u on le frog the Yakama r ol r ol lark to

the C o ptic eei o ass the C hi n ese m a ou cat and t h e

E nglish c u e/coo and p eewi t Thei r ge n e r al principle o f
fo r mation being ack n owledged their f u rther philological
interes t t u rns mostly o n cases where corresponding words
have th u s been formed i n dependently in distant regions
and those where the imitative name of th e creat u r e o r its
habit u al so u nd passes to express some new idea s u ggested
by its character The S anskrit name o f the halca c r ow re
appears in the name of a sim ilar bird in B ritish C ol u mbia
the la th halt a y is called by the natives of A u stralia a
y
bu mberoo
li ke S ansk r it ba mbh a r ei li
G reek op
A nalogo u s to the name of the
BIJN o g and o u r bu m ble bee
tse tse y the terror o f A frican trave l lers is n ts i n ts i the
y
word fo r
amo n g the B as u tos which also by a simple

metapho r serves to express the idea o f a parasite

Mr
H W B a t e s s description seems to settle the disp u te
among nat u ralists whether the tou ca n had its n ame from
its cry o r n o t H e speaks o f its lo u d sh r ill yelping c r ies

ha v ing a vag u e resembla n ce to the syllables l ocan o toean o

and hence the Indian name of this gen u s of birds
G rantin g this we can trace this so u nd word into a very
new mean i ng ; fo r it appears that the bi r d s monstro u s bill
has s u ggested a name for a certai n large nosed tribe o f
1
Indians who are acco r dingly called the Tu ca n os
The
cock gallo gu i gu i r i gu i as the S panish n u rsery lang u age
call s h i m has a lo n g list o f n ames from v ario u s lang u ages
or

'

'

B a t es

E th

N a tu ra li s t on t h e
vol
p 1 43
.

A ma z on s

2n d

cd p
.

4 04

M rk h
a

m in

Tr

NA M ES OF AN I M ALS

20 7

which in vario u s ways imitate his c r owing ; in Y or u ba h e

is called h olelo in I b o okoleo a lcolea in Z u l u leu leu in F in
n ish h u leleo
in S ansk ri t ku hku ta and so o n H e is me n
t i o n e d i n the Zend A vesta in a very c u rio u s way by a
name which elaborately imitates his cry b u t which the
ancient P ersians seem to have held disrespectf u l to their
holy bird who ro u ses men from slee p to good tho u ght
word an d work
,

Th e b i rd

p on

rs t h e n ame of ParOd ars O h o l y Z arath u s tra

w h om e v i l s p eaki n g m e n imp o s e th e n ame Ka hrlcata g
w h o b ea

The c ro w mg o f the cock ( M alay led lu r u lc hu hu k) serves to

mark a point of time cockc r ow O ther words originally
derived from s u ch imitation o f crowing have passed into
o ther c u rio u sly transfo r med meanings : O ld F rench coca r i

vain ; mode rn F rench cogu et S tr u tting like a cock

co u etti n
e
a
co
x
m
a
r
d
e
a
c
c
k
a
d
c
o
b
coc
o
q
(from its
g
li keness t o a cock s comb ) ; one of the best instances is
co u eli cot
a n ame give n fo r the same reason to the wild
q
poppy and even more distinctly i n L ang u edoc where
ca ea r a ea means both the crowing and the ower
The hen
in some lang u ages has a name corresponding to that o f the

cock as in Ku s sa leu ku du n a cock ku leu lea si hen ; E we

h oh lo tsu
cock h oh lo n o hen ; and her ca ckle ( whence
she has in S witzerland the name o f g ug el g i tgg el) has passed
i n to lang u age as a term for idle gossip and chatter of
women ca gu et ca q u eter g a elcer n m u ch as the n oise o f a
very di fferent creat u re seems to have given rise not only to
its name Italian ci ea la b u t to a gro u p o f words r epresented

by ci ca la r to chir p chatter talk sillily

The p i g eon is a
goo d example O f this kind both for so u nd and sense It is
L atin p ip i o Italian p ipp i on e p i cci on e p i g i on e modern
G reek 7 n 7 rlmo u F rench p ip i on ( O l d) p ig eon ; its de r i v ation
is from the yo u ng bird s p eep L atin p ip i r e Italian p ip i a r e
'
i
i
ola r e
modern G reek n i n t v
to chirp ; by an easy
cw
g
p

meta phor a p ig eon comes to mean a S illy yo u ng fellow

,

A v e s t a

ar

x v iii

34 5
-

20 8

EM OTI ON A L

I M ITATI V E LANG UAG E

AN D

easily ca u gh t to p ig eon to cheat Italian p ip i on e a s illy

g u ll one that is so o n ca u gh t and t r e panned pipp i on a r e

to pigeon t o g u ll one
In an e n tirely di ff e r ent family o f
lang u ages M r Wedgwood poi n ts o u t a c u rio u sly similar

process o f deri v atio n ; M agyar p ip eg n i p ip eln i to p eep

Or chee p ; p ip e p i poh a chicken gosli n g ; p ip e ember

1
The deri
( chicken man ) a silly yo u ng fellow booby
vation o f G reek 6 0 09 L atin bos Welsh bu from the o x s
lowing or boo i ng as it is called i n the n orth co u ntry has
been m u ch debated Wi th an excessive desire to mak e
S ansk r it answer as a gene r al I n d O E u ropea n type B opp
co n nected S anskrit g o O ld G erman eh u o E nglish cow with
these words on the u n u s u al and forced ass u mption o f a
?
change from g u tt u ral to labial
The direct derivation from
so u nd however is favo u red by other lang u ages C ochin
C hinese b0 H o ttento t bou The beast may almost answer
for himself in th e words Of that S panish proverb which
rema r ks that people talk accordi n g to their nat u re

H ablo e l b uey y dij o bu

The ox spoke and he
said boo
A mong m u sical instr u ments with imitative names are
the following the sh ee sh ee
gu oi the mystic rattle of the
R ed In dian medicine man an imitati ve word which re
appears in the D arien Indi an sh a h sh a le the sh ook sh ook
the C hinook sh ug h ( whence sh u g h op oots
o f the A rawaks
the dr u m call ed g a ng a in
i e
ra t t le t a il
H a u ssa g a ng a n in the Y or u ba co un try g u ng u ma by the
G allas and havi n g its analog u e in the E astern g ong
the
bell ca lled in Y akama ( N A mer ) hw a la l lewa la l in Y a l of
( W A fr ) w a lwa l in R u ssian kolokol The so u nd of the
horn is im itated i n E ng lish n u rseries as toot toot and this is

transferred to express the Omnib u s of which the b u gle is

the signal : with this n u rsery wo rd is t o be classed the

'

'

W ed g w oo d

Dic

v
.

ci on e

2
B o p p G l oss

s v gu
I n d o G erm

p i

g eon ;

Diez

E t ym

p i c

v
.

s.

v
.

o
g

P o tt

S ee

Z ah l me t h o d e ,

22 7

W urz e l W Ort erb

'

d er

M US I CAL INSTRU M ENTS

P er u vian name for the

20 9

shell t r u mpet p u t u tu a n d the

G othic th u th a u r n ( th u t horn ) which is e v e n u sed in the
G othic B ible fo r the last tr u mpet o f the day Of j u dgemen t

In sp di st i n t h u t h ai I rn a t h u t h aurn e i th a u k j ah d a ut h an s
u s t a n da n d
H ow s u ch imitative words
( 1 C or xv
when thoro u ghly taken u p into lang u age s u ffer cha n ge Of
pron u nciation in which the original so u nd m eaning is lost
may be seen in the E nglish word ta bor which we might
n o t recognize as a so u nd word at all did we n o t n otice that
it is F r ench ta bou r a word which in the for m ta mbou r O b
i o u s ly belongs to a gro u p of words fo r d r u ms extending
v
from the small rattli n g A rabic ta bl to the India n elu n d h u bi
and the tombe the M o qu i dr u m made o f a hollowed log
The same g r o u p shows the transfer o f s u ch i m itative words
to Obj ects which are like the instr u men t b u t ha v e n othing
to do with its so u n d ; few peo ple who talk of ta mbou r work
a n d fewer still who speak o f a footstool as a ta bou r et asso
ciate these words with the so u nd of a dr u m yet the c on
n e x i o n is clear eno u gh
When these two p rocesses go on
together and a so u nd word changes its original so u n d on
the o n e hand an d tra n sfe r s its meani n g to so m ethi n g else
on the other
the res u lt may soon leave philological an a
lysis qu ite helpless u n less by accident histo r ical eviden ce
is fo r thcomi n g
Th u s with the E nglish word p ip e
Pu tti n g aside the particu lar pron u nciation which we give
the word and referring it back to its medi aeval L ati n or
F ren ch so u n d in p ip a p ip e we have befo r e u s an e v ident
imitative name of a m u sical instr u ment derived from a
famili ar so u n d u sed also to represent the chir ping Of
chicke n s L atin p ip i r e E n g li sh to p eep as in the t r ans

lation o f Isaiah v iii 1 9 : S eek

u nto wizards that
ee
The A lgon qu in Indians appear
p p and that m u tter
to h ave formed f r om this so u n d p i b ( with a g r ammatical
e
s u f x ) their name for the p i b
N ow
g w u n o r n ative u te

j u st as tu ba tu bu s a tr u m pet ( itself very likely an

imitative word ) has given a n a m e for any kind of tu be
so the word p ip e has been tran sfer r ed f r o m the m u sical

E M OTI ONA L AN D I M I TAT I V E LANG U AG E

210

instr u men t to which it r s t belonged and is u sed to

d e s c ri b e t u bes o f vari o u s sorts gas pipes water pipes
and pi pes i n general The r e is n o thing u n u s u al in these
t ra nsitions o f meaning which are in fact rather the r u le
than the exception The eh i bou le was originally a he r ds
man s pi pe or u te in C entral A sia The ca lu met po pu
la rly ra n ked with the tomahawk and the mocassin among
characteristic R ed Indian words is only the name for a
shepherd s pi pe ( L atin ea la mu s ) in the dialect Of N ormandy
correspondi n g with the ch a lu mea u o f literary F rench ;
for when the ea r ly colonists in C anada saw the Indians

pe r forming the strange Operation o f smoking with a

h ollow piece of stone o r wood like a pipe as Jac qu es
C artier has it they merely gave to the native tobacco
pipe the n ame o f the F rench m u sical instr u ment it re
sembled N e w changes O f so u nd and of sense like this of
the E nglish word p ip e m u st have been in contin u al Opera
tion in h u ndreds o f lang u ages where we have no evidence to
follow them by and where we probably may never Obtain
s u ch evidence Bu t what little we do know m u st compel u s
t o do j u stice to the imitation O f so u nd as a really exis ting
process capable Of f u r nishi n g an inde n itely large s u pply o f
words for thi n gs and actions which have no necessary
co n n exion at all with that so u nd Where the traces of the
transfer are lost the res u lt is a stock Of words which are
the despair o f philologists b u t are perha ps none the less
tted for the practical u se Of men who simply want recog
n i z e d symbols for recognized ideas
The claim o f the E astern tomtom to have its name from a
mere imitation o f its so u nd seems an i ndisp u table on e ; b u t
when it is noticed in w hat vario u s lang u ages the beating of a
reso u nding obj ect is expressed by something like tu m tu mb
tu mp tup as in Java n tu mbu le C optic tmn o to po u nd in a
mortar it becomes evident that the admission involves
more tha n at rst sight ap p ears In M alay ti mp a ta mp a

is to beat o u t hammer fo rge ; in the C hinook Jargon

tu m tu m is the hea r t and by co m bini ng the sa m e so u nd

,

I M I TAT I V E WORD S

21 1

with the E nglish wo r d water a name is made for

wate r fall tu m w ata The G allas of E ast A frica decla r e

that a box on the ear see m s to them to make a noise li ke

tu b for they call its so u n d tu bdj eola that is

to say tu b

In the same lang u age tu ma is to beat whence tu m tu a

wo r kman especially on e w h o beats a s m ith
With the

aid of another i m itati v e wo r d buf a to blow the G allas

can constr u ct this wholly imitati v e sentence tu mtu n buf a

buf t i
the s m ith blows the bellows as a n E n glish

child might say the tu mtu m p us the p ug er

This
i m itative so u nd seems to have obtained a footi n g among the

A rya n verb roots as in S anskrit tup tu bh to smite while

in G reek tup tu mp has the mea n ing o f to beat to

th u mp
prod u ci n g for i n stance w in n e r0 V ty mp a nu m a
dr u m o r tom tom A gain the verb to or a cle has become in
modern E nglish as tho r o u gh a r oot word as the lang u age
possesses The mere imitatio n o f the so u n d o f breaki n g
has passed i n to a verb to break ; we S peak O f a cr a cked c u p
or a cr a cked rep u tation witho u t a tho u ght o f imitatio n Of
so u n d ; b u t we ca n not yet u se the G erman h ra ch en or
F rench cr a q u er in this way fo r they have not de v eloped in
meaning as o u r word has b u t re m ai n i n their p u r ely i m ita
tive stage There a r e two correspo n di n g S a n skr i t words

fo r the saw h r a lea r a hr a lca ch a that is to say the ler a

maker ler a
crier ; and it is to be Observed that all s u ch
te r ms which expressly state that they are i m itatio n s O f
so u nd are pa r tic u larly val u able evide n ce i n these e n qu i r ies
for whatever d o u bt the r e may be as to o ther words bei n g
r eally derived from imitative so u nd the r e c a n of co u rse be
none he r e M o r eo v er the r e is evide n ce of the same so u nd
having given rise t o imitative wo r ds i n othe r families of

lang u age D ahoman lera ler a a watch m a n s rattle ; G rebo

a saw ; A ino ch a ch a to saw ; M alay g r aj i a

g r i led

saw ka r a t to gnash the teeth lea r ot to make a g r a ti ng

noise ; C o ptic leh r ij to gnash the teeth hh r aj r ej to

A no the r for m of the imitation is given i n the
g r a te

descri ptive G alla exp r ession ca ca ledj eola i e

to say

EM OT I ONA L AN D I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

212

to c re ole lem eh en
With this so u nd corresponds
a w hole family o f P er u vian w o r ds of which the root seems
to b e t h e g u tt u r al em c o mi n g f r om fa r back in the throat ;

rea l/u n i
to
b r eak rmr/a /a n i
g n ash the teeth
to

re m m
t lm n d e r
and th e expressi v e word fo r a th u n
g
der st o r m rea rea eca h a y which carries the imitative process
so m u ch fa r ther tha n s u ch E u ropean words as th u nder clap

don n er lrlap /Z In M aori p a l a is to p a tter as water drop

pi n g d r o ps o f rai n
The M anch u la n g u age describes the
noise of f r u its falling f r om t h e trees as p a ta p a i n ( so H ind u
sta n i bh a dbh a d ) ; this is like o u r word pa t a n d we sho u ld
say in the same manner that the fr u it comes p a ltcr i ng
down while F rench p a ta tr a is a recognized imitation Of

something falling
C optic p otp t is to fall and the
A u stralian ba d ba di n ( or p a tp a ti n ) is translated into almost
lite r al E nglish as p i tp a tti ng O n the strength Of s u ch non
A rya n lang u ages are we to assign an imitative origin

to the S anskrit verb root p a t to fall and to G reek

win

w?

Wishing rather to gain a clear s u rvey Of the principles o f

lang u age maki n g than to pl u n ge into obsc u re p r oblems it is
no t necessary for me to disc u ss here q u estions of intricate
detail The point which conti n u ally a r ises is this gra n ted
that a particu la r ki n d o f t r a n sition f r om so u n d to sense is
possible in the abstract may it be safely claimed i n a parti
c u l ar case ?
In looking th r o u gh the vocab u la r ies of t h e
world it appears that most lang u ages offe r wo r ds which by
obvio u s li keliness or by their correspondence with similar
fo r ms elsewhere m ay p u t forward a tolerable claim to be
conside r ed imitative
S o m e la n g u ages as A ztec o r
M ohawk O ffer sing u larly few examples while i n others
they are m u ch more n u mero u s
Take A u strali an cases :

w a lle
to wa i l
th u nder ; wi rr i ti to
bu ng bu ng w een

blow as wind ; w i rr i rr i ti to storm r age as in g h t ;

w i rr i
bw i r r i
the native th r owi n g cl u b seemingly so

called from its wh i r thro u gh the air ; ku r a rr i ti to h u m

leurr i rr u r r i r i
b u zz
ro u nd abo u t u nintelligible & c ;
-

I M ITATI VE WORDS
a ta
i
t
p

to k n ock pelt as r ain

w i i ti
to la u gh re j oice a S in
Tottenham
,

!
W e te h e

Y e

i
t
a i ta ta
p
p

711
(111 0 1

213

Tyb

and

to k n ock ;

Tu rn a m e n t

ow n

ou r

of

1113 1

d u g h t y m an

er a

The S O called C hinook Ja r gon of B ritish C ol u mbia is a

la n g u age c r owded with imitative wo r ds so m eti m es adopted
from the native I n dian la n g u ages sometimes made on the
spot by the co m bi n ed e ffo r ts o f the white man and the
Indian to make o n e a n othe r u nde r sta n d S a mples o f its

qu ality are h oh h oh to co u gh led k0 to knock h w a

la l lewa la l
to gallop mu ele a mu ck to eat ch a le
ch a le

the bald eagle ( f r om its scream ) ma moolc tsi sh ( make

tsi sh )
to sha r pe n on the grindstone
It has been
r emarked by P r of M ax M uller that the pecu liar so u nd
m ade i n blowi n g o u t a candle is n o t a favo u rite i n ci v ilized
lang u ages b u t it seems to be recognized he r e fo r n o do u bt
it is what the compile r o f the vocab u lary is doi n g his best
to write dow n when he gives ma moole p oh ( make p oh ) as the

C hinook ex pressio n fo r to blow o u t or exting u ish as a

ca n dle
This j argo n is in great meas u r e Of new g r owth
within the last se v en ty or eighty yea r s b u t its imitative
wo r ds do n o t di ffer i n nat u re from those of the more
ordi n ary and old established lang u ages o f the world Th u s
a m ong B r azilian tribes the r e appear T u pi cer or o ng cu r u ru c

to sno r e ( com pa r e C optic kh er leh er Q u ich u a ccor cu n i

n i m itation o f a s n ore may
a
whence
it
appears
that
c
oo
r
(
)

n dia n s to ex ress
a
e
r
haps
serve
the
C
ara
j
s
I
to sleep as
p
p

a rou r ou cr e
as well as the related idea of n ight r oon

A gain P imen teira eba u ng to br u ise beat compa r es with

Y o r u ba g ba to slap g ba (gba n g ) to so u n d lo u dly to

ba ng
A mong A f r ica n la n g u ages the Z u l u
a n d so forth
seems particu larly rich in imitative wo r ds Th u s bi bi z a
t o d r ibble like child r e n d r ivel in speaki n g
( compa r e
E n glish bi b) ; ba ba la the larger b u sh a n telo pe ( f r om the

ba a o f the female ) ; boba

t o ba bble chatter be n oisy

a ba bbler ; bobon i a th r ostle ( cries bo ! bo ! c om

bobi
-

EM OT I ON A L AN D I M I TAT I V E LANG UAG E

2 14

pare A me r ican bobol i n /r) ; bwn boloz o

to r u mble in the

bowels t o ha v e a b o wel c o m plai n t ; ba ba la t O bu z z like

bees bu b u te /a
a s wa r m O f bees a b u zzi n g c r owd of

people ; bu bu l u m to make a bl u ste r i n g n o ise like f r o th

These examples from amo n g
i n g bee r o r boili n g fat
those given u nder o n e initial letter i n on e dictio n ary o f on e
barba r ic la n g u age may g i ve an idea o f the amo u n t of the
evide n ce f r o m the la n g u ages o f the lower races bea r ing o n
the prese n t p r oblem
F o r the p r ese n t p u rpose o f giving a brief series o f ex
a m ples o f the sort of wo r ds in which imitative so u n d seems
fai r ly t r aceable the strongest and most manageable evidence
is o f co u r se fo u nd among s u ch wo r ds as directly describe
so u nds o r what prod u ces them s u ch as cries o f and
na mes for animals the terms fo r action accompanied by
so u nd and the materials an d obj ects so acted u pon In
f u rther investigation it becomes more and more re qu isite
to isolate the so u nd type o r root from the modi cations
and addi tions to which it has been s u bj ected for gram
It will serve to give
ma t i c al and phonetical adaptation
an idea o f the extent and intricacy o f this problem to
glance at a gro u p o f words in o n e E u ropean lang u age
and notice the etymological network which spreads ro und
the G erman word lelapf in G rimm s di ctionary lelap
a
en
m
hl
kl
i
er n
kl
a m er n
en
l
elopf en
l
a
li
k
t
er en
k
en

p
p
p
p
p
h la tz en
kla cken
h li tteren
and more to be
leloter en
matched with allied forms in other lang u ages
S etting
aside the consideration o f g r ammatical i n e xi on it b e
longs to the present s u bj ect to notice that man s imita
tive fac u lty in lang u age is by no means l imited to making
di rect copies o f so un d and shaping the m into wo r ds It
seizes u po n ready made terms o f whatever o r igin alte r s
them to make their so un d tting to their
a n d adapts
sense and po u rs into the di ctionaries a ood o f adapted
words Of which the most di f c u lt to analyse are those
which a r e n either altogethe r etymological n or altogether
imitative b u t partly both H ow words while preservi n g
,

M OD IFICATI ON OF SOUNDS

215

so to speak the same skeleton may be made to follow

the variation o f so u nd o f force of d u r ation Of size
an imitative gro u p more o r less connected with the
last will show cr i ch cr ed le cr a ck cr a sh cru sh cr u nch
cr a u n ch
scr a u n ch
It does not at all follow
scr u n ch
that beca u se a word s u ffers s u ch imitative and symbolic
changes it m u st be like this di rectly imitative in its
origi n What for instance co u ld so u nd more imitative
than the name of that old fashio n ed cannon for throwing
grape shot the p a tter er o ? Y et the etymology o f the wo r d
appears in the S panish form p edr er o F rench p err i er ; it
means S imply an instr u ment fo r throwi n g stones (p i edr a
i
er r e
p
) and it was only when the S panish word was adopted
i n E ngla n d that the imitative fac u lty ca u ght and trans
formed it i n to an apparent so u nd word resembling the verb
to p a tter The propensity o f lang u age especially in sla n g
to make sense of strange words by altering them into
something with an appro priate meaning has been Often
dwelt u pon by philologists b u t the prope n sity t o alter words
into something with an a ppropriate so u nd has prod u ced
res u lts immensely more important The e ffects Of symbolic
change o f so u nd acting u pon verb roots seem a l most bo u nd
less The verb to wa d d le has a strong imitative appearance
and so in G erman we c an hardly resist the s u ggestion
that imitative so u nd has to do with t h e di fference between
wa n d er n and w a n d eln
b u t all these verbs belong to a
a d to go L atin v
a d o an d to
family represented by S anskrit v
this root there seems no s u f cient gro u nd for assigni n g an
imitative origin the traces o f which it has at any rate lost
if it ever had them Th u s again to s ta mp with the foot
which has been clai me d as an imitation of so u nd seems only

a colo u red word

The root sta to stand S anskrit

s thd forms a ca u sative s tap

S anskrit s th dp a y to ma ke t o
stand E ngli sh to s tep and a foot step is when the foot
comes to a stand a foot stop Bu t we have A nglo S axon
s ta a n
s
t
ee a n
s te
an
li
s
t
e
E
ng
sh
to
p
p
pp
p varying to exp r ess
its meaning by so u nd in to sta up to s ta mp t o stu mp and
,

EM OTI ONAL AND I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

2 16

c o ntrasting i n thei r viole n ce o r cl u msy weigh t

with the fo o t o n t h e D o r s e t c o ttage sill i n B arnes s
s to

to

mp

o e nI :
p

W h e re
\Vi

sl

l ove

ip s tep
-

s e e k t h e ma i d e n s e v
e n en v
l oo r
l ig h t a n t i p t a p s l i g h t
A g c a n t h e d o or

do

expanding modifying o r so to speak colo u ring so u nd

is able to p rod u ce e ffects cl o sely like those of gest u re
lang u age ex pressing length or shortness of ti m e strength
or weak n ess o f action and then passing into a f u rther stage
to desc r ibe g r eatness or small n ess o f size or o f distance
a n d thence maki n g its way into the widest elds o f metaphor
A nd i t does all this with a force which is s u rprisi n g whe n
we consider how childishly simple a r e the means employed
Th u s th e B a c h api n o f A frica call a man with the c r y h ela !
b u t according as he is fa r o r farthe r Off the so u nd o f the

h cla
h e e la ! is lengthened o u t
M r M acgregor i n his

R ob R oy on the Jo r dan g r aphically describes this method

Of exp r ession
Bu t where is Z almou da ?
Then
with r o u gh eage r n ess the st r ongest of the D ow a n a faction
p u shes his long fore nger forwa r d pointing st r aight eno u gh

ah a
b u t whither ? an d with a v olley Of words ends A h
a a
a a
This strange expressio n had long before
p u zzled m e when r st heard from a shepherd in B ashan

Bu t the s i mple meaning of this long string of a h s

sho r te n ed an d q u icke n ed a n d lowered i n tone to the e n d

is me r ely that the place pointed to is a very great way

The C hinook Jargo n as u s u al represe n ting p rimitive
o ff
de v elopme n ts o f lang u age u ses a simila r device in lengthen
ing t h e so u n d o f words to indicate di stance The S iamese
can by va r y i ng the tone accen t make the syllable n on

the r e ex press a near inde nite or far di stance and in

li ke man n er can modi fy the meaning o f s u ch a word as n y

I n the G aboon the strength with which s u ch a

little

word as mp olu great is u ttered se r ves to S how whether

it is great very great o r very very g r eat an d in this way

as M r Wilson remarks in his M pongwe G rammar the

By

'

M ODI FI CAT I ON OF SOUNDS

217

comparative degrees of greatness smallness ha r dness

rapidity and strength & c may be conveyed with mo r e
acc u racy and precision than co u ld readily be conceived

In M adagascar r a tch i mea n s bad b u t r atch i is very

bad
The natives o f A u stralia according to O ld eld
show the u s e O f this process i n combinatio n with that of
symbolic red u plication : among the W a t ch an di e tribe j i r
ri e

sign i es already or past j i r r i e j i r r i e indicates a long

r ri e
time ago while j i e
j i r r i e ( the rst syllable bei n g

dwelt on for some time ) signi es an immense time ag o

A gain boo r i e is S m all boo r i e boo r i e very small and

b o r i e boor i e exceedingly small

Wilhelm v
on H u mboldt
notices the habit of the so u thern G u a r ani dialect of S Ou t h
A merica o f dwelling m ore or less time on the s u f x of the
ma to indicate the length or S hort
perfect tense y ma y
n e ss of the distance o f time at which the action took place ;
and it is c u r io u s to observe that a s i milar contrivance is
made u se Of among the aboriginal tribes Of India where the
H O lang u age forms a f u t u re tense by addi n g a to the root
and prolonging its so u nd leaj ee to speak A mg leaj eea

I will speak
A s might be expected the lang u ages of
ve r y r u de tribes show extremely well how the res u lts o f
s u ch primitive processes pass into the recognized stock o f
lang u age N othi n g co u ld be better for this than the words
by which on e of the r u dest Of living races the B otoc u dos of
B razil exp r ess the sea They have a word for a stream
i i
ou a tou
a n d an adj ective which m eans great
g pa higi ou ;

thence the two words stream great a little stren gthened

in the vowels will give the term for a river ou a tou

ij i i pa ki i i gou
S tream grea a t
as it were
and this to
express the immensity of the ocean is a m pli ed into ou a tou
ou
i i j i pa lci i j ou ou ou ou ou
A nother tribe of the same
famil y works ou t the same res u lt more S imply ; the word

ou a tou
stream becomes ou a tou ou ou ou the sea
The
C havantes very nat u rally stretch the ex pressio n r om o w od i

I g o a long way into r om o o o o w odi I go a very

long way indeed an d when they are called u pon to co u nt
,

'

'

EM OTI ONA L AND I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

2 18

olci by which they evidently

beyond v
e they say i t is lea o o
mean i t is a v e ry g rea t many
The C a u i xa n a s in o n e
vocab u lary a r e desc r ibed as saying la wa nu g a bi for fo u r and

drawli n g o u t the same word fo r ve as if t o say a long

fo u r i n somewhat the same way as the A po n eg i c ran s
whose word for six is i l a w u n a can expand this into a word

fo r se v e n i ta w u u n a Obvio u sly th u s meaning a lo n g six

In thei r ea r lier and S impler stages nothi n g can be mo r e
easy to co mprehe n d than these s o to speak pictorial
modi cations o f words It is tr u e that w riting even with
the aid o f i ta lics an d capitals ignores m u ch o f this sym
holism in spoken la n g u age b u t every child can see its u se
and meaning in spite Of the efforts of book learning and
school teaching to set aside W hatever canno t be expressed
by the ir imperfect symbols n or controlled by their narrow
r u les Bu t when we try to follow o u t to their f u ll res u lts
these metho ds at r st S O easy to trace an d appreciate we
soon nd them passing ou t o f ou r grasp The lang u age of
the S ahaptin Indians shows u s a process o f modifying
words which is far from clear an d yet n o t u tterly Obsc u re
These Indians have a way o f making a kind of dis r espectf u l
di min u tive by changing the n in a word to l ; th u s twi n wt
means taill ess b u t to indicate particular smallness or to
express contempt they make this into twi lw t prono unced
with an appropriate change of tone ; an d again wa n a means
river b u t this is made into a dimin u ti v
e w a la by chang
ing n in to l giving the voice a di fferent tone p u tting the
lips o u t in speaki n g and keeping them s u spe n ded aro un d
the j aw
H ere we a r e told eno u gh abo u t the change O f
pron u nciation to g u ess at least how i t co u l d convey the
notions of smallness and contempt Bu t it is less easy to
fo l low the process by which the M pongwe lang u age t u rns
an af r mative into a negative verb by an intonation u pon
tond a to love ton d a
o r prolongation o f the ra di cal vowel
not to love ; ten d o to be loved tgn d o not to be loved S O

Y or u ba baba a great thing baba a small thi n g c o n

B a ba b o ba ba molle
A g reat
t ra s t e d in a proverb
-

RED UPL I CAT I ON

219

matter p u ts a smaller o u t of S ight

L a n g u age is in fact
f u ll Of phonetic modi cations which j u stify a s u s picion that
symbolic so u nd had to do with their p r o d u ction tho u gh it
may be hard to say exactly how
A gain there is the familiar process of red u plication simple
or modi ed which pro d u ces s u ch forms as mu r mu r p i tp a t
This action tho u gh m u ch restricted in literary
h elter sleelter
di alects has s u ch immense scope in the talk o f children
1
and savages that P rofessor P ott s treatise on i t has become
incidentally on e of the most val u able collections of facts ever
made with relation to early stages of lang u age N o w u p to a
ce r tain point any child can see h o w and why s u ch do u bli ng is
done and how it always adds something to the origin al idea
It may make s u perlatives or otherwise intensify words as in

P olynesia loa long lololoa ve r y long ; M andingo d i ng

a child di ng d i ng a very little child

It m akes pl u rals

as M alay r aga r aga princes or a ng or a ng people

It

adds n u merals as M os qu ito w a lwa l fo u r (t w o two ) or

di strib u tes them as C optic ou a i ou a i S ingly ( on e on e )

These are cases where the motive of do u bling is comparatively
easy to make o u t A s an example o f cases m u ch more di f
c u lt t o comprehend may be taken the familiar red u plication
G reek y e y p a qsa from y p q w L atin
o f the perfect tense
momor d i from mor d eo G othic h a i h a ld from h a ld a n
to
hold
R ed u plication is habit u ally u sed in imitative words
to i ntensify them and still more t o S how that the so u nd is
repeated or contin u o u s F rom the immense mass o f s u ch
h ou
words we may take as instances the B otoc u do h ou h ou

lei a ku
t o s u ck ( compare Tongan h nh n breast
g i tch a

leach leach
a b u tter y
Q u ich u a ehi u i u i u i ni ch i wind

whistlin g in the trees ; M ao r i h a r u r u noise Of wind ;

h oh oro
h u rry
D ayak lea ka lclea lca to go on la u ghi n g

lo u d ; A ino sh i r i u shi r i u lea n n i a rasp ; Tamil mu r u mu r u

o mu r mu
r ;
A kra ew i ewi ewi ewi e he spoke repeatedl y
t

P o tt D o pp e l un g ( R ed u pl i c a t i on G emi n a t i on ) als e in e s d er wi chti g s t en

B i ld ung s mi tte l d er S pra ch e 1 8 6 2 Fre q ue n t u se h as b e en h ere ma d e o f
th is w ork
1

EM OTI ONA L

220

I M IT ATI V E LANG UAG E

AN D

c o ntin u ally ; and s o o n th r o u gho u t the whole range o f

the la n g u age s o f t h e w o rld
Th e d e vi c e o f c o n v e y i n g di ffere n t ideas of dis tance by the
u s e o f a g r ad u ated scale o f v o wels see m s to me o n e o f great
phil o logical i n te r es t fr o m t h e s u ggesti v
e hi n t i t gives o f the
proceedi n gs o f the lang u age m ake r s in m ost distant regions
o f the wo rld wo rking o u t in v ario u s ways a si m ilar i n ge n io u s
cont r ivance o f expression by so u nd
A typical series is

the Javan : i lei this ( close by ) ; i lea that ( at some

distance ) ; i k a that ( farther o ff )

It is n o t likely that
the following lis t nearly exha u sts the whole n u mber o f cases
in the lang u ages o f the world for abo u t half the n u mbe r
have been incidentally no ted down by myself witho u t any
especial search b u t merely in the co u rse of looking over
1
vocab u laries o f the lower races
an d

th i s i ha th a t (i n te rme d ia t e ) i lcu th a t
th e re (a t a s h o r t d i s tan c e ) ; cc th ere (at a
a0
s h o rt e r d i s ta n c e) i a th e re ( c l o s e a t h a n d )
th e re (n o t far O ff ) ci sy th e re (n ea re r) ;
a tsy
i tsy th i s o r th e s e
k0 h e r e lea th e r e
kor era th e s e lea rera th e y ( th o s e )
a r a nu
a n u th i s
uv
iv
a n u th a t (i n t e rme d ia t e )
th at
i th i s d th a t
i h th i s ah th a t
i sh o i ta h e re u sh o u ta th e re
i ti id ong th i s ; u ti u dong th a t [of t h i n g s an d
p e rs on s re s p e c ti v e l y ]
a bri th i s
u bri th a t
a m h ere
wm th e re
ez th i s
a z th a t
a a h e re
ap o th e r e
p
th at
lesi leso lesi g a a bu a bo a bu ya
th a t (i n t h e d i s ta n c e )

Ja v a n

i lei ,

Ma l ag a s y

Jap an e s e

C an ar e s e

T amul

Raj mah ali

D h i ma l

A b c h as i an

O ss e ti c

Mag y ar

Z ulu

th ori t i e s s ee e s p e c i al ly P o tt D o pp el un g p 3 0 4 7 4 9 W v

n
H u mb old t K a wi Spr vol ii p 3 6 ; Ma x M ul l er i n B u n s e
P h i l os o f

2
p 3 9 ; L a th am C omp P h i l p 2 0 0 ; an d t h e g ram
ol i
U n i v H is t v
ma rs an d di cti on ari e s o f t h e p art i c u l ar l a n g uag e s
Th e G u ara n i a n d C ari b
ol ii
p 2 6 8 ; D h i ma l
o n a u th ori t y o f D O rb i g ny
L H omme A m ri c a i n v
A b or o f I n d i a p 6 9 7 9 1 1 5 C o l v i ll e I n d O f W i l s on i n
o f H o d s on
;
g
Tr E th S oc v
ol i v p 3 3 1
B ot o c u d o o f Mart ins G l o ss Brasi l
1

F or

au

GRADUATION OF VOWELS
Y o ru

22 1

thi s m t h a t
o le t h a t
olo t hi s
re t hi s
m t h at
I n g o t h o u n gu h e
m2 h er e t h e r e ( w h er e on e p o i n t s
u p t h er e [f o u n d i n
a xa t hi s
i n , th at
ki n a h e re Im ma t h er e
me h e re m e t h er e
th e h er e
a be t h e re
n de n a th o u
n dz m h e
a ti I
ott t h o u y ou ( p r ep ) t o
n a tho u
m! h e
tv
a v
a chi t hi s
eychi t h a t
tv
ey v

ba

n ot,

F e r nan d ian

T u ma l e

G ree n l an d i s h

T a r ah u ma r a
G u a r an i
B o t o c ud o
C ar i b
C hili an

t h er e

M ut s u n

7312,

S a h ap t i n

to)

S uj e lpa ( C o l v ill e

'

I t i s o b v i o u s o n in s pe c ti o n of thi s li s t of p ro n o u n s a n d
adv e r b s th a t the y h av e in so me way co m e t o h av e the i r
vow el s co nt ras te d t o m a t c h the co nt ras t of he r e a n d the r e
thi s a n d th a t A cc i d en t m ay so m etime s acco u nt for s u c h
cas e s F or in s t a n c e it i s w ell kn own t o phil o l o gi s t s th a t
o u r o w n thi s a n d th a t ar e p ro n o u n s p ar tl y d i s tin c t in thei r
for m a ti o n tin s being p ro b a bl y t wo p ro n o u n s r u n t o gethe r

b u t y et the D u t c h ne u te rs di t thi s a n d d a t th a t h av e
t a ken the a ppe ara n c e o f a s ingle for m w ith co n t ras te d
1
vow el s B u t acci d ent ca n n o t acco u n t for the fr eq u en cy o f
s u c h words in p a i rs an d e v e n in s et s of th r ee in s o m a n y
d i ffe r ent l a ng u a ge s The r e m u s t h av e bee n so me co mm o n
intenti o n a t wor k a n d the r e i s e v i d en c e th a t so me o f the s e
l a n g u a ge s do r e sor t t o a c h a nge o f so u n d as a me a n s of e x
p r e ss i ng c h a nge o i d i s t a n c e Th u s the l a ng u a ge o f F e r n a n do

P o ca n n o t o n l y e x p r e ss thi s a n d th a t b y 0 l0 ole b u t it
ca n e v en m a ke a c h a nge o f th e p ro n u n c i a ti o n o f the vow el

d i s ting u i s h bet w een 0 boeh e thi s m o nth a n d oh boeh e th a t

m o nth In the sa me way the G r eb o ca n m a k e the d i ffe r e n c e

bet w een I a n d th o u
w e a n d y o u so lel y by the
int on a ti o n o f the vo i c e w hi c h the n a l It of the s e co n d
pe rso n s m ath a n d ti lt i s i n ten d e d t o e x p r e ss
,

di I
di we

md
'

(2

md h

ea t

e at

; ah

di

d i th o u e a te s t ;
,

A l s O ld H i gh G er m
o

ye
an

e at .

diz

an d

da z

E M OT I O N A L A N D I M I TAT I V E LANG UA G E

222

The s e t o f Z u l u d em o n s t ra ti v e s w hi c h e x p r e ss the th r ee
d i s t a n c e s of ne ar far t he r far the s t ar e v e ry co mple x b u t a
r emark as t o thei r u s e s h o ws h ow th oro u ghl y sy mb o li c
so u n d ente rs in t o thei r n a t u r e The Z u l u s n o t o nl y say

n a ns i
he r e i s
the r e i s n a m i g a the r e i s in
the d i s t a n c e b u t the y e v en e x p r e ss the g r e a tne ss o f thi s
d i s t a n c e by the e mph as i s a n d p ro l o ng a ti o n o f the y a I f w e
co u l d d i sc e r n a s imil ar g rada ti o n o f the vow el s t o e x p r e ss a
corr e s p o n d i n g g rada ti o n o f d i s t a n c e th ro u gh o u t o u r li s t the
w h o le m a tte r wo u l d be e as ie r t o e x pl a in ; b u t it i s n o t so
the i words fo r in s t a n c e ar e so metime s ne ar e r a n d so me
time s far the r o ff th a n the a words We ca n o nl y j u dge th a t
as e v en c hil dr en ca n s ee th a t a sca le o f vow el s m a ke s a m os t
e x p r e ss i v e sca le o f d i s t a n c e s m a n y p ro n o u n s a n d adv e r b s in
u s e in the wor l d h av e p ro b a bl y t a ken thei r s h a pe u n d e r the
i n u en c e o f thi s s imple d e v i c e a n d th u s the r e h av e ar i s en

s et s of w h a t w e m ay ca ll co nt ras te d or di ffe r enti a l

,

words
H ow the di ffe r en c ing o f words b y c h a nge of vow el s m ay
be u s e d t o d i s tin g u i s h bet w een the s e x e s i s w ell p u t in

a r em ar k o f P rof e ssor M ax M ulle r s : The di s tin c ti o n

o f gen d e r
i s so m eti m e s e x p r e ss e d in s u c h a m a n n e r
th a t w e ca n o nl y e x pl a in it b y ascr ibin g a n e x p r e ss i v e
U kko
p ow e r t o the m or e or le ss o b sc u r e so u n d of vow el s
in F inni c i s a n old m a n ; a kka a n o ld wo m a n
In
M an d sh u h a ch a i s m as
Lech e
f emin a A g a in 0m m
c/
in M a n d sh u i s fa the r ; eme m o the r ; a mob a fa the r i n l aw
emch e
m o the r i n la w
The C ore t i i l a ng u age of B ra zil
h as a n o the r cu r i o u s l y co nt ras te d p a i r of words tsd a cko

fa the r tsa a cko m o the r w hile the Car ib h as ba ba

for fa the r a n d MM for m o the r a n d the Ib u of A fri ca h as
mm for fa the r a n d mm for m o the r
Thi s co nt r i va n c e of
di s ting ui s hing the m a le fro m th e f em a le b y a di ffe r en c e of
vow el s i s h ow e v e r b u t a s m a ll p ar t o f th e p roc e ss o f for
m a ti o n w hi c h c an be t rac e d a m o ng s u c h words as th os e
fo r fa the r a n d m o the r
Thei r co n s i d e ra ti o n le ads int o
.

'

'

Max

M uller

o.

CHILDREN S LAN GUAGE

22 3

a v e ry inte r e s ting phil o l o gi ca l r egi o n th a t of C hil dr en s

L a ng u a ge
I f w e s et dow n a f e w o f the p a i rs of words w hi c h s t a n d

for fa the r a n d m o the r i n v e ry d i ffe r ent a n d d i s t a nt

l a n gu a ge s p ap a a n d ma ma ; Wel s h ta d (d a d ) a n d ma m
H u ng ar i a n a ty a a n d a n y a M a n d ing o f a a n d 6a ; L u mmi
a a
N
A
me
r
i
ca
m
a
n
a
n
d
t
a
n
Ca
t
o
q
u
in
a
S
A
me
r
i
ca
;
) p p
(
(
)
a n d n a ya W a t ch a n di e (A u s t ra li a ) a mo a n d ag o t h ei r
co nt ras t s eem s t o lie in thei r co n so n a nt s w hile m a n y o the r
p a i rs di ff e r t o t a ll y like H eb r e w a b a n d tm ; K u ki p h a a n d
K aya n a ma y a n d mm ; T ara h u m ara 71 0 71 0 a n d j ej e
n oo ;
W ords of the c l ass of p ap a a n d ma ma occ u rr i ng l n r em o te
p ar t s of the wor l d w e r e o n c e fr eel y u s e d as e v i d en c e of a
co mm o n or igin of the l a ng u age s in w hi c h the y w e r e fo u n d

a like
B u t P rof e ssor B u sch man n s p a pe r on N a t u r e
S o u n d p u bli s he d in
e ffe c t u a ll y ov e r th r e w thi s
arg u ment a n d s ettle d the v ie w th a t s u c h co in c i d en c e s
migh t ar i s e a g a in a n d a g a in b y in d epen d ent p rod u c ti o n
It was c le ar l y o f n o u s e t o ar g u e th a t Car ib an d E ng li s h

w e r e a l l ie d be ca u s e the word p ap a fa the r bel o ng s t o

b o th or H o ttent o t a n d E ngli s h be ca u s e b o th u s e m a ma for

m o the r s eeing th a t the s e c hil d i s h ar ti c u l a ti o n s m ay be

fo r the C hili a n word fo r
u s e d in j u s t the o pp os ite way
m o the r i s p ap a a n d the Tl at sk an ai for fa the r i s m a ma

Y et the c h o i c e of e asy li ttle words for fa the r a n d

m o the r do e s n o t s eem t o h av e been q u ite in di scr imin a te

The immen s e li s t o f s u c h words co lle c te d b y B u sc hm a nn
s h ows th a t the t y pe s p a a n d ta w ith the s imil ar for m s ap

a n d a t p r ep o n d e ra te in the wor l d as n a me s for fa the r

w hile ma a n d ma a m a n d a n p r ep o n d e ra te as n a me s for

m o the r
H i s e x pl a n a ti o n o f thi s s t a te of thing s as
a ffe c te d b y di r e c t sy mb o li s m c h oos ing the h ard so u n d for the
fa the r a n d the gentle r for the m o the r h as v e ry likel y t r u th
in it b u t it m u s t n ot be p u s he d t oo far It ca nn o t be for

Bu s c h ma n n U e b er d en N a turl a ut Berl i n 1 8 5 3 ; a n d i n
A b h der K A k a d d W i s s e n sc h 1 8 5 2
A n E n gl i s h tr a n s i n P r o c P h i l o
l og ica l S o ci ety vol vi S ee D e Br oss es F o rm de s
vo l i p 2 1 1
1

EM O T I O N A L

224

AN D

I M I T AT I V E LA N G U A G E

in s t a n c e the sa me p ri n c iple o f sy m b o li s m w hi c h le ads the

W e ls lnn e n t o say ta d fo r fa the r a n d ma m for m o the r

a n d the I n d i a n o f B riti s h C o l u mbi a t o say ma a n fa the r

a n d ta a a m o t h e r o r the G e orgi a n t o say ma ma fa the r

a n d d a ta m o the r Y e t I h av e n o t s u cc ee d e d i n n d ing
a n yw he r e o u r fa mili ar p ap a a n d ma m a e xac tl y r e v e rs e d in
o ne a n d the sa me l a n g u a ge ; the ne ar e s t a pp roac h t o it
th a t I ca n gi v e i s fro m the i s l a n d o f M e a ng w he r e ma ma

1
me a nt fa the r m a n a n d ba ht m o the r wo m a n
Be t w een t h e n u rs e ry words p ap a a n d ma ma a n d the m or e
for m a l fa th er a n d moth er the r e i s a n o bv i o u s r e s embl a n c e in
so u n d Wh a t then i s the origin of the s e words fa th er a n d
moth er ? U p t o a c e r t a in p o int thei r hi s t ory i s c le ar
The y
bel o ng t o the sa me g ro u p of org a nize d words w ith r a ter a n d
m a tter p a ter a n d ma ter w a w fp a n d u w gp p i ta r a n d ma ta r a n d
o the r s imil ar for m s th ro u gh the In do E u ro pe a n fa mil y of
l a ng u a ge s The r e i s n o do u bt th a t a ll the s e p a i rs of n a me s
ar e d e r i v e d fro m a n a n c ient a n d co mm o n A rya n so u rc e a n d
w hen the y ar e t rac e d b ack as far as p oss ible t owards th a t
so u rc e the y a ppe ar t o h av e s p r u ng fro m a p a i r o f words
w hi c h m ay be ro u ghl y ca lle d p a ta r a n d ma ta r a n d w hi c h
w e r e for me d b y add ing ta r the s u f x of the ac t or t o the
v e r b roo t s p a a n d ma The r e being t wo app ro p r i a te S a n s k r it
v e r b s p d an d met it i s p oss ible t o et y m o l o gize the t wo words

as p a ta r p ro te c t or an d ma ta r p rod u c e r
N ow thi s
p a i r o f A rya n words m u s t h av e been v e ry an c ient l y i n g b ac k
a t the r em o te co mm o n so u rc e fro m w hi c h for m s p ara llel t o
o u r E ng li s h fa th er a n d moth er p ass e d int o G r eek a n d
Pe rs i a n N ors e an d A r meni a n th u s h o l d ing x e d t y pe
th ro u gh the e v ent f u l co u rs e o f I n do E u ro pe a n hi s t ory Y et
a n c ient as the s e words ar e the y w e r e n o do u bt p r e c e d e d
b y s imple r r u d iment ary words of the c hil dr en s l a ng u a ge
for it i s n o t likel y th a t the p r imiti v e A rya n s d i d w ith o u t
b a b y words for fa the r a n d m o the r u n til the y h ad a n
org a nize d sys tem of add ing s u ffi x e s t o v e r b roo t s t o e x p r e ss
,

fami ly o f l a n gu age s the A th a pa s c an c o n ta i n s b o th app a a n d ma ma

terms for fa ther i n the Ta hk a l i a n d Tla t s k a n ai
1

as

O ne

CHILDREN S LANG UAGE

2 25

s u c h n o ti o n s as p ro te c t or or p rod u c e r
N or ca n it
be s u pp os e d th a t it was b y me r e acc i d ent th a t the roo t
words th u s c h os en h a ppene d t o be the v e ry so u n ds p a a n d
ma w h os e t y pe s so of ten occ u r in the r em o te s t p ar t s of the

wor l d as n a me s for fa the r a n d m o the r P rof A do lphe

Pi c tet m a ke s s hi f t t o acco u nt for the co in c i d en c e th u s : he
p os t u l a te s rs t the p a i r of for m s p a a n d ma as A rya n v e r b

roo t s of u nkn ow n origin me a ning t o p ro te c t a n d t o

cr e a te ne x t a n o the r p a i r of for m s p a a n d ma c hil dr en s
words co mm o nl y u s e d t o d en o te fa the r a n d m o the r a n d
l as tl y he co mbine s the t wo b y s u pp os ing th a t the roo t
v e r b s p a a n d ma w e r e ch os en t o for m the In do E u ro pe a n
words for p ar ent s be ca u s e of thei r r e s embl a n c e t o the
fa mili ar b a b y words a l r e ady in u s e Thi s c i rcu it o u s pro
c e ss a t a n y ra te sav e s th os e sacr e d m o n osy ll a ble s th e
S a n s k r it v e r b roo t s fro m the d i s g rac e of a n ass ign a ble
or igin Y et th os e w h o r emembe r th a t the s e v e r b roo t s ar e
o nl y a s et of cr u d e for m s in u s e in o ne p ar ti cu l ar l a ng u age
of the wor l d a t o ne p ar ti c u l ar pe r i od of it s d e v el o pment
m ay acco u nt for the fac t s m or e s impl y a n d m or e th oro u ghl y
It i s a fa i r g u e ss th a t the u biq u it o u s p a a n d ma o f the
c hil dr en s l ang u age w e r e the or igin a l for m s ; th a t the y w e r e
u s e d i n a n e ar l y pe r i od of A rya n s pee c h as in di scr imin a tel y
s u b s t a nti v e a n d v e r b j u s t as o u r m od e r n E ngli s h w hi c h so
of ten r ep rod u c e s th e m os t r u d iment ary ling u i s ti c p roc e ss e s

can for m fro m the n o u n fa the r a v e r b t o fa the r ; a n d

th a t l as tl y the y be ca me v e r b roo t s w hen c e the words
a ta r
di
a
n
d
m
a
t
a
r
w
e
r
e
for
me
d
b
y
the
ad
ti
o
n
of
the
p

su f x

1
.

The b a b y n a me s for p ar ent s m u s t n o t be s t u di e d as th o u gh

the y s t ood a l o ne in l a ng u a ge
The y ar e o nl y imp or t a nt
membe rs of a g r e a t c l ass o f words bel o nging t o a ll time s
a n d co un t r ie s w ithin o u r e x pe r ien c e an d for ming a c hil
dr e n s l ang u a ge w h os e co mm o n ch arac te r i s d u e t o it s co n
-

I n d o

S ee Po tt
G er W ur lwo t erb s v p ; B eh t li n gk

S n skr i t W ort e b s v mata r ; P ic tet O r ig i n e s I n d

p 3 4 9 ; M Mi l l e L e c ture s 2 n d s er i e s p 2 1 2
L Q
1

ax

ze

r,

and

R th
o

pa rt ii

,
.

EMOTI ONA L AN D I M ITAT I VE LANG UAG E

22 6

c e r ning i t s el f w i th the li mi te d s et o f i d e as in w hi c h little

c hil dr en ar e inte r e s te d a n d e x p r e ss i n g the s e i d e as b y th e
limite d s e t o f ar ti c u l a ti o n s s u ite d t o the c hil d s fi rs t a ttempt s
t o t a lk
Thi pe c u li ar l a ng u a ge i s m ar ke d q u ite c h arac te r
i s t i ca l ly a m o n g the l ow sava ge t r ibe s of A u s t ra li a ; ma mm a n

fa the r ny a ng a m o the r a n d by met a ph or th u mb

g r e a t t o e ( as i s m or e f u lly e x pl a ine d in j i mza ma rmn a n

g r e a t t o e i e fo o t s fa the r ) ta rmm a g ra n dfa the r or

g ra n d m o the r [ b 6a b ad foo li s h c hil d i s h bee bee beep

b r e as t p app i fa the r p app a yo u ng o ne p ap w help

( w hen c e i s g ra mm a ti ca ll y for me d the v e r b p app a r ni tt t o b e

co me a yo u ng o n e t o be b or n O r i f w e l oo k for e xa mple s
fro m In d i a i t do e s n o t m a tte r w hethe r w e t a ke them fro m
n o n H in d u o r H i n d u l a ng u a ge s
for in b a b y l a ng u a ge a ll

rac e s ar e o n on e foo ting Th u s T a mil app a fa the r

nz ma
m o the r B odo ap h d fa the r d ya m o the r ; the

K occ h g ro u p mi n d a n d h am p a te r n a l g ra n dfa the r a n d

g ra n d m o the r ma ma u n c le d d a a co u s in m ay be s et

be s i d e S a n s k r it ta ta fa the r h a n d m o the r a n d the

H in d u s t a ni words o f the sa me c l ass O f w hi c h so me ar e
fa mili ar t o the E ngli s h e ar b y being n a t u ra lize d in A ngl o

bi b3
In d i a n t a lk ba ba fa the r ba ba c hil d p r in c e

l ady d a d a n u rs e ( aye n u rs e s eem s b orrow e d fro m

P or t u g u e s e ) S u c h words ar e co ntin u a ll y co ming fr e s h int o
e x i s ten c e e v e ryw he r e a n d the l aw of n a t u ra l s ele c ti o n
d ete r mine s thei r fa te The g r e a t m ass of the a a a a s a n d
( la d a s
of
the n u rs e ry d ie o u t a lm os t as soo n as m ad e
S o me f e w t a ke m or e roo t a n d s p r e ad ov e r l arge d i s t r i c t s as
acc epte d n u rs e ry words a n d n ow a n d then a c u r i o u s
phil o l o gi s t m a ke s a co lle c ti o n of them O f s u c h m a n y ar e
O b v i o u s m u til a ti o n s o f l o nge r words as F r en c h fa i r e ( lod e

t o s leep ( dor mi r ) B ra n d enb u r g wi wi a co mm o n crad le

l u ll a b y (w iegen )
O the rs w h a te v e r thei r or igin fa ll in
co n s eq u en c e o f the s m a ll var iet y of ar ti c u l a ti o n s o u t of
w hi c h the y m u s t be c h os en int o a c u r i o u s l y in d i scrimin a te

a n d u n m e a ni n g m ass as S w i ss 60 60 a scra t c h ; ba mba m

a ll g o ne ; It a li a n 60 %
so m ething t o dr ink g og o
,

la

'

'

CH ILDREN S LANGUAGE

little

227

b oy far d ed e t o pl ay
The s e ar e words q u o te d

b y P o tt a n d for E ngli s h e xa mple s a a n a n u rs e ta ta /

g ood b y e ! m ay s e rv e B u t a ll ba by words as thi s v e ry

n a me p rov e s do n o t s t o p s h or t e v en a t thi s s t a ge of p u b
li c i t y
A s m a ll p ro p or ti o n of them e s t a bli s h them s el v e s in
the ord in ary t a lk of g row n u p men a n d wo men a n d w hen
the y h av e o n c e m ad e g o o d thei r pl ac e as co n s tit u ent s of
gene ra l l a ng u a ge the y m ay p ass on b y inhe r it a n c e fro m age
t o a ge S u c h e xa mple s as h av e been h e r e q u o te d O f n u rs e ry
words gi v e a c l u e t o the or igin of a m ass of n a me s in the
m os t d i v e rs e l a ng u age s for fa the r m o the r g ra n d m o the r
a u nt c hil d b r e as t t oy do ll & c The neg ro of F e r n a n do

P o w h o u s e s the word ba bboh for a little b oy i s on eq u a l

te r m s w ith the G e r m a n w h o u s e s ba be ; the Co ng o m a n w h o

u s e s ta ta for fa the r wo u l d u n d e rs t a n d h ow the sa me

word co u l d be u s e d in c l ass i c L a tin for fa the r a n d

in me d iae va l L a tin for pe da g o g u e ; th e Car ib a n d the

Caro line I s l a n d e r a g r ee w ith the E ngli s hm a n th a t p ap a i s

a s u it a ble word t o e x p r e ss fa the r a n d then i t o nl y

r em a in s t o carry on the word a n d m a ke the b a b y l a ng u age
n a me the p r ie s t s of the E as te r n C h u rc h a n d the g r e a t
P ap a of the We s te r n
A t the sa me time the e v i d en c e
e x pl a in s the in d i ffe r en c e w ith w hi c h ou t o f the s m a ll s t oc k
of ava il a ble m a te r i a l s the sa m e so u n d do e s d u t y for the

m os t d i ffe r ent i d e as ; w h y m a ma me a n s he r e m o the r

the r e fa the r the r e u n c le ma ma n he r e m o the r the r e

fa the r i n l aw d a d a he r e fa the r the r e n u rs e the r e

b r e as t ta t a he r e fa the r th e r e S on
A s ingle g ro u p
of words m ay s e rv e t o s h ow the c h arac te r of thi s pe cu li ar

r egi o n of l a ng u age : Bl ack foo t In d i a n m r ma h fa the r ;

G r eek v
u n c le ue w a a u nt ; Z u l u m n a S a ngi r
ew og

m n a M a l a g asy a i m! m o the r ; J ava n a i n t g ra n dfa the r

or g ra n d m o the r ; V ay u a i r/t p a te r n a l a u nt ; D ar ien

In d i a n m a a h da u ghte r ; S p a ni s h n i h o a tri a c hil d ;

It a li a n m rm a little gi r l ; M il a n e s e m m rt be d ; It a li an

m a n a r e t o roc k the crad le

In thi s way a do zen e asy c hil d s ar ti c u l a ti o n s ba s an d

'

'

'

'

EMO TI ONA L A N D I M I T AT I V E LAN G UAG E

2 28

a n d Jr p s a n d m s e rv e a lm os t as i n di sc ri mi
n a te l
y t o e x p r e s a d o zen c hil d s i d e as as th o u gh the y h ad
bee n s h a ken i n a b a g a n d p u lle d u t a t ra n d o m t o e x p r e ss
the n o ti o n th a t c a m e fi rs t d ll r u n c le n u rs e or g ra n d
fa t he r l t i s b v i u s th a t a mo ng words cra m pe d t o s u c h
sca n t y c h o i c e f ar ti c u l a te so u n ds s pe c u l a ti o n s as t o d e r i va
ti o n mu s t be m o r e th a n u s u a ll y u n saf e L oo ke d a t fr o m
t hi s p o i n t o f v ie w c hil dr en s l a ng u a ge m ay gi v e a va l u a ble
le sso n t o the phil o l o gi s t H e h as be for e h i m a kin d of
l a ng u age for me d u n d e r pe c u li ar co n d iti o n s an d s h ow ing the
w e a k p o int s o f hi s meth od o f phil o l o gi ca l r e s e arch o nl y
e xa gge ra te d int o e x t raord in ary d i s tin c tne ss
In ord in ary
l a ng u a ge the d i f cu lt y o f co nne c ting so u n d w ith s en s e lie s
in g r e a t me as u r e in the in a bilit y o f a s m a ll a n d r igi d s et of
ar ti c u l a ti o n s t o e x p r e ss a n inte r min a ble var iet y o f t o ne s a n d
n oises
I n c hil dr en s l a ng u age a s till m or e sca nt y s et o f
ar ti c u l a ti o n s fa il s y et m or e t o r en d e r the s e d i s tin c tl y The
d i f c u lt y o f n d ing the d e r i va ti o n o f words lie s in g r e a t
me as u r e in the u s e o f m or e or le ss S imil ar roo t so u n ds for
m os t hete ro gene o u s p u r p os e s T o ass u me th a t t wo words
of d i ffe r ent me a ning s j u s t be ca u s e the y so u n d so me w h a t
a like m u s t the r e for e h av e a co mm o n or igi n i s e v en in
ord in ary l a ng u a ge the g r e a t so u rc e o f b a d et y m o l o g y B u t
in c hil dr en s l a ng u a ge the the ory o f roo t so u n ds fa i r l y
b r e a k s dow n F e w wo u l d v ent u r e t o ass e r t for in s t a n c e
th a t p ap a a n d p ap h av e a co mm o n d e r i va ti o n or a co mm o n
roo t A ll th a t w e ca n saf el y say o f co nne x i o n bet w een
them i s th a t the y ar e words r el a te d b y co mm o n acc ept a n c e
in the n u rs e ry l a n g u a ge A s s u c h the y ar e w ell m ar ke d in

a n c ie n t R om e as i n m od e rn E ngl an d p ap a s n u t r i ci u s

as
a
s ene x ; cu m c ib u m e t po t u m (ma s ac
n u t ri t or
p pp
ma t re m ma mma m pa t re m ta ta m ( or
et
p ap s di cu n t
Ma

s,

ti

'

'

'

s,

a s,

F ro m

c hil dr en s l a ng u a ge m or e ov e r w e h av e s t r iking
p roof o f the p ow e r o f co n s e n s u s o f soc iet y i n e s t a bli s hi n g
words i n s ettle d u s e w ith o u t thei r carry ing t rac e s o f inhe r ent
i l ti
F
L e xic
V rr p N
ii 9 7

acc o a

on

o, a

on n

CHI LDREN S LAN G UAG E

22 9

e x p r e ss i v ene ss It i s t r u e th a t c hil dr en ar e inti m a tel y a o

u a i n t e d w ith the u s e o f em o ti o n a l a n d imit a ti v e so u n d a n d
q
thei r voca l i n te rco u rs e l ar gel y co n s i s t s of s u c h e x p r e ss i o n
The e ffe c t s o f thi s ar e in so me d eg r ee d i sc e r nible i n the
c l ass of words w e ar e co n s i d e r ing B u t it i s O b v i o u s th a t
the le adi ng p r i n c iple o f thei r for m a ti o n i s n o t t o ado pt
words d i s tin g u i s he d b y the e x p r e ss i v e c h arac te r o f thei r
so u n d b u t t o c h oos e so meh ow a x e d word t o a n sw e r a
gi v en p u r p os e T o do thi s d i ffe r ent l a ng u a ge s h av e c h os en
s imil ar ar ti c u l a ti o n s t o e x p r e ss the m os t d i v e rs e a n d o pp o
s ite i d e as N ow i n the l an g u a ge o f g row n u p pe o ple it i s
c le ar th a t soci a l co n s en s u s h as wor ke d i n the sa me way
E v en i f the e x t r eme s u pp os iti o n be g ra n te d th a t the u lti ma te
or igin of e v e ry word of l a n g u age lie s i n i n he r entl y e x p r e ss i v e
so u n d thi s o n l y p ar tl y a ff e c t s the cas e fo r it wo u l d h av e t o
be ad mitte d th a t in ac t u a l l a ng u age s m os t words h av e so far
d ep ar te d in so u n d or s e n s e fro m thi s or igi n a ll y e x p r e s
s i v e s t age th a t t o a ll i n te n t s an d p u rp os e s the y might a t
rs t h av e been ar bit rar il y c h os en The m a in p r in c iple o f
l a ng u a ge h as been n o t t o p r e s e r v
e t rac e s o f or igin a l so u n d
si g n i ca t i on fo r the bene t o f f u t u r e et y m o l o gi s t s b u t t o x
element s of l a n g u a ge t o s e rv e as co u nte rs fo r p rac ti ca l
r e ck o n ing o f i d e as In thi s p roc e ss m u c h or igin a l e x p r e s
e n e ss h as n o
do u bt d i sa ppe ar e d be yo n d a ll h o pe o f
si v
r e cov e ry
S u c h ar e so me o f the ways in w hi c h voca l so u n ds s eem t o
h av e co mm en d e d them s el v e s t o the min d of the word m a ke r
as t t o e x p r e ss hi s me a ning a n d t o h av e been u s e d a cc or
d ingl y I do n ot think th a t the e v i d e n c e he r e add u c e d
j u s ti e s the s etting u p of w h a t i s ca lle d th e Inte rj e c ti o n a l
an d I m it a ti v e The ory as a co mplete so l u ti o n o f the p ro blem
of or igin a l l a ng u a ge V a li d as thi s the ory p rov e s it s el f
w i t hin limit s it wo u l d be i n ca u ti o u s t o acc ept a h y p o the s i s
w hi c h c an pe r h a p s sa ti sfac t or il y acco u nt for a t w entieth O f
the cr u d e for m s in a n y l a ng u a ge as a c e r t a in a n d a b so l u te
e x pl a n a ti o n o f the nineteen t w entieth s w h os e or igin r e m a in s
do u bt f u l A ke y m u s t u nl oc k m or e doors th a n thi s t o be
.

EM O T I O NA L AN D I M I TA T I V E LANG UA G E

20 0
o

t a ke n a s t h e mas t e r ke y M o r e o v e r so me s pe c i a l p o int s
w hi c h h a v e c me u n d e r e o n s id e ra t i rm i n the s e c h a pte rs ten d
t o S h o w t h e p o s iti v e ne c e s s it y o f s u c h ca u ti o n i n the or izi n g
To o n arr o w a the o ry o f the a ppli ca ti o n o f so u n d t o s en s e
m ay fa il t o i n c l u d e t h e var ie d d e vi c e s w hi c h the l a n g u a ge s
o f d i ll e re n t r egi o n s t u r n t o acc o u n t
I t i s th u s w ith the
d i s ti n c ti o n i n me a n i n g o f a word b y i t s m u s i ca l acc e n t a n d
the d i s ti n c ti o n o f d i s t a n c e b y g rad u a te d vow el s The s e ar e
i n ge n i o u s a n d i n telligible co nt r i va n c e s b u t the y h ard l y
s eem d i re c tl y e mo ti o n a l o r imit a ti v e i n origi n A saf e r way
o f p u tting th e the ory o f a n a t u ra l or igi n o f l a n g u a ge i s
t o p os t u l a te the or igin a l u tte ra n c e o f i d e as i n w h a t m ay
be ca lle d s el f e x p r e ss i v e so u n ds w ith o u t d e ning c l os el y
w hethe r thei r e x p r e ss i o n l ay in em o ti o n a l t o ne i mit a ti v e
n o i s e co nt ras t o f acc e n t o r vow el or co n so n a nt o r o the r
ph o neti c q u a lit y E v en he r e e xc epti o n o f u nkn ow n a n d
pe r h a p s e n or m o u s e x te n t m u s t be m ad e for so u n ds c h os en
b y in d i v i d u a l s t o e x p r e ss so me n o ti o n fro m m o ti v e s w hi c h
e v e n thei r o w n min ds fa ile d t o d i sc e r n b u t w hi c h so u n ds
ne v e r thele ss m ad e g ood thei r foo ting in the l a ng u a ge of the
fa mil y the t r ibe a n d the n a ti o n The r e m ay be m a n y
m od e s e v en o f r e co gniz a ble ph o neti c e x p r e ss i o n u nkn ow n
t o u s as y et S o far h ow e v e r as I h av e been a ble t o t rac e
the m he r e s u c h m od e s h av e in co mm o n a c l a im t o bel o ng
n o t e xc l u s i v el y t o the sc heme o f thi s o r th a t p ar ti c u l ar
d i a le c t b u t t o w i d e ra n ging prI n i le S of for m a ti o n o f l a n
g u a ge Thei r e xa mple s ar e t o be draw n w it h eq u a l co gen cy
fro m S a n s k r it o r H eb r e w fro m the n u rs e ry l a ng u age o f
L o mb ardy o r the h a l f In d i a n h a l f E u ro pe a n jar g o n of
V a n co u v e r s I s l a n d ; a n d w he r e v e r the y ar e fo u n d the y
help t o f u r n i s h g ro u p s of so u n d words words w hi c h h av e
n o t l os t the t rac e s o f thei r rs t e x p r e ss i v e or igin b u t s till
carry thei r d i r e c t s igni ca n c e pl ai nl y s t a mpe d u p o n them
In fac t the ti m e h as n ow co me for a s u b s t a nti a l b as i s t o be
l a i d for G ene ra ti v e Phil o l o g y A c l ass i e d co lle c ti o n o f
words w ith an y s t ro ng c l a im t o be s el f e x p r e ss i v e s h o u l d be
b ro u ght t o gethe r o u t o f th e th o u sa n d or so of r e co gnize d
-

U N ITY A ND D I VER S I TY O F LAN G U A G E

23 1

l a ng u a ge s a n d d i a le c t s of the wor l d I n s u c h a D i c ti o n ary

o f S o u n d W ords h a l f the cas e s c ite d might v e ry likel y be
wor thle ss b u t the co lle c ti o n wo u l d a fford the p rac ti ca l
me a n s o f e x p u r g a t i ng it s el f ; for it wo u l d S h ow o n a l ar ge
sca le w h a t p ar ti cu l ar so u n ds h av e m a ni f e s te d thei r tne ss t o
co n v e y p ar ti cu l ar i d e as b y h av i n g been r epe a te d l y c h os en
a m o ng d i ffe r ent rac e s t o co n v e y them
A ttempt s t o e x pl a in as far as m ay be the p r im ary for m a
ti o n of s pee c h b y t racing o u t in d et a il s u c h p roc e ss e s as
h av e been he r e d e scr ibe d ar e likel y t o in cr e as e o u r kn ow
le dge b y s u r e a n d s te ady s tep s w he r e v e r im agin a ti o n do e s
n o t get the bette r o f so be r co mp ar i so n o f fac t s
B u t the r e
i s o ne s i d e of thi s p ro blem of the O r igin o f L an g u a ge on
w hi c h s u c h s t u d ie s h av e by n o me a n s a n en co u raging e ffe ct
M u c h of the p o p u l ar inte r e s t in s u c h m a tte rs i s c ent r e d in
the q u e s ti o n w hethe r the kn ow n l a ng u a ge s o f the wor l d
h av e thei r so u rc e i n on e or m a n y p r im ae va l t o n g u e s O n
thi s s u bj e c t the O pini o n s o f the phil o l o gi s t s wh o h av e c om
p ar e d the g r e a te s t n u mbe r of l a ng u age s ar e u tte r l y a t
var i a n c e n or h as a n y o ne b ro u gh t forward a b ody of phil o
l o gi ca l e v i d en c e s t ro ng a n d d i r e c t en o u gh t o m a ke a n y thing
be yo n d me r e va g u e o pi n i o n j u s ti a ble
N o w s u c h p ro
c e ss e s as the g row th of imit a ti v e or sy mb o li c words for m a
p ar t be it s m a ll or l ar ge o f the O r igin o f L a ng u age b u t
the y ar e b y n o me a n s r e s t r i c te d t o a n y p ar ti cu l ar pl ac e or
pe r i od a n d ar e in d ee d m or e or le ss in ac ti v it y n o w Thei r
o pe ra ti o n o n a n y t w o d i a le c t s of o n e l an g u age w ill be t o
int rod u c e in e ac h a n u mbe r o f ne w a n d i n d epen d ent words
a n d words e v en s u s pe c te d of h av ing been for me d in thi s
d i r e c t way be co me va l u ele ss as p roof o f gene al o g i ca l c on
fo u n d
n e x i on bet w een the l a ng u a ge s in w hi c h the y ar e
The te s t o f s u c h gene a l o gi ca l co nne x i o n m u s t in fac t be
ge n e ra ll y n arrow e d t o s u c h words o r g ra mm a ti ca l for m s
as h av e be co me so far co n v enti o n a l in so u n d an d s en s e
th a t w e ca nn o t s u pp os e t wo t r ibe s t o h av e arr i v e d a t
them in d epen d entl y a n d the r e for e co n s i d e r th a t b o th m u s t
h av e i n he r ite d them fro m a co mm o n so u rc e Th u s the
.

EM O T I O N A L A N D I M I T AT I V E L A N G UA G E

23 2

i n t r o d u c ti o n o f ne w so u n d w o rd s te n ds t o m a ke i t pra c t i
c a ll y o f lo s s a n d le ss c o n s eq u e n c e t o a l a ng u age w h a t it s
o r igi n a l s t o c k o f w o rd s a t s t ar ting m ay h av e bee n ; a n d
the phil o l o gi s t s e x ten s i o n o f hi s k n ow le d ge o f s u c h d i r e c t
f o rm a ti o n s mu s t co mpel h im t o s t rip o ff m or e a n d m or e
as being p oss ibl y o f l a te r g row th be for e
o f a n y l a ng u a ge
he c a n s e t hi ms el f t o arg u e u p o n s u c h a r e s i d uu m as m ay
h av e c o me by d i r e c t inhe r it a n c e fro m time s o f p r im aeva l
s pee c h
I n co n c l u d ing thi s s u rv e y so me gene ra l co n s i d e ra ti o n s
s u gge s t them s el v e s as t o the n a t u r e a n d rs t beginning s o f
l a ng u a ge In s t u dy ing the me a n s o f e x p r e ss i o n a m o ng
m e n in s t a ge s o f me n t a l c u lt u r e far bel ow ou r o wn o n e of
o u r rs t nee ds i s t o c le ar o ur min ds o f the kin d o f s u pe rs t i
ti o u s v ene ra ti o n w ith w hi c h ar ti c u l a te S pee c h h as so c om
m o u l y been t r e a te d as th o u gh it w e r e n o t me r el y the
p r in c ip a l b u t the so le me a n s o f u tte r ing th o u ght We m u s t
c e as e t o me as u r e the hi s t or i ca l imp or t a n c e of em o ti o n a l
e xc l a m a ti o n s o f ge s t u r e S ign s a n d o f pi c t u r e wr iting b y
thei r co mp ara ti v e i n sig n ican c e in m od e r n c i v ilize d li f e b u t
m u s t b r i n g o u rs el v e s t o assoc i a te the ar ti c u l a te words o f the
d i c ti o n ary i n o ne g ro u p w ith cr ie s a n d ge s t u r e s a n d pi c t u r e s
as being a ll o f them me a n s o f m a ni f e s ting o u t ward l y the
in ward wor k i ng s o f the min d S u c h a n ad mi ss i o n it m u s t
be O b s e rv e d i s far fro m being a me r e d et a il o f scienti c
c l ass i ca ti o n It h as r e a ll y a m os t imp or t a nt be ar ing on
the p ro blem o f the O r igin of L a ng u a g e F or as the
r e aso n s ar e m os tl y dar k t o u s w h y p ar ti c u l ar words ar e
c u rr e n tl y u s e d t o e x p r e ss p ar ti c u l ar i d e as l a ng u age h as
co me t o be l oo ke d u p o n as a m ys te ry a n d eithe r occu lt
phil oso phi ca l ca u s e s h av e been ca lle d in t o e x pl a in it s
phen o me n a o r el s e the en dow ment o f m a n w ith the fac u l
tie s o f th o u ght a n d u tte ra n c e h as been d ee m e d in s u f c ient
a n d a S pe c ia l r e v el a ti o n h as been d em a n d e d t o p u t int o hi s
m o u th the voca b u l ary of a p ar ti c u l ar l ang u age I n the
d eb a te w hi c h h as been carr ie d on fo r age s ov e r thi s mu c h

v e x e d p ro blem the say ing in the K rat y lo s co me s b ack t o

-

EA R LY D E V E L O P M E N T O F L A N G U A G E

23 3

o u r min ds a g a in a n d ag a in w he r e S o k ra te s d e scr ibe s the

et y m o l o gi s t s w h o r ele as e them s el v e s fro m thei r d i f c u ltie s
as t o the or igin o f words b y say i n g th a t the rs t words w e r e
d i v inel y m ad e a n d the r e for e r ight j u s t as the t rage d i a n s
w hen the y ar e in pe r ple x it y y t o thei r m ac hine ry a n d
b r ing in the g ods
N o w I think th a t th os e w h o so be r l y
co ntempl a te the o pe ra ti o n of cr ie s g roa n s l a u gh s a n d
o the r em o ti o n a l u tte ra n c e s as to w hi ch so me co n s i d e ra ti o n s
h av e been he r e b ro u ght forward w ill ad mit th a t a t le as t
o u r p r e s ent cr u d e u n d e rs t a n d ing o f thi s kin d of e x p r e ss i o n
wo u l d le ad u s t o c l ass it a m o ng the n a t u ra l ac ti o n s o f m a n s
b ody a n d min d C e r t a inl y n o on e w h o u n d e rs t a n ds a n y
thing o i the ge s t u r e l a ng u a ge o r of pi c t u r e
wr iting wo u l d
be j u s ti e d in r eg ard ing eithe r as d u e t o occ u lt ca u s e s o r
t o a n y s u pe r n a t u ra l inte rf e r en c e w ith the co u rs e o f m a n s
intelle c t u a l d e v el o pment
Thei r ca u s e e v i d entl y lie s in
n a t u ra l o pe ra ti o n s O f the h u m a n mi n d n o t s u c h as w e r e
e ffe c ti v e in so me l o ng p as t co n d iti o n o f h u m a nit y a n d h av e
s in c e d i sa ppe ar e d b u t in p roc e ss e s e x i s ting a m o ng s t u s
w hi c h w e ca n u n d e rs t a n d a n d e v en p rac ti s e fo r o u rs el v e s
When w e s t u dy the pi c t u r e s a n d ge s t u r e s w ith w hi c h
savage s a n d the d e af a n d
du mb e x p r e ss their min ds w e ca n
m os tl y s ee a t a gl a n c e the di r e c t r el a ti o n bet w een the ou t
ward Sig n a n d the i n ward th o u ght w hi c h it m a ke s m a ni f e s t

W e m ay s ee the i d e a o f s leep s h ow n in ge s t u r e b y the

he ad w ith s h u t e y e s le a nt he av il y a g a in s t the o pen h a n d ;

o r the i d e a o f
r u nning b y the a ttit u d e of the r u nne r
w ith c he s t forward m o u th h a l f o pen elb ows an d s h o u l d e rs

w ell b ac k ; or ca n d le b y the s t ra ight for e nge r h el d u p

a n d as it w e r e bl ow n ou t ; o r sa lt by the imit a te d ac t
o f s p r inkling it w ith th u m b a n d nge r
The g u r e s o f the
c hil d s pi c t u r e b oo k the s leepe r a n d the r u nne r the ca n d le
a n d the sa lt
c ell ar S h ow thei r p u r p or t by the sa me sor t of
e v i d ent r el a ti o n bet w een th o u ght a n d S ign
We so far
u n d e rs t a n d the n a t u r e of the s e m od e s o f u tte ra n c e th a t w e
ar e r e ady o u rs el v e s t o e x p r e ss th o u ght af te r th o u ght b y s u c h
,

Pla t e ,

C ra t lus
y

90

EMOTIONAL

23 4

me a n s

so

I MI TAT I V E LANG UAG E

AN D

th a t th o s e

wh o

s ee

our

ig n s s h a ll pe rc ei v e o u r

me a n i n g
\Vhen h ow e v e r e n co u ra ge d b y o u r r e ady s u cc e ss in
m a ki n g o u t the n a t u r e a n d ac ti o n o f the s e r u d e r meth o ds
w e t u rn t o the highe r ar t o f s pee c h a n d as k h ow s u c h a n d
s u c h words h av e c o me t o e x p r e ss s u c h a n d s u c h th o u ght s
w e n d o u rs el v e s fac e t o fac e w ith a n im men s e p ro b lem as
y et b u t in s m a ll p ar t so l v e d The s u cc e ss of in v e s tig a ti o n
h as in d ee d been en o u gh t o en co u ra ge u s t o p u s h v ig oro u s l y
forward in the r e s e arc h b u t the p r e s ent e x pl ora ti o n s h av e
n o t e x te n d e d be yo n d cor ne rs a n d p a t c he s of a n el s e w he r e
u nkn ow n el d S till the r e s u lt s g o far t o warra nt u s i n
associ a ting e x p r e ss i o n b y ge s t u r e s a n d pi c t u r e s w ith art i c u
l a te l a ng u age as t o p r in c iple s of origin a l for m a ti o n m u c h as
men associ a te them in ac t u a l li f e b y u s ing ge s t u r e a n d word
a t o n c e O f co u rs e ar ti c u l a te S pee c h in it s far m or e
co mple x a n d el a b ora te d e v el o pment h as t a ken u p d e v i c e s
t o w hi c h the m or e s imple a n d r u d e m e a n s of co mm u ni ca ti o n
O ffe r n o thing co mp ara ble
S till l a ng u a ge so far as it s
co n s tit u ti o n i s u n d e rs t ood s eem s t o h av e been d e v el o pe d
like wr it i ng or m u s i c like h u nting o r re m a king b y the
e x e rc i s e of p u r el y h u m a n fac u ltie s in p u r el y h u m a n ways
Thi s s t a te o f thing s b y n o me a n s bel o ng s e xc l u s i v el y t o
r u di ment ary phil o l o gi ca l o pe ra ti o n s s u c h as the c h oos ing
e x p r e ss i v e so u n ds t o n a me corr e s p o n d ing i d e as b y In the
highe r d ep ar tment s of s pee c h w he r e words a l r e ady e x i s ting
ar e t u r ne d t o acco u nt t o e x p r e ss ne w me aning s a n d S h ad e
O ff ne w di s tin c ti o n s
w e n d the s e en ds a tt a ine d b y co n
an c es ra nging fro m e x t r eme d e x te r it y dow n t o u tte r
t ri v
c l u m s ine ss F or a S ingle in s t a n c e o ne g r e a t me a n s of
givi ng ne w me a ning t o o l d so u n d i s met a ph or w hi c h
t ra n sf e rs i d e as fro m he ar ing t o s eeing fro m t o u c hi n g t o
thinking fro m the co n cr ete o f on e kin d t o the a b s t rac t o f
a n o the r an d ca n th u s m a ke a lm os t a n y thing in the wor l d
help t o d e scr ibe or s u gge s t a n y thi n g el s e Wh a t the
G e r m a n phil oso phe r d e scr ibe d as the r el a ti o n of a cow t o a
co met th a t b o th h av e t a il s i s en o u gh a n d m or e th a n
.

E A RLY D EV E L O PM E NT O F LA N G U A G E

23 5

en o u gh for the l a ng u a ge m a ke r It s t r u c k the A u s t ra li a n s

w hen the y sa w a E u ro pe a n b oo k th a t it o pene d a n d s h u t
like a m u ss el s hell a n d the y beg a n accord ingl y t o ca ll

b oo k s m u ss el s
The s ight O f a s te a m engine
m ay s u gge s t a w h o le g ro u p of s u c h t ra n s iti o n s in o u r ow n

l a ng u a ge ; the s te a m p ass e s a l o ng fe s or t r u mpet s

th a t i s p ip es or tu bes a n d ente rs b y fo l d ing doors or

v
a lv
es
to push a
pe s tle o r p i ston u p a n d dow n in a

ro lle r or cy li n der w hile the light p o u rs fro m the f u r n ac e

in s t av e s or p o le s th a t i s in r a ys o r bea ms The
di c ti o n ar ie s ar e f u ll of cas e s co mp ar e d w ith w hi c h s u c h as
the s e ar e pl a in a n d s t ra ight forward In d ee d the p roc e ss e s
b y w hi c h words h av e r e a ll y co me int o e x i s ten c e m ay O f ten

en o u gh r emin d u s of the g a me of Wh a t i s m y th o u ght

like ? When on e kn ows the a n sw e r it i s e asy en o u gh t o
s ee w h a t j i t n ketti ng a n d ca the dra l ca rt on s h ave t o do w ith

r ee ds L a tin j i mei t s a r ee d L ow L a tin j i t oi ca ta c hee s e

m ad e in a r ee d b as ket It a li a n g i i mea ta cr e a m c hee s e i n

a r u s h fra il F r en ch j ori ea d e a n d E ngli s h j a h lcet w hi c h
ar e p r ep ara ti o n s of cr e a m a n d l as tl y j u n ketti ng p ar tie s

w he r e s u c h d eli cac ie s ar e e a ten ; G r eek Kai/m7 r ee d ea n e

then c e ea n on i ea s a c le r k u n d e r
3v me as u r e r u le
Ka i/(2
the e ccle s i as ti ca l r u le or ca n o n
B u t w h o co u l d g u e ss the
hi s t ory of the s e words w h o d i d n o t h a ppen t o kn ow the s e
inte r me d i a te link s ?
Y et the r e i s a b o u t thi s p roc e ss of d e r i va ti o n a th oro u ghl y
h u m a n ar ti ci a l c h arac te r When w e kn ow the w h o le fac t s
o f a n y cas e w e ca n gene ra ll y u n d e rs t a n d it a t o n c e a n d s ee
th a t w e might h av e do ne the sa me o u rs el v e s h ad it co me in
o u r way
A n d the sa me thing i s t r u e o f the p roc e ss e s of
m a king so u n d words d et a ile d in the s e c h a pte rs S u c h a
V ie w i s h ow e v e r in n o way in co n s i s tent w ith the a ttempt
t o gene ra lize u p o n the s e p roc e ss e s a n d t o s t a te them as
ph as e s of the d e v el o pment of l a ng u a ge a m o ng m a nkin d I f
c e r t a i n men u n d e r c e r t a in c i rc u m s t an c e s p rod u c e c e r t a in
r e s u lt s then w e m ay a t le as t e x pe c t th a t o the r men m u c h
r e s embling the s e a n d pl ac e d u n d e r ro u ghl y s imil ar c i rc u m
-

'

23 6

MOTIONAL

I M I TAT I V E LAN G UA G E

AN D

s t a n c e s w ill p rod u c e m o re o r le ss like r e s u lt s ; a n d thi s h as

bee n s h o w n v e r a n d o v e r a g a i n i n the s e p ag e s t o be w h a t
r e a lly h a ppen s N o w \Vilhel m vo n H u mb o l d t s v ie w th a t

l a n g u a ge i s a n o rg a ni s m h as been co n s i d e r e d a g r e a t
s t ep i n phil o l o gi ca l s pe c u l a ti o n ; a n d s o far as it h as le d
s t u d e n t s t t u rn thei r min ds t o t h e s e arc h af te r gene ra l
l aws n o do u bt it h as bee n so B u t i t h as a l so ca u s e d a n
in cr e a e o f va g u e thi n king a n d t a lking a n d the r eb y n o
s m a ll darkeni n g of co u n s el H ad it been me ant t o say th a t
h u m a n th o u ght l a ng u age a n d ac ti o n gene ra lly ar e org a ni c
in thei r n a t u r e a n d wor k u n d e r x e d l aws thi s wo u l d be a
v e ry d i ffe r ent m a tte r ; b u t thi s i s d i s tin c tl y n o t w h a t i s
me a nt a n d the v e ry o bj e c t of ca lling l a ng u age a n or g a ni s m
i s t o keep it a p ar t fro m me r e h u m a n ar t s a n d co nt r i va n c e s

It was a h a te f u l thing t o H u mb o l d t s min d t o b r i ng dow n

s pee c h t o a me r e o pe ra ti o n o f the u n d e rs t a n d ing

M an

he says do e s n o t so m u c h for m l a ng u a ge as d i sc e r n w ith

a kin d of j oyo u s wo n d e r it s d e v el o pment s co ming for th as
Y et i f the p rac ti ca l S hi f t s b y w hi c h words
o f them s el v e s
ar e s h a pe d or a pplie d t o t ne w me a ning s ar e n o t d e v i s e d b y
a n o pe ra ti o n of the u n d e rs t a n d ing w e o u ght co n s i s tentl y t o
carry the s t ra t agem s of the so l d ie r in the el d or the co n
an c e s o f the wor km a n a t hi s ben c h b ac k int o the dar k
t ri v
r egi o n s o f in s tin c t a n d in vo l u nt ary ac ti o n Th a t the ac ti o n s
o f in d i v i d u a l men co mbine t o p rod u c e r e s u lt s w hi c h m ay be
s et dow n i n t h e se gene ra l s t a teme n t s of fac t w hi c h w e ca ll
l aws m ay be s t a te d o n c e a g a in as on e of the m a in p ro p os i
ti o n s o f the S c ien c e o f C u lt u r e B u t the n a t u r e of a fac t i s
n o t a lte r e d b y it s being c l ass e d in co mm o n w ith o the rs of
the sa me kin d an d a m a n I S n o t le ss the intelligent in v e n t or
of a ne w word or a ne w met a ph or be ca u s e t w ent y o the r
intelligent in v ent ors el s e w he r e m ay h av e fa llen on a s imil ar
e x pe d ient
The the ory th a t th e or igin a l for m s O f l a n g u age ar e t o be
r e f e rr e d t o a l ow or sava ge co n d iti o n of cu lt u r e a m o ng the
r em o tel y a n c ient h u m a n rac e s t a n ds in gene ra l co n s i s ten cy
w ith the kn ow n fac t s of phil o l o g y The ca u s e s w hi c h h av e
O

EA RLY D E V ELO P M EN T O F LAN G UA G E

23 7

p rod u c e d l a ng u a ge so far as the y ar e u n d e rs t ood ar e

n o t a ble
for th a t c hil dlike s impli c it y of o pe ra ti o n w hi c h
be t s the in fa n cy of h u m a n c i v iliz a ti o n The ways in
w hi c h so u n ds ar e in the rs t i n s t a n c e c h os en a n d arra nge d
t o e x p r e ss i d e as ar e p rac ti ca l e x pe d ient s a t the le v el o f
n u rs e ry phil oso ph y A c hil d of v e y e ars o l d co u l d ca t c h
inte rj e c ti o n a l words
t he me a ning of imit a ti v e so u n ds
sy mb o li s m of s e x or d i s t a n c e b y co nt ras t of vow el s J u s t
as n o o ne i s likel y t o ente r int o the r e a l n a t u r e o f my t h o
l o g y w h o h as n o t the keene s t a pp r e c i a ti o n of n u rs e ry
t a le s so the s pi r it in w hi c h w e g u e ss r i dd le s a n d pl ay a t
c hil dr en s g a me s i s nee d e d t o a pp r e ci a te the l ow e r ph as e s of
l a ng u a ge S u c h a s t a te o f thi n g s ag r ee s w ith the o pini o n
th a t s u c h r u d iment ary s pee c h h ad it s or igin a m o ng men
w hile i n a c hil d like intelle c t u a l co n d iti o n a n d th u s the s el f
e x pre sss i v
savage l ang u age a ffords va l u a ble
e b ra n c h of
m a te r i a l s for the p ro blem o f p r imiti v e s pee c h I f w e l oo k
b ac k in im a gin a ti o n t o a n e ar l y pe r i od o f h u m a n inte r
co u rs e w he r e ge s t u r e a n d s el f e x p r e ss i v e u tte ra n c e m ay
h av e h ad a far g r e a te r co m p ara ti v e i m p or t a n c e th a n a m o ng
o u rs el v e s s u c h a co n c epti o n i nt rod u c e s n o ne w element
int o the p ro blem for a s t a te o f thing s m or e o r le ss a n sw e r
ing t o thi s i s d e scr ibe d a m o n g c e r t a in low sava ge t r ibe s I f
w e t u r n fro m s u c h s el f e x p r e ss i v e u tte ra n c e t o th a t p ar t O f
ar ti c u l a te l a ng u age w hi c h carr ie s it s s en s e o nl y b y t rad i
t i o n a l a n d s eemi n gl y ar bit rary c u s t o m w e S h a ll n d n o
co nt radi c ti o n t o the h y p o the s i s S o u n d carry i n g d i r e c t
me a ning m ay be t a ken u p as a n element o f l a ng u age
keeping it s rs t s igni ca n c e r e co g n iz a ble t o n a ti o n s y et
u nb or n B u t it m ay far m or e p ro b a bl y be co me b y w e ar o f
so u n d a n d s hi f t o f s en s e a n e x p r e ss i o nle ss sy mb o l s u c h as
might h av e been c h os en in p u r e ar bit rar ine ss a phil o
l o gi c a l p roc e ss t o w hi c h the voca b u l ar ie s of sava ge d i a le c t s
be ar f u ll w itne ss In the co u rs e o f the d e v el o p m ent O f
l a ng u a ge s u c h t rad iti o n a l words w ith me r el y a n inhe r ite d
me a ning h av e in n o s m a ll m e as u r e dr i v en int o the b ac k
g ro u n d the s el f e x p r e ss i v e words j u s t as the E as te r n
,

EMOT I ON A L

233 8

AN D

I M ITAT I V E LANG UAG E

g u r e s 2 3 4 w hi c h ar e n o t s el f e x p r e ss i v e h av e dr i v en
i n t o the b ac kg ro u n d the R o ma n n u m e ra l s II I I I 1111
w hi c h ar e thi s ag a in i s a n o pe ra ti o n w hi c h h as it s pl ac e
in sava ge a s in c u l ti va te d s pee c h M or e ov e r t o l oo k
c l os el y a t l a n g u a ge as a p rac ti ca l me a n s o f e x p r e ss ing
th o u ght i s t o fac e e v
i d en c e o f n o s ligh t be ar ing o n the
hi s t ory o f c i v iliz a ti o n We co m e b ac k t o the fac t s o f u ll
of s u gge s ti o n th a t the l a ng u age s of th e wor l d r ep r e s ent
s u b s t a nti a ll y the sa m e intelle c t u a l ar t the highe r n a ti o n s
i n d ee d g a inin g m or e e x p r e ss i v e p ow e r th a n the l ow e s t
t r ibe s y et do ing thi s n o t b y int rod u c ing ne w a n d m or e
e ff e c ti v e c e n t ra l p r in c iple s b u t b y me r e add iti o n a n d
imp rov ement in d et a il The t w o g r e a t meth ods o f n a ming
th o u ght s a n d s t a ting thei r r el a ti o n t o o ne a n o the r V i z
met a ph or a n d sy nt ax bel o ng t o the in fa n cy o f h u m a n e x
p r e ss i o n a n d ar e as th oro u ghl y a t h o me in the l a n g u a ge o f
sava ge s as o f phil oso phe rs I f it be arg u e d th a t thi s
s imil ar ity in p r in ciple s o f l a ng u a ge i s d u e t o savage t r ibe s
h av ing d e sc en d e d fro m highe r c u lt u r e carry ing dow n w ith
them in thei r s pee c h the r e li cs o f thei r for me r e xc ellen c e
the a n sw e r i s th a t ling u i s ti c e x pe di ent s ar e ac t u a ll y wor ke d
o u t w ith as m u c h orig in a lit y a n d m or e e x ten s i v el y i f n o t
m or e p ro t a bl y a m o ng sava ge s th a n a m o ng c u lt u r e d men
T a ke for e xa mple the A lg on q u i n sy s t e m o f co mp o u n d ing
words a n d the vas t E s q u im a u x sc heme o f g ra mm a ti ca l
in e x i on
L a ng u a ge bel o ng s in e ss enti a l p r in c iple b o th t o
l ow g rad e s a n d high of c i v ili z a ti o n ; t o w hi c h s h o u l d it s
or ig i n be a tt r ib u te d ? A n a n sw e r m ay be h ad b y co mp ar ing
the meth ods of l a ng u a ge w ith the wor k it h as t o do T a ke
l a ng u a ge a ll in a ll ov e r the wor l d it i s o b v i o u s th a t the
p roc e ss e s b y w hi c h words ar e m ad e a n d ada pte d h av e far
le ss t o do w ith sys tem a ti c arra ngement a n d sc ienti c c l ass i
c a t i on th a n w ith me r e ro u gh a n d r e ady ingen u it y a n d the
g r e a t r u le o f th u mb L et a n y on e w h os e voca ti o n it i s t o
r e a lize phil oso phi ca l o r scie n ti c co n c epti o n s a n d t o e x p r e ss
them in words as k hi m s el f w hethe r ord in ary l a ng u a ge i s a n
i n s t r u m e n t pl a n n e d for s u c h p u r p os e s O f co u rs e it i s n o t
,

E A R LY D E V E L O P M E N T O F L A N G U A G E

23 9

It i s h ard t o say w hi c h i s th e m or e s t r iking the wa nt of

sc ienti c sys tem in the e x p r e ss i o n of th o u ght b y words or
the in nite c le v e r ne ss of d et a il b y w hi c h thi s impe rf e c ti o n
i s g o t ov e r so th a t he w h o h as a n i d e a do e s so meh ow m a ke
s hi f t t o get it c le ar l y in words be for e hi s ow n a n d o the r
min ds The l a ng u a ge b y w hi c h a n a ti o n w ith highl y
d e v el o pe d ar t a n d kn ow le dge a n d s entiment m u s t e x p r e ss
it s th o u ght s o n the s e s u bj e c t s i s n o a pt m ac hine d e v i s e d
for s u c h s pe c i a l wor k b u t a n o ld b ar b ar i c engine add e d t o
a n d a lte r e d p a t c he d a n d tinke r e d int o so me sor t of ca p a
bi li t y
E thn o g ra ph y r e aso n a bl y acco u nt s a t o n c e for the
immen s e p ow e r a n d the m a ni f e s t w e a kne ss o f l a ng u a ge as a
me a n s of e x p r e ss ing m od e r n e d u ca te d th o u ght b y t r e a ting
it as a n or igin a l p rod u c t of l ow c u lt u r e g rad u a ll y ada pte d
b y age s o f e vo l u ti o n a n d s ele c ti o n t o a n sw e r m or e or le ss
s u f cientl y the r eq u i r eme n t s of m od e rn c i v iliz a ti o n
,

C H AP TER VI I
TH E

A RT O F C O U N T I N G

I dea s o f N u mb er der iv ed fr om e x p er i e n c e S ta te o f A r i th metic a mon g n u

civi l i zed r ac e s S ma ll e x te n t o f N u mer a l word s amon g l ow tr i b e s
C ou n t i n g b y n ger s a n d t o e s H an d n u mer a l s S h o w der iv a ti on o f V er b a l
re c k on i n g fro m G e s ture c ou n t i n g E ty mo l ogy of N u mer al s Q u i n ary
D e ci ma l a n d V i ge s i ma l n ota t i on s o f the w orld der iv ed fr om c ou n t i n g
o n nger s a n d t o e s A d o p t i o n o f fo re i g n N u mer a l w o rd s
E vi de n c e of
de v el op me n t o f A r i th met ic fr o m a lo w o r i g i n a l le v el o f C ulture
-

M R J S M I LL in hi s S ys tem of L o gi c t a ke s occa
s i o n t o e xa mine the fo u n da ti o n s o f the ar t of ar ithmeti c
A g a in s t D r Whe w ell w h o h ad m a int a ine d th a t s u c h p ro

p os iti o n s as th a t tw o a n d th r ee m a ke v e ar e ne c e ssary
t r u th s co nt a ining in them a n element of c e r t a int y be yo n d
th a t w hi c h me r e e x pe r ien c e ca n gi v e M r M ill ass e r t s th a t

t w o a n d o ne ar e eq u a l t o th r ee
e x p r e ss e s me r ely a
t r u th kn ow n t o u s b y e ar l y a n d co n s t a nt e x pe r ien c e : a n
in d u c ti v e t r u th ; a n d s u c h t r u th s ar e the fo u n da ti o n of
the sc ien c e o f N u mbe r The f u n da ment a l t r u th s of th a t
sc ien c e a ll r e s t o n th e e v i d en c e of s en s e ; the y ar e p rov e d
b y S h ow ing t o o u r e y e s a n d o u r nge rs th a t a n y gi v en
n u mbe r o f o bj e c t s ten b a ll s for e xa mple m ay b y s ep a
ra ti o n a n d re arra ngement e x hibit t o o u r s en s e s a ll the
d i ffe r ent s e t ? o f n u mbe rs the s u m of w hi c h i s eq u a l t o ten
A ll the imp rov e d meth ods of te ac hing ar ithmeti c t o c hil
d r en p roc ee d o n a kn ow le d ge o f thi s fac t
A ll w h o w i s h
t o carry the c hil d s min d a l o ng w ith them in le ar ning
ar ithmeti c ; a ll w h o w i s h t o te ac h n u mbe rs a n d n o t me r e
ciphe rs n ow te ac h it th ro u gh the e v i d en c e of the s en s e s
.

240

N U M E R AT I O N D E R I V E D F R O M E X P E R I E N C E

24 1

in the m a nne r w e h av e d e scr ibe d

M r M ill s ar g u m ent i s
t a ken fro m the ment a l co n d iti o n s o f pe o ple a m o n g w h o m
the r e e x i s t s a highl y adva n c e d ar ithmeti c
The s u bj e c t
i s a l so o ne t o be adva nt age o u s l y s t u d ie d fro m the eth
n o ra h e r s
p o int o f V ie w
The e xa min a ti o n o f the
g p
meth ods o f n u me ra ti o n i n u s e a m o ng the l ow e r rac e s n o t
o nl y f u ll y be ars o u t M r M ill s V ie w th a t o u r kn ow le dge
of the r el a ti o n s of n u mbe rs i s b as e d o n ac t u a l e x pe ri
ment b u t it en a ble s u s t o t rac e the ar t o f co u nting t o
it s so u rc e a n d t o asc e r t a in b y w h a t s tep s it aros e in
the wor l d a m o ng p ar ti c u l ar rac e s a n d p ro b a bl y a m o ng
a ll m a nkin d
In o u r adva n c e d sys tem o f n u me ra ti o n n o limit i s kn ow n
eithe r t o l ar gene ss o r s m a llne ss The phil oso phe r ca nn o t
co n c ei v e the for ma ti o n of a n y q u antit y so l arge o r o f a n y
a t o m S O s m a ll b u t the ar ithmeti c i an ca n keep p ac e w ith
h i m a n d ca n d e ne it in a S imple co mbin a ti o n o f wr itten
s ign s B u t as w e g o dow n wards in the sca le of c u lt u r e w e
n d th a t e v en w he r e the c u rr ent l a ng u a ge h as te r m s for
h u n dr e ds a n d th o u sa n ds the r e i s le ss a n d le ss p ow e r of
for ming a d i s tin c t n o ti o n of l arge n u mbe rs the r e ck o ne r i s
soo ne r dr i v en t o hi s nge rs a n d the r e in cr e as e s a m o ng
the m os t intelligent th a t n u me r i ca l i n de n i t e n e s s th a t w e
n o ti c e a m o ng c hil dr en i f the r e w e r e n o t a th o u sa n d pe o ple
in the s t r eet the r e w e r e c e r t a inl y a h u n dr e d a t a n y ra te
the r e w e r e t w ent y S t r ength in ar ithmeti c do e s n o t it i s
t r u e vary r eg u l ar l y w ith the le v el of gene ra l c u lt u r e
S o me sava ge or b ar b ar i c pe o ple s ar e e xc epti o n a ll y S kille d
in n u me ra ti o n
The T o ng a I s l a n d e rs r e a ll y h av e n a ti v e
n u me ra l s u p t o
N o t co ntent e v en w ith thi s the
F r en c h e x pl or e r La bi ll ardi er e p r e ss e d the m far the r a n d
O bt a ine d n u me ra l s u p t o 1 0 0 0 billi o n s w hi c h w e r e d u l y
p r inte d b u t p rov e d on l a te r e xa min a ti o n t o be p ar tl y n o n
1
s en s e words a n d p ar tl y in d eli ca te e x p r e ss i o n s so th a t the
s u pp os e d s e r ie s of high n u me ra l s for m s a t o n c e a little
voca b u l ary of T o ng a n i n d e c en cy a n d a war ning as t o th e

M a r i n er

T o n g a

I s l an d s vol ii p

3 90

24 2

TuE

ART

CO UNTING

or

p ro ba b le I e s u lt s o f t a king d o w n u n c he c ke d a n sw e r s fro m
s t A fr i ca
o rr ie d sava ge s
I
u
e
s
ti
o
n
w
We
a li v el y a n d
n
q
c o nti n u a l h a bi t o f b arg a ini n g h as d e v el o pe d a g r e a t p ow e r
o f ar ithme ti c a n d little c hil dr e n a l r e ady do f e a t s o f co mp u
t a t i o n w i th thei r he a p s o f cowr ie s
A m o ng the Y or u b as of

A be o k u ta t o say y o n do n t k n ow ni n e time s nine i s

1
ac t u a ll y a n i n s u lting way o f say i n g y o u ar e a d u n c e
Thi s i s a n e x t raord in ary p rov e r b w hen w e co mp ar e it w ith
the s t a n dard w hi c h o u r corr e s p o n d ing E u ro pe a n say i n g s s e t

fo r the limit s o f s t u pi di t y : the G e r m a n says

he ca n

scarc e co u n t v e ; the S p a ni ard I w ill tell y ou h ow

m a n y m a ke v e ( c u a nt os so n c in co ) ; a n d w e h av e the
sa me saw in E ngl a n d :
-

s u re as I m ali v e
man y b e an s ma k e v
e

as

k now s

And

h ow

A S i a me s e l aw co u r t w ill n o t t a ke the e v i d en c e of a w itne ss

w h o ca nn o t co u nt o r r e c k o n g u r e s u p t o ten ; a r u le w hi c h
r em i n ds u s of the a n cient c u s t o m o f S h r e ws b u ry w he r e a
pe rso n was d eeme d O f a ge w hen he kne w h ow t o co u nt u p t o
2
t w el v e pen c e
A m o n g the l ow e s t li v ing men the sava ge s o f the S o u th
A me r i ca n for e s t s an d the d e s e r t s o f A u s t ra li a 5 i s ac t u a ll y
fo u n d t o be a n u mbe r w hi c h the l a ng u a ge s o f so me t r ibe s do
n o t k n ow b y a s pe c i a l word
N o t o nl y h av e t rav elle rs
fa ile d t o get fro m them n a me s for n u mbe rs a b ov e 2 3 o r
4 b u t the O pini o n th a t the s e ar e the r e al limit s o f thei r
n u me ra l S e r ie s i s s t r engthene d b y the u s e of thei r highe s t
kn ow n n u mbe r as a n in d e nite te r m for a g r e a t m a n y

S pi x a n d M ar t i n s say of the l ow t r ibe s o f B ra zil The y

co u n t co mm o n l y b y thei r nge r j o int s so u p t o th r ee o nl y
A n y l ar ge r n u mbe r the y e x p r e ss b y the word
-

C r o w ther Y o ru b a V o c a b Burt on W W fro m W A fr ic a p 25 3

d
O j u d a n u 0 k 0 mo e ssa n mes s a n
Y ou ( ma y s ee m ) v ery c le v er ( b ut )
y ou c a n t tel l 9

2
Lo w i n J o ur n I n d A rch i p v
i p 4 0 8 ; Y e a r B o ok s E d w I
ol

xx
i ) ed H o r w o o d p 2 2 0
(
S pix a n d Ma rt i ns R e i s e i n Bra z i l i e n p 3 8 7
1

A RITHMETI C O F UN C ULT U RE D RA C E S

24 3

In a P u r i voca b u l ary the n u me ra l s ar e gi v en as 1 omi ;

2 ca r i r i ; 3 p r i ea
m an y : in a B o t oc u do voca b u l ary

1
moh ea a m ; 2 a mt /i i i
m any
The n u m e ra ti o n o f
the T as m a ni a n s i s accord i n g t o J o rg e n se n 1 p a r mer g/
2 ca la ha ma ; m or e th a n 2 ea r d i a ; as B ac kh o u s e p u t s it

the y co u nt o n e t wo plent y ; b u t a n O b s e rv e r w h o
h ad s pe ci a ll y g ood o pp or t u nitie s D r M illig an gi v e s thei r
1
n u me ra l s u p t o 5 p a gg a n a w hi c h w e s h a ll r e c u r t o
Mr

O l d el d ( wr iting e s pe c i a ll y o f We s te r n t r ibe s ) says

The
N e w H o ll a n d e rs h av e n o n a me s for n u mbe rs be yo n d two
The W at c h an di e sca le of n o t a ti o n i s eo
ote oh ( o n e ) a ta a
ra
( t wo ) boot th a ( m a n y ) a n d boot th a ba t ( v e ry m a n y )
I f a b so l u tel y r eq u i r e d t o e x p r e ss the n u mbe rs th r ee or fo u r
the y say m ta r r a eoo te oo t o in d i ca te the for me r n u mbe r
a n d a ta r r a a ta r r a t o d en o te the l a tte r Th a t i s t o say
thei r n a me s fo r o ne t wo th r ee a n d fo u r ar e eq u i va lent t o

o ne t wo t wo on e t wo t w o D r L a ng s n u me ra l s
fro m Q u een s l a n d ar e j u s t the sa me in p r i n c iple th o u gh the
words ar e d i ffe r ent : 1 g a n a r ; 2 ba r la ; 3 ba r la g a rt a r

t wo t w o ; kor u mba m or e th a n
t wo o n e ; 4 ba r ta ba r la
fo u r m u c h g r e a t
The K a mil aro i d i a le c t th o u gh w ith
the sa me 2 as the l as t imp rov e s u p o n it b y h av ing a n
in d epen d ent 3 a n d w ith the a i d o f thi s it r e c k o n s as far as
t wo
6 : 1 m a l ; 2 ba la rr ; 3 g a li ba ; 4 ba la r r ba la r r

t wo ; 5 ba lag a li ba t w o th r ee ; 6 g a li ba g a li ba th r ee
th r ee
The s e A u s t ra li a n e xa mple s ar e a t le as t e v i d en c e of
a v e ry sca nt y as w ell as cl u m sy n u me ra l sys te m a m o n g
2
c e r t a in t r ibe s Y et h e r e a g a i n highe r for m s w ill h av e t o
be n o ti c e d w hi c h i n on e d i s t r i c t a t le as t carry the n a ti v e
n u me ra l s u p t o 1 5 or 2 0
I t i s n o t t o be s u pp os e d be ca u s e a sava ge t r ibe h as
n o c u rr ent words fo r n u mbe rs a b ov e 3 or 5 or so th a t
t h e fe fo re the y ca nn o t co u nt be yo n d thi s
It a ppe ars th a t
.

Ta ma
s n i an

J ur n l vl i ; B c kh ou s e N a rr p 1 0 4 ; M i ll i g n i n
Pa p er s & c Roy S oc T sm i vl iii p rt ii 1 85 9
O ld eld i n T r E th S oc
L an g Q uee s l an d p 4 3 3
v
ol iii p 2 9 1

L th m C mp P h i l p 3 5 2 O ther ter ms i B n w ic k l c
1

an a ,

T II E A R T

24 4

COUNTING

or

the y c a n a n d d o c o u n t co n s i d e ra bl y far the r b u t i t i s b y

fa lli n g b a c k o n a l o w e r a n d r u d e r me th o d o f e x p r e ss i o n
th a n s pee c h t h e ge s t u r e l a n g u a ge
The pl ac e i n i n
t e lle c t u a l d e v el o p me n t hel d by the ar t O f c o u nting o n
one s
n ge rs i s w ell m ar ke d in the d e scr ipti on w hi c h
M as s ie u t h e A b b e S i card s d e af a n d d u mb p u pil gi v e s o f
h i s n o ti o n o f n u mbe rs i n hi s co mp ara ti v el y u n t au gh t

c hil d h o o d : I k n e w t h e n u mbe rs be for e m y i n s t r u c ti o n

m y n ge rs h ad t a u ght me the m I d i d n o t kn ow the
c iphe rs ; I co u n te d o n m y nge rs a n d w hen the n u mbe r
1
1
p ass e d 0 I m ad e n o t c he s o n a bit o f w o od
It i s th u s
th a t a ll sava ge t r ibe s h av e been t a u ght ar ithmeti c b y thei r
nge rs M r O l d el d af te r gi v ing the acco u nt j u s t q u o te d
o f the ca p a bilit y o f the W a t ch a n di e l a ng u a ge t o r e ac h 4
b y n u me ra l s g o e s o n t o d e scr ibe the m e a n s b y w hi c h the
t r ibe co n t r i v e t o d e a l w ith a h ard e r p ro blem in n u me ra ti o n

I o n c e w i s he d t o asc e r t a in the e xac t n u m be r o f n a ti v e s

w h o h ad been s l a in o n a c e r t a i n occas i o n The i n d i v i du a l
of
w h o m I m ad e the enq u i ry beg an t o think ov e r the
n a me s
ass igni n g on e o f hi s n ge rs t o e ac h a n d it
was n o t u ntil af te r m a n y fa il u r e s a n d co n s eq u ent fr e s h
s t ar t s th a t he was a ble t o e x p r e ss S O high a n u mbe r w hi c h
he a t length d i d b y h o l d i n g u p hi s h a n d th r ee time s th u s
gi v ing me t o u n d e rs t an d th a t f teen was the a n sw e r t o thi s
m os t d i f cu lt ar ithmeti ca l q u e s ti o n
O f the a b or i gine s of

V i c t or i a M r S t a nb r i dge says : The y h av e n o n a m e for

n u me ra l s a b ov e t wo b u t b y r epetiti o n the y co u nt t o v e ;
the y a l so r e cord the days of the m oo n b y me a n s o f the
2
n ge rs the b o ne s a n d j o int s o f the ar m s a n d the he ad
The B ororos o f B ra zil r e c k o n : 1 eoa a i ; 2 m a eoa a i
3 ou a i ; a n d then g o o n co u n ting o n thei r nge rs r e
3
O f co u rs e it n o m or e fo ll ows a m o ng
pe at i n g thi s ou a i
savage s th an a m o ng o u rs el v e s th a t be ca u s e a m a n co u nt s
,

ii p
.

S ic rd
a

63 4

T h

or

i e de s S ig n e s p ur
o

l I

n s t ru c t i o n

S ta n b r i dge i n T r E th S oc vol i p
G l ss Br s i l p 1 5
M tin

ar

s,

3 04

de s S o urd s M uet s vo l

ARI THM ET IC

UNCULTURED

or

RA C ES

24 5

o n hi s nge rs hi s l a n gu a ge m u s t be wa n ti n g i n words t o
e x p r e ss the n u mbe r he w i s he s t o r e c k o n F o r e xa m ple it
was n o ti c e d th a t w hen n a ti v e s o f K a m c h a tk a w e r e s et t o
co u nt the y wo u l d r e c k o n a ll thei r nge rs a n d then a ll

thei r t o e s so getting u p t o 2 0 a n d then wo u l d as k Wh a t

ar e w e t o do ne x t ? Y et i t was fo u n d o n e xa mi n a ti o n
th a t n u mbe rs u p t o 1 0 0 e x i s te d in thei r l a ng u a ge
T rav el
le rs n o ti c e the u se o f n g e r co u nting a m o ng t r ibe s w h o ca n
i f the y c h oos e s pe a k the n u mbe r a n d w h o eithe r S ilentl y
co u nt it u p o n thei r nge rs Or v e ry u s u a ll y acco mp a n y the
word w ith the ac ti o n ; n or in d ee d ar e eithe r of the s e m od e s
a t a ll u n fa mili ar in m od e r n E u ro pe L et F a the r Gu mi lla
o n e o f the e ar l y J e s u it m i ss i o n ar ie s in S o u th A me r i ca
d e scr ibe for u s the r el a ti o n o f ge s t u r e t o S pee c h in co u nt
ing a n d a t the sa me time b r ing t o ou r m in ds v e ry r em ar k
a ble e xa mple s (t o be p ara llele d el s e w he r e ) of the ac ti o n
con s en s u s w he r eb y co n v enti o n a l r u le s be co m e x e d
of
a m o n g soc ietie s o f men e v en in s o s i mple a n ar t as th a t O f

co u nting on o n e s n ge rs
N o b ody a m o ng o u rs el v e s

he r em ar k s e xc ept in c i d ent a ll y wo u l d say f or in s t a n c e

& c a n d gi v e the n u mbe r o n hi s n ge rs as

on e
two
w ell b y t o u ching them w ith the o the r h a n d E xac tl y
the co nt rary h a ppen s a m o ng In di a n s The y say for i n

s t a n c e gi v e me on e p a i r of sc i ssors an d for th w ith the y

ra i s e on e nge r ; gi v e me t wo a n d a t o n c e the y ra i s e

t wo a n d so on The y wo u l d ne v e r say v e w ith o u t

s h ow ing a h a n d ne v e r ten w ith o u t h o l d ing ou t b o th

ne v e r t w e n t y w ith o u t add ing u p the nge rs pl ac e d

o pp os ite t o the t o e s M or e ov e r the m od e o f s h ow i n g
the n u mbe rs w ith the nge rs d i ffe rs i n e ac h n a ti o n
T o avo i d p ro li x it y I gi v e as a n e xa mple the n u m be r

th r ee
The O t o macs t o say th r ee u nite the th u mb
for e nge r a n d m i dd le nge r keeping the o the rs dow n
The T a m a n acs S h ow the little nge r the r ing nge r a n d
the mi dd le nge r an d c l os e the o the r t wo
The M a i
p u r e s l as tl y ra i s e the for e mi dd le a n d r ing n ge rs
,

Kra c h en i n n i kow ,

Ka mt c h a t ka ,

17

T II E

24 6

A RT

C O UNTING

or

keeping t h e o the r t w o hi dd en " Th ro u gh o u t th e wor l d

the gene ra l r el a t io n be t w e e n li n ge r c o u nting a n d w o rd
c o u n ti n g m ay b e s t a te d a s fo ll o ws F o r r e ad ine ss an d
fo r e a s e a n d a pp r ehe n s i o n o f n u m be rs a p a lp a ble ar ith
2
m eti c s u c h as i s w o r ke d o n n g e r j o int s o r n g e rs o r
he a p s o f pebble s o r be a n s o r the m or e ar ti c i a l co nt r i
va n c e s o f the rosary o r the a b acu s h as S O g r e a t a n
adva n t a ge O v e r r e c k o ni n g in words as a lm os t ne ce ssar il y
t o p r e c e d e it Th u s n o t o nl y do w e n d n g e r co u nting
a m o n g sava ge s a n d u ne d u ca te d men carry ing on a p ar t of
thei r ment a l o pe ra ti o n s w he r e l a ng u a ge i s o nl y p ar tl y a ble
t o fo ll ow i t b u t it a l so r et a in s a pl ac e a n d a n u n do u bte d
u s e a m o ng the m os t c u lt u r e d n a ti o n s as a p r ep ara ti o n for
a n d me a n s o f ac q u i r ing highe r ar ithmeti ca l meth ods
N o w the r e e x i s t s va li d e v i d en c e t o p rov e th a t a c hil d
le ar ning t o co u nt u p o n it s nge rs do e s in a way r ep rod u c e
a p roc e ss o f th e ment a l hi s t ory of the h u m a n rac e ; th a t in
fac t men co u nte d u p o n thei r nge rs be for e the y fo u n d
words for the n u mbe rs the y th u s e x p r e ss e d ; th a t in thi s
d ep ar tment o f c u lt u r e W ord l a ng u a ge n ot o nl y fo ll ow e d
G e s t u r e l a ng u a ge b u t ac t u a ll y g r e w o u t of it The e v i
d en c e in q u e s ti o n i s p r in c ip a ll y th a t of l a ng u a ge it s el f
w hi c h S h ows th a t a m o ng m an y a n d d i s t a nt t r ibe s men
wa nting t o e x p r e ss 5 in words ca lle d it s impl y b y thei r
n a me fo r the h a n d w hi c h the y hel d u p t o d en o te it th a t in
li k e m a nne r th e y sa i d two h a n ds or h a lf a ma n t o d en o te
1 0 th a t th e word foot carr ie d o n the r e c k o ning u p t o 1 5
,

H i s tor i a del O ren oc o vol iii c h x l v

Gu mi lla ,

P o tt

Z ah l me t h od e

: Th E s ter

b r oker s h a v e u s ed for a ge s an d s t i ll u s e the meth o d o f

s e c retly i n d ic a t i n g n u mb er s t o o n e a n o ther i n ba rga i n i n g b y s n i pp i n g

n ger s u n der a c l o th
E v ery j oy n t a n d e v ery n ger h a th h i s s i g n i c a
t i o n a s an O ld tr av eller s ay s an d the sy s te m s eems a mo re or le ss ar ti ci a l
de v el o p me n t o f o rd i n a ry n g er co u n t i n g the thu mb an d l i ttle n ger
s tret c hed ou t a n d t h e o ther n ger s c l os ed s t an d i n g for 6 or 6 0 the a d
di t i on o f the fourth n ger m a k in g 7 or 7 0 a n d so on I t i s s ai d th a t
b et w ee n two b r okers s ettli n g a p r ic e b y thu s s n i pp i n g w i th the n ger s
c le v er n e ss i n b arga i n i n g O ff eri n g a l i ttle more he s i ta t i n g e x p re ss i ng
c ome s ou t j u s t a s i n ch a eri ng i n
a n o b s t i n a te refu s a l t o g o fa rther
&c
w o rd s
e

COUNT ING

an d to

FI NG E RS AND m m

BY

24 7

w hi c h they d e scr ibe d in words as i n ge s t u r e b y

the h a n ds a n d feet t o gethe r or as on e ma n a n d th a t
l as tl y b y var i o u s e x p r e ss i o n s r e f e rr ing d i r e c tl y t o the
ge s t u r e s of co u nting on the nge rs a n d t o e s the y g av e
n a me s t o the s e a n d inte r me d i a te n u me ra l s A S a d e n ite
te r m i s wa nte d t o d e scr ibe S igni ca nt n u me ra l s of thi s c l ass

it m ay be co n v enient t o ca ll them h an d n u me ra l s or

d igit n u me ra l s A s ele c ti o n o f t y pi ca l in s t an c e s w ill

s e rv e t o m a ke it p ro b a ble th a t thi s ingeni o u s d e v i c e was n o t
a t a n y ra te gene ra ll y co pie d fro m o ne t r ibe b y a n o the r or
inhe r ite d fro m a co mm o n so u rc e b u t th a t it s wor king o u t
w ith or igin a l c h arac te r a n d c u r i o u s l y vary ing d et a il di s pl ays
the r e c u rr en c e of a S imil ar b u t in d epen d ent p roc e ss of
ment a l d e v el o pment a m o ng var i o u s rac e s of m a n
F a the r G ilij d e scr ibing the ar ithmeti c o f the T a m a n acs
o n the O r in oco gi v e s thei r n u me ra l s u p t o 4 : w hen the y
co me t o 5 the y e x p r e ss it by the word a mg n a i tbn e w hi c h

being t ra n s l a te d me a n s a w h o le h a n d ; 6 i s e x p r e ss e d b y
a te r m w hi c h t ra n s l a te s the p ro pe r ge s t u r e int o words

i ta eon o a mg n ap on a teni n i tp e on e o f the o the r h a n d a n d

so on u p t o 9 Co ming t o 1 0 the y gi v e it in words as

a m n a a ee on ar e
1
1
b
o
th
h
a
n
ds
T
o
d
en
o
te
the
y
s
t
r
et
c
h
g
p
o u t b o th th e h a n ds a n d adding the foo t the y say p n i tta

o
n a tee i n i t e
o ne t o the foo t an d th u s u p t o 1 5 w hi c h
p
p

i s ip ta i tOn e a w h o le foo t
N e x t fo ll ows 1 6 on e t o the

o the r foo t a n d so on t o 2 0 tee i n i toto o n e In d i an 2 1

i tae on o i tOto j a mg n ar bon a tev

i n i tp e o n e t o the h a n ds o f the

o the r In d i a n ; 4 0 a eei a eh e i toto t wo In d i a n s ; then c e o n

t o 6 0 8 0 1 0 0 th r ee fo u r v e In di a n s a n d be yo n d i f
nee dfu l S o u th A me r i ca i s r em ar k a bl y r i c h in s u c h e v i
d en c e of a n e ar l y co n d iti o n of n g er co u nting r e cord e d in
s p o ken l ang u age A m o n g it s m a n y o the r l a ng u age s w hi c h
h av e r e co gniz a ble d igit n u me ra l s the C ay ri ri T u pi A bi
p o ne a n d Car ib r i va l the T a m an ac in thei r sys tem a ti c way

of wor king o u t h a n d h a n ds foo t f eet & c O the rs

S h ow s lighte r t rac e s of the sa me p roc e ss w he r e for
in s t an c e the n u me ra l s 5 or 1 0 ar e fo u n d t o be co nne c te d
20

T II E A R T

24 8

CO UN TIN G

or

words f r h a n d & c a w he n the O m ag u a u s e s p a d

h a n d f r 5 a n d r e d u pli ca te s thi s int ap a p a a fo r 1 0 In
s o me S o u th A me r i ca n l a n g u age s a m a n i s r e ck o ne d b y
n ge rs a n d t o e u p t o 2 0 w hile i n c nt ras t t o thi s the r e ar e
t wo l a ng u a ge s w hi c h d i s pl ay a mi s e ra bl y lo w ment a l s t a te
the ma n co u n ti n g o n l y o n e h a n d th u s s t o pping s h or t a t 5 ;

the J u r i {/h o men p

s t a n ds fo r 5 ; th e C ay ri ri
O n e ma n

i bi ch o i s u s e d t o me a n b o th
pe rso n a n d 5
D igit
n u m e ra l s ar e n o t co n ne d t o t r ibe s s t a n d ing like the s e l ow
o r high w ithin the limit s o f sava ge ry
The M u yscas of B o g o t a
w e r e a m o ng the m or e c i v ilize d n a ti v e rac e s of A me r i ca
ra nking w ith the Pe r u v i a n s in thei r c u lt u r e y et the sa me
meth od o f for m a ti o n w hi c h a ppe ars in the l a ng u a ge of the
r u d e T a m a n acs i s t o be t rac e d in th a t o f the M u yscas w h o
w hen the y ca me t o 1 1 1 2 1 3 co u nte d ga i h i eh a a ta bosa

1
n z i ea
i r
foo t on e tw o th r ee
T o t u r n t o N or th
A me r i ca Cra nz the M orav i a n mi ss i o n ary th u s d e scr ibe s
a b o u t a c ent u ry a g o the n u me ra ti o n of the G r eenl a n d e rs

Thei r n u me ra l s he says g o n o t far a n d w ith them the

p rov e r b h o l ds th a t the y ca n scarc e co u n t v e fo r the y
r e c k o n b y the v e nge rs a n d then get the h elp of the t o e s
The
o n thei r f eet a n d so w ith l a b o u r b r ing ou t t w ent y
m od e r n G r eenl a n d g ra mm ar gi v e s the n ume ra l s m u c h as
Cra nz do e s b u t m or e f u ll y The word for 5 i s ta tdli ma t
w hi c h the r e i s so me g ro u n d for s u pp os ing t o h av e o n c e

me a nt h a n d ; 6 i s a i yi n eh a tta a sek o n the o the r h a n d

th os e w hi c h h av e on the
o r m or e s h or tl y a rytn i g dli t
on e

o the r h a n d ; 7 i s a r n eh ma r dln k O n the o the r h a n d

t wo ; 1 3 i s a r ha n eh p i ng a sa t o n the rs t foo t th r ee ;

O n the o the r foo t th r ee ; w hen

1 8 i s a rf ersa n eh p i ng a sa t

the y r e ac h 2 0 the y ca n say i n a h n d e d la g o a m a n en d e d

or i n ap a r a ta i n d r dlng i t the m a n s o u te r membe rs en d e d
in thi s way b y co u nting s e v e ra l men the y r e ac h high e r
wi th

S gg i d i S tor i Am er ic an a vol ii p 3 3 2 ( Taman a c May pu r )

G l o ss Br s i l (C y ri ri T u p i C r i b O magu J ur i G u a c h i C oret u
M tin
B oh r i z
C ni
n
C r aj as C o r oad o
C h ren t s M x uru n a C ar i p u n

he if er Ab i pon es vol ii p 1 6 8 H u mb oldt Mon u men s pl x l iv ( M uy s c )

1

Gi lij

s,

ar

a,

xa

a,

a,

HAND AND FOOT N UMERALS

24 9

n u mbe rs th u s e x p r e ss ing for e xa mple 5 3 as i nap p i ng a

m
a n o n the rs t foo t
o
n
the
thi
rd
a g sd n e a r h a n ek p i ng a sn t
j
1
th r ee
I f w e p ass fro m the r u d e G r eenl an d e rs t o the co m
c
i
v
ilize
d
A
zte
cs
w
e
s
h
a
ll

n
d
o
n
the
N
or
the
r
n
as
l
a ra t i v
e
y
p
o n th e S o u the r n co ntinent t rac e s o f e ar l y n g e r n u me ra ti o n
s u rv i v i n g a m o ng highe r rac e s The M e x i ca n n a me s for the
rs t fo u r n u me ra l s ar e as o b sc u r e in et y m o l o g y as o u r ow n
B u t w hen w e co me t o 5 w e n d thi s e x p r e ss e d b y ma en i lli ;

a n d as ma ( m a i t 1) me a n s h a n d a n d en i toa t o p a int or
d epi c t it i s likel y th a t the word for 5 m ay h av e me a nt
so mething like h a n d d epi c ting
In 1 0 ma tla etli the

word ma h a n d a ppe ars ag a in w hile tta etli me a n s h a l f a n d

i s r ep r e s ente d in the M e x i ca n pi c t u r e wr iti n g s b y the g u r e
of h a l f a m a n fro m the wa i s t u p ward ; th u s it a ppe ars th a t

the A zte c 1 0 me a n s the h a n d

h a l f O f a m a n j u s t as
a m o ng the Tow k a I n d i a n s o f S o u th A me r i ca 1 0 i s e x p r e ss e d

as h a l f a m a n a w h o le m a n being 2 0 When the A zte cs

r e ac h 2 0 the y ca ll it eemp oa lli on e co u nting w ith e v i

d en t ly the sa me me a ning as el s e w he r e o ne w h o le m a n
nge rs a n d t o e s
A m o n g rac e s o f the l ow e r c u lt u r e el s e w he r e s imil ar fac t s
ar e t o be o b s e rv e d The T as m a ni a n l an g u a ge ag a in s h ows
the m a n s t o pping s h or t a t the r e c k o ni n g o f him s el f w hen he
h as hel d u p o ne h a n d a n d co u nte d it s nge rs ; thi s a ppe ars
b y M illig a n s li s t be for e menti o ne d w hi c h en ds w ith p a gg a na
m a n s t a n d ing for 5 S o me of the We s t A u s t ra li a n t r ibe s
h av e do ne m u c h bette r th a n thi s u s ing thei r word for

h a n d ma rh r a m a r h j i n ha ng g a
h a l f the h a n ds i s

h a l f the h a n ds a n d o ne
5 ; ma r h j i n ba ng g a g a dj i r gg/n
i s 6 a n d so on ; ma rh 17i n belli belli g n dj i r j i na ba ng g a

the h a n d o n eithe r s i d e a n d h a l f the f eet i s

A s an e x
a m ple fro m the M el a ne s i a n l a ng u a ge s the M are w ill s e rv e ;

it r e ck o n s 1 0 as ome r e ri t e tn ben i n e a pp ar entl y the t wo

,

C ran z
p 2 8 6 ; K le i n s c h mi dt G r der GrOn l S pr Rae
ol iv p 1 4 5
i n T r E th S o c v

2
M i ll i gan l c G F M oo re V o c ab W A u s tra l i a C ompare a s er i e s
from S yd n ey i n P o tt z ah lmet h od e p 4 6
o f qu i na ry n u mer a l s t o 9
1

T II E A R T

25 0

COUNTING

or

wg me
r
s i d e s ( i e b o th h a n d s ) 2 0 a s
o n e m an
&c ;

th u s i n J hn v 5 w hi c h h ad a n in fi r mity thi r t y an d eigh t

y e ars t h e n u me ra l 3 8 i s e x p r e ss e d by the ph ras e o n e

ma n a n d b o th s i d e s v e a n d th r ee
In the M a l ayo
P o l y ne s i a n l a n g u a ge s the ty pi ca l word for 5 i s li ma o r r i m

h a n d a n d the c o nne x i o n i s n o t l os t b y the ph o neti c

vari a ti o n s a m o ng d i ffe r ent b ra n c he s o f thi s fa mil y of l a n
g u a ge s as in M a l a g asy d i my M ar q u e sa n m T o ng a n
n i ma b u t w hile [M a a n d it s var ietie s me a n 5 in a lm os t a ll

Ma lay O P o l y ne s i a n d i a le c t s it s me a ning o f h a n d i s c on
ne d t o a m u c h n arrow e r d i s t r i c t s h ow ing th a t the word
be ca me m or e pe r m a n ent b y p ass ing int o the co n d iti o n o f a
t rad iti o n a l n u me ra l In l a ng u a ge s of the M a l ayo P o l y ne s i a n
fa mil y it i s u s u a lly fo un d th a t 6 & c ar e carr ie d o n w ith
words w h os e et y m o l o g y i s n o l o nge r O b v i o u s b u t the for m s

li m a sa li ma z a a h a n d o ne
h a n d t wo h av e been fo u n d
do ing d u t y for 6 a n d
In We s t A fr i ca K Olle s acco u nt o f
the V ei l a ng u a ge gi v e s a cas e in p o int The s e neg ro e s ar e
so d epen d ent on thei r nge rs th a t so me ca n h ard l y co u nt
w ith o u t a n d thei r t o e s ar e co n v enien t as the ca l c u l a t or s q u a t s
The V ei pe o ple a n d m a n y o the r A fr i ca n
on the g ro u n d
t r ibe s w hen co u nting rs t co u nt the nge rs of thei r le f t
h a n d beginning be it r emembe r e d fro m th e little o ne then
in the sa me m a nne r th os e of the r ight h a n d a n d af te rwards
the t o e s The V ei n u me ra l for 2 0 mo ban d e me a n s o b v
i

a pe rso n (me ) i s ni s he d
a n d s imil ar l y
ou sly

t wo men th r ee men fo u r men & c ar e

4 0 60 8 0 &c
ni s he d
It i s a n inte r e s ting p o int th a t the neg ro e s w h o
u s e d the s e ph ras e s h ad l os t thei r or igin a l d e scr ipti v e s en s e
the words h av e be co me more n u me ra l s t o the m ? L as tl y
for b r i n gi n g be for e ou r min ds a pi c t u r e of a m a n co un ting
u p o n hi s nge rs a n d being s t r u c k b y the i d e a th a t i f he
d e scribe s hi s ge s t u r e s in words the s e words m ay be co me a n

an

a,

a,

W v
vol vi p

K olle G r
.

Res
3

Mela n es i c h e S p r a c he n , p 1 83

H umb o ldt K a w i S r vol ii p

Gab el e n t z ,

'

90 ;
of

Vei L g p
an

27

J o ur n I n d A rch i
p
.

308

v
ol iii p
.

c orrob ora ted b y

1 82 , & c

A s

HAND AND FO OT N U M ERALS

25 1

ac t u a l n a me for the n u mbe r pe r h a p s n o l a ng u age in the

wor l d s u r p ass e s the Z u l u The Z u l u co u nting o n hi s
nge rs begin s in gene ra l w ith the little nge r o f hi s le f t
h a n d When he co me s t o 5 thi s he m ay ca ll ed esa n ta

ni s h h a n d ; then he g o e s o n t o the th u mb of the r ight

h a n d a n d so the word ta ti si tnp a t a k i ng the th u mb

be co me s a n u me ra l for 6 Then the v e r b komba t o p o int

i nd i ca ting the for e nge r or p o inte r m a ke s t h e ne x t

n u me ra l 7
Th u s a n sw e r ing the q u e s ti o n H ow m u c h

?
di d yo u r m as te r gi v e yo u a Z u l u wo u l d say U kombi le

H e p o inte d w ith hi s for e nge r

i e
H e g av e me
s e v en a n d thi s c u r i o u s way o f u s ing th e n u me ra l v e r b i s

s h ow n in s u c h a n e xa mple as amah asi a hombi le the

h ors e s h av e p o inte d i e the r e w e r e s e v en o f them

In

like m a nne r K ij a ng a tobi li keep b ac k tw o nge rs i e 8

a n d K ij a ng a lola nj e keep b ack o ne n ge r i e 9 le ad o n

t o hn mi 1 0 ; a t the co mpleti o n o f e ac h ten the t wo h a n ds
w ith o pen nge rs ar e cl a ppe d t o gethe r
The the ory th a t m a n s p r imiti v e m od e of co u nting was
p a lp a ble r e ck o ning on hi s h a n ds a n d the p roof th a t m a n y
n u me ra l s i n p r e s ent u se ar e ac t u a ll y d e r i v e d fro m s u c h a
s t a te of thing s i s a g r e a t s tep t owards d i scov e r ing the or igin
of n u me ra l s in gene ra l Ca n w e g o far the r a n d s t a te
b road l y the ment a l p roc e ss b y w hi c h sava ge men h av ing n o
n u me ra l s as y et in thei r l a ng u a ge ca me t o in v ent them ?
Wh a t was th e or igin of n u me ra l s n o t n a me d w ith r e f e r en c e
t o h a n ds a n d f eet a n d e s pe c i a ll y o f the n u me ra l s bel ow v e
t o w hi c h s u c h a d e r i va ti o n i s h ard l y a pp ro p r i a te ? The
s u bj e c t i s a pe c u li ar l y di f c u lt o ne Y et as t o p r in ci ple it
i s n o t a lt o gethe r o b sc u r e for so me e v i d en c e i s for th
co ming as t o the ac t u a l for m a ti o n o f ne w n u me ra l words
the s e being m ad e b y s impl y p r e ss ing int o the s e rv i c e
n a me s o f o bj e c t s or ac ti o n s in so me way a pp ro p r i a te t o the
p u r p os e
Pe o ple possessm g f u ll s et s of inhe r ite d n u me ra l s in thei r
,

G r for

S c hreuder
Z ulu S prog et p
Z ulu G r S ee H ah n G r de s H erer o
1

3 0 ; D Oh n e ,

Z ulu D i c

G r ut
o

T II E A R T O F C O U N T I N G

25 2

l a ng u a ge s h av e ne v e r thele ss s o metime s fo u n d it c on
ve n i e n t t o in v e n t ne w o n e s Th u s the sch o l ars of In d i a
a ge s a g o s ele c te d a s e t o f w o rd s fr o m a me m or i a t ec lm i c a i n
ord e r t o r e c o rd da te s a n d n u mbe rs The s e w o rds the y c h os e
for r e aso n s w hi c h ar e s till in g r e a t me as u r e e v i d ent ; th u s

m o o n o r e ar th e x p r e ss e d 1 the r e be in g b u t o n e of

e a c h ; 2 migh t be c a lle d e y e
wi ng
ar m
jaw

g o i n g in p a i rs ; fo r 3 the y sa i d R a m a
r e or
as

q u a lity the r e being co n s i d e r e d t o be th r ee R a m as th r ee

ki n ds o f r e th r ee q u a litie s (g u n a ) ; for 4 w e r e u s e d v e da

a ge o r oc e a n the r e being fo u r o f e ac h r e co gnize d ;

s e aso n for 6 be ca u s e the y r e ck o ne d S i x s e aso n s ; sage

or
vow el for 7 fro m the s e v en sage s a n d the s e v en

vow el s ; a n d so on w ith highe r n u mbe rs s u n fo r 1 2

be ca u s e o f hi s t w el v e a nn u a l d en o min a ti o n s o r z od i ac

fro m it s t w el v e s ign s a n d n a il for 2 0 a word in ci d ent a ll y

b r inging in a n ge r n o t a ti o n A s S a n s k r it i s v e ry r i c h in
sy n o n y m s a n d as e v en the n u m e ra l s them s el v e s might be
u s e d i t be ca me v e ry e asy t o draw u p ph ras e s o r n o n s en s e
V e rs e s t o r e cord s e r ie s O f n u mbe rs b y thi s sys tem o f ar ti
c i al mem ory
The fo ll ow ing i s a H in d u as t ro n o mi ca l
for m u l a a li s t o f n u mbe rs r e f e rr in g t o the s t ars o f the l u n ar
co n s tell a ti o n s E ac h word s t a n ds as t h e mnem o ni c eq u i
va lent of the n u mbe r pl ac e d ov e r i t in the E ngli s h t ra n s
l a ti o n
The gene ra l p r in c iple o n w hi c h the words ar e
c h os en t o d en o te the n u mbe rs i s e v i d ent w ith o u t f u r the r
e x pl a n a ti o n
o wn

t r i rt vi sh u g u n e n d u k ri t agn i b h ut a
Ban asv
i n e t ra ca r a bh k u y u gab d h i ramAh
R u d rabd h i r ama g u n av
i y u g ma
e da cata d v
D a n t a b u d h ai rab h i h i th k ramaco b h at arah
V ah n i

F i re t h ree s e a s on a rr o w
,

re ,

e l e me n t

A rr o w

3
,

q u a li t y

moon , fo u r

si de

of

d ie

in,
As v

eye

5
,

rr ow e a rth e a rth
,

4
,

4
e, o

c e an Ra ma
,

I N V E NTED NUMERALS
ll

R ud ra

c e an R ama
,

u a li t y

25 3

100

V e d a,

h u n d red

t w o,

co u p l e

32

T e eth : by
l o rd s

w i s e h a v e b ee n s et

th e

f o rt h i n

rd e r

m i g h ty

th e

It occ u rr e d t o Wilhelm v
o n H u m b o l d t in s t u dy ing thi s
cu ri ou s sys te m o f n u me ra ti o n th a t he h ad be for e hi s e y e s
the e v i d en c e o f a p roc e ss v e ry like th a t w hi c h ac t u a ll y p ro
d u c e d the r eg u l ar n u me ra l words d en o ting on e tw o th r ee
& c in the var i o u s l a ng u a ge s o f the wor l d
The fo ll ow ing
p assa ge in w hi c h m or e th a n S i x t y y e ars ag o he s et for th
thi s V ie w s eem s t o me t o co nt a in a ne ar l y pe rf e c t ke y t o

the the ory o f n u me ra l words

I f w e t a ke int o co n s i d e ra
t i o n the or igin o f ac t u a l n u me ra l s the p roc e ss o f thei r
for ma ti o n a ppe ars e v i d entl y t o h av e bee n the sa me as th a t
he r e d e scr ibe d
The l a tte r i s n o thing el s e th a n a w i d e r
e x ten s i o n o f the for me r F o r w hen 5 i s e x p r e ss e d as in

s e v e ra l l a ng u a ge s o f the M a l ay fa mil y b y h a n d (li ma )

thi s i s p r e ci s el y the sa me thing as w hen i n the d e scr ipti o n

o f n u mbe rs b y wor ds
2 i s d en o te d b y
w ing
I n di spu t
a bl y the r e lie a t th e roo t o f a ll n u me ra l s s u c h met a ph ors
as the s e th o u gh the y ca nn o t a l ways be n o w t rac e d B u t
pe o ple s eem e ar l y t o h av e f elt th a t the m u ltipli c it y o f s u c h
s ign s for the sa me n u mbe r was s u pe r u o u s t o o c l u m sy a n d
le ad i n g t o mi s u n d e rs t a n d ing s
The r e for e he g o e s o n t o
ar g u e sy n o n y m s of n u me ra l s ar e v e ry rar e A n d t o
n a ti o n s w ith a d eep s en s e o f l a ng u a ge
the f eeling m u s t
soo n h av e bee n p r e s ent th o u gh pe r h a p s w ith o u t r i s i n g t o
d i s tin c t co n sc i o u s ne ss th a t r e co lle c ti o n s o f the or igin a l
et y m o l o g y an d d e scr ipti v e me a ning of n u me ra l s h ad be s t be
a ll ow e d t o d i sa ppe ar so as t o le av e the n u me ra l s them s el v e s
t o be co m e me r e co n v enti o n a l te r m s
,

A s

S i r W J on e s i n
R e s vl ii 1 7 9 0 p 2 9 6 ; E J a c quet i n N ou v

J ourn A s i a t 1 83 5 ; W V H u mb oldt K w i S pr vol i p 1 9 T h i s

s y s te m O f re c rd i ng d te s & c e x te n ded s f
n d the I n d i n
s T i b et
A r c h i p el go M n y imp rt n t p oi n t s of O r i ent a l c hr on ol ogy de p en d on
s u c h for mul s U n fortu n a tely the i r e vi den c e i s more or le ss V i t i a ted b y
i n c n s i s ten ci e s i n the u s e f w ord s for n u mb er s
1

ar

2 54

ART OF COUNTING

TH E

The m o s t in s t r u c ti v e e v i d en c e I h av e fo u n d be ar ing o n
the for m a t i o n o f n u me ra l s o the r th a n d igit n u me ra l s
a m o n g the l o w e r rac e s a ppe ars in the u s e o n b o th s i d e s of
the gl o be o f w h a t m ay be ca lle d n u me ra l n a me s fo r c hil dr en
I II A u s t ra li a a w ell m ar ke d cas e occ u rs With a ll the
p ov e r t y o f the a b or igin a l l a ng u a ge s in n u me ra l s 3 being

co mm o nl y u s e d as m e a ning s e v e ra l or m a n y the n a ti v e s
i n the A d el a i d e d i s t r i c t h av e for a p ar ti c u l ar p u r p os e g o ne
far be yo n d thi s n arrow limit a n d p oss e ss w h a t i s t o a ll
intent s a s pe c i a l n u me ra l sys tem e x ten d ing pe r h a p s t o 9
The y gi v e x e d n a me s t o thei r c hil dr en in o rd e r of a ge
w hi c h ar e s et dow n as fo ll ows b y M r E yr e : 1 K e rt ame ru ;
2 VVarri t y a ; 3 K u dn u ty a ; 4 M o u ai t y a ; 5 M i lai ty a ; 6
Marru ty a ; 7 W an g u t y a ; 8 N g arlai ty a ; 9 P ou arn a
The s e ar e the m a le n a me s fro m w hi c h the f em a le d i ffe r in
te r min a ti o n
The y ar e gi v en a t bi r th m or e d i s tin c ti v e
1
a ppell a ti o n s being soo n af te rwards c h os en
A S imil ar
h a bit m a ke s it s a ppe ara n c e a m o ng the M a l ays w h o in so me
d i s t r i c t s ar e r ep or te d t o u s e a s e r ie s o f s e v en n a me s in ord e r
2 A wa ng
beginning w ith 1 S a la ag
o f a ge

fr ien d
a n d en d ing w ith Kechi l ( little
or B ong su
The s e ar e fo r so n s ;
da u ghte rs h av e Meh p r e x e d a n d ni ck na me s h av e t o be
2
u s e d fo r prac ti ca l d i s tin c ti o n
In M ada g ascar the M a l ay
co nne xi o n m a ni f e s t s it s el f in the a ppe ara n c e of a s imil ar s et
of a ppell a ti o n s gi v en t o chil dr en in lie u of p ro pe r n a me s
w hi c h ar e h ow e v e r O f ten s u b s tit u te d in af te r y e ars

La h i i o ( inte r me d i a te
M a le s ; La hi ma toa
rs t

R a fa r a Za h y ( l as t b or n m a le
F em a le s ;

Ra i i o
R a ma toa ( el d e s t
Ra

av
f ar a v
The sys tem e x i s t s in
y ( l as t b or n f em a le
-

A u s tr al i a

E yre
V c b f P nkalla
vol ii p 3 24 Sh i i r man
Lang g iv e s forms p art i ally c orre s p on d i n g
J o ur n I n d A ch i
ii 1 85 8 p 1 1 8 [S ul o g A w an g
ol
p N e w S er v
It m
P uteh
A ll g P en deh K e c h i l o B ong su ] ; B s
t i a O est l A s i e n vl ii p 4 9 4 T he det i l s are i mp erfe c tly gi v
e a nd
s eem n o t l l c orre c t
E ll i s M d g s c r vol i p 1 5 4 A l s A nd i amp i v
L hi Z n
1

n,

o a

ar

an

n,

n,

o , or

N U ME R AL PERS ONAL NAM ES

N orth A merica

25 5

There have been found in use am o ng

the D ac o t as the following two series of names for sons
and daughters in order o f birth
E ldest son C h a slce ;
second H ap a r m third H a p e ela h ; fourth C h a ta n ; fth
H a r ka
E ldest daughter W en on a h ; second H a rp en ;
third H a rp s ten a h fourth W a ska fth W e h a r ka These
mere numeral a ppellati o ns they ret a in t h rou g h ch i ldh o o d
till their rel a t i ons or friends nd occa sion to replace them
1
by bestowing some m o re distinctive personal name A frica
2
a ffo rds further examples
A s t o numerals in th e ordinary sense Polynesia shows
remarkable cases o f new fo r mation
B esides the well
known system o f numer a l words prev a lent in Polynesi a
exceptional terms have from time to time grown up Thus
the habit o f altering w o rds which sounded too nearly like a
king s name has led the Tahitians o n the accession of new
chiefs to make several new words for numbers
Thus
wanting a new term for 2 instead o f the ordinary m a they

fo r o bvious reasons took up the word p i ti

together and
made it a numer a l while to get a new w o rd fo r 5 instead o f

M ma
hand which had to be discontinued they su b s ti

part division meaning pr o b a bly di vision o f

tu t ed p a e
the two hands
Such words as these intr o duced in
P o lynesia for ceremonial reasons are expected t o be
dropped again and the old ones replaced when the reason
for their temporary exclusion ceases yet the new 2 and 5
i
t
i
and p a e became so positively the proper numerals of
p
the langu age that they stand instead o f m a and Mma in the
Tahiti a n translation o f the G o spel o f St John made at
the time A gain various special habits o f counting in the
S o uth Sea Isl a nds h a ve h a d their e ffect on language The
Marquesans c o unting sh o r fruit by on e in each hand
.

m a l e ; A n d ri an i vo for i n t erm edi a te m a l e M alagas y la h y

m al e =Ma la y l a k i ; M a l ga s y v
a ry
fema le
To ng a n f a n e M a o r i wa h z e
w o m a n

c om p M a l a y bd tz n a
fem a l e
1
M E as t m an D ah c o t ah o r L i fe an d L egend s o f t h e S i ou x p xxv
2
J ou rn E t h no l S oc vol i v ( A kra ) ; P l oss D a s K i n d vol i p 1 3 9
( E lm i n a )
d ri n a

fo r las t

25 6

ART

TH E

COUNTING

or

h a ve c o me t o u s e a sy s tem o f c o u n ting b y p a irs instead o f

by unit s They s ta r t wi t h I mm a a p a ir which thus

bec o me s a numera l equiv a le n t t o 2 ; then they coun t
o n w a rd by p a irs s o that whe n they t a lk o f ta lca a o r 1 0 they
re ally me a n 1 0 p air o r 2 0 F o r b re a d f ruit a s they are
accust o med t o t i e them up i n kn o ts o f f o ur they begin wi th

the w o rd p ow kn o t which thu s bec o mes a real numer a l

fo r 4 a n d he re ag a in they go o n counti n g by kn o ts so that
w hen they s ay tu /ca a o r 1 0 they mean 1 0 kn o ts o r 4 0
The phil o l o gical my s t i ca t i on thus c a used in Polynesian
vocabula ries is extra ordi n ary ; in Tahitian & c m a and
ma n e pr o perly meaning 1 0 0 an d
have come to
signify 2 0 0 and
while in Hawaii a second doubling
in their sense makes them equivalent to 4 0 0 and
M o reove r i t seems p o ssible to trace the transfer o f suitable
n ames o f obj ects still farther in Polynesia in the Tongan
and Maori w o rd teka a 1 0 which seems to have been a

word for parcel or bunch used in counting ya r ns and

sh as also in tef a hi 1 00 derived from fa h i sheaf or

1
bun dle
In A frica also special numeral formations are to be

noticed In the Y oruba langu age 4 0 is c a lled og odz i a

string because cowries are strung by f orties an d 2 0 0 is

i g ba
a heap meani n g again a heap of cowries A mong
the D ah o mans in like manner 4 0 cowries make a ka d e o r

string 5 0 strings make o n e af o or head ; these words

bec o ming n umerals for 4 0 an d
When the king o f
D a home att a cked A beokuta it is on record that he was

repulsed with the he a vy loss of two heads twenty strings

and twenty c o wries o f men that is to say
A m o ng cultured nations whose languages are most
tightly b o und t o th e c o nventional and unintelligible

H H a l e E t h n ograp h y and P h i l ol ogy vol v i o f W i lk es U S E xpl or

i n g Ex p P h i l a d e l p h i a 1 8 4 6 pp 1 7 2 2 8 9
N
B
Th e o rdi n a ry e di t i o n s
(
d o n o t c on t a i n t h i s i m p or ta n t v o l u m e )

2
B o w en Gr a n d D i e of Y o ru b a B u rt on i n Mem A n t h rop
vo l i p 3 1 4
1

VA RI OUS N U MERAL TERM S

25 7

numerals of their ancestors it is likewise usu a l to nd

other terms existing which are pr a ctically numerals a lready
a n d might drop at once int o the rec o gnized place o f such if
by any chance a gap were made for them in the traditional
series Had we room for instance fo r a new word instead

two then either p a i r ( L atin p a r

of
equ a l ) or coup le

is ready to ll its pl a ce
( L atin cap a la bo n d or

Instead o f tw en ty the go o d E nglish word scor e notch

will serve our turn while for the same purpose G erman

can use sti eg e possibly with the original sense of a stal l

full of cattle a sty ; O ld N orse d r ott a comp a ny

D anish sn ees A list of such words used but no t gram
mat i cally classed as numerals in E uropean languages shows
great variety : examples are O ld N o rse ochr ( ock ) 5 ;
ett
sv
2 0 ; th tod h ( people )
6 ; d r tt ( party )
3 0 ; folk
( people ) 4 0 ; old ( people ) 8 0 ; h er ( army ) 1 0 0 ; S le swi g
sch i lk
1 2 (as though we were to make a numeral o u t o f

shilli ng
Middle High G erman r otte 4 ; N ew High
G erman ma n d el 1 5 ; seh och ( sheaf ) 6 0 The L etts give a
curious parallel to Polynesian cases j ust cited
They
throw crabs and little sh three at a time in counting them

and therefore the word mettens a throw has come t o

mean 3 ; while flound ers being fastened in lots of thirty

the word ka hlts a cord becomes a term to express this

1
number
In two other ways the production o f numerals from
merely descriptive words may be observed both among
lower and higher races
The G allas have n o numerical
fractional terms but they make an equivalent set of terms
from the division of the cakes of salt which they use as

money Thus tch a bn a n a a broken piece ( from tch a ba

to break as we s ay a
receives the me a ning
of on e half ; a term which we may compare with La tin
( ti mi d ta m
F rench d emi O rdinal numbers are generally
derived fr o m c a rdinal num b ers as th i r d fou rth fth from
,

S ee

o tt,

Z a h l me t h o d e ,

Rec h t s al t ert h u mer,

I

ch

pp

7 8, 9 9 , 124, 1 61 ;

G i mm
r

D ut h
e

sc

T II E A R T

COUNTING

or

But a mong the very lo w o nes there is to

b e s ee n evide n c e o f independent f o rmation quite u n c o n
n e c t e d w ith
a c o nve n ti o n a l s ystem o f numera ls a l ready

existing Thu s the G reenl a n der did n o t use his o n e to

m a ke li rs t b ut c a ll s it s uj ug d /e/c f o remost n o r two

sec o n d whi c h he c alls a tp a his compani o n ;

t o m a ke

i t is o nly a t thi rd that h e t a kes t o his c a rdin a ls and

f o rms [u n /aj u u t in c o nnexi o n with p ray/a m t 3 So in
I n do E ur o pean languages the ordinal p r a th mnas s pan 0 9

r i m us rs t
has
no
thing
to
do
with
a
numerical
on e
p

but wi t h the prep o sition p r a before as meaning simply

fo re mos t g and although G reeks a n d G ermans call the

z wet
next ordinal de dT ep o g z wei te from
we call it

L a tin secn n d a s the following (sega t) which is

second
again a descriptive sense word
If we allow ourselves to mix for a moment W hat is with
what might be we can see how unlimited i s the eld of
possible growth o f numerals by mere adoption of the names
F ollowing the example of the S le sw ig e rs
o f familiar things
we might make shi lli ng a numeral for 1 2 and go o n to ex
press 4 by g r ea t ; week would provide us with a name for 7
and clov
er fo r 3
But this simple method of description
is not the only av a ilable one for the purpose of making
numerals The moment any s e ri e s of names is arranged in
regular order in our minds it becomes a counting
mach ine
I h ave read o f a little girl who was set to count cards and
she coun ted them accordingly Janu a ry F ebruary March
A pril She might of c o urse have reckoned them as
Mond a y Tuesday Wednesday It is interesting to nd a
case c o ming under the same cl a ss in the language o f grown
people We know th a t the numerical value o f the Hebrew
letters is given with reference to their place in the alphabet
which was arranged for reas o ns that can hardly have had
anything to do with arithmetic The G reek alph a bet is m o di
e d f rom a Semitic o n e but inste a d of letting the numeral
value o f their lette rs foll o w thr o ughout their newly arranged
a lph a b et they r eck o n a
8 y 6 e pr o perly as 1 2 3 4 5

VARIO U S N UMERAL TERMS

25 9

for 6 an d so m a nage t o let l stand for 1 0

then put in
as d o es in Hebrew where it is r eally the l 0 t h letter N o w
h a ving this conventional a rrangement of letters m a de it is
evident that a G reek who h a d to give up the regular 1 2 3
efg
c o uld supply their places a t once by
T p e fg
a d o pting the n a mes o f the lette r s which had been settled to
st a nd fo r them thus calling 1 a lp h a 2 beta 3 g a mma a n d
The thing has actually h a ppened ; a r ema rkable
s o onward
slang di a lect of A lbani a which is G r eek in structure
though full o f borrowed and mystied w o rds and metaph o rs
a n d epithets understoo d only by the initiated has
as its

equivalent for fou r and t e n the words de h r a and

s

While insisting on the value of such evidence as this in

making out th e gener a l principles of the formati o n of
nume rals I h a ve n o t found it protable to undertake the
task of etymol ogizing the a ctu a l numer a ls o f the languages
of the wo r ld outside the safe limits o f the systems of digit
nume rals among the lower races already discussed There
may be in the languages of the lower races other relics o f
the etymology o f numerals giving the clue to the ideas
according to which they were selected fo r an arithmetic a l
2
purpose but such relics seem scanty and indistinct
There
may even exist vestiges o f a g r owth of numer a ls f r om de
scriptive w o rds in o u r Indo E u r opean langu ages in Hebrew
and A rabic in C hi n ese
Such etymologies have been
,

A rg ot

i q u e M i c h el
p 4 83
2
O f e v id en ce o f t h i s c l a s s t h e fo ll o wi n g d e s erv e s at t en t i o n Do b ri z h o ffer

Abi on es v
ol
ii p 1 6 9 g i v es g ey enkna te os t ri c h t oes as t h e n u m era l
p
f or 4 t h e i r o st ri c h h a vi n g t h re e t oes b e fore a n d o n e b e h i n d a n d n een h a lek

a v
e c o l o u re d s p o tt e d h id e
a s t h e n u m e ra l 5
L H o mm e
D O rb i g n y
Am ri c ai n vol ii p 1 6 3 re m ark s
Les C h i q ui t os n e s a v en t c om p t er q u e
j u s q u a u n ( ta ma ) n a y a n t p l u s en s ui t e q u e d es t erm es d e c om p ara i s on

n o t i c e s t h a t f ra m e a n s b o t h
K oll e Gr o f V ei
wi t h a n d 2 a n d

t h i n k s t h e form er m ea n i n g o ri g i n a l ( co m p are t h e Ta h p tt t
t og e t h e r

t h en c e
A z t ec
Q ui c h u a ch u n cu h ea p ch u n ca 10 may b e c onn ec t ed

ce 1
cen t l i
gra i n m ay b e c on n ec t ed O n p oss i b l e d eri v a t i o n s o f 2 from
h a n d & c esp ec i a lly H o tt en t ot t koa m h a n d
s ee P o t t
z ah lme t h o d e
p 29

ran c s

TH E ART

260

r w ar d

CO UNTING

or

a n d they a re c on sisten t wi th
br o ugh t f
what i s
kn o w n o f t h e p ri n ciple s o n which numera ls o r quasi
numera ls a re re a lly fo rmed Bu t s o fa r a s I have been able
t o ex a mine t h e evide n ce the c a ses a l l seem s o phil o l o gic a lly
d o u b t ful th a t I c annot b ri n g them fo rw a rd i n a id o f the
the o ry befo re u s a n d i n deed t hink th a t i f they s ucceed in
e s t a b li s h i n g t hemselves i t w ill b e b y the the o ry supporting
them ra t he r th a n b y thei r s upp o rti n g the the o ry This
s t a te o f thi n gs indeed ts perfectly with the view here
th a t when a w o rd h as o nce bee n t a ken up t o
a d o pted
se rve as a numer a l a n d is thencefo rth wanted as a mere
symb o l it b ec o mes the interest o f langu age to a llow it t o
break down into a n a pp a rent no n sense word from which
a ll t ra ces o f origin a l etymol o gy have disappe a red
E t ym o l ogica l rese a rch into the derivation o f numeral
w ords thus hardly goes with s a fety beyond sh o wing in the
languages o f the l o wer culture freque n t inst a nces o f digit
numerals words taken fr o m direct description o f the ges
tures of c o u n ting on ngers a n d toes
Beyond this
ers
a nother strong a rgument is available which indeed co v
a lm o st the whole r a nge o f the problem The nume rical
systems o f the wo rld by the actual schemes of their a rrange
ment extend and conrm th e o pinio n that counting on
nge rs and toes was man s o riginal method o f reckoning
To count the
t a ke n up a n d rep r esented in language
n ge rs on on e h an d up t o 5 a n d then g o on with a second
o

S ee

Fa r

C h a p t ers

ra r,

on

L ng g
a

ua

e,

22 3

B e n l oew ,

R h h

ec

erc

es sur

I n d o E u rop p rt ii c h
v H u m b ol d t p l u si bl e c om p i
n d P e rs p enj h
t h e p a lm o f t h e h n d wi t h t h e
n Sk
so n b e t w
p n ch a 5
t h ou g h 5 w er c ll e d
n g ers s p re d ou t ; t h e u t s p d foot o f b i d
Th e P er i n p nj eh i i t s l f
p a n ch f o m b i n g l i k a h n d i s err n e u s
d ri v d f om t h n u m eral 5
i n S k r t h e h n d i s c ll e d p n ch edkh a
th e
e b ra n h d
v
Th s m form a t i o n i s fo u n d i n E n gl i h ; s l a n g d escri b es

h
d

v
b u n c h of v es t h n c e t h e n m e o f t h e g m e
s h is
e
ma n s
n
p l ay e d b y s t ri k i n g t h e b ll wi t h t h o p en h n d
t erm w h i c h
of v s
cc e p t d l n g u g e
B urt on d escri b e s
h s m d i t w y u t f s l an g i n t
m l c ll i n g h i s c o m p n i n s t t n t i on t o g r i n f
t h p o l i te A a b t
i c f ll en i n t o h i s b d
Th e g z ll e i s i n t h e g rd e n h e s y s wi t h
W e wi ll h u n t h r wi t h t h v i s t h e e p ly
sm ile
o m re
Pi c t e t ,
l O ri g i n e d es
om s d e

A
ii ; P o t t , Z ah l me t h o d e , p 1 28 , & c

ee

s,

ear

ar

as

s a

or

ea

as

n es

O igi

re a

e,

U I NAR Y

D E CI MAL

AND V I GES I MAL

261

ve is a n otation by ves or a s it is c a lled a quin a ry n o t a

tion To count by the use o f b o th h a nds t o 1 0 and thence
to reckon by tens is a decim a l n o t a tion To go o n by
hands and feet to 2 0 a n d thence to reck o n by twe nties is a
V igesim a l notation N ow though in the larger proportion of
known l a ngu a ges no distinct mention of ngers and t o es
h a nds a n d feet is o bservable in the numerals them selves
yet the very schemes of quina ry decim al an d V igesimal no
t a t i on remain t o vouch for such hand and foot counting
having been the original method o n which they we r e
founded There seems no d o ubt th a t the number o f the
ngers led to the ad o ption of the not especially suit a ble
number 1 0 as a perio d in reckoning so that decimal
arithmetic is based on hum a n a natomy This is so obvious
that it is curious to see O vid in his well kn o wn lines putting
the two facts close togethe r without seeing th a t the sec o nd
was the consequence of the rst
,

An n u s

d e ci mu m

e rat ,

cu m

l una

pe ra t o rb e m
h on ore f u i t
re c e

u m e r u s m ag n o t u n e i n
S e u q ui a t ot di g i t i pe r q u os n u m era re sol e mu s
S eu q ui a b i s q u i n o fe m i n a m e n se p ari t
S eu q u o d ad u sq u e d ece m n u m e ro cre s ce n t e v
en i tu r
1
P ri n c i p i u m spat i i s s u mi t u r i n d e n o v i s
H ic

In surveying the l a nguages o f the world at l a rge it is

found that among tribes o r nations far enough adv a nced in
arithmetic to count up t o ve i n wo r ds there prev a ils with
sc a rcely an exceptio n a method founded on h a nd counting
quinary decim al V igesimal or c o mbined of these F o r
perfect examples o f the quina ry method we may take a
Polynesian series which runs 1 2 3 4 5
5 2 & c ; or
a Mel a nesian series which may be rendered as 1 2 3 4 5
2u d 1 2n d 2 & c
Q uinary leading into decim a l is well
S ho w n in the F ellata series 1
5
10 10 1
1 05
105 1
20
30
4 0 &c
Pure decimal
may be instanced f rom Hebrew 1 2
20
20 1
&c
Pure V igesim a l is n o t usual for the obvi o us
,

O v id F
,

ast .

iii

121

TH E ART

26 2

COUNTIN G

or

re a s o n th a t a set o f independen t numeral s t o

i n c o n ve n i e n t but i t t a ke s o n f ro m qui n a ry
5
w hich m a y b e a n a lyzed a s
,

as

20

f rom dec i m a l

or

20 1

2 0 10

in B a sque

as

20 1 0 1

&c ;
20 20 1

40

10, 10 1

4 0, &c

10 10 1

1 0 5 21

would be
in A ztec

20

I t seems unnecessary t o
b ring f o rw a rd here the mass o f li n guistic details required fo r
ge
n e ra l demo n st rati o n o f these p ri n ciples o f nume rati o n
an
y
am o n g the r aces O f the w o rld P ro f Pott of Halle has treated
the su bject o n ela b o rate philological evide n ce in a special
2
monograph which is incidentally the most extensive c o llee
tion o f details relating to numerals indispensable to students
occupied with such enqui ries F o r the present purpose the
following rough generalizati o n may suf ce that the quinary
system is frequent among the lower r a ces among whom also
the V igesimal sys tem is considerably developed but the ten
deney o f the higher nations has been t o avoid the one as
too scanty and the o ther as too cumbrous and to use the i n
These di fferences in the usage o f
t e rme di a t e decimal system
v a rious tribes and natio n s do not interfere with but rather
conrm the general principle which is their common cause
th a t ma n o riginally learnt to r eck o n from his ngers a n d t o es
and in various ways stereotyped in language the result of this
primitive method
Some curious p o i nts a s to the relation o f these systems
may be n o ticed in E u rope It w as O bserved of a cert a in
de a f and dumb boy O liver C aswell th a t he learnt to count

as high a s 5 0 on his ngers bu t always v

ed
reckoning

for instance 1 8 obj ects as both hands on e hand three

3
n g e rs
The suggestion has been made that the G reek use
20 1 0

2 0 10 1

u a l w ord n u m eral s o f t h e t wo q ui n a ry seri es a re g i v en a s ex

a m p l es
Tri t on s B ay 1 sa mos i ; 2 roeetz ; 3 tou wroe ; 4 f aa t 5 r i mi 6
r tm s a mos
L i fu 1
7 r i m r oeett ; 8 rt m tou w roe 9 rt m f a a t 10 w oetsj a
1

Th e

ac t

2 , lo ; 3 , loa n ; 4 , tha ek ; 5 , th a ba mb ; 6 , l o

9 , l o t h a ck ;
-

1 0 , te ben n ete

p ach a ;

a ch a

; 7 , lo

a - lo ;

,
,

8 , l o kn n n ;
-

D i e

Vi ges i m a l e z ah lmet h od e b ei V Olk ern

W el t t h eil e
H a ll e 1 8 4 7 s u ppl e m en t ed i n F es t ga b e z ur xxv
a ll er
V ersamml u n g D eu t sc h er P h i l o l og en & c i n H a ll e
3
A cc o un t of L a ura B rid gm a n L on d on 1 8 4 5 p 1 5 9
2

A F P ot t
.

Q u i n are

ri n d

Q
w ep 7roi

U INARY

D ECIMAL

AN D V I G ES I MAL

26 3

f
or counting is a tr a ce
to
ve
as
an
expression

o f rude o l d quina r y nume r a ti o n ( comp a re F innish tokket

to

count from tokh e ten

C ert a inly the R oman numer als
of

e w,

rem a rkably well d e n e d written quinary system R em a ins

of V igesimal counting are still more instructive C ounting
by twenties is a strongly marked Keltic char a cteristic The
cumbrous V iges i mal notation could har dly be brought more
stro n gly into view in any savage race than in such ex a mples

d ea g i s d a f h i eh ea cl
one ten an d two
a s G aelic a on

twen ties i e 5 1 ; o r Welsh a n a r hymth eg a r a g a i n on e

and fteen over twenty i e 3 6 ; or Breton a n n eh h a tr i

n en t
eleven and three twenties i e 7 1 N e w F rench
g
being a R omance language has a regul ar system of L atin
te n s up to 1 0 0 ; ci n q u a n te soi x a n te s ep ta n te h n i ta n te
n on a n t e
which a re to be found s t ill in use in dist ricts
within the li mits of the F rench l a nguage as in B elgium
N eve rtheless the clumsy system o f reck o ning by twenties
has br o ken o u t through the decimal system in F rance
The sep ta n te i s to a g re a t extent suppressed soi x a n te
q u a torz e fo r instance standing for 7 4 ; q u a tr emi ng ts has
f a irly established itself for 8 0 and its use continues into
the nineties q u a tr e r i ng t tr ei z e for 9 3 ; in numbers above
1 0 0 we nd si x v
i ng ts h i n
i ng ts sep t v
t v
i ng ts for 1 2 0 1 4 0
1 6 0 and a cert a in hospit a l has its name o f L es Q uinze
vi n gts f r om its 3 0 0 i nmates It is pe rh a ps the most
reasonable explanation o f this cu rious phenomenon to
suppose the e a rlier Keltic system o f F r a nce to have held its
ground modelli ng the later F rench into its ow n ruder
S hape
In E ngland the A nglo S axon numer a ti o n is
decim a l h a n d seef on ti g 7 0 ; h a n d ea h ta tig 8 0 ; h a n d n i
o
n
t
i
n
d
t
e
o
n
t
i
h
a
n
h
a
1
9
0
0
d en lwf on ti g 1 1 0 ; h a n d
0
;
;
g
g
g
tw elf ti g 1 2 0
It may be here also by Keltic survival th a t

the V igesimal reck o ning by the score th r eescor e a n d ten

fou rscor e a n d th i r teen & c gained a position in E nglish
1
which it h as not yet tot a lly lost
-

C om p

a re

t h e Raj mah ali t r

i b es ad o p t i n g H i n di n u m era l s

y et

rec

k on i n g

THE

2 64

F ro m

CO UNTING

or

me min o r det a ils in numer a ti o n ethn o l ogical

hint s may b e g a i n ed A mong rude tribes with sca n ty
series o f numera ls combin a tion to m a ke o u t new numbers
is ve ry soon resorted to A mong A ustralian tribes addition

m a kes t wo o n e
express 3 and 4 in G uachi
t w o two

t wo t wo
i s 4 ; in San A ntonio f o ur and two one is 7
The plan o f m a ki n g numerals by subtracti o n is known in
N o rth A meric a a n d is well sh o wn in the A ino language o f

Yesso w here the w o rds for 8 a n d 9 O bvi o usly mean two

fr o m t e n
O ne f ro m ten Multiplication appears as in

San A ntonio two and o n e two and in a Tupi dialect

t w o three
to express 6 D ivision seems not known fo r
such purposes among the lower races and quite exceptional
am o ng the higher F acts of this class show variety in the
i n ventive devices o f mankind and independence in their
f o rmation o f langu age They are consisten t at the same
time with the general principles o f hand counting The
traces o f what might be ca lled binary ternary quaternary
senary reckoning which turn on 2 3 4 6 are mere
varieties leading up to or lapsing into quinary and decimal
methods
The contrast is a striking one between the educated
E ur o pean with his easy use o f his boundle ss numeral se ries
and the Tasmanian who reckons 3 o r anything beyond 2
as m a ny and makes shift by his wh o le hand to reach the

limit o f ma n that is to say 5

This contrast is due to
arrest of devel o pment i n the savage whose mind remains in
the childish state which the beginning o f one o f our nur
se ry number rhymes illustr a tes curiously It runs
so

O n e s

n on e ,

T wo s so m e
Th re e s a man y
F o u r s a p en n y
F i v e s a l i ttl e h u n d re d

b y t w ent i es S h aw
Th e u se o f a
i n E n gl n d a n d s i m i l rl y o f 2 0 i n F ra n c e
T es ta m ent an d t h e A rab i c o f t h e Th ou san d
o t h er t rac e s o f V i g e si m a l reck o n i n g
.

s c ore

i n d e n i t e n u m b er
o f 4 0 i n t h e H e b re w o f t h e O l d
a n d O n e N i g h ts may b e a m o n g

as a n

COMBIN E D N U M E R AL S

265

notice this st a te of things among sav ages and chil

d ren r a ises interesting p oints a s to the early hist o ry o f
gr a mma r W von Humboldt suggested the an a l ogy b e

tween the savage notion of 3 as many and th e gram

m a t i ca l use of 3 t o form a kind o f superlative in forms

of
which trismegistus
ter felix
thrice blest are
f a miliar instances The relation of single dual and plural
is well shown pictor i ally 1 n the E gyptian hieroglyphics
where the picture of an o bj ect a horse for instan ce
is marked by a S ingle line I if but on e is meant by t w o
lines I if two are meant by three lines I
if three o r
an indenite plur a l number are meant The scheme o f
gramm a tical number in s o me o f the most ancient and i m
p o rt a nt languages o f the w o rld is l a id d o wn o n the same
sav a ge principle
E gyptian A ra bic Hebrew S anskrit
G reek G othic are examples o f l a nguages using S ingular
du a l and plu ral number ; but the tendency o f higher intel
lectual culture has been to discard the pl a n as inconvenient
and unprotable and only to distinguish singul a r and
plural N o doubt the dual held its place by inheritance
from an early period of culture and D r D Wilson seems

j ust i ed in his opinion that it preserves to us the me

mori a l of that st age of thought when all beyond two was
1
a n idea o f indenite n u mber
When two races a t different levels of culture come into
contact the ruder people adopt new art and knowledge but
a t the same time their own S peci a l culture usually comes t o
a st a ndstill an d even fa lls off It is thus with the a rt o f
counting We may be able to prove that the lower race
had actually been making great and independent pr o gress
i n it but when the higher race comes with a convenient
a n d unlimited means of not only n a ming all im a gin a ble
numb ers but of writing them down and reckoning with
them by means o f a few simple gures what likelihood is
there th a t the b a rb a ri a n s clumsy methods should be farther
worked out ? A s to the w a ys in which the numerals of the
To

'

D Wil
.

s on ,

Preh i st ori c

Ma n

616

T II E A R T

266

COUNTING

or

superior ra ce a re gra f t ed o n the l a n gu age o f the infe rior

C a ptain G ran t de s c ri b es the n a t ive sl a ves o f E quatorial
A frica o ccupying their l o unging hours in learning the
numerals o f their A rab masters 1 F ather D o b ri z h offe r s
account o f the a rithmetic a l relati o ns between t h e n a tive
Bra zilians a n d the Jesuits is a g o od description o f t h e
intellectual C on tact between savages a n d missi o n a ries
The G uaranis it appears counted up t o 4 with their n ative
numer a ls and when they g e t beyond they would say

n n
i umerable
But a s c o unting is both o f m a nifold use
in common life and in the confessional absolutely indis
pensable i n making a c o mplete confessi o n the Indians were
daily taugh t at the public catechising in th e church to
count in Spanish O n Sundays the wh o le pe o ple used to
count with a loud voice in Spanish from 1 to
The
missionary it is true did n o t nd the natives use the
numbers thus learnt very a ccurately
We were washing
2
at a blackamoor he says
If h o wever we examine the
modern voca bularies o f savage o r low ba rbarian tribes they
will be found t o a ff o rd interesting evidence how really
effective the inuence of higher on lower civilization has
been in this m a tter S o far as the ruder system is com
ple t e and moderately convenient it m ay stan d but where
it ce a ses or grows cumbrous and sometimes at a lower
limi t than this we can see the cleverer foreigner taking it
into his o wn hands supplementing o r suppl anting the
scanty numerals of the lower r a ce by his o w n The higher
race though a dv a nced enough to act thus o n the l o wer
need not be itself at an extremely high level Markham
o bserves
th a t the J i v
wit h native
a ra s of the M a ra fi on
numerals up to 5 adopt for higher numbers those o f the
3
Q uichu a the language of the Pe r uvian Incas
The ca ses
The Khonds
o f the i ndige n es o f India are instructive
reckon 1 and 2 in native words and then take to borrowed
,

'

G ran t i n Tr Et h S o c vol iii p 9 0

r
D ob ri z h o e , Gesch d er Abi pon er, p 2 0 5 ; Eng

M a rk h a m i n Tr Et h S oc vol iii p 1 6 6
.

T ran s vol ii p
.

17 1

FOREI GN N UMERALS

ADOPTED

26 7

Hindi numer a ls The O raon tribes while belonging t o a

r a ce o f the D r a vidi a n stock a n d h a ving h a d a s eries o f
native numerals accordingly appear t o have given up their
use beyond 4 o r sometimes even 2 and adopted Hindi
1
numerals in their place
The S outh A m e rican C onibos
were O bserved to count 1 and 2 with their o wn words and
then to borrow Spanish numer a ls much as a Brazili a n
di alect o f the Tupi family is noticed in the last century as
having lost the native 5 an d settled d o wn into using the
O l d native numerals up t o 3 and then continuing in Portu
2
u e se
a
A
n n a t o m language can
In
Mel
a
nesi
the
only
g
count i n its o w n numerals to 5 an d then borrows E nglish
si los
sev
en
eet
n ai n
&c
In some Polynesian islands
though the native numer a ls a re extensive enough the
confusion a rising from reck o ning by p a irs and fours as well
a s units h a s induced the natives t o esc a pe f r om perplexity
3
by adopting h n n er i an d ta n s a n i
A nd though the E squi
m a ux counting by hands feet an d whole men is ca pable o f
expressing high numbers it becomes practicall y clumsy
even when it gets amo n g the scores and the G reenlander
has d o ne well t o adopt u n tr i te and tn si n te from his D anish
teachers Similarity o f numerals in two languages is a
point to which philol o gis ts attach great a n d deserved
impo r tance in the questi o n whether they are t o be con
s i d e r e d a s sprung fr o m a c o mmon stock
B ut it is clear
that s o fa r a s o n e race may have borrowed numerals f r om
another this evide n ce b re a ks down
The fa ct th a t this
bo rr owing extends as l ow as 3 a n d ma y even g o still lower
for all we kn o w is a r eason for using the a rgument from
connected numerals cauti o usly as te n di n g rathe r to prove
interc o urse th a n kinship
A t the other end o f the sca le o f civilization the ad o ption
.

L at h a m

C om p

J o u rn A s S o c
.

St

hode p
,

P h i l p 1 8 6 ; S h aw i n A s Res vol i v p 9 6 ;
B enga l 1 8 6 6 p art ii pp 2 7 20 4 2 5 1
B u ll et i n d e la S oc d e G eog 1 85 3 p 2 8 6 P ot t Z ai h lme

Gab el en t z ,

C ri c q i n

89

Hal e

c.

T H E ART OF CO UNTING

26 8

umera l s fr o m n a t i o n t o n a ti o n still presents interest

O u r o w n l a ngu a ge gives curi o us
i n g phil o l o gic a l p o i n ts
i n stances a s s econ d a n d mi lli on The manner in which
E n glish in c o mm o n with G erm a n D utch D anish a n d
even R ussi an has a d o pted Medi aev a l L a tin d oz en a ( fro m
d u od er i m) s h o w s h o w c o nven i ent a n a r ran geme n t i t w a s
f o u n d t o buy a n d sell by the d oz e n an d h o w necess a ry i t
i n t the b o r r owing
w a s t o have a s peci a l wo rd fo r i t
p ro cess h a s g o ne fa rther than this If it we re asked h o w
m a ny sets o f numer a ls are n o w in use a m o ng E n glish
spe a king people in E ngland the probable r eply would be o n e
set the regular o n e t wo th r ee & c There exist however
two borrowed sets a s well O ne is the well known dicing

set a ce d en ce tr a y ca ter ci nq n e si z e ; thus si z e a ce is 6

c i n u es o r s i n ks
double ve
These came t o
an d o n e
q
us from F rance and correspond with the common F rench
numerals except a ce which is L atin a s a word o f great

phil o logical interest meanin g on e

The other borrowed
set is to be f o und in the Slang D ictionary It appears
th a t the E nglish street folk have adopted as a means o f
secret commun ic a tion a set of Italian numerals from the
o rg a n grinders and im a ge sell ers or by other ways th r ough
which It a lian o r L ingua F ranca is bro ught int o the low
neighbourhoods o f L ondon In s o doing they have per
formed a phil o logic a l ope ration not only cu rious but i n
structive By copying such expressions as Italian d u e soldi

tre soldi
as equivalent to twopence
threepence the

w o rd s a ltee beca me a rec og n ized sl a n g term for penny

a n d pence a re reckoned a s follows :
o

On ey

sa ltee

1d

B ooe

sa ltee

2d

Tra y

sa ltee

3d

4d

Q u a rterer

sa ltee

Ch i n ker sa ltee
S a y sa ltee

5d

6d

Say

7d

on ey sa ltee o r setter sa ltee

S a y d ooe

sa ltee o r otter s a ltee

8d

S a y tra y

sa ltee o r n obba sa ltee

9d

do
d u e sol d i
t re s o l d i
q u att ro sol d i
c i n q u e so l d i
s e i s ol d i
se t t e sol d i
o t t o s ol d i
n o v e s ol d i
u n o s ol

D E V ELOPMENT

AR IT H METIC

OF

26 9

d i e c i sol di
u n d i c i s ol d i

S a y q u a rterer sa ltee o r dac ha sa ltee

S a y chi n ker sa ltee o r da ch a on ey sa ltee

10d

On ey beong

ls

A beong

l s 6d

2s 6 d

1 1d

sa y sa ltee

D ooe beong

sa y sa ltee or n t a dz a ca r oon

( h al f

m ez za

c ro

wn

c o ron a

dopts Ita lian numer a ls deci

mally But the o ther when it has reached 6 having

had enough o f n ovelty m a kes 7 by S i x on e and so

continues It is for n o a bstract reason th a t 6 is thus
made the tur n i ng poi n t but simply bec ause the c o ster
mo n ger is ad di n g pence up to the silver Sixpence a n d
then adding pence ag a in up to the shill i ng Thus o u r duo
decim a l coinage h as led t o t he pr a ctice of counting by
sixes a n d produced a philologic a l curiosity a re a l senary
notation
O n evidence such a s h as been b r ought forw a rd in this
ess a y the app a rent r el a ti o ns of savage t o civilized culture
as reg ards the A rt o f C ounting may n ow be b riey stated
The princip a l methods to which the
i n conclusi o n
developme n t o f the higher a rithmetic a re due li e outside
the problem They a re mostly ingeni o us pl a ns of exp r ess
ing numerical relati o n b y writte n symb o ls A mong them
are the Semitic scheme an d the G reek derived fr o m it o f
usi n g the alph a bet as a series o f numeric a l symb o ls a plan
not quite disc a rded by ou rselves a t le a st for o rdinals a s in
schedules A B & c ; the use o f initials o f numeral w o rds
a s gures for the numbe r s themselves as in G r eek I I and
the
A for 5 and 1 0 R om a n C and M fo r 1 0 0 and
device o f expressi n g fractions shown i n a rudiment a ry
st age in G reek y
for 4 y 5 for
the intr o duction o f
the ciphe r o r ze ro by means o f which the A r a bic or Indi an
numer a ls have th eir value according t o their p o siti o n in a
decim a l o rder c o rresp o n di n g t o the successi o n o f the rows o f
the a bacus ; and l a stly the m o dern n o t a ti o n o f decimal
f ractions by ca rryi n g d o w n bel o w th e u nit th e pr o p o r t i o n a l
O ne of these series simply
.

'

J C H ot t en
.

S l g Di ct i
an

o n ar

y p

218

T II E A R T O F C O U N T I N G

27 0

rder which for ages had been in use above it The ancient
E gyp tian a n d the s till used R o ma n a n d C hinese numera tion
1
are i ndeed fo unded o n s avage picture writi n g while the
abacus a n d the sw a n pan the o n e s till a v a luable school
instrume n t a n d the o ther in full practical use have their
ge rm in the s a v a ge c o unting by gr o ups o f obj ects a s when
S o uth Sea Isla n ders count with c o co n u t stalks putting a
little o n e aside every time they c o me to 10 and a large o n e
when they come to 1 0 0 o r when A frican negroes reckon
w ith pebbles or nuts and every time they come to 5 put
them aside in a little heap 2
We a re here especially concerned with gesture counting
o n the ngers as an absolutely savage art still in use among
children and peasants and with the system of numeral
words as known to all mank i nd appearing scantily among
the lowest tribes and reaching w i thin savage limits to deve
l opme n t s which the highest civilization has only improved in
detail These two methods of computation by gesture and
word tell the story of primitive arithmetic in a w ay that can
be hardly perverted or misunderstood We see the s a vage
who can only count to 2 or 3 o r 4 in words but c a n g o
farther in dumb S how He h a s words fo r hands and ngers
feet and toes and the idea strikes him that the words which
describe the gesture will serve also to express its meaning
and they become his numerals accordingly This did n o t
happen only once it happened among di fferent races i n

distant regions for such terms as h a nd for 5 hand

on e
for 6 hands for 1 0 two o n the f oo t for 1 2

hands an d feet o r man for 2 0 two men fo r 4 0 & c

show such uniformity as is due to common pri n ciple but
also such variety as is due to independent w o rking o u t

These are p o inter facts which have their pla ce and

expl anation i n a devel o pment the o ry o f culture while a
dege n er a tion theory t o tally f a ils t o t a ke them i n They a r e
disti n ct r ec o rds o f devel o pme n t an d o f i n depe n de n t deve
o

E ly H i t y f M k i d p 1 0 6
E ll i P ly R vl i p 9 1 Kl mm C G
ar

s,

s or

n.

es

an

ol
v

ii

3 83

D E V EL OPM ENT O F AR ITHM ETI C

l opme n t

27 1

among savage tribes to whom some writers o n

civilization h a ve r a shly de n ied the very faculty o f self
improvement The original meaning o f a great part o f the
stock o f numerals of the lower races especially o f those fr o m
1 to 4 not suited to be named as h a nd numerals is O bscure
They may have been named from c o mparison with obj ects
in a w ay which is S hown actually to happen in such forms

as t ogether for 2 throw for 3 knot for 4 ; but

any concrete meaning we may guess them to hav e once had
seems now by modication and mutilation t o have passed
out o f knowledge
R emembering how ordinary words change and lose their
tr a ces of original meaning in the course o f ages and that in
numerals such breaking down o f me a ning is actually
desir a ble to make them t for pure arithmetical symbols
we cannot wonder that so large a pr o portion of existing
numerals should have no di scernible etymology This is
especially true o f the 1 2 3 4 a mong low and high races
alike the earli est to be made and t he refore the earliest to
l o se their primary signicance B eyond these low numbers
the languages o f the higher and lower races S how a remark
able di fference The hand and f o ot numerals so prevalent
and unmist a kable in s a vage tongues like E squimaux and
Zulu a re scarcely if at all traceable in the gre a t languages
o f civil i zatio n
such as Sanskrit and G reek Hebrew and
A ra bic This state of things is quite conformable to the
development theory of language We may argue that
it was i n c o mp a r a tively recent times that sav ages arrived
at the inve n tion o f han d numer a ls a n d th a t theref o re
the etymology of such numer a ls rem a ins o bvious But
it by no mean s foll o ws from the non a ppearance o f such
p rimi t ive fo r ms in cultured A si a a n d E urope that they did
not e xist the r e in remote ages ; they may S ince have been
rolled an d b a ttered like pe bb les by the stream o f time till
t heir original shapes can n o longer be m a de o u t
L a stly
am o ng s a v age an d civilized races alike the general frame
w o r k o f n umer a ti o n st a n ds th rough o ut the w o rld a s a n
,

TH E ART OF COUNT ING

27 2

biding m o nume n t o f prim ae val culture This f ramework

the a ll bu t universal scheme o f reckoning by ves tens and
twenties shows th a t the childish an d savage practice o f
c o unti n g o n ngers and toes lies a t the foundation o f our
arithmetical science Ten seems the most convenien t
arithme tical b a sis O ffered by systems f o unded on hand
counti n g bu t twelve would have been better and duodecima l
arithmetic is in fact a protest against the less convenient
decimal arithmetic in ordinary use The case is the no t
uncommon o n e o f high civilization bearing evident traces of
the rudeness o f i t s origin in ancient barbaric life
a

C H AP TER V I I I

MYTH OLOGY

M y t h i c Fa n c y b as ed l i k e ot h er t h o u g h t on E x p eri en c e My t h ology afford s

e v id en c e fo r s t ud y i n g l a w s o f I m a g i n a t i o n C h a n g e i n p u b l i c o p i n i on as
t o cre di b i l i t y o f M y t h s My t h s ra t i on al i z e d i n t o All eg ory a n d H i s t o ry
E t h n ol ogi c a l i m p ort a nd t rea t m en t o f My t h My t h t o b e s t udi e d
i n a c t u a l e x i s t en ce an d gro w t h a m o n g m o d ern s a v a g e s a n d b a rb ari a n s
O ri g i n a l s ourc es o f My t h E arly d oc t rin e o f g en eral a n i m at i on of
N a t ure P erson i c a ti on o f S u n M oon an d S t ars ; V a t er s p o u t S an d
p i ll ar Ra i n b o w W a t erfall P est i l en c e A n a l ogy w ork e d i n t o My t h
a n d M e t a p h o r My t h s o f R a i n
Th u n d er &c E ffe c t o f La ng u ag e i n
fo rm a t i on o f My t h M a t e ri a l Pe rso n i c a t i o n p ri m a ry V erb a l P erso n i
ea t i o n s ec on d a ry G ramm a t i ca l G en d er m a l e a n d fem a l e a n i m a t e
a n d i n an i m a t e i n re l a t i on t o My t h P ro p e r N a m es o f o bj e c t s i n re l a t i on
t o M yt h
M en t a l S t at e p rop er t o prom o t e my t h i c i m ag i n a t i on D oc t ri n e
o f W ere w ol v e s
P h a n t as y an d F an c y
,

A M O N G those opini o ns which

pro duced by a little know

ledge t o be dispelled by a little more is the belief in an
almost boundless creative power of the human imagina
tion Th e supercial student mazed in a crowd of seem
i n g ly wild and lawless fancies which he thinks to h a ve no
reason in nature n o r pattern in this material world at rs t
concludes them to be new births from the imagination o f
the poet the tale teller a n d the seer But little by little in
what seemed the most sp o nt a neous ction a more c o mp re
h e n si v
e study o f the sources o f poetry an d r o m a nce begins
to di sclose a cause fo r each f a ncy an educa tion th a t h a s led
up to each train of thought a store of inherited materials
from out of which each province o f the poet s l and h a s bee n
shaped an d built over a n d peopled Backw a rd fr o m o u r
o w n times
the course of mental history may be traced
a re

MYTH OLOGY

27 4

through the change s wr o ught b y m o dern schools o f tho u ght

a n d fa n cy
up o n a n intellectual inheritance h a nded d o wn
A nd through remo ter
t o them f ro m e a rlie r gener a tio n s
peri o ds a s we recede more ne a rly towards primitive condi
t i o ns o f o u r race the thre a ds which connect new thought
w i t h o ld d o n o t alw ays v a nish fr o m o u r sight
It is in
la rge me a s ure possible t o f o ll o w them as clues leading back
t o th a t actu a l expe rience o f n a ture a n d life which is the
ultim a te source o f human fa n cy What Matthew A rnold
has w ritten o f Man s th o ughts as he o a ts alo n g the R iver
o f Time is most true o f his mythic im agin a tion :
,

A s i s th e

w o rl d on t h e b an k s
m i n d o f th e man

S o i s th e

O n l y t h e t rac t w h ere h e sa i ls
H e w o t s o f o n ly t h e t h o u g h t s ,
Ra i se d by th e o bj e c t s h e p asses,

a re

h is

Impressions thus received the mind will modify and work

upon t ra n smitting the products to other minds in S h apes
that often seem new str a nge an d a rbitr a ry but which yet
result fr o m processes f a mili a r t o ou r experience and to be
fou n d at w o rk in o u r o w n individual consciousness The
o fce o f o u r thought is to develop t o combine and to
derive r a ther than to cre a te ; and the consistent laws it
w o rks by are to be discerned even in the unsubstantial
st ructures o f the im agination Here as e lsewhere in the
universe there is to be recog n ized a sequence from cause to
e ffect a sequence intelli gible denite and where knowledge
re a ches the needful ex a ctness even calculable
There is perhaps n o better subj ect matter through which
t o study the pr o cesses o f the imaginati o n than the well
marked incidents o f mythical st o ry rangin g as they d o
th rough eve ry kn o wn period o f civilization and thr ou gh all
the physic a lly va ried tribes of m a nkind Here the divine
Maui o f N ew Ze a l a nd shing up the island with his e n
ch a n ted h o o k fr om the bottom o f the sea wi ll take his pl a ce
in c o mp a ny with the I n dia n V ish n u div i ng to the depth o f the
,

MYTH

ON EX PER I ENCE

B A S ED

27 5

ocean in his avat a r of the B e a r t o bri n g up the submerged

earth o n his monstrous tusks ; an d here B a iame the c reato r
whose voice the rude A ustralians hear in the r olling
thunder will S i t th roned by the S ide of O lympia n Zeus
himself Starting with the bold rough nature myths in t o
which the savage moulds the lessons he has le a rnt fr m his
p
childlike c o ntemplation of th e universe the ethnogr a pher
can f o ll o w these rude ctions up into times when they were
S h a ped a n d incorporated into complex mythol ogic systems
gr a cefully a rtistic in G reece sti ff and monstrous in Mexico
swelled int o bomb a stic exaggeration in Buddhist A sia He
can watch how the myth o logy o f classic E ur o pe once so
true to n ature and so quick with her ceaseless life fell
am o ng the comment a tors t o be pl a stered with allego ry or
euheme rized int o dull sham history A t l a st in the midst
o f m o dern civilization he n ds the classic v o lumes studied
rather for their man n er th a n f or th e ir matte r o r m a inly
valued for their antiqu a ri a n evidence of the thoughts of
former times ; while relics o f structures reared with skill
a n d stre n gth by the myth m a kers o f the past must n o w be
sought i n scr a ps of nursery f o lk l o re in vulg a r superstitions
and old dying legends in thoughts a n d a llusi o ns carried on
from ancient d ays by the perenni a l stream o f poetry and
romance in fragments of O ld opinion which still hold an i n
h e ri t e d rank gained in past a ges o f intellectual history
But this turning of mythology t o account as a means o f
tr a cing the history o f laws o f mind is a branch o f science
scarcely discovered till the nineteenth century B ef o re
entering here o n some researches belonging to it there will
be advantage in glancing a t the views of older mythologists
to S h o w through what ch a nges their study has at le n gth
reached a condition in which it has a scientic value
It I s a mo mentous ph a se of the education of m a nkind
when the regularity of nature has so imprinted itself up o n
men s minds th a t they begin t o w o nde r how it is th a t the
ancient legends which they w e r br o ught up t o he a r with
such r everent delight sh o uld ( 1 eribe a world s o stran gely
,

27 6

M YTHO LO G Y

di ffe re n t from their o wn Why they a sk a re the gods an d

gi a nts a n d mo n s ters n o l o n ge r see n t o le a d their pr o digi o u s
lives o n e a rth is i t pe rch a n ce th a t the course o f thi n gs i s
ch a nged since t h e o ld d ays ? Thus it seemed t o P a us a ni a s
the his t o ri a n th a t the wide g ro wn wicked n ess o f the w o rld
h a d b ro ught i t t o p a ss th a t times were n o longer a s o f o ld
when Ly ka o n was turned into a wolf and N iobe into a
st o ne w hen men still s a t a s guests a t table with the gods
o r were r a ised like He ra kles t o bec o me g o ds themselves
U p to modern times the hypothesis of a changed w o rld has
m o re o r less a vailed to remove the difficulty o f belief i n
ancie n t wonder tales Y et though a lways h o lding rmly a
partial g r ound its application was soon limited for these
o bvi o us reasons
th a t it j ustied falsehood a n d truth a like
with even h a nded favour a n d utterly broke down th a t
ba rrier o f p robability which in some measure h a s alway s
separated fact f rom f a ncy The G reek mind found other
o utlets to the problem
In the words o f Mr G rote the
ancient legends were cast back i n to a n undened p a st to
take r a nk a mo n g the hall o wed t raditions o f divi n e o r he r oic
antiquity gratifying t o extol by rhetoric but repulsive to
scrutinize in a rgume n t
O r they w e re transformed into
shapes m o re fa miliar to experience a s when Plut a rch
telling the t a le o f Theseus beg s f or indulgent hearers to
accept mildly the a rchaic st o ry an d assures them th a t he
has set himself to purify it by reason that it may receive
1
the aspect o f histo ry
This process o f givi n g fable the
aspect o f history this pro t le s s a rt of tr a nsforming untrue
impossibili ties into untrue possibilities h a s been c a rried on
by the a ncients a n d by the moder n s a fter them especially
a ccording to the two foll o wing methods
Men have for ages been mo r e o r less c o nscious o f that
great mental district lying between di sbelief and belief where
ro o m is f o und fo r a ll mythic interpret a tion g o o d o r b a d
It being admitted th a t s o me legend is n o t t h e re a l n a rrative
.

rot e ,

H i

P l u t arch Th e se u s
.

s t or

of

re e c e ,

vol i
.

h ps i x x i
a

P a u san i as v iii

2 ;

CRED IBIL IT Y

MYTH S

or

27 7

which it purp o rts t o b e they d o n o t thereup o n wipe it o u t

from bo o k and memory a s S imply signifying nothing but
they ask wh a t o rigin a l sense may be in it o u t of wh a t older
sto ry it may be a second growth o r wh a t actual event o r
cu rr e n t n o ti o n may have suggested its develop m
ent into
the state in which they nd it ? Such questi o ns however
prove a lmost as e a sy t o answer pl a usibly a s t o set ; an d
then in the endeav o ur to obtain secu rity th a t these o ff hand
answers a re the t r ue o nes it becomes evident th a t the problem
a dmits o f an indenite numbe r o f apparent s o lutions n o t
This r a dica l u n certainty
o nly di ffe r e n t but i n c o mp a tible
in the speculative interpret a tion o f myths is f o rcibly stated

by Lo r d B a c o n in the prefa ce t o his Wisdom o f the

A ncie n ts
N eithe r am I ig n orant he says h o w ckle
and i n const ant a thin g cti o n is a s being subj ect to be
drawn an d wrested an y way an d h ow gre a t the c o mmodity
o f wit a n d disc o urse is th a t is able to apply things well yet
so as never meant b y the rst a uthors
The need o f such
a caution m ay be j udged o f f rom the ve ry t reatise to which
B a con p r efaced it for the r e he is t o be seen plunging he a d
long int o the very pitf a ll of w hich he had s o discreetly
war ned his disciples He undert a kes a fte r the m a nne r of
n o t a few phil o sophers before a n d after him
t o interpret
the cl assic myths o f G reece as m o ral allegories Thus the
story o f Memn o n depicts the dest i nies o f ra sh young men
of p r omise ; while
symb o lizes w ar an d when o f the
o n ly the m o rt a l o n e
three G org o ns he
this me ans
that only pr a ctic a ble w a rs are to be a ttempted It would
not be easy to bring o u t i n t o a str o nger light t h e di fference
between a fanciful applica ti o n o f a myth a n d its a nalysis
into its real eleme n ts F or he r e whe r e the i n terprete r b e
li e v
e d himself t o be r eversing the p r o cess o f myth m a king
he w as in fa ct o n ly ca rryi n g it a st age further in the o l d
directio n a n d ou t o f the suggesti o n of on e t rai n o f th o ugh t
ev o lvi n g an othe r c o n n ected with it by s o me m o re o r less
r em o te a n a l o gy
A ny o f us may pr a ctise this simple art
each acco r di n g t o his o w n fancy If fo r instance p o litical
,

MYTH O LOG Y

27 8

econ o my happens fo r the moment to lie upperm o st in our

mi n d we may w i th due g ravity expound the s t ory o f
Pe rseus as a n a lleg o ry o f tra de : l e rs e u s himself is La bour
a n d he fi n ds A nd ro med a w h o is Pr o fit ch a ined a n d ready
t o be devoured by the m o nster C a pit a l ; he rescues her
To k n ow anything o f
her 0 11 i n triumph
a n d c a r rie s
p o etry o r o f mysticism is t o kn o w this repr o ductive g ro wth
o f f a ncy as an a dmitted and a dmired i n tellectual process
Bu t whe n i t c o mes to sobe r invest i gation o f the processes
the attempt to penetrate t o the foundatio n
o f mythology
o f an o l d fancy will sc a rcely be helped by burying it yet
deeper underneath a new one
N evertheless allegory has had a share in the development
The fault of
o f myths which no interpreter must overlo o k
the rationalizer lay in taking allegory beyond its pro per
actio n an d applying it as a universal solvent to reduce dark
stories to tr a nsparen t sense The same is true of the other
great rationalizing process founded also t o some extent on
f a ct N othi n g is more certa i n than that real personages
often have mythic incidents tacked on to their history an d
that they even gure in tales of wh i ch the very subst a n ce is
mythic N o on e disbelieves in the existence o f Solomon
because o f his legend a ry adventure in the V alley o f A pes nor
Sir
o f A ttila because he gures in the N ibelungen L ied
F rancis D rake is made n o t less but more real to us by the
cottage tales which tell how he st i ll leads the Wild Hunt
ove r D artmoor a n d still rises to his revels when they beat
at Buckl and A bbey the drum that he carried round the
world The mixture O f fact an d fa ble in traditions of great
men shows that legends containing monstrous fancy may yet
have a b a sis in his toric fact But o n the strength of this
the mythologists arranged systemati c methods o f reducing
legend t o history and thereby co n trived at once to stultify
the mythology they professed to expl a in an d to ruin the
history they professed t o devel o p
So far as the plan
consisted in mere suppression of the marvellous a notion of
its trustworthiness may be obt ained as Sir G W C o x well
,

'

RAT I ONAL IZATI ON

or

MYTH S

27 9

puts it in r a tionaliz i ng J a ck th e G ian t Killer by leavi n g

out the giants So far as it tre a ted legenda ry wonders as
being matter o f
fact disguised in metaphor the mere naked
st a tement of the results of the method is to o u r m i nds i ts
most cruel criticism Thus already in classic ti mes men
were declaring that A tlas was a gre a t astronomer w h o taught
the use of the sphere and was therefore rep r esented with
the world resting on his shoulders
To such a pass had
come the decay of myth into commonplace that th e great
Heaven god of the A ryan race the living personal Heaven
him self Zeus the A lmighty was held t o have been a king
of Krete and the K re t au s could S how t o wondering strangers
his sepulchr e with the very name of the great departed

inscribed upon it The modern euhemerists ( so called

from E u h e me ro s of M essenia a great professor of the art
in the time of A lexander ) in p a rt ad o pted the old i n t e rpre
t a t i on s and sometimes fairly left their G reek and R oman
teachers behind in the race after prosaic possib ili ty They
inform us that J o ve smiting the giants with his thunderbolts
was a k i ng repressing a sedition ; D an ae s golden shower
was the money with which her guards were bribed ; Pro
me t h e u s made clay images whence it was hyperbolically
said that he created man and wom a n out of cl ay ; and when
D ai dal o s was related to have made gures which walked
this meant that he improved the sh a peless old statues and
separated their legs O ld men still remember as the guides
of educated opinion in their y o uth the learned b o oks in
which these fancies are solem n ly put f o rth ; some o f ou r
school manuals still g o on quoting them with respect and
a few straggling writers carry on a remn a nt o f the o nce
famous system o f which the Ab b e B an i e r was so distin
1
Bu t it has o f late fa llen on evil days
g u i s h e d an exponent
and mythologists in authority have treated it in so high
handed a fashion a s t o bring it i n t o gener a l contempt S o
far has the feeling ag a inst the abuse of such argument gone
-

M y t h ol og i e e t l es F ab l es e x pli q u es
L em p ri ere C l a ss i c a l D i ct i o n a ry & c

S ee Ra n i er,

P ari s

1738

La

par l H i st oi re ,

MY T H O L O G

28 0

that i t

is n o w re ally desi ra b le t o w a rn stude n ts that i t has a

re a so n a ble a s w ell as an un re a s o n able side
a n d t o remind
them t h a t s o me wild legend s und o u b tedly do a n d therefore
th a t m a ny o t he rs ma y c o nt a in a kernel o f historic truth
L e a rned a n d i n geni o us a s the o l d systems of r a ti o nalizi n g
myth h ave been there is n o d o ubt that they a re in great
me a sure destined t o be th ro wn aside I t is n o t that their
inte rpretati o ns a re proved impossible but that mere p o ssi
b i li t y i n mythol o gic a l specul a tion is now seen to be such
th a t every investig a t o r devoutly
a w o rthless commodity
wishes there were n o t such plenty of it In assigning
origins to myths as in every o ther scientic enquiry the
fact is th a t increased i nformation and the use of more
stringent canons o f evidence have raised far above the old
level the standa r d O f p r ob a bili ty required to produce con
vi c t i on There are many who describe ou r o wn time as an
unbelieving time but it is by no means sure that posterity
wi ll accept the verdict N o d o ubt it is a sceptical and a
critical time but then scepticism an d c riticism are the very
condi tions for the attainment o f reasonable belief Thus
where the positive credence of ancient history has been
a ffected it is n o t that the power o f receiving evidence has
diminished but that the consciousnes s o f ignor a nce has
grow n We are being tr ained to the f a cts of physical
science which we can test and test ag ain and we feel it a
f all from this high level of proof when we turn o u r m i nds
to the old records which elude such testing and are even
adm itted on a ll h ands t o cont a in st a tements not to be
Historica l c riticism becomes h a rd an d exacting
r e l ied on
even where the ch ronicle r ecords e v
ents not improbable in
themselves ; a n d the moment that the st o ry fall s ou t o f o u r
scheme of the world s habitual course the ever repeated
question comes o u t to meet i t Which is the mo r e li kely
that s o unusual a n event should have really happened or
that the record should be m i sunde r stood o r false ? Thus
we gl a dl y seek for s ou rces o f hist o ry in a n tiqua ri an relics
in undesig n ed and c o ll a teral proofs i n documents not written
,

'

MYTH

As

ETH N OLOGICAL E V I DENCE

28 1

be chronicles But can any reader o f geology s ay we are

t o o incredulous to believe wonders if the evidence ca r ry
any fair warrant o f thei r t ruth ? W as there ever ,a time
when lost hist o ry w as being recons tructed a n d existing
hist o ry rectied more ze alously th a n they a re now by a
wh o le a rmy of tr a vellers exca v a t o rs searchers o f old
charters and explorers o f forgotten di a lects ? The very
myths that were discarded as lying fables prove t o be
s o u rces o f history in ways that their makers an d transmitters
li ttle dreamed of Their meaning h a s been misunderstood
but they have a meaning E very tale that was ever told
has a meaning for the times it belongs to ; even a lie a s

the Spanish proverb says is a lady of birth ( la mentira es

hij a de
Thus as evidence of the development o f
thought as records of long p a st belief and us age even in
some measure as materials for the history o f the nations
owning them the old myths have f a irly taken their place
among h i sto ric f a cts ; and with such the modern histori a n
so able and willing to pull down is also able and willing
to rebuild
O f all things what mythologic w o rk n eeds is breadth of
kn o wledge and o f handli ng Interpret a tions made to suit a
narrow view reveal their weakness when exposed t o a wide
on e
See Herodotus rationalizing the story of the infa nt
C yrus exposed and suckled by a bitch ; he S imply relates
that the C hild was brought up by a herdsm a n s wife n amed
S pakO ( in G reek Ky n O) whence arose the fable that a real
bitch rescued and fed him S o far S O g o od for a S ingle
case But does the story o f R omulus and R emus likewise
rec o rd a real event mystied in the self same manner by
a pun on a nurse s name which happened to be a she
beast s ? D id the R oman twins also really happen to be
exp o sed an d b rought up by a foster m o ther wh o h a ppened

?
to be called L upa
P o sitively the Lempri e re s D iction
ary of our y o uth ( I qu o te the l 6 t h edition o f 1 8 3 1 ) gravely
gives this as the origin of the famous legend Y et if we
look properly into the matter we nd that these two stories
to

MYT HO LOG Y

28 2

are bu t specimen s o f a wide s pre a d my thic gro up itself o n ly

a secti o n o f that fa r l a rger b o dy o f t raditi o ns in which
exp o s ed i n fa nts a re s aved t o bec o me n a tio n a l her o es F o r
o t her ex ample s Sl a v o nic f o lk l o re tells o f the she wolf a n d
she be a r that suckled th o se superhuman twins Wa lig o ra
the m o unt a in r o lle r a n d VVy rwi d ab the oak upr oo ter ;
G ermany has its legend o f D iete rich called W o lfdi e t e ri ch
from his foster mother the she wolf in Indi a the epis o de
a h a n a a n d the lioness and Sing
recurs in the tales o f S a t av
Baba a n d t h e t i gress ; legend tells o f Burta C hino the boy
who was cast int o a l a ke an d preserved by a she wolf to
be come founder of the Turkish kingdom ; and even t h e
savage Y u rac ar s o f B razil tell o f their div i ne hero Tiri
1
w h o was suckled by a j aguar
Scientic myth interpretation on the contrary is actually
strengthened by such comparison o f simil a r cases Where
the effect o f new knowledge has been to construct r a ther
than t o destroy it is f o und that there are g roups of myth
interpretations for which wider and deeper evidence makes
a wider and deeper foundation
The principles which
un derli e a soli d system o f interpretation are really few and
simple
The treatment of similar myths from different
regions by arranging them in large co m
pared groups m a kes
it possible to t race i n mythology the O peration of imaginative
processes recurring with the evident regul a rity o f mental
law ; and thus stories o f which a s i ngle instance would h ave
been a mere isolated curiosity take their place am o ng
well marked and consistent structures of the hum a n mind
E vide n ce like this will ag a i n an d again drive us t o a dmit

that even as truth is str a nger than c t i on so myth may

be more uniform than history
There lies within our reach moreover the evidence o f
,

S l a v

M yt h p 3 23 ; G ri mm D M p 3 6 3 ; L at h am
D e scr Et h v

ol
4
ii p 4 8 I J Sc h m id t F orsch u ng en p 13 ; J G

M ull er Am er U rrelig p 2 6 8 S ee a lso P l u tarc h P arall el s xxxv i ;

C a m pb e ll H i g h lan d Tal es vol i p 2 7 8 ; Ma x M ul l er C h i ps vol ii

p 1 6 9 ; Tyl e r W i l d Men a n d B east c h i l d ren i n A n t h ro p ologi cal R e v i ew

1

H anne c h

May

1 863

SO URCES OF MYTH

283

races both ancient and modern who s o f a ithfully represent

the state of thought t o which myth devel o pment be longs
as still t o keep up both the consci o usness o f meaning in
their o l d myths and the unstrained un a ffected habit o f
cre a ting new o nes S av ages h a ve been for untold ages and
still a re livi n g in the myth making st age of the human
mind It w a s through S heer ignorance an d neglect of this
direct k nowledge how and by what manner of men myths
are really made that their simple philosophy has come to
"
be buried under masses of comment a tors rubbish Though
never wholly lost the secret of mythic interpretation was
all but forgotten Its recovery has been mainly due to
modern students who have with vast labour and S kill
searched the anci ent language poetry and folk lore of o u r
from the cottage tales collected by the brothers
o w n race
G rimm to the R ig V eda edi ted b y Ma x M uller A ry a n
language and literatu r e now o pen out with wonderful
r a nge an d clearness a view o f the early sta ges o f my thology
di splaying those primitive germs of the poetry of nature
which later ages swelled and distorted till childlike fancy
sank into superstitious mystery It is no t preposed here
to enquire S pecially into this A ryan myth o logy o f which S O
many eminent students have treated but to comp a re some o f
the most im port a nt developments of mythology among the
various races of manki n d especially i n order t o determine
the general relation o f the myths of savage tribes to the
myths of civilized nations The argument does n o t aim at a
general di scussion o f the mythol o gy of the world numbers
of important topics being left unt o uched which would have
to be considered in a gene ral treatise The topics chosen
are mostly such as are tted by the strictness of evidence
and argum ent applying to them to make a sound basis for
t h e treatment of myth a s bearing on th e general e t h n o
l o gical problem O i the development o f civilization The
general thesis maintained is that Myth arose in the savage
condition prevalent in remote ages among the whole human
race that it remains comparatively unchanged among the
,

MYTH O LOG Y

28 4

m o der n rude tri b e s who h ave dep a rt ed le a s t f ro m these

p rimi t ive c o ndi t i o n s while even highe r a n d l a ter gr a des o f
c iviliz a t i o n
p a r tly b y re t a i n i n g i t s a ctu a l p ri n ciples a n d
p a rt ly by c a rryi n g o n i t s i n he rited re s ult s i n the f o rm o f
a n cest ra l t ra d i t i o n have c o n ti n ued it n o t merely in t o le ra
ti o n b u t in h o n o u r
To the hum a n i n tellect i n i t s e a rly childlike st a te ma y be
I t is
a s s ig n ed t h e o rigi n a n d rs t devel o pment o f myth
true t hat lea rned critics taki n g up the study o f myth o logy
at the wr o n g end have a lm o st habitually fa iled t o a ppre
ci a t e i t s childlike ideas conventi o n a lized in poetry o r
disg uised as ch ronicle Y et the m o re we comp a r e the
my t hic fan cies o f different nations in o rder to discern the
comm o n thoughts which underli e their resembl a nces the
m o re re a dy we shall be t o a dmit that in o u r childhood we
dwelt a t the very g a tes of the realm o f myth In mythology
the child is in a deepe r sense than we are apt to use the
phrase in father o f the ma n
Thus when i n surveying
the qu a int fa ncies a n d wild legends of the l o wer tribes we
nd the myth o l ogy o f th e wo rld at o n ce in its most distinct
and m o st rudiment a ry f o rm we may he r e a g a in cl aim the
sav a ge a s a representa tive o f the childhood o f the human
r a ce Here E thnol o gy an d C ompa rative Mythology g o
han d in hand and the developme n t of Myth forms a con
sis t ent p a rt o f the development o f C ulture If savage
r a ces as the nearest modern r ep r esent a tives o f prim aeval
cultu r e S h o w in the most distinct a n d u n ch a nged state
the ru diment a ry mythic concepti o ns thence to be traced
onwa r d in the course o f civilizati o n then it is re a sonable
f o r students t o begin S O far a s m ay be at the beginning
Savage mythology may be t a ken a s a b a sis and then the
myths o f mo r e civilized r a ces may be di splayed a s com
positi o ns sp rung fr o m like o rigin though more a dv a nced
in a rt Th i s m o de of treatme n t p r oves satisfact o ry through
a lmost all the br a nches o f the enquiry an d eminently so i n
in vestigating th o se most beautiful of poetic ctions t o
which may be given the title o f N ature Myths
,

A NI MATIO N OF NAT U RE

28 5

F irst an d foremost among the causes which t ran sg u re

int o myths the facts o f daily expe rience is the bel i ef in the
a n imatio n of all natu re rising a t its highest pitch to per
This n o o cc a si o n a l o r hyp o thetica l a cti o n o f
s on i c a t i on
the mind is inextricably bound i n with that primitiv e
ment a l st a te where man recognizes in every detail o f his
w o rld the o per a ti o n o f pers o nal li fe a n d will This doct ri n e
of A nimism will be c o nsidered elsewhere a s a ff ecting
phil os o phy and religi o n but he r e we h a ve only to do with its
be a ri n g on mythology To the l o wer tribes o f man sun
and stars t r ees and rivers winds a n d cl o uds bec o me
personal a nim a te creatures leading lives conformed t o
human o r a nimal an a l ogies and perfo r mi n g thei r speci a l
functions in the universe with the a i d o f limbs like beasts
o r o f a r tici a l instrume n ts like men ; o r wh a t me n s eyes
behold is but the instrume n t t o be used o r the m a teri a l t o
be sh a ped while behind it there stands some pr o digious but
yet half human creature w h o g rasps it with his hands o r
blows it with his bre a th The b a sis o n which such ide a s
as these are built is n o t to be narr o wed dow n to poetic
fancy and tr an sf o rmed met a phor They r est up o n a b ro a d
philosophy o f natu re early and crude indeed but thoughtful
c o nsistent an d quite r e a lly an d seri o usly mea n t
L et us put this d o ctri n e o f u n ivers a l vit a li ty t o a test o f
direct evidence lest re a ders new t o the subj ect should
suppose it a m o de r n philosophic a l ction or think th a t if
the lower races re a lly express such a n oti o n they may do
E ven in civ ilized
s o only as a poetical way of talking
c o u n tries it makes its a ppear an ce as the child s e a rly
the o ry o f the outer w o rld n or c a n we fail to see how this
c o mes t o pass The r st beings th a t C hildren le a rn t o under
st a nd somethi n g O f a re hum a n be i n gs and especially their
ow
n selves ; a n d the r st explanation o f all events will be
the human explan a tio n as though chai rs a n d sticks a n d
wooden h o rses were a ctuated by the same sort o f person a l
will as nurses and children a n d kittens Thus inf a nts t a ke
their rs t step i n mythol ogy by c o nt rivi n g like C osette
,

M Y THO LO G Y

28 6

wi t h he r d o ll se g u re r que quelqu e chose e s t q u e lq u u n

ry
h
a n d the w a
in
which
thi
s
childlike
theo
as
t
o
be
y
unle a rnt in the c o urse o f educa tion shows how primitive
i t is
E ven among full g ro wn civili zed E uropeans as

M r G r o te o ppo s i t e ly rema rk s The force o f m o menta ry

p a ssi o n will o ften su fce to supersede the acquired habit
a n d even an intelligent ma n may be impelled in a moment
o f a gonizi n g p a in t o kick o r be a t the lifeless obj ect from
which h e h a s s u e re d I n such matters the s avage mind
well represe n ts the childish stage
The wild native o f
B r a zil w o uld bite the stone h e stumbled over o r the arrow
that had wounded him Such a mental c o ndition may be
tra ced along the course of histo ry not merely in impulsive
hab i t but in fo rm ally enacted law The rude Kukis o f
S outhern A sia were very scrupulous in carrying ou t their
simple law of vengeance li fe fo r life ; i f a tiger killed a
Ku ki his family were i n disgrace till they h a d retaliated by
ki lling and eating this tiger o r another ; but further if a
man was killed by a f a ll from a tree his relatives would
take their revenge by cutt i ng the t ree down and scattering
1
i t in chips
A modern king of C ochin C hina when one o f
his ships sailed badly used to put it in the pillory as he
2
would any other criminal
In classical times the st o ries
o f X erxes ogging the Hellespont an d C yrus draining the
G y n de s occur as cases in point but one o f the regular
A the n ian legal proceedings is a yet more striking relic
A court o f j ustice was held at the Prytaneum to try any
i nan i mate obj ect such as an axe or a piece of wood or
stone which had caused the death o f anyone without
proved human agency and this wood o r stone if con
3
de mn e d was in solemn form cast beyond the border
The spirit of this remarkable procedure reappears in the
o ld E nglish law ( repealed within the last reign ) whereby no t

M acrae i n A s Res vol vii

B as t i a n O e st l A s i en , vol i

p 1 89
2
p 51
3
G rot e vol iii p 1 0 4 ; vol v p 22 ; H e ro d ot i 1 89 vii
d e Ab sti n en t i a
3 0 P a u sa n i 2 8
P oll u x O n o m as t i co n
1

34

P orp h y r

M Y T H I C P E R S O N I F IC A T I O N

28 7

only a beast th a t kills a man but a cart wheel that runs over
h i m or a tree that falls o n him and kills him is deodand or
given to G o d i e forfeited an d sold for the p o o r : as B ra c

ton s a ys O mnia qu a e movent ad mortem sunt D e o d an da

D r R eid comments on this law declaring that its intention

was n ot to punish the ox or the ca r t as crimin a l but to

1
inspi re the people with a s a cred reg a rd t o th e life of man
B ut his a rgument rather serves to S how the wo r thl essness
of o ff hand speculations on the or i gin o f law like his o w n
in this matter unaided by the indispens a ble evidence o f
history a n d eth n og r aphy A n ex ample f r om modern folk
lore shows still a t its utmost stretch this p rimitive fancy
that in e r t thi n gs are ali ve and conscious The pathetic

custom of tellin g the b e e S when the maste r or mistress

of a h ouse dies is not unknown in o u r o w n country But
in G ermany the idea is more fully worked out ; and not
only is the sad message given to every bee hive in the
garden and eve r y beast in the stall but every sack of c o rn
must be touched a n d everything in th e house shaken th a t
2
they may kn o w the master is gone
It will be see n presently how A nimism the d o ctrine o f
S piritual beings at once devel o ps with an d reacts up o n
mythic personicatio n i n that early state of the hum a n
mind which gives c o nsistent individual life to phenomena
that ou r utmost stretch o f fancy only avails t o personify in
consci o us metaphor A n idea O f pervading life an d will in
nature fa r outside modern limits a belief in personal souls
anim a ting even what we call inanim a te bo di es a theo ry o f
transmigration o f souls as well in l ife as after death a sense
o f crowds o f S piritual beings sometimes itting through the
air but sometimes a lso inhabiting trees an d rocks an d
waterfa lls and so lending their own personality to such
ma teri a l obj ects all these thoughts w ork in mythology
with such manif o ld coincidence as to make it hard indeed
3
to unravel their separate action
-

1
2

R id
e

E y

W u t tke,

s sa

s,

v
ol iii p
.

1 13

V o lk sab e rgl a u b e p

21 0

3
.

S ee

h p xi
a

MYTHOLOGY

28 8

Such a nimis tic orig i n o f n a ture my ths sh o ws ou t very

clea rly in the g reat c o s mic g ro up o f S u n M o o n and S ta rs
I n e a rly phil o s o phy th ro ugh o u t t h e w o rld the Sun a n d
M o o n a re a live a n d a s it were hum a n in their nature
U su a lly c o n tra sted as male a n d female they nevertheless
diff er in the sex assigned to each as well as in their
relations t o o n e ano the r A mong the M b o co b i s o f South
A meric a the Mo o n is a man and the Sun his wife and the
sto ry is t o ld h o w she once fell down a n d an Indi a n put her
up ag ain bu t she fell a second time an d set the forest
1
blazing in a deluge o f re
To displ ay the opposite o f this
idea and at the same t i me to illust rate the vivid fancy
w ith which s a v a ges can personify the heavenly bodies we
may read the following discussion concerning eclipses
b etween ce r tain A lgonquin Indians and on e of the early
Jesuit missio naries to C a n ad a in the 1 7 th ce n tury F ather
L e Jeune
Je leur ay demand d o u v
e n o i t l E c l i ps e de
L une e t de Soleil ; ils m ont re spon du qu e la L une S c li p
soit o u paroi sso i t n o ire a cause qu elle t e n o i t s on ls entre
ses bras qui e mpe sch oi t que l o n n e vist s a clart Si la
ii
L une a n u ls elle est marie ou l a t leur dis
e
O
j
y
d e a me di r e n t ils l e Soleil est son mary qui ma r che t out
l e j our e t elle toute la n u i c t ; e t S i l s c li pse o u s il
s o b s c u rc i t c est qu il prend aus s i par f o is l e ls qu il a e n
de la L une e n t r e ses bras O ii y mais n y la L une n y le
S o leil n on t point de bras leur di soi s j e Tu n as point
d esprit ; ils tiennent t ou si o u rs leurs arcs bands denau t
eux v o il a po u rq u o y leurs bras n e paro i sse n t point Et sur
2
?
qui veulent ils ti r er ? H e qu en s c au on s nous
A
mythologically import a nt legend o f the s a me r a ce the
O tt a wa story o f Iosco describes S u n and M o o n a s b r other
sister
Two Indians it is said sprang through a
an d
ch a sm i n the S ky a n d found themselves i n a ple a sant
-

D O rb i g n y ,

B ord e
2

Le

26

L H om me

C a ra i b e s
,

5 25

Am ri ca i n

ii p
v
ol

1 02

S ee

J e u n e i n R el a t i ons d s J s ui t es d an s l N o u v e ll e Fran c e

N ou v ll e F n e vol ii p 1 7 0
S e C h rl v i x
e

D e la

a so

ra

1 63 4 ,

SUN

M O ON

AND STARS

28 9

moonli t land ; the r e they sa w the Mo o n a ppro a chi n g a s

from behind a hill they knew her a t the rst sight she w as
an a ged wom a n with white fa ce a n d pleasing a i r ; spe a king
ki ndly to them she led them t o her brothe r the Sun and
he carried them with him in his cou rse and sent them home
1
with pr o mises o f h a ppy life
A S the E gypti a n O siris a n d
Isis were at o nce br o ther an d sister a n d husb a nd a n d wife so
i t was with the Peruvi a n Sun a n d M o o n Y n t i a n d Q uilla
father a n d mother o f the Inc a s wh o se sister m a rri a ge thus
2
had i n their religion a t once a me a ning an d a j u s t i c a t i o n
The myths o f othe r cou n t ries where such relati o ns o f sex
may n o t appear carry on the same lifelike perso n ication in
telling the ever reiter a ted never tedi ous t a le o f day and
n ight
Thus to the M exicans it was an a ncient hero who
when the o ld sun was burnt out an d had left the world in
da rkness spr a n g int o a huge re descended into the sh a des
below a n d a r o se deied a n d glorious in the east as Ton at i u h
the Sun A fter him there leapt i n another he ro but now
the re had gr o wn dim and he arose only in milder radi ance
3
as M e t z t li the M oon
If it be obj ected that a ll this may be mere expressive
form of S peech like a modern p o et s fanciful metaphor
there is evidence which no such o bj ection can stand against
When the A leutians thought that if a n yone gave o ffence
to the m o on he would ing d o wn stones o n the o ffender
4
and kill him o r when the moon came dow n to an Indian
squaw appe a ring in the f o rm o f a beautiful wom a n with a
child in h e r a rms an d demandi n g a n o ffering of tobacco
and fur robes 5 wh a t concepti o ns o f perso n al life could be
,

S c h ool c
N rra t i v p
1

ra ft ,

e,

3 27
2

Algi c

317

e s ea rc

h es

vo l ii
.

P rose E dd a i

see a s o

11

iii

21

vo l i p
.

86 ;

a rc

i l as o

m p a re
a n n er s
E arly H i s t o f M a n k i d
n
54 ;

co

P res c ot t , P eru ,

1 5,

d e la

V eg a

C omm

R l i
ea

T orq u em d
M o narq ui a I n di an vi 4 2 ; C la vi g ro vl ii p 9 ;
S h a gu n i n K i n g b oro u gh A n t i q ui t i s of M x i c o

B st i n M en sc h vol ii p 5 9

R l t i ns d s J ui t es d n s l N u v ell e F n c e 1 6 3 9
Le J n n e i n
p 88
3

a,

a,

e a

ra

29 0

MYTH OLOGY

more distinct th a n these ? \Vhen the A pache Indi a n

pointed to t h e sky a n d a sked the white man D o y ou

no t believe th a t G o d this Sun ( que D ios este S o l) sees
what we d o and punishes us when i t is evil ? it is i m
possible to say th a t this s avage was talking in rhetorical
1
simile There was something in the Homeric contemplation
o f the living pers o nal H elios
that was more and deeper
th a n met a ph o r E ven in fa r later ages we may read o f the
o utcry that arose in G reece against the astronomers those
blasphemous materi a lists who denied not the divinity only
but the very person a lity o f the sun and declared him a
huge ho t ball L ater again h ow vividly Tacitus brings to
view the O ld personication dying i n to simile among the
R om a ns in contrast with its still enduring religious vigour
among the G erman nations in the record o f B oi ocalcu s
pleading before the Roman legate that his tribe should
n o t be driven from their la n ds
L ooking toward th e sun
a n d calling o n the o ther heavenly bodies as though
says
the historian they had been there present the G erman
chief demanded of them if it were their w i ll to look down
upon a vacant soil ? ( Solem de i n de r C S pi ci en s e t caeter a
sidera v
oc an s quasi coram i n t e rrog ab a t v
e l le n t n e c on t u e ri
in a ne solum
S o it is with the stars
Savage mythology contains
many a story of them agreeing through all other di fference
in a ttributing t o them animate life They are not merely
t a lked o f in fa ncied personali ty but personal action is a tt ri
buted t o them o r they are even declared once to h ave lived
o n earth
The natives o f A ustrali a not only say the stars
i n O ri o n s belt and scabbard are young men dancing a
c o rr o b o ree ; they declare that Jupiter whom they call

F oot o f D ay ( Gi n ab on g B e arp) w a s a chief among the

O ld Spirits th a t a ncient r a ce w h o were t ransl a ted to heaven
3
bef o re ma n c ame o n e a r th
The E squim a ux di d not st o p
sh o rt a t calli n g the sta rs of O ri o n s belt the Lo st O nes and
,

1
3

F oeb el C n t l Am e i c p 4 9 0

S t an b id ge i n Tr E th S oc vl i p
r

ra

a,

Ta C A n n
.

301

x iii

55

SUN

MOON

AN D STARS

29 1

telling a tale of their being seal hunters wh o missed their

way home ; but they distinctly held that the st ar s were in
o ld times men and animals before they went u p into the
1
sky
So the N orth A merican Indians had more th a n
supercial mean i ng in calling the Pleiades the D ancers and
the morning star the D ay bringer for a mong them stories
are told like that o f the Iowas o f the star that an Indian
had long gazed upon in childhood and who came down an d
talked with him when he was once out hunting weary and
luckless and led him t o a place where there w a s much
2

game
The Kasia o f B engal decl a re that the st a rs were once
men : they c limbed to the top of a tree ( of course the gre a t
he a ven tree o f the mythology of so many lands ) but o thers
3
below cut the trunk and left them up there in the branches
With such savage c o ncep tions as guides the original mean
ing in the f a mili a r C l a ssic personication of stars c a n
scarcely be d o ubted The explicit doctrine o f the anima
tion o f stars is to be traced through p a st centuries an d
down to ou r own
O rigen declares that the st a rs are
animate and rational moved with such order and reason a s
it would be absurd to say irr a tional creatures could full
Pamphilius in his apology for this F ather lays it down
that where a s s o me h ave held the luminaries o f heaven to be
animate and r a tional creatures while others have held them
mere S pi ritless and senseless b o dies no one may c a ll
another a he r etic for holdin g either view fo r there is no
open tradition on the subj ect an d even ecclesiastics h ave
4
thought di versely of i t
It is enough to mentio n here the
well known mediaeval doct rine o f st a r s o uls and star angels
so intimately mixed up with the delusio ns o f astrol o gy I n
o u r o w n time the theo r y o f the a nimating s o uls o f st a r s
nds still here an d there a n a dv o cate and D e M a istre
-

'

1
2

A rc t i c

C n z GrOnl n d p 2 9 5 H y es
S c h o l cr ft I n di n T ri b
p t iii p
ra

es ,

p 5 25

H Y u l e i n J o u rn A s

O ri ge n d e P ri n c i p ii s i

C ara i b es ,

ar

Bo

at

27 6 ;

J ou rn ey p
al s
De

see

25 4

la

B ord e

S oc

7, 3

B en g l vl x iii
P mph il A p o l og
a

p 6 28
O ri g i n e i x
.

pro

84

MYT HOLOGY

29 2

prince a n d le a der o f reactionary philosophers maintains

a g a inst m o dern a str o n o me r s the a n cient d o ctri n e o f per
s on a l will in a s t ro n o mic m o ti o n and even the theory o f
1
a n im a ted pl a nets
P o e t ry h as s o fa r kept alive in o u r minds the old a nim a
tive the o ry o f nature that it is no great effort t o us t o fancy
the w a tersp o u t a huge gia nt o r s e a m o nster and to depict
i n wh a t we c a ll app ro pri a te metaph o r its march a cross the
elds o f o ce a n But where such f o rms o f speech are current
a m o n g less educated races they are underlaid by a dist i nct
pros a ic meaning o f fa ct Thus the watersp o uts which the
J apanese see so o fte n o their coasts are to them l o ng t a iled

dr a gons ying up into the a i r with a sw i ft and violent

moti o n wherefore they call them t at s maki

s pouting
2
drag o ns
W a tersp o uts are believed by some C hinese to
be o cc a sioned by the ascent and descent o f th e dragon ;
although the m o n ster is never seen he a d and tail at o nce for
cl o uds shermen a n d sea side f o lk catch o ccasi o n a l glimpses
3
o f him a scending from the water and descen ding t o i t
In the me di ee va l C hr o nicle o f J o hn of B romt on there is
mentioned a wonder which h a ppens about o n ce a month in
the G ulf of S a talia on the P a mph y l ian c o a st A great
bl a ck drag o n seems t o c o me i n the clouds letting d ow n his
he a d i n to the waves while his t ail seems xed t o the S ky
and this d ra g o n dr a ws up the w aves to h im with such avidity
that even a l a den ship w o uld be taken up ou high so that to
a v o i d this dange r the c r ews ought to S hout and beat bo a rds
to d rive t h e d rago n o ff However concludes the chronicler
s o me indeed say that this is n o t a dragon but the su n draw
4
ing up the w a ter which seems more true The M o slems still
a ccou n t fo r wate r spouts a s caused by giga n tic demons such

A rabian N ights
The sea
a s th a t o n e described i n the
,

'

M ai st re S o i res d e S a i n t Pt ersb ou rg vol ii p 2 1 0 s ee 1 8 4

K a em p fer J a p an i n Pi nk ert on vol vi i p 6 8 4

3
D o o l i t t l e C h i n es e vol ii p 2 6 5 s ee W ard H i n d oos vol i p 1 4 0
( I n d ra s e l e p h a n t s d ri n k i n g )
C h ron Joh B omt on i n H i s t A n gl S cri pt ores x Ri c I p 1 2 1 6
1

De

1
'

WATER S PO UT

S AND P I LLAR
-

29 3

beca me troubled before them a n d there a r ose from it a

bl a ck pill a r a scendi n g tow a rds the S k y an d a pp r o a chi n g the
meadow
and behold it was a J i n n e e of gig a ntic
l
The difculty in interpreting language like this
s t a t u re
is to know how far it is seriously and how far fa ncifully
meant B ut this doubt in n o way goes against its original
animistic me a ning of which there c a n be no question in the

following story o f a great s e a serpent current amo n g a

b a rbarous E ast A frican tribe A chief o f the W an i ka told
D r Krapf of a g r eat serpent which is s o metimes see n out
at sea reaching from the sea to the S ky and appe a ring

especi a lly during heavy rain

I told them says the

2
missi o n a ry that this was no serpent but a waterspout
O ut o f the simil a r phenomeno n on l a nd there h as a risen a
S imil ar group of myths The M oslem fancies the whi rling
s a nd pilla r of the desert to be caused by the igh t o f an evil
j in n an d the E ast A frican S imply c a lls it a demon
To traveller after traveller who g a zes o n these monstrous
S hapes gliding maj estically across the desert the th o ught

occurs that the well remembered A r abi a n N ights de sc ri p

ti o ns rest upon pe rs o n i c a t i on s of the sand pill a rs them
selves as the gigantic demons int o which fancy can even
3
now so naturally S hape them
Rude a n d distant tribes agree in the c o ncepti o n o f the
R ainbow as a living m o nster N ew Zealand myth de s c ri b
ing the battle of the Tempest a gainst the F o rest tells h o w
the R a inb o w arose and placed his mouth close to Tane ma
huta the F ather of T r ees and co n tinued t o a ss a ult him till
his trunk was sn apt in two and his broken br a n ches st r ewed
4
the g ro und
It is not only i n mere n a ture myth like this
but in actual awe st ruck belief a n d terror th a t the ide a of the
,

L an e , Th ou s an d an d on e

K ra p f, Tra v el s , p 1 9 8
.

N v
ol i
p

30, 7

B urt on E l M edi n h n d Mecc h vol ii p 6 9

L k e R eg i on s vol i p 2 9 7 J D H o k
H i m l y n J o u n l vol i
p 7 9 Ty l e M e x i c o p 3 0 Ty rman n d B en n et vol ii p 3 6 2 [H i n du
p i cac h a d e m on w h i rl wi n d

Tayl or N ew Z eal an d p 1 2 1
3

an e ,

i bi d

pp

3 0, 42
.

r,

er ,

a a

a s,
.

MYTHOLOG Y

29 4

live R ain b ow is w o rked o u t Th e Kare n s o f Burma say it is

a s pi ri t o r dem o n
The Ra i n b o w c a n dev o ur men
Whe n i t dev o urs a pe rs o n he die s a su d den o r violent
death A ll pers ons t hat die badly b y falls by drowni n g
o r b y w ild beast s
die b ecause the R ainb o w h a s devoured
t heir ka la o r spirit
O n devouring persons it becomes
thirs t y a n d c o mes d o wn t o d rink when it is seen in t h e sky
d ri n ki n g w a t er Therefore when people see the R ainbow

t hey say
The R ai n bow has come to drink water L ook
ou t s o me o n e or other will die violently by an evil death

I f children are playi n g their parents will say to them

The
R ai n bow h as c o me d o wn t o drink Pl a y no more lest some
accident should happen t o y o u
A nd a fter the R a inb o w
h as been seen if any fa t a l accident happens t o a n yo n e it is
s a id the R ainbow h as devoured him 1 The Zulu ideas
c o rrespond in a curious way with these The R ainbow lives
with a s n ake th a t is where it is there is a lso a sn a ke ; o r
it is like a sheep and dwells in a pool When it touches
the earth it is dri n king at a po o l Men are afraid to
w a sh in a large pool ; they say there is a R ainbow in it and
if a man goes in it catches and eats him The R ainbow
co mi ng ou t o f a river or pool and resting on the ground
poisons men whom it meets a ffect n them with eruptio n s

Men s ay The R ain bow is dise a se If it rests on a man

2
something will happen to h im
L astly in D ahome D anh
the Heavenly Snake which makes t h e P opo beads and
3
n
n
c o nfers wealth on ma is the R ai bow
To the theory of A nim ism belo ng those endless tales
which all nations tell of the presidi ng genii o f n a ture the
S pir its o f cli ffs wells waterf alls v o lca noes the elves and wood
nymphs seen a t times by huma n eyes when wander i ng by
moo n li ght or assembled at thei r fai ry festivals Such beings
may personi fy the natural o bj ects they belo n g t o as whe n
in a N o rth A meric a n tale the gu a rdi an spirit o f waterfalls
.

'

M as on K aren s i n
B e n ga l

C a ll a w a y Z u l u Ta l es vol i p 2 9 4

B urt on D a h o m e vo l
p 1 4 8 ; s ee 2 4 2
,

J ou rn A s S o c

1 86 5 ,

p art ii p
.

217

RA I NBOW

WAT E RFA L L

29 5

rushes thr o ugh the l o dge a s a r a gi n g cur r ent be a ri n g rocks

and then the
a n d t r ees a l o n g i n its t r eme n d o us c o urse
gu a r di a n S pirit o f the isl ands o f L a ke Supe rio r enters i n
the guise o f rolling waves covered with silver sp a rkling
1
f oam
O r they may be guiding and power giving spi rits o f
n a ture like the S pirit F u g amu wh o se wo rk is the cat a r a ct
of the N g u y ai an d w h o still wanders nigh t and da y ar o und
it though the negroes w h o tell o f him c a n no l o nger see his
2
bodily form
The belief prevailing through the lower
culture that the diseases which vex mankind are brought
by individu a l pe rs o n a l S pirits is one which h a s produced
striking ex a mples o f mythic development Thus in Burma

the K a ren lives in terror o f the mad la the epileptic la

and the rest of the seven ev i l demons w h o g o a b o ut seeking
his life ; an d it is with a fancy not man y degrees r emoved
f r o m this early st age o f thought t liat the Persi a n sees i n
bodily sh ape the app a rition of A l the scarlet fever
,

W o u l d ou
y

W ith

kn o w

l oc k s

Al ?

am e

of

sh e see

ms

b l u s h i n g m ai d

an d ch ec k s al l ro sy re d . 3

It is with this deep old S piritu a listic belief clearly in view

that the gh a stly t a les are t o be re a d where pestilence an d
death come on their err a n d in weird hum a n sh ape To the
mind o f the Isra elite de a th an d pestilence t o ok the pe rsonal
form of the dest roying angel who smote the doomed 4 When
the great plagu e raged i n J u s t i n i an s time men saw on the
sea brazen b a rks wh o se crews were black a n d he a dless men
5
When
a n d wh ere they landed the pestilence broke o u t
the plague fell o n R o me in G reg o ry s time the saint rising
from prayer saw Mich a el stan di ng with his bloody sword
H a drian s c a stle the a rch a ngel stands the r e yet in
on
bronze giving the O ld f o rt its newer name O f the C a stle o f
.

1
2
2

S c h o ol c ra ft , Alg i c R es

Du Ch

A t k i n s n C u s to m s o f t h e W om e n o f P ersi a p
2 K i n gs x i x 3 5
2 S m xx i v 1 6
G S A s s cm n n i B i b l i ot h eca O ri en t a l i s ii 8 6

Ja s

A sh an g o

a i ll u ,

ol ii p 1 4 8
v
l an d p 1 0 6

49

MYT HOLOG Y

296

S t A n gel o A m o ng a wh o le g ro up o f st o rie s o f the pes

t i le n c e seen i n pe rs n a l s h a pe t ra velli ng t o a n d f ro in the
la ml pe rh a p s the re i s n o ne m o re vivid th a n this Slav o nic

o ne
There s a t a R u s si a n unde r a larch tree and the
sunshine glared like re He saw something coming from
a fa r ;
he l o oked a g a in i t w a s the Pest maide n huge o f
st a t ure a ll s h rouded in li n e n stridi n g tow a rds him
He
w o uld have ed i n terr o r but the form gra sped him with

her l o n g o utstretched ha n d
Kn o west thou the Pest ?
she s a id ; I a m she Take me o n thy shoulders and carry
me through a ll R ussia ; miss no village no town fo r I
must visit all But fear n ot fo r thyself thou shalt be safe
amid the dying
C lingi n g with her long hands she clam
bered o n the peas a nt s back ; he stepped o n ward saw the
fo rm above him as he went but felt no burden F irst he
bore her to the towns ; they found there j o yous da n ce and
song ; but the fo rm waved her linen sh r oud and j oy and
mi rth were gone
A s the wretched man looked round
he saw m o ur n i n g he heard the t e lli n g of the bells there
came funer a l processions the graves could not hold the
dead He p a ssed on a n d comi n g ne a r each village heard
the sh riek of the dyi n g saw all f a ces white in the desolate
houses
But high o n the hill s t an ds h i s o w n h a mlet :
his wife his little children are there and the aged parents
and his he a rt bleeds a s he d raws near With strong gripe
he holds the m a iden f a st and plunges with her beneath
the waves H e s ank : she rose ag ain but she qua iled before
a he ar t so fea rless and ed far away to the forest and the
1
mount a in
Y et if mythology be surveyed in a more c omprehe n sive
view it is seen th a t its a nimistic devel o pment falls within a
bro a der gener a lization st i ll The explanation of the course
a n d cha n ge o f n a tu r e as caused by life such a s the li fe o f
the thin king man who gazes o n it is but a p a rt o f a fa r
wider ment a l process It belo n gs to th a t g re a t doctrine o f
.

I ndi

H a n u s cb ,
ana,

S l v My t h u p
1 4 ( M ex i c ) ; B s t i
a

s,

C m p e T orq u em d
P s y h l g i e p 1 9
c
7

3 22

an ,

ar

o o

a,

M on arq ui a

P E ST I LEN C E

29 7

an al ogy fr o m which we h ave gained s o much o f o u r appre

D istrust ed a s it n o w is by
h e n s i o n o f the w o rld a round us
severer science for its misle a di n g results analogy is still t o
us a chief means of discovery an d illustration while in
earlier gr a des of educa tion its inuence was all but para
mount A nal o gies which a re but fan cy t o us were to men
of p a st ages reality They could see the ame licking its
yet undev o ured prey with to n gues o f re o r the serpent
gliding along the wav i ng sword from hilt to point ; they
could feel a live cre a ture gn a wing within their bodies in the
p a ngs o f hunger ; they heard the voices o f the hill dwarfs
a nswer i ng I n the echo
and the chari o t of the He aven god
rattling in thunder ove r the solid rma me n t Men to wh o m
these were living thoughts h a d n o need o f the scho o lmaster
and his rules o f compositi o n his inj uncti o ns to use met a phor
c a utiously and to take continu a l ca re t o make all similes
consistent The similes of the old b a rds a n d or a tors were
co n sistent beca use they seemed to see and hear an d feel
them : what we ca ll poetry was to them real life n o t a s to
the modern versemaker a masquerade of gods an d heroes
S hephe r ds and shepherdesses stage her o in es and philosophic
savages in paint a n d feathers It was with a far deeper
co n sciousness that the circumstan ce of nature was w o rked
out in endless imagin a tive detail i n ancient days and a mong
uncultured races
U p o n the sky a b o ve the hill count ry o f O rissa Pi dz u
P e n n u the R ain g o d o f the Kho n ds r ests as he pours down
1
the showers through his S ieve
O ver Peru there st a nds a
princess with a v a se o f rain and when h e r brother strikes
the pitcher me n hear the shock in thunder and see the a sh
i n lightni n g 2
To the o l d G reeks the rainbow seemed
stretched down by Jove from heave n a purple S ign O f war
a n d tempest o r it was the personal Iris messenger between
3
To the South S e a islander it was the
gods an d men
,

M a c p h ers on
p 357

M ark h am Q ui c h u a Gr a n d Di c p

W el c k er C ri cc h Get t erl vol i p

,

I n di a

690

29 8

MY T H O L O C

he a ven l a dder whe re her o e s o f o l d c limbed up and dow n ;

a n d s o t o t h e Sc a nd i n a vi a n i t w a s Ri frii s t
the trembli n g
b ri dge tim b e red o f t h ree h u e s a n d stretched f ro m sky to
e a rth ; while i n G erman folk lore it is the bridge where the
souls o f the j us t a re led by their gu a rdian angels a cr o ss t o
2
p a radi s e
A s t h e Is ra elite c alled i t the b ow o f Jehov ah in
11
the clouds i t is to the Hi n du the b o w o f R ama and t o
th e F in n the bow O f Tiermes the Thunderer who slays
4
wi th i t the sorcerers that hunt after men s lives ; it is
im a gined moreover as a gold embroidered scarf a he a d
d ress O f fe a thers S t B ernard s crown or the sickle of a n
5
E sthonian deity A n d yet through all such endless va r ieties
o f mythic conception
there runs o n e main principle the
evident suggestion and a nalogy o f nature
It h a s bee n
said o f the savages o f N orth A merica that there is always
something actual and physical t o ground an Indian fa ncy
on 6
The saying goes t o o far but within limits it is em
phatically true not o f N orth A merican Indians alone but
of mankind
Such resemblances as have j ust been displayed thrust
themselves di rectly on the mind without any necessary i n
D eep as l a nguage lies in ou r mental
t e rv
e n t i on of words
life the di rect comparison o f obj ect with O bj ect and action
with acti o n li es yet deeper Th e my th maker s mind Shows
f o rth even among the deaf an d dumb who work out j ust
such analo gies o f nature in their wordless thought A g a in
and again they have been found to suppose themselves
taught by their guardians to worship and pray to sun moo n
and stars as personal creatures
O thers have described
their early thoughts of th e heavenly bodies as analog o us to
th i ngs within their reach on e fa ncying the moon made like
a d u mplin g and rolled over the tree tops like a m a rble across
-

'

E ll i

Pol n Re s
y

s,

vol i p

P ol ac k

23 1 ;

N ew Z

v
ol i p
.

G ri mm D M pp 69 4 6
3
Ward H i n d oos vol i p 1 4 0

F
1
C as t ren
i nn i sch My t h ol gi e pp 4 8 4 9
5 D lb
u s an d S t i n t h al s Z e i t s h i ft vol iii p
e
ruc k i n L z
S c h oo l c ra ft p rt iii p 5 2 0
2

27 3

a ar

26 9

M YT H S O F LANG UAG E

29 9

a table and the stars ou t out with great sciss o rs and stuck
a g a inst the S k
y while another supp o sed the moo n a furnace
and the stars re gr a tes which the people a bove the rma
1
ment light up as we kindle re S
N ow the mythology o f
mankind a t large is full o f conceptions O f nature like these
a n d to a ssume for them n o deeper original source than meta
ph o ri cal phr a ses would be to ignore o n e o f the great transi
tions of our intellectual history
L anguage there is no doubt has had a great share in the
formation of myth The mere fact of its individualizing in
words such notions as winter an d summer cold an d heat
i rt u re gives the myth maker the
war an d peace vice and v
means o f imagining these thoughts as personal beings
L angu a ge not only acts in thor o ugh unison with the im agi
n a ti o n whose product i t expresses b u t it g o es on pr o ducing
o f itself a n d thus by the S ide o f the mythic c o nceptions i n
which l a nguage h a s f o ll o wed imagination we h a ve others in
which l a ngu a ge h as led and imagination has fo ll o wed in the
track These two actions coincide t oo closely for their
e ffects t o be thoroughly S eparated but they should be dis
t i n g u i s h e d a s fa r as p o ssible
F or myself I am disp o sed
to think ( di ffering here in some measure from Professor
M ax M uller s view o f the subj ect ) that the mythology o f the
l o wer races rests especi a lly o n a b a sis of real and sensible
an a l o gy and that the g r eat expansion of verbal met aph o r
into myth bel o ngs t o m o re advanced periods o f civilization
In a word I t a ke material myth to be the primary and
verbal myth to be the secondary formation But whether
this O pi n ion be hist o rically sound o r n o t the di fference in
nature between myth founded on fa ct and myth f o unded o n
w o rd is su fciently manifest The want of re a lity in verbal
m et a phor cannot be e ffectually hidden by the utmost stretch
o f im a gi n a ti o n
In S pite o f this essential we a kness however
the h a bit o f re a lizing everything that words c an describe is
,

Th or i e d es

P erso n a l

Si d
S ig
P i 1 80 8 vl ii p 6 3 4 ;
R ec ll ct i on s b y C h a l ot t E l i z b t h L on d 1 8 4 1 p 1 82 ; Dr O rp en
Th e C o n t s t p 2 5
C o m p e M e i e s vol i p 4 2
1

car

ra

n es ,

&c

ar

a r s,

on ,

n r

MYTH OLOGY

3 00

g ro wn a n d fl o u ri s hed i n the w o rld D e s c ri p

the n o ti o n o f pe rs o n a l i ty
t ive n a me s b e c o me pe rs o n a l
s t re t ches t o t a ke in even the mos t a bstract n o ti o ns t o which
a name ma y be a pplied a n d realized n ame epithet a n d
metaph o r p a ss i n to in t erminable my thic g rowths by the

pr ocess wh i ch M ax M ulle r has so aptly characte rized a s a

di s e a s e o f l a ngu age
It w o uld be diffi cult i n deed t o de n e
the ex a ct th o ugh t lyi n g at t h e ro o t o f every mythic c o n c e p
t i o n but i n easy cases the c o urse o f formation can be quite
w ell f o ll o wed
N o rth A me rica n tribes have pe rsonied
N i pi n i i k h e a n d l i pun fi kh e the beings who bri n g the S pring
n i in
N i pi n i i kh e brings the heat
( p ) and the winter
and birds a n d verdu re Pi p n ukh e r a vages with his c o ld
winds his ice and snow ; o n e comes as the other goes an d
1
between them they divide the world
Just such pe rs on i
c a tion as this furnishes the st a ple of endless nature
metaphor in o u r own E ur o pean p o et ry In the springtime
it comes to be s ai d that May has conquered Wi n te r his
g a te is O pen he h as se n t letters before him to tell the fruit
that he is c o ming his tent is pitched he brings the woods
their summer cl o thi n g Thus when N ight is personied
we see h o w it comes to pass that D ay is her son an d how
each in a he a venly ch a ri o t drives r ound the world To
minds i n this mythologic stage the C urse bec o mes a per
sonal bein g hovering in space till it can light upon its
victim ; Time an d N a ture arise as real ent ities ; F ate and
F o rtune become personal arbiters o f o u r lives B ut at
last a s the change of meaning goes o n thoughts that
once had a mo r e r eal se n se fa de int o mere poetic forms
We have but to compare the e ffect o f ancient
o f speech
to u n der
a n d m o dern personic a ti o n on o u r own minds
st a nd s o mething O f wh a t has happened i n the inte rval
Milt on may be c o n sistent classic a l maj estic when he tells
how S i n an d D eath s a t within the g a tes of hell and
h o w they bu i lt thei r bridge o f length pr o digious across
the deep abyss to earth
Y et such description s leave
in R l d
1 63 4 p 1 3
Je d n s l N u v ll e F n
L J u

o ne

w hich h a s

'

n e,

es

s.

ra

c e,

PER S O N I F I CAT I ON

301

but sc a nt sense o f meaning o n m

odern minds and we
are apt to s ay a s we might of some c o unterfeit b ronze

fr o m N aples F o r a S ham a ntique h o w cleverly it is

d o ne
E ntering in t o the mind of the o ld N orseman
we guess how much more o f me a nin g th a n the cleverest
modern imitatio n c an c a rry lay in his pictures o f Hel
the death goddess ster n and grim an d livid dwelli ng
in her high and str o ng b a rred house and keepi n g in
her nine worlds t h e souls of the departed ; Hunger
is her dish F amine is her knife C a re is her bed and
Misery her curt ain When such o ld material desc riptions
are t ransferred to modern times in S pite O f all the
accuracy of reproduction their S pirit is quite ch anged
The st o ry o f the monk w h o displ a yed amo n g his relics
the g arments o f S t F a ith is t o u S only a j est ; and we
c a ll it quaint humour when C h a rl es L amb falling o ld

and inrm o nce wrote t o a friend My bed fellows are

C ough an d C ramp ; we S leep three in a bed
Perhaps
we n eed n o t a ppreciate the drollery any the less for
seeing in it at o nce a consequence and a record of a past
intellectu a l life
The distinction o f grammatical gender is a process
in tim a tely c o nnected with the formati o n of myths G ram
mat i c a l gender is o f t w o kinds
What may be called sexual
gender is famili a r t o all cl a ssically educated E ngli shmen
though their mother tongue h as m o stly l o st its traces
Thus in L atin n ot o n ly ar e such words a s h omo and femi n a
cl a ssed naturally a s m a sculin e an d femini n e but such words
is
as p es an d g la di a s a re made m asculin e an d bi g a and n a v
femin ine a n d the same distincti o n is a ctu a lly drawn
between such a bstracti o ns as h on os an d d es Th a t sexless
objects an d ide a s S h o uld thus be cl a ssed a s m a le a n d fem ale

in spite o f a new gender the n euter or neither gender

hav i ng been dened seems i n part expl a ined by consider
i n g this l a tter to h a ve been o f l a ter f o rm a ti o n and the
origin a l Ind o E ur o pe a n genders to have been only masculine
a n d femi n ine a s is a ctu a lly the c a se in Hebrew
Th o ugh
,

3 02

MYTHOLOGY

the pr a ctice o f a ttributi n g sex to o bj ects that h a ve none is

not
easy t o expl ain in detail ye t there seems nothing
my s teri o us in its principles t o j udge fr o m one a t least o f
its m a in ideas which is still quite intelligible L anguage
makes a n a dmi rably a ppr o pri a te distinction between strong
and we a k stern and ge n tle r o ugh and delic a te when it
c o ntras t s them as male and fem a le I t is possible to under
st and even such fa n cies as th o se which Piet ro della V alle
describes am ong the m ediaeval Persians distinguishing b e
tween male a n d fem a le that is t o say practically between
robust an d tender even in such things as food an d cloth
1
a i r and wate r a n d prescribing their proper use acc o rdingly
A nd no phrase could be more plain and forcible than that
o f the D ayaks of Borneo who say o f a heavy downpour of

rain u j at n arai s a !
D ifcult as
a h e rain t h i s l
it may be to decide how far obj ects and thoughts were
classed in language as male and fem a le because they were
person i ed and how far they were personied because they
were classed as male and female it is evident at any rate
that these two processes t together and promote each
3
other
M oreover in studying languages which lie beyond the
range o f common E ur o pean scholarship it is found that the
theory o f gr ammatica l gender must be extended into a wider
eld The D ravidi a n l a ngu ages o f South India make the

interesting di stincti o n between a high ca ste or m aj o r

gender which includes rational beings i e deities a n d

men and a c a ste less or minor gender which includes

4
irrational obj ects wh ether li ving animals or lifeless things
The di stinction between an animate and an in a nimate
gender a ppears with especi a l import in a family o f N orth
A merican Indi a n languages the A lgonquin Here not only
,

Pi et ro d ell a V a ll e V i agg i l et t er xv i
2
J o ur n I n d Arc h i p vol ii p x xv ii
3
S e e re m a rk s o n t h e t e n d e n c y o f se x d e n o t i n g la n g u a ge t o p ro du ce my t h

i n A fr i ca i n W H Bl eek
R eyn ard t h e F ox i n S Afr p x x ; O ri g i n o f
L a n g p xx iii

C a l dwe ll C o m p Gr o f D ra v idi a n L a n g s p 1 7 2
1

GENDER

NAME

3 03

animals belong to the a nimate gender but also the

mo o n a n d st a rs thunder and lightning as being
su n
Th e animate gende r
personied creatures
m o reover
include s not only trees and fruits but certain exceptional
lifeless o bj ects which appear to o we this distinction to their
speci a l sanctity o r power ; such are the stone which serves
as the a ltar of sacrice to the manitus the bow the eagle s
feather the kettle tobacco pipe d rum an d w a mpum
Where the whole animal is anim ate parts of its body
considered separ a tely may be inanim a te
hand or fo ot beak
or wing Y et even here for special reasons special obj ects
are treated as of animate gender ; such are the eagle s
talons the bear s claws the be aver s c ast e r the man s n a ils
and other obj ects for which there is claimed a peculiar or
mystic power 1 If to anyone it seems surprising th a t
s avage thought S hould be steeped t h roii g h and throu gh in
mythol ogy let him consider the meaning that is involved in
a grammar of nature l ike this Such a language is the very
re e x i o n of a mythic world
There is yet another way in which language and my t h o
logy can act and re act on one another E ven we with
ou r blunted mythologic sense
cannot give an individual
name t o a lifeless O bj ect s u ch as a boat or a weapon with
o u t in the very act imagining fo r it s o mething o f a personal
n a ture A mong nati o ns whose mythic conceptions have
rem a ined in full vigour this action may be yet more vivid
Perhaps very low s a v a ges may not be apt t o name their
implements or their c an o es a s though they were live people
but races a few stages above them S how the habit in per tee
tion
A mong the Zulus we hear of names for clubs
I g u mg e h le or G lutt o n U n o t h lo la maz i b u k o or H e who
w a tches the fords ; among names for assagais are I mb u b u z i
lamb ile or Hungry L e o pard a n d
or Gro a n causer U Silo si
the we a pon being a lso used a s an implement a cert a in
a ll

do

S c h ool c

P o tt i n
F orb es
,

I n di n T i b es p art ii p 3 6 6 F or o t h e c s es see es p e i lly

E s ch n d G ru b er s Allg E n cy c l o p
a rt
G esc h l ec h t ; al s o D

P i n G p 2 6 ; L t h am D esc Et h vol ii p 6 0
r

ra ft ,

c a

e rs a

r.

M YTHO LO G Y

3 04

assag a i be a rs the pe a ce ful n ame of U simbela banta bami

1
H e digs u p fo r my child ren
A simila r custom preva iled
among
Th e tr a di ti o ns o f their
the N ew Ze al anders
a nce s tr a l m i gr a ti o ns tell h o w N a h u e made from his j a sper
g
st o n e th o se t w o s h a rp a xes wh o se n a mes were Tu t au ru a n d
H au h a u te rangi ; h o w with these a xes were sh a ped the
c a n o es A raw a a n d Tainui ; how the two st o ne a nch o rs o f
Te A rawa were called TO k a p a rore or W ry s t o n e an d
Tu te rangi haruru o r Like to the roaring sky
These
legends do n o t break o ff in a remo te p a st bu t c a rry on a
chr o nicle which re a ches int o modern times It is o nly
l a tely the Maoris say that the f a mous axe Tu t a u ru was
lost and as fo r the ear ornament named Kaukau matua
which was made from a chip of the same stone they declare
th a t it was no t lost till 1 8 4 6 when its owner Te H e u h e u
2
perished in a landslip
U p from this s a vage level the same
childlike habit o f giving personal names to lifeless o bj ects
may be t raced as we read o f Th o r s hammer Miolnir
whom the giants know as he comes ying through the ai r
o r of A rthur s br a nd E xcalibur caught by the arm cl o thed
in white samite when Sir Bedive re ung him b a ck into th e
lake o r of the C id s mighty sword T i zon a the F irebrand
whom he v o wed t o bury in his o w n bre a st were she e ver
come thr o ugh cowardice o f his
The teachings o f a childlike prim aeval philosophy a sc ri b
ing pe rsonal life to nature at large and the early tyranny
o f speech e v
e r the human mind have thus been two great
and perhaps greatest agents in mythologic development
O ther c auses t o o have been at work which will be noticed
in connexi o n wit h special legend a ry groups and a full list
could it be dr a w n up might i n clude as c o ntributories many
oth er intellectu a l actio n s It must be thoroughly under
stood howeve r that such investigation of the processes o f
myth formation demands a lively sense o f the state o f men s
-

'

1
2

C l l w ay R el i g f Am z u l u p 1 6 6

G e y Po ly n My t h pp 1 3 2 & c
a

N Z p
.

15

21 1 ;

S ho tl d
r

an

T ra di t i o n s

of

PO ETIC I MAG I NATION

305

minds in the myth o l o gic peri o d

When the R ussian s i n
Sibe ri a listened to the t alk o f the rude Ki rgis they stood
a mazed a t the barba r ia n s ceaseless o w o f poetic impr o vis a

ti o n and exclaimed Wh a tever these pe o ple see gives

birth to fa ncies ! Just So the civilized E ur o pean may
contrast his o w n sti ff o rderly prosaic thought with the wild
S hifting poetry and legen d of the O l d myth maker and may
say o f him that everything he saw gave birth t o fa ncy
Wanting the p o wer O f tr a nsporting himself int o this imagi
native atmosphere the student occupied with the an a lysis
o f the mythic world m a
f
a il s o piti a bly i n c o nceivi n g its
y
depth and intensity of me anin g a s to convert it i n to stupid
ction Th e se can see more j ustly w h o have the poet s gift
o f th r owi n g thei r minds b a ck into the wo r ld s O lde r life like
the a cto r w h o fo r a m o me n t can fo rget himself and become
wh a t he pretends to be
W o rdsw o rth th a t m o dern
ancient as Max M uller h a s so well called h i m could write
of Storm a n d Winter o r of the n a ked Su n cl i mbing the
sky as though he were some V edic p o et at the he a d S pring

o f his r a ce
S eeing with his mind s eye a mythic hymn
to A gni or V aruna F ully t o underst a nd an o ld world
myth needs not evidence a n d a rgument al o ne but deep
poetic feeli n g
Y et such o f a s as S hare bu t very little in this rare gift
may make S hift t o let evide n ce in s o me me a sure stand in its
ste a d I n the poetic stage o f thought we may see that
ideal conceptions o nce shaped in the mind mus t have
a ssumed some such reality to gr o wn u
men
a n d women as
p
they still do t o child ren I h a ve never forg o tten the vivid
ness with which as a child I fa ncied I migh t lo o k through
a great telescope and see the constell a tions st a nd r o und the
sky , red green an d yellow as I had j ust been sh o w n them
o n the celesti a l gl o be
The inte n sity o f mythic fa n cy may
be brought even more ne a rly home t o ou r minds by c om
p a ring it with the morbid subj ectivity o f illness A mong
the lower ra ces an d high above their level morbid ecstasy
brought on by medit a tio n f a sting narcotics exciteme n t or
.

M YT H O LOG Y

3 06

di s ease is a st a t e c o mm o n a n d held i n h o n o ur a m o n g the

ve ry cl a s s e s s peci a lly c o n ce rn ed w ith my thic i d e ali s m a n d
u n der its i n flue n ce the b a rrie rs b et w ee n sensati o n a n d
im agin a ti o n b re a k u tte rly a way A N o rth A merican I n di a n
p ro phe t ess o nce rel a t ed the s tory o f her rst vision : A t h e r
s o lit a ry f a st a t w o m a nho o d she fell into an ecst a sy and a t
the c a ll o f the S pirits she went up to heaven by the p a th
th a t le a ds to the opening o f the sky ; there she heard a
v o ice and standi n g still saw the gure of a man st a nding
near the p a th whose head was surrounded by a brilliant
h a lo and his bre a st was covered with squ a res ; he said

L o ok a t me my n a me is O sh a u wa u ege e g hi ck the Bright

B lue Sky ! R ec o rding her experience afterwards in the
rude picture writing o f her race she painted this glorious
spi rit with the hier o glyphic horns of power and the bri lliant
1
halo round his head
We know enough o f the Indi an
pictographs t o guess how a fancy with these famili ar details
o f the picture langu a ge came into the poor excited crea
ture s mind ; but h o w far is ou r cold analysis from her
utter belief that in vision she had re a lly seen this bright
being this R ed Indi a n Zeus F ar from being an isolated
ca se this is sc a rcely more than a fair example of the rule
that an y ide a shaped and m a de current by mythic fancy
may a t once acquire all the de n i t e n e s s o f fact
E ven if to
the rst shaper it be no more than lively imagination yet
when it c o mes t o be embodied in words a n d to pass from
house to house those who hear it become capable o f the
mos t i n tense belief that it may be seen in material S hape
that it has been seen that they themselves have seen it
The S o uth A frican w h o believes in a god with a crooked leg
2
s ees him with a cr o o ked leg in dreams and visi o ns
In the
time o f T a citus it w a s s a id with a more poetic im agination
th a t in the far no r th of Sc a ndin a vi a men might see the very
3
forms of the g o ds a n d the r a ys st reaming from thei r he a ds
,

2
3

I n di a n

S h l c ft
T i b s part i p
L i v i g st
S A f p 1 24
G m i 45
T
c

oo

ao

ra

on e ,

er

an a ,

r.

391

an d

pl 5 5
.

ECS TATIC IMAG I NATION

307

In the 6 t h century the famed N ile god might still be seen

in gigantic hum a n form rising w a ist high fr o m the w a te rs
1
o f his river
Wa nt o f o rigin ality indeed seems on e o f the
most remarkable fe a tures in the visi o ns of mystics The
sti ff Madonnas with their c r ow n s and petticoats still
t ransfer themselves from the pictures o n cottage w a lls t o
a ppe a r in spiritu a l pers o n a lity t o pe a s a n t visionaries a s the
saints wh o stood in visi o n before ecst a tic monks of old we r e
t o be know n by their conve n ti o nal pictorial attributes
When the devil with horns hoofs a n d tail had once become
a xed image in the p o pul a r mind of course men sa w him
in this conventi o nal shape
S o re a l had S t A nthony s
satyr demon become to men s O pinion that there is a grave
1 3 t h C entury acc o unt o f the mummy of such a devil being
exhibite d at A lexandria ; and it is n ot fteen yea rs back
fr o m the p r esent time th a t there was a st o ry current a t
Teignm o uth of a devil walking up the walls of the houses
and le aving his endish backw a rd footprints in the sn o w
N o r is it vision a l o ne th a t is concerned with the delusive
realization o f the ideal ; there is as it were a conspiracy o f
a l l the se n ses to give it proof
To take a striki n g instance :
there is an irritating herpetic disease which gr a du a lly
encircles the b o dy as with a girdle whence its E nglish n ame
o f the sh i ng les
( L atin ci ng i d n m) By an imagin a ti o n not
di f cult t o understand this dise ase is att ributed to a sort of
c e i li n
g snake ; and I remember a c a se in C ornw a ll where a
gi r l s family w a ited in gre a t fear t o see if the creature
would stretch all round h e r the belief bei n g that i f the
snake s he a d and tail met the patient would di e B ut a yet
fuller me a ning o f this fantastic n o ti o n is brought ou t in an
acc o unt by D r Bastian of a physician who su ffered i n a
painful disease as though a snake were twined r o und him
and in whose mind this ide a reached such reali ty th a t in
moments o f excessive pai n he c o uld see the sn a ke a n d touch
its r o ugh scales with his h a nd
The relation of morbid imagi n ati o n to myth is peculi a rly
-

M a u ry

Mag i c

&c,

1 75

M YTH O LOG Y

3 08

well in s t a n ced i n the his to ry o f a widespread b elief extend

i n g t h ro ugh s a v a ge b a rb a ri c cl a s s ic o rient a l a n d me d i ze v
al
life a n d s u rviving t o thi s d ay in E u ro pe a n supe rstiti o n
Thi s b elief which ma y b e c o nveniently c a lled the D octri n e o f
\Ve rc w o l v
by natur a l gift or m agic
e s is th a t cert a in m e n
a rt
The
c a n tu rn fo r a time i n t o ra ve n i n g wild be a sts
o rigi n o f this idea is by n o me a ns su ffi ciently expl a ined
Wh a t we a re C specially c o nce rn ed with is the fact o f its pre
valence in the w o r ld It may be n o ticed th a t such a notion
is quite consisten t wi t h the animistic theory th a t a m a n s
soul ma y g o o u t o f h i s body a n d enter th a t o f a beast o r
bird an d als o with the opinion that men may be tr a n sf o rmed
into anim a ls ; b o th these ide a s h a vi n g an important place in
the belief o f mankind from s a vagery onward The d o ctrine
o f werew o lves is substantially that o f a temporary metem
psych o sis o r met a morphosis N ow it really occurs th a t in
various f o rms of ment a l dise a se patie n ts prowl shyly l o ng t o
bite a n d destr o y m a nkind and even fancy themselves trans
formed into wild beasts B elief in the possibility o f such
tran sfo rm a tion may have been th e very suggesting cause
which led the patient to im agine it taki n g place in his o w n
pe rso n But at an y rate such i n san e de lu s i on s d o occur
and physicians a pply t o them the mythologic term of lyc a n
The belief in m en bein g werewolves man tigers
t h r O py
a n d the like may thus have th e st r o n g S upport of the very
witnesses who believe themselves to b e such creatures
M o re o ver p r ofessional sorcerers have t a ken up the idea as
they d o any mo rbid delusi o n and pretend to tu rn themselves
a n d othe r s int o beasts by magic ar t
Thr o ugh the m a ss of
ethnographic det a ils relat i ng to this subj ect there is manifest
a remarkable u n ifo rmity of p rinciple
A mong the n on
A ryan in digenes o f Indi a the tribes of the

G aro Hills describe as transformation int o a tiger a kind

o f temp o r a r y mad n ess app a rently of the n a ture o f delirium
t remens in which the patie n t w a lks like a tiger shunning
1
society
The Khonds of O riss a s ay that s o me a mong them
,

E li

ot

in

A s R es
.

v
o l iii p
.

32

L YCANTH ROPY

3 09

h ave the art o f mle e pa and by the aid o f a god b ec ome

m l e e pa tigers fo r the purp o se o f killing enemies one o f

the m a n s f o ur s o uls g o i n g ou t to a n im a te the besti al f o rm
Na tu ra l tige rs s ay the Kho n ds kill game to be n et me n
w h o nd it half dev o ured and sha re it whereas man killing
tige rs are either incarnations of the wr a thful E arth goddess
1
r
r
r
they are t ansfo med men
Thus the notio n o f man
o
t i gers serves a s simil a r noti o ns d o elsewhere to account for
the fact that certain i ndividu a l wild be a sts S how a peculiar
hostility to man A mong the Ho o f S i n gbh o o m it is related
as an example of similar belief that a ma n named M o ra saw
his wife killed by a tiger a n d f o llowed the be a st till it led him
to the house o f a man named P o osa Telli n g P oo sa s rel a
e s o f wh a t had o ccurred they replied th a t they were aware
tiv
that he had the p o wer o f bec o ming a tiger an d acc o rdingly
they brought him out b o und and Mo ra delibe ra tely killed
him Inquisition bei n g m a de by the a uth o rities the fa mily
dep o sed i n explan a ti o n o f their belief that P o osa had on e
night devoured an entire go at r o a ring like a tiger whilst
eating it and that onanother occasion he told his fr i ends he
had a longing t o e a t a p a rticular bullock a n d that very night
that very bullock w as killed and dev o ured by a tiger 2
S o uth eastern A sia is not less f a mili a r with the idea of
s o rcerers turning into ma n tigers an d w an dering after prey ;
thus the J ak u n s o f the M a l a y Peninsul a believe th a t when a
ma n becomes a tiger to revenge himself on his enemies the
tran sformation happens j ust before he springs and has been
3
seen to t a ke pl a ce
H o w vividly the imaginati o n o f an excited tribe once
inocul a ted with a belief like this can realize it into an event
is graphically told by D ob ri z h o ffe r a mong the A b i pon e s o f
S o uth A merica When a so rcerer to get the better o f an
enemy threatens to ch a n ge himself into a tiger and tear his

I n di a

M acp h erson
pp 9 2 9 9 1 08

2 D l
K o l s o f C h ot a N agp ore i n Tr Eth S oc vol vi p 3 2
a t on

3 J
C a m eron M al ayan I n di a p 3 9 3 ; B as t i an O es t l A s i en vol i

p 1 1 9 ; vol iii pp 2 6 1 2 7 3 ; A s Res vol vi p 1 7 3

1

MYTH OLOGY

3 10
t ribesmen t o

pieces n o s o o ner d o es h e be gin t o r oa r than

a ll the n eigh b o u rs y t o a dista n ce ; but still they hea r the

feigned s o u n ds
A l a s ! they c ry his whole b o dy is

begi n ning t o be cove red w ith tiger spots !

L ook his
n a i ls a re gr o wing ! the fear struck w o men excl a im a lth o ugh
they ca nnot see t h e r ogue w h o is conce a led within his tent
but d i s t ra cted fear presents thi n gs t o their eyes which have

no real existence
Y ou daily kill tigers in the pl a in with
s aid the missionary ; why then sh o uld y ou
o u t d re a d

we akly fear a false imaginary tiger i n the town ?

You
f a thers don t understand these matters they reply with a

smile
We never fear but kill tigers in the pl a in because
we can see them A rticial tigers we do fear because they
1
can neither be seen nor killed by u s
Th e s orcerers wh o
induced assemblies o f credulous savages to believe in this
monstr o us imp o sture were also the professional S pi ritualistic
mediums o f the tribes whose business it was t o hold inter
course with the S pirits of the dead causing them t o a ppear
visibly o r carrying on audi b le di a logues with them behind a
cu r tain A frica is especially rich i n my t h s of man lions
man le o pards man hy aen a s In the K anuri language o f
B ornu there is gr a mmatically formed from the word

bultu a hy aena the verb b u lt u n g in meaning I trans

form myself into a hyaena ; and the natives maintain that
there is a town called K a b u t i lo a where every man possesses
2
this faculty
The tribe of Budas in A byssinia iron wo r kers
and potte rs are believed to combi n e with these civili zed
avoca tio n s the gift of the evil eye a n d the p o wer of turning
i n t o hy aenas wherefore they are excluded from s o ciety and
the C hrist i an sacr a ment In the Life o f N atha n iel Pe a rce
the testim o ny o f on e M r C o fn is p rinted A young Buda
his servant came for leave o f a bsence which w a s gra nted ;
but scarcely was Mr C of n s head turned to his other
,

'

U rreli g

2 29
2

ol
pon es , v
Mart i ns , E t h n

D ob ri z h o ff er ,

p 63
Pi e d rah i ta

K ol l e

'

Abi

ii p
.

77

See

A fr Li t
.

J G M ul l er
Am er vol i p 6 5 2 O vi ed o N i c
N u ev o R eyn o d e G an d p rt i l i b i c 3
a n d K an u i V oc a b
p 27 5

a,

Am e r

ara

gu a

LY CANT H ROPY

3 11

servants when some o f them c a lled ou t p o i n ti n g in the

directi o n the Bud a h a d taken L ook l o ok he is turni n g

himself into a hy aen a
Mr C o fn insta n tly l oo ked round
the y o ung man had va n ished and a l a rge hy aen a w a s
running O ff a t a b o ut a hundred paces distance in full light
o n the o pen plain
with o ut tree or bush t o intercept the
view The Bud a came back next m o rning a n d as usual
rather a ffected to cou n tenance than deny the pr o digy C o f n
says moreover that the Budas wear a peculiar g o ld ear
ring and this he h a s frequently seen in the e a rs o f hy aen a s
shot in traps or S peared by himself a n d others ; the Budas
a r e dre a ded for their magical arts and the edit o r of the book
suggests that they put ear rings in hy aena s ears to encour age
1
a
pr o t a ble superstitio n
Mr Manseld P arky n s more
recent a cc o unt shows how thoroughly this belief is part
a n d parcel of A byssinian S pi ri t u a li s m
Hysterics lethargy

m o rbid insensibility to pain and the demoni a ca l po sses

sion in which the patient speaks in the name a n d language
of an intrudin g S pirit are all ascribed to the spiritual a gency
A mong the cases described by Mr P arky n s
o f the Budas
was that of a servant woman of his whose illness was set
down to the inuence of one of these blacksmith hy aen a s
w h o wanted to get her ou t int o the f o rest an d devou r her
O ne night a hy aena havi n g been he a r d h o wling and laughing
ne a r the vill age the w o man was bound h a nd an d foot a n d
closely gua r ded in the hut when suddenly the hy aena callin g
close by her master t o his a st o nishment saw h e r rise

without her bo n ds like a D a ve n port Br o ther an d t ry t o

escape 2 In A sh an g O land M D u C h a illu tells the foll o w
ing suggestive st o ry He was informed that a le o p a r d had
killed two me n and m a ny p a l a ve r s we r e held t o settle the
a ffa ir ; but this w a s n o o r din a ry le o pard but a tr a nsf o r med
man Tw o o f A k o n d og o s me n h a d dis a ppe ar ed a n d o nly
,

Li f

e an d

L on d on

vol ii p
.

1 83 1 ,

5 04

Parky n s ,

ed b y J J
A d v ent u re s o f N at h an i e l P earc e ( 181 0
H a ll s

vol i p 2 8 6 ; a l s o Tr Et h S o c vol vi p 288 ; W a i t z

.

L i fe i n

A b y ss i n i a

vol ii p
.

1 46

MYT H O LOG Y

12

t heir

bl o o d was fo und s o a grea t d o ct o r was sent fo r w h o

s a id i t w a s A k o n d o o s o w n n ephew and hei r Ak o s h o
The
g
la d w a s s e n t fo r a n d w hen a s ked by the chief a n swered
t h a t i t w a s t r uly h e w h o h a d c o mmitted the murders th a t he
could not help i t fo r he h a d turned into a le o pard and his
he a rt l o n ged fo r blood and after each deed he had turned
i n t o a man a g a in A k on dog o loved the boy so much that he
w o uld n o t believe his c o nfession till A k osh o t o ok him to a
pl a ce in the fo rest where lay the mangled bodies of the two
me n whom he had really murdered under the inuence o f
this mo r bid im a gin a tion He was slowly burnt to death all
1
the people standing by
Brief mention is enough for the comparatively well
known E uropean represent a tives of these beliefs What
with the mere continuance o f O ld tradition what with the
t ricks o f magicians an d what with cases of patients under
delusion believing themselves to have su ff e r ed t ransforma
ti o n o f which a number are o n reco r d the E ur o pean series
o f details f r om a ncient to mo dern ages is very complete
V i rgil in the Bucolics shows the popular o pinion of his
time that the arts of the werewolf the necromancer or

medium and the witch were di fferent branches of one

craft where h e tells of M oeris as turn i ng i nt o a wolf by the
use o f p o isonous herbs as calling up souls from the tombs
a n d as bewitching away c r ops
,

h erb as a t q u e h ae e P on t o m i h i le cta ven en a

I p se d e d i t M oe r i s n ascu n t u r p l u r i m a P on t o
H i s eg o saepe l u pu m e ri e t s e c on d e re sy l v i s
Moe ri n sae pe a n i m as i m i s e x c i re sepu l c ri s
2
A t q u e sat as al i o v id i t rad u ce re m e sses
H as

O f the cl a ssic

cc o unts o n e o f the m o st rem a rkable is

Pe t ron ius A rbiter s st o ry o f the transform a tion o f a versi

pelli s or tu r nskin ; this contains the episode of the

a

Du Ch

l an d p 5 2 F or o t h er A fri can d et a i l s s ee W a i t z

J L W i l son W Afr pp 222 3 6 5 3 9 8 B u rt on E A fr

v
ol ii p 3 4 3

p 5 7 L i v i n gst on e S Afr pp 6 1 5 6 4 2 ; M ag y ar S A fr p 1 3 6
2
V i rg B u c ol ecl v iii 9 5
1

ai l lu ,

As h an g O

LY CANT H ROP Y

wolf being w o unded an d the man who w e re its shape f o und

with a S imila r w o und a n ide a n o t sufficiently p roved t o
bel o n g origin a lly to the l o wer races but which becomes a
fa mili a r feature in E uropean stories o f werewolves and
witches I n A ugustine s time magicia ns were persu a ding
their dupes that by means of herbs they could turn them to
wolves a n d the use o f sa lve for this purp o se is mentioned
a t a c o mp a r a tively mode r n date
O ld Scandinavian sagas
h a ve their werewolf w a rriors and shape changers ( ham
ra m r
) raging in ts of furious m a dness The D an es still
know a man who is a werew o lf by his eyebr o ws meeting
and thus r esembling a buttery the fa milia r type of the
s o ul ready t o y O ff an d enter some other body In the
l a st yea r of the Swedish w ar with R ussia the people o f
Kalma r said the wolves which overr a n th e land were trans
fo rmed Swedish pris o ners F r o m Herod o tus legend of the
N eu ri w h o turned every ye a r for a few da ys t o w o lves we
foll o w the ide a o n Sl a vonic ground to where L iv o ni a n
so rce rers bathe yearly in a river a n d turn for twelve d ays to
wolves ; and widespread Slav o nic superstition still declares
that the wolves that sometimes in bitter winters dare t o

attack me n are themselves w ilk olak men bewitched int o

w o lf s S hape The m o dern G reeks inste a d o f the classic
Av
x dv
p wn o g adopt the Slavonic term Bp ulc o Aa /ca g ( Bulga
rian
it is a man who falls int o a cataleptic
state while his sou l ente rs a wolf and goes raveni n g for
blood
Modern G ermany especially in the n o r th still
keeps up the stories o f wolf gi r dles and in D ecember y o u

must n o t talk of the wolf by name lest the werewolves

te a r y ou
O ur E nglish w o rd werew o lf that is man

wolf ( the v
e re v
u lf
o f C unt s L a ws )
still remi n ds us of
the o ld be lief in o u r ow n count ry an d if it has had fo r
ce n turies but little place in E nglish fo lkl o re this has been
n o t so much fo r lack o f superst i tion
as o f w o lves To
instance the surviv a l o f the idea transferred to another
animal in the more modern witch persecution the following
Scotch story may serve C ertain witches a t Thurso for a
,

MY T H O L O G Y

3 14

l o n g t ime t o rme n t ed a n h o ne s t fell o w unde r the usu a l f o rm

o f ca ts t i ll o n e nigh t he pu t them to flight with his bro a d
sw o rd a n d cut o ff the leg o f o n e l ess nimble than the rest ;
taki n g i t up t o h i s a m a zeme n t he found it to be a w o m a n s
leg and next mor n i n g he discovered the o ld h a g its owner
with but o n e leg lef t In F rance the c reatu re h as what is

hist o rica lly the same name as o u r werew o lf

viz in

ea rly forms g e ru lph u s g aron l and now pleonastically

loup gar o u
The parliament of F ranche C omt c made a
la w in 1 5 7 3 to expel the werewolves ; in 1 5 9 8 the werewolf
o f A ngers gave evidence o f h i s hands and feet turning to
wolf s cl a ws ; in 1 603 in the case O f Jean G renier the
j udge declared lycanth r opy to be an insane delusion not a
cri me In 1 6 5 8 a F rench satirical description o f a magi
c i a n could still give the following perfect account of the

witch werewolf : I teach the witches to take the form of

wolves and eat chil dren and when anyone has cut o ff one of
their legs ( which proves to be a m a n s arm ) I f o rsake them
whe n they are di scovered and leave them in the p o wer o f
j ustice
E ven i n our own da y the idea has by no means
died ou t of the F rench peasant s min d N o t ten yea rs ago
in F rance Mr Baring G ould found it i mpossible to get a
i
d
u
e
after
dark
across
a
wi
l
d
pl
ce
haunted
by
a
loup
a
g
garon a n incident which led h i m afterwar ds to w rite his

B ook o f Werewolves a monograph of this rem a rk a ble

1
comb i nation o f myth and madn ess
If we j udg ed the myths of early ages by the u n aided
power of o u r mode r n f a ncy we might be left un a ble to
acco u nt fo r their immense e ffect o n the life an d belief o f
mankind B ut by the study o f such evidence a s this it
,

ll ec t i on s o f E u ro p ea n e v id en ce s ee W H ert z
W erw o l f

ar
n
o
u
l
o
B i g G d B ok o f W ere w ol v es G ri mm D M p 1 0 4 7 D asen t
N ors e T a l es I n t ro d p c x i x

M e nsc h vol ii pp 3 2 5 6 6 ;
; B a s t i an

B ra n d Pop A n t vol i p 3 1 2 vol iii p 3 2 L ec ky H i st o f Ra t i on al i sm

ol
i p 8 2 P art i c ul ar d eta i l s i n P et ron A rb i t er S a t i r lx ii Vi rgi l Ecl og
v
vi ii 9 7 ; Pli n vi ii 3 4 ; H ero d o t i v 1 0 5 ; M el a ii 1 ; A u g u s t i n D e C i v

e
1
a
n
D i xv iii
S l av M yt h pp 2 8 6 3 2 0 W u t tke D e u t sc h e
7 H u sc b
V o l ksa b ergl a u b e p 1 1 8
1

F or

co

D er

P HANTAS Y AND

FAN C Y

3 15

becomes p o ssible to reali ze a usual state o f the imaginati on

among ancient an d sav age pe o ples intermedi a te between
the conditio n s o f a healthy pr o s a ic modern citizen and o f a
raving fanatic or a p a tie n t i n a fever w a rd A poet o f o u r
own day h a s still much in c o mm o n wit h the minds o f
uncultured t r ibes in the mythologic st age of th ought The
rude man s imaginati o ns may be n a rrow crude and
repulsive while the poet s more conscious ctions may be
highly wr o ught into S hapes o f fresh a rt istic beauty but
b o th share in that sense o f the reality of ideas which fort u
n at e l
r unfo r tunately modern educa t ion has proved S O
o
y
powerful to destroy The change o f meaning o f a si n gle
word will tell the history o f this transition ranging fr o m
prim aeval to modern thought F rom rst to l a st the
processes o f p h a n ta sy have been at wo rk ; but where the
n s the civilized man has come to
savage could see p h a n ta sv
amuse himself with fa n ci es
,

C H APTE R I X

M Y T H 0 L O G Y ( conti nu ed )

my th s t h e i r ori g i n c a non o f i n t erp reta t i on p reserv at i o n o f ori g i na l

N a t u re my t h s o f u pp er sa vage ra ces c om
s e n s e a n d s i g ni c a n t n a m es
pa red wi t h rel t ed form s a m on g b a rb ari c a nd c i v i l i z e d n at i on s H ea v en
a n d E a rt h as U n i v ers a l P are n t s S u n a n d M o on
Ec l i p se an d S u n set a s
H ero or M a id en s wa ll ow ed b y M ons t er ; R i si ng o f S un from S ea a n d
D escen t t o U n d er W o rl d J a ws o f N i gh t an d D eath S ym p l egad es Ey e
o f H ea v e n Ey e o f O di n a n d t h e G ra i ae S u n a n d M oon a s my t h i c c i v i
l i ers M o on h er i n c o n s t a n c y p eri odi c a l d e a t h a n d re v i v a l
S ta rs t h e i r
ge n era t i on C on s t ell at i on s t h ei r p l a ce i n My t h ol ogy a n d A st ron o my
W i n d an d Te m p e st Th u n d e rE a rt h q u ak e

N a t ti re

F RO M layi n g down gener a l p r inciples of myth

development
we may n o w proceed to survey the class of N ature myths
such especially as seem t o h ave their earliest source and
truest meaning among the lower races of mankind
Science investigating nature discusses its facts and
an n ounces its laws in technical la nguage which is clear and
a ccur a te
to trained stu dents but which fa lls only as a
mystic j argon o n the ears o f barb a rians , or peasants o r
children It is to the comprehe n sion of j ust these sim ple
unsch oo led minds that the l a n gu a ge o f poetic myth is
spoken s o far at le a st as it is true poetry and n o t its
quain t a ffected imit a ti o n The poet contemplates the s a me
n a tural world as the man o f science but in his so di ffe r ent
craft strives t o render difcult thought e a sy by making it
visible and t a ngible above all by referring the being and
m o vement o f the world to such pers o n a l life as his hearers
feel wi thin themselves and thus working ou t in fa r

stretched fancy the maxi m that Man is the measure o f all

things
L et but the key be recovered to this mythic

316

NAT U RE MYTH S
-

3 17

di a lect an d its c o mplex and shifting te rms will t ran sl a te

themselves i n t o r e a lity an d S how h o w fa r lege n d i n its
symp a thetic ctions of w ar l ove crime adventure fa te is
only telli ng the peren n i a l story of the w o rld s daily life
The myths S h a ped o u t o f those endless an a l o gies between
man an d n a ture which are the soul o f all poetry in t o th o se
h a lf hum an st o ries stil l so full t o us o f u n fa ding life an d
beauty a re the maste rpieces o f an ar t belonging rather to
the past than to the prese n t
The gr o wth o f myth h as
been checked by science it is dyin g o f weights an d
me a sures o f p ro port i o n s a n d S pecimens i t is n o t only
dying but h a lf dead a n d students are a n a t o misi n g it In
this w o rld on e must d o wh a t o n e c a n an d if the m o derns
c a nn o t feel myth as thei r f o r ef a thers did a t le a s t they can
There is a ki nd o f intellectu a l fr o ntier with
a n a lyse it
in which he must be who will sy rripat h i se with myth
wh i le h e must b e without who will investigate it and it is
our fortune th a t we live ne a r this f rontier li ne and can g o
in and o u t
E ur o pe a n scholars c an still in a me a sure
unde r stan d the belief o f G reeks or A ztecs o r Ma o ris in
thei r native myths and a t the s ame t i me c an comp a re a n d
interp r et them without the scruples o f men t o wh o m such
tales are hist o ry an d even sacred history Moreover we r e
the whole human race at a uniform level o f culture with
ourselves it would be ha r d t o bri n g o u r minds to conceive
o f tribes in the mental state to which the early growth of
n a tu r e myth bel o ngs
even a s it is n e w h a rd t o pictu r e t o
ourselves a c o ndition of manki n d lowe r th an an y that has
been actually f o und But the vari o us grades o f existin g
civili zation preserve the l a ndm a rks o f a long course o f
history an d there survive by millions s a vages and b ar
b ari an s whose minds still pr o duce in rude arch a ic f o rms
m a n s early mythic represent a ti o ns o f nature
Those w h o read for the rst time the di ssertations o f the
modern school of mythol ogists and sometimes eve n those
who have been famili a r with them for ye a rs are prone to
a sk
with h a lf incredulous a ppreci a tion of the beauty and
,

3 18

M Y T H O LO G Y

implici t y o i their i n terpret a ti o n s c a n they be re ally true ?

C a n s o gre a t a p a rt o f t h e lege n d a ry l o re o f clas s ic b a r
b a ri a n a ml me d ize v
a l E ur o pe b e t a ke n up with the ever
l a sti n g depicti o n o f Sun a n d Sky D a w n a n d G le a mi ng
D a y a n d N igh t Summe r and Winter C loud an d Tempest ;
c a n s o m a ny o f the pers o n ages o f traditio n
for a ll thei r
he ro ic hum a n a spect have their re a l o rigin in a nthrop o
mo rphic myths of nature ? Without an y attempt t o
discuss these opinions a t large i t will be seen that i n
n a ture myth o logy fr o m the present point o f
s pe c t i o n o f
vi ew tells in their favour at least as to principle The
gener a l theory that such direct conceptions of nature as
are so na i vely and even baldly uttered in the V ed a are
a mong
the primary sources of myth is enforced by
evide n ce gain ed elsewhere in the wo rld
E specially the
tr a di tions of savage races di splay mythic conceptions o f the
o uter w o rl d
primitive like those o f the ancient Indi a n
hymns agreein g with them in their general character and
often rem a rkably corre sp o nding in thei r very episodes A t
the same time it must be cle a rly understood that the t r u th
o f such a gener a l pri n ciple is n o w a r r an t for all the p a rticular
interpretations which mythologists claim to base upon it
for o f these in fa ct m any are wildly specul a tive an d many
hopelessly uns o und N a ture my t h d e man ds indeed a recog
nition o f its vast import ance in the legend a ry lore of
mankind but only so far as its claim is backed by strong
and legit i m a te evidence
The close an d deep a n alogies between the li fe of nature
a n d the li fe o f m an have been fo r ages dwelt upo n by poets
a n d philosophers who in simile or in argument h a ve t o ld o f
light and da rkn ess o f c a lm an d tempest of birth growth
ch ange decay dissoluti o n renew al But no on e S ided i n
t e rpre t a t i on c an be permitted to absorb into a single theory
such endl ess many sided corresp o ndences a s these R ash
inf erences which on the strength o f mere resembl ance derive
episodes o f myth fr o m episodes o f n a ture must be rega rded
with utter mistrust for the student w h o has no more str i n
s

ARTIFI CIAL I NTE RPRETATI ON

3 19

gent c rite r ion th a n this for his myths o f su n an d sky and

d a wn will nd them wherever it ple a ses him t o seek them
It may be j udged by simple tri a l wh a t such a meth o d may
lead to ; no legend n o a llegory no nursery rhyme is safe
fr o m the hermeneutics of a thorough g o ing mythologic
the o rist Should he fo r i n stance demand as his property

the nursery S o ng o f Sixpence his claim would be easily

established : obviously the four and twenty blackbirds are
the four and twenty hours and the pi c th a t h o lds them is
the underlying earth covered with the overarchi n g sky ; how
true a touch of nature it is that when the pie is opened
that is when day b r eaks the birds begin to S ing ; the
King is the Sun and his counting out his money is p ouring
o u t the sunshine the golden shower o f D a nae ; the Q ueen
i s the Moon and her transparent honey the moonlight ; th e

Maid is the rosy n g e re d D awn w h o rises before the S u n

her m a ster and hangs out the clouds his clothes acr o ss
th e S ky ; the particular bl a ckbird who s o tragic a lly ends the
t a le by snipping o ff her nose is the hour of sunrise The
time honoured rhyme really wants but one th i ng to prove it
a Sun myth that o n e thing being a proof by s o me a rgument
more v a lid than a n a logy
O r if hist o ric a l ch a racters be
selected with any discretion it is easy to point ou t the solar
episodes embodied in their lives
See C ort es landing in
M exico and seeming to the A ztecs their very Sun priest
Q uetzalcoatl come back from the E ast to rene w his reign
of light and glory ; mark him deserting the wife of his
youth even as the Sun leaves the D awn and again in later
life abandoning Marina for a new bride ; watch his sun like
career of brilliant conquest checkered with intervals of
st o rm and declining to a death clouded with sorrow and
disgr a ce The life of Julius C aesar w o uld t as plausi bly
i n to a scheme o f sol a r myth ; his S plendid course as in each
new land he c a me and saw a n d conquered ; his dese r tion
of C leopat ra ; his o rdinance o f the sol a r year for men ; his
death at the hand of B rutus like S i fri t s death a t the hand
o f H a gen in the N ibelungen L ied ; his falling pierced with
.

3 20

MYTHOLOGY

m a ny b leeding w ounds and sh ro uding himself i n his cl o a k

t o d i e in d a rk n e s s
O f C ae s a r b etter th a n o f C a ssius his
s l a yer
i t migh t h ave b ee n s a id i n the l angu age o f sun
myth :
,

i g sun
A s i n t h y re d ray s t h o u d os t s i n k t o n i g h t
S o i n h i s re d b l oo d C a s s i u s d a y i s se t
Th e s u n o f R o m e i s se t
0

s ett n

Thus in interp reting he roic legend as based o n nature

myth circumst a ntial a n a logy must be very cauti o usly a p
pe a led to and a t a n y rate there is need o f evidence more
c ogen t than v a gue l ikenesses between human and cosmic
life N o w such evidence is forthc o ming at its strongest in
a crowd o f myths wh o se o pen meaning it would be w a nt o n
i n credulity to d o ubt so little d o they disguise in name o r
sense the familiar a spects o f nature which they gure a s
scenes of personal life E ve n where the tellers o f legend
may have a ltered o r forgotten its earlier mythic me a ning
there a re often su fficient g r ounds fo r a n attempt t o restore
i t In spite o f ch a nge and corruption myths are sl o w t o
lose a ll consciousness o f their rst origin ; a s for inst a nce
classical lite rature ret a ined enough o f me a ning i n the great
G reek sun myth to compel even L empriere of the C lassical

D iction ary to a dmit that A pollo or Phoebus is often c o n

f o unded with the sun
F or another i nstance the G reeks
h a d still p r esent to their thoughts the me a ni n g o f A rgos
P a n o ptes Io s hundred eyed all seeing g ua rd w h o was S lain
by Hermes and ch anged into the Peacock for Macrobius
1
writes as recogn izing in him the st a r eyed heaven itself ;

even as Indra the Sky is in Sanskrit the thousand

eyed (sa h a sr d hsh a s a h a sra n a g a n a ) In modern times the
th o ught is found surviving o r reviving in a strange region o f
langu age : whoever it was that brought a rg o as a word for

he a ven i n t o the Lingua F urbesca o r R o bbers Jargon o f

2
It a ly must h a ve been thinking o f the sta rry sky w a tching
,

Macrob

S a t u rn

W el c k e r vol i p 3 3 6
F ran c i sq u e M i c h el
,

19, 12

S ee Eu ri p Ph aan
.

1 1 1 6 , &c

M ull er L e c t u re s vol ii p
A rg o t p 4 2
5
Ma x

3 80

and

Sch l
o

TRAC ES OF ORIG I NAL S ENS E

3 21

him like A rgus with his hu n dred eyes

The etymol o gy
of names moreover is at o nce the guide and safegu a rd
of the mythol o gist The o bvi o us meani n g o f words did
much t o preserve vestiges of pl a in sense i n classic legend
i n spite o f a ll the e ffo rts of the commentat o rs
There
was no disputin g the O bvious fa cts that H elios was the
Sun an d S el en e the Moon ; and as for Jove all the non
sense of pseudo history could n o t quite do away the idea
that he was really Heaven for l a ngu a ge continued to de

clare this in such expressions as sub Jove frigido

The
explanati o n o f the rape of Persephone as a nature myth of
the seasons and th e fruits of the earth does n o t depend alone
on analogy O f incident but has the very names t o prove
its reali ty Zeus H elios D em et er Heaven a n d Sun and
M other E arth L astly in stories o f my t h i c beings who are
the presiding genii o f star o r mountain tree o r river or
heroes and heroines a ctu a lly met a morphosed into such
obj ects personicati o n o f n a ture is still plainly evident ;
the poet may still as o f old see A tlas bear the h eavens on his
mighty shoulders and A lph e u S in impetuous course pursue
the maiden A rethusa
In a study of the nature myths o f the world it is hardly
practicable to star t from th e conceptions of the very lowest
human tribes and to work upw a rds from thence to ctions
of higher growth ; partly because our i n form a tion is but
meagre as to the beliefs of these shy and seldom quite intel
ligible folk and par tly because the legends they possess
have not reached that artistic and systematic shape which
they attain to among races next higher in the scale
It
therefore answers better to take a s a foundation the
mythology of the N orth A merican Indians the South Sea
Islanders and othe r low cultured tribes who best represent
in odern times the early mythologic period of human
history
The survey may be t ly commenced by a
singularly perfect a n d purposeful c o smic myth from N ew
Zealand
It seems long a g o and often to have come into men s
.

MYTHOLOG Y

3 22

minds th a t the o ve ra rchi n g He a ven and the a ll producing

E arth a re a s it w e re a F a t her a n d a M o the r o f the wo rld
whose O ffspring a re the living c re a tures men and beasts
a n d plants
N o where in the telling o f this o ft told tale is
present n a tu re veiled i n m o re t ransp a rent personication
nowhere is the w orld s familiar d a ily life repeated with more
childlike simplicity as a story o f long past ages than in the
legend o f The C hildren o f He a ven and E arth written down
by Sir G e o rge G rey among the Mao ris about the year
1 85 0
F rom R angi the He aven and P a pa the E ar th it is
said sprang all men and things but sky and earth clave
t ogether a n d darkness rested upon them and the beings
they had begotten till at l a st their children took counsel
whether they should rend apart their parents or slay them
Then Tane mahuta fa ther of forests said to his ve great

breth ren It is better to rend them apart and to let the

he a ven st a nd fa r ab o ve us and the earth li e under our feet
L et the sky become as a s tranger to us but the earth remain
cl o se to us as o u r n ursing mother
S o R ongo ma tane
god and father o f the cultivated f oo d o f man arose and
strove to separate the heave n a n d the earth ; h e struggled
but in vain and vain t oo were the e ff orts o f T a ngaroa
father o f sh a n d reptiles and o f H au mi a tikitiki father of
wild growing food and o f Tu mat an e n g a god an d father
Then slow uprises T a ne mahuta god and
o f erce men
father of forests and wrestles with his parents striving to

part them with his h a nds and a rms

Lo he pauses ; his
head is now rmly planted on his mother the earth his feet
he r aises up and rests ag a inst his fa ther the S kies he strains

his back and lim bs with mighty e o rt N o w a re rent a part

R angi an d P a pa and with cries a n d groans o f woe they
sh riek a loud
But Tane mahuta pauses not ; far far
bene a th him he p r esses down the ea r th ; far far a bove him
he thrusts up the sky
But Tawhi ri ma t e a fathe r o f
winds a n d st o rms h a d n eve r co n se n ted th a t his mother
should be t o rn f rom h e r lo r d an d now th ere ar o se i n his
breast a erce desire t o w a r a ga i n st h i s b r eth r e n S o the
-

M Y TH S O F H E A V EN A N D E A R T H

3 23

Storm go d rose and followed his father to the realms above

hurrying to the sheltered h o llows o f the boundless S kies to
hide and cling and nestle there Then came forth his pro
geny the mighty winds the erce squalls the clouds dense
dark ery wildly drifting wildly bursting ; an d in their
midst their father rushed upon his foe T a ne mahuta and his
giant forests stood unc o nscious a n d unsuspecting when the
r a ging hurricane burst on them snapping the mighty trees
across leaving trunks an d branches rent and torn upon the
ground for the insect an d the grub t o prey on Then the
father of storms swooped down to lash the waters into
billows wh ose summits rose like cli ffs till Tangaroa god of
ocean and father o f a ll that dwell therein ed a ffrighted
through his S eas His children Ika te r e the fa ther of sh
and Tu te w e h i w e h i the father o f rept iles s o ught where

they might esc a pe for safety ; the father of sh cried Ho

h e let us all esc a pe to the s e a but the father o f reptiles

shouted in answer N ay nay let us rather y inl and and

so these creatures separ a ted for while the sh ed int o the
sea the reptiles sought safety in the forests a n d scrubs
But the sea god T a ng a roa furious that his children the
reptiles S hould have deserted him has ever since waged war
on his brother Tane who gave them S helte r in his wo o ds
Ta n e attacks him in retu r n supplying the o ffspring o f his
brother Tu mat a n e n ga father o f erce men with canoes
and with
a n d spe a rs and s h hooks made f r om his trees
nets woven fr o m his b r ous plants that they may destroy
withal the sh the Sea god s children ; an d the Sea go d
turns in wrath upon the F o rest god o verwhelms his canoes
with the surges of the sea sweeps with o ods his trees and
houses into the b o undless o cean N ext the god o f storms
pushed on to attack his brothers the gods an d progenitors
o f the tilled food and the wild but Papa the E arth caught
them up and hid them a n d s o safely were these her children
concealed by their m o ther that the Storm god sought fo r
them in vain So he fell upon the las t o f his br o thers the
father of erce men but him he could not even S hake
-

MYTHOLOGY

3 24

though he put forth all his strength

Wh a t cared Tu
ma t a u e n g a fo r h i s brother s wr a th ? He it was w h o h a d
pl a nned t h e destructi o n o f their p a rents a n d had s hown
himself b ra ve a n d fi e rce i n w a r ; his b reth ren h a d yielded
be fo re t h e t reme n d o us o n se t o f the S t o rm g o d a n d his pro
geny ; the F o rest g o d a n d his o ffspri n g had been b r o ken
and tor n in pieces ; t h e S e a g o d a n d his children had fled to
the depths o f the ocean o r t h e recesses o f the sh o r e ;
the gods o f f o od h a d been safe in hiding ; but man still
st o od erect and unshaken up o n the bosom o f his mother
E a rth a n d at last the hearts o f the Heaven and the S torm
became tr a nquil and their p a ssion was assuaged
But n o w Tu mat a n e n g a father of erce men took thought
how he might be avenged upon his brethren who had left
him unaided to stand against the god of storms He twisted
nooses of the leaves o f the w h an ake tree and the birds and
beasts children o f Tane the F c rest god fell before him ; he
netted nets fr o m the ax plant and dragged ashore the sh
the children o f T a n gar o a the Sea
god ; he found in their
hiding place underground the children o f R ongo ma t ane
the sweet potato a n d a ll cultiv a ted food a n d the children of
H au mi a tikitiki the fern root and all wild gr o wing food he
dug them up and let them wither in the sun Y et though
he overc ame his four brothers and they became his food
over the fth he could n o t prevail and T a whiri ma t e a the
S torm god still ever attacks him in tem pest and hurricane
striving to destroy him both by sea and land It was the
burstin g forth of the Storm g o d s wr a th a g a inst his brethren
that c a used the dry l a nd to disappear bene a th the w a ters :
the beings o f a ncient d ays who thus submerged the l a nd
were Terrib l e r ain L o ng co n tinued rai n F i e rc e hailstorms ;
and their pr o geny were Mist a n d Heavy dew a n d Light
dew and thus b ut little of the d ry lan d w a s left st a ndi n g
above the sea The n cle a r ligh t incre a sed in the w o r ld and
th e beings w h o had been hidden between R angi and Papa
before they were p a rted now multiplied up o n the earth

U p t o this time the vast Heaven has still ever rem a ined
.

M YT H S O F H EAV E N AN D EA RT H

3 25

separated fr o m his spouse the E a rth

Y et their mutual
love still c o ntinues ; the soft wa rm sighs o f her l ovi n g
bosom still ever rise up t o him asce n din g fr o m the wo o dy
m o unt a ins a n d valleys a n d men c a ll these m i sts ; an d the
vast Heaven a s he mour n s through the l o ng nights his
separ a tion from his b el o ved d ro ps frequent tears up o n h e r
1
bosom a n d men seein g these te r m them dew d ro ps
The rendin g asu n der o f heaven a n d e a rth is a far spread
Polynesian legend well kn o wn i n the i sland groups that
2
lie a w a y t o the no r th east
Its elab o rati o n h o wever int o
the myth he r e sketched out w a s pr o bably n a tive N ew
Zealand w o rk N o r need it be supp o sed th a t the pa r
t i c u la r form in which the E nglish g o vern o r t o ok it down
among the Ma o ri priests a n d t a le tellers is o f ancient date
The st o ry carries in itself evidence o f an a ntiquity o f
character which d o es not n ecess a rily bel o ng to mere l a pse
of cent u ries Just as the a dzes o f polished j a de and the
cloaks of tied a x b re which these N ew Ze a l a nders were
using but yesterday are o lder in their place in history than
the bronze battle axes and li n en mummy cloths o f ancient
E gypt s o the Maori poet s S haping o f natu r e into nature
myth belongs to a stage of i n tellectual history which was
passing away in G reece v
ce n turies ago
e and twe n ty
The myth m a ker s fan cy of Heaven a n d E arth a s fa ther
and mother of all things natur a lly suggested the legend
that they in old days a b o de together but have sin ce been
torn asunder
In C hina the s a me idea of the universal
parentage is accomp a nied by a S imilar legend of the separa
tion Whether or not there is hist o rical c o nnexi o n here
between the mythol o gy o f Polynesia and C hina I will not
guess but certainly the ancient C hinese legend of the
.

G G e y P ly n s i n My t h ol gy p i & t n l t e d f om t h e

ori g i n l M a o i t x t p u b l i s h e d b y h i m u n d
t h e t i t l e o f Ko n g M ah i g a n g

T u p u n M o i & c L on d n 1 8 5 4 C m p wi t h S h t l n d T d s of N
Z p 5 5 & c R T yl or N e w Z e l n d p 1 1 4 & c

c
r
e
n
n
l
n
d
2
S hi
W d er g en d er N e ee a er & c p 4 ; E ll i s P ly n
Res v
ol
i p 1 1 6 ; Ty erman n d B n n e t p 5 2 6 ; T u n er P o ly n esi
p 24 5
1

Si r

c.

ra

er

sa

are

or

ra

a
.

a a

s a

us

a,

3 26

MYT H O LOG Y

sep a ra t i o n o f he a ven and e a rth i n the prim aev a l days o f

Pu a n g Ku s eems t o have ta ke n the ve ry sh a pe o f the

P o lynesi a n myth : S o mc s a y a pers o n c a lled Pu ang Ku

o pened o r sep a ra ted t h e he a vens a n d the e a rth
they pre
" 1
vi o u s ly b ei n g pres s ed d o wn cl o s e t oge the r
A s t o the

mythic de ta ils i n the wh o le s t o ry o f The C hildren o f

He aven a n d E a rth there is scarcely a th o ught that is n o t
s till transparent scarcely even a w o r d that has lost its
meani n g to us The broken a n d stiff ened traditions which
our fa thers fancied relics o f ancient history are as has been
t ruly s a id records o f a past which was never present ; but
the simple n a ture myth as we nd it in its a ctual growth
or rec o nstruct it from its legendary remnants may be
rather called the rec o rd o f a present which is never past
The b attle o f the storm against the forest and the ocean
is still waged before o u r eyes ; we still look upon the victory
o f m a n over the c r eatures o f the land and sea ; the food
plants still hide in their mother earth and the sh and
reptiles nd shelter i n the ocean and the thicket ; but the
mighty forest t r ees st a nd with their roots rm planted in
the ground while with their branches they push up and up
against the sky A nd if we have learnt the secret o f man s
thought in the childhood of his race w
e ma y still realize
with the savage the personal bein g of the ancestral Heaven
and E arth
The idea of the E arth as a mother is more sim ple and
obvious and no d o ubt for that reason more common in the
wo r ld than the ide a o f the Heaven as a father A mong
th e native r a ces of A merica the E arth mother is one o f the
great personages o f mythology The Peruvi ans w o rshipped

her as Mama Pacha or Mother E a rth and the C aribs when

there was an earthqu a ke said that it was their mother
E arth d a ncing and signifying to them to dance and make
merry li kewise which accor dingly they did A mong the
N orth A merican Indi ans the C omanches call on the E arth
-

Premare i n Pau t h i er,

C h i n ese vol

396

L i vres

S a c r s

d e l O ri en t ,

19 ;

D l i tt l
oo

e,

MYT H S OF H EAV E N AND EARTH

3 27

their m o ther an d the G reat Spi r it as their fa ther A

st o ry told by G regg S hows a s o mewh a t different thought
mythic parentage
G e n e ra l H a r riso n o nce ca lled the
of
Sh a wn ee chief Tecumseh for a t a lk
C o me here Te

a n d sit
by your father ! he said
Y ou my
c ums eh

N o ! yonder
father ! replied the chief with a stern air
sun ( pointin g tow a rds it ) is my father and the e a rth is my
mother s o I will rest on her bosom an d he s a t down on
the g round L ike this was the A ztec fa ncy as it seems
from this passage in a Mexican prayer to Tezcatlipoc a

o ffered in time of war : B e pleased 0 our L o rd that the

nobles who shall die in the w a r be peacefully and j oyously
received by the Sun and the E a rth w h o are the lovi n g
father and mother o f a ll 1 In the mythology o f F i r ms
L a pps and E st h s E arth Mother is a divinely honoured
personage
Through the mythology of our own country
the same thought may be traced from the days when t h e

A nglo Saxon called upon the E arth H a l wes thu f o lde

ra mo dor
Hail thou E arth men s mother to the time
when mediaeval E nglishmen made a riddle of her asking

Who is A dam s mother ? a n d poetry continued what

mythology was letting fall when Milton s archangel pr o
mi s e d A dam a life to last
t i l l l i k e r i p e fr u i t t h ou d rop
I n t o t h y m o t h er s l ap 3

as

A mong the A ryan race indeed there stands wide and

,

rm the double myth of the two great parents as the

R ig V eda calls them They are D g a n shp i ta r Z e b; r e v25p

Jup i ter
the Heaven father and P r thi e i mata r the

E arth mother ; and their rel a tion is still kept in mind

in the ordina n ce of Brahman marri age a ccording to the

G M u ll er

Am er U rrel i
g

pp 1 0 8 1 1 0 1 1 7 22 1 3 6 9 4 9 4 6 2 0 ;
R i v ero and Ts eh u d i A nt o f P eru p 1 6 1 G regg J ourn a l o f a S an t a F
Tra d er vol ii p 2 3 7 S a h ag un R et ori c a & c M e x i can a c ap 3 i n K i n gs
b orou g h An t o f M e x i c o vol v
2
C a s t r n
F i n n My t h p 86
3
G ri mm D M pp x i x 2 2 9
3 3 6 0 8 H all iw el l
Po p R h ym es p 1 5 3 ;
M i l t on P a ra di se L ost i x 2 7 3 i 5 3 5 s ee L u cret iu s i 2 5 0
1

M YTHO LO G Y

3 28

Yaj ur V ed a

b ridegroo m s ays t o the b ride I

am the sky th o u a rt the e a rth c o me let us I n a rry
When G reek p o ets called O ur a n o s and G a le o r Zeus a n d
D m t r husb a nd and w ife wh a t they meant w a s the union
o f Heaven a n d E a r t h ; a n d when Plat o said that the earth
brought fo r t h me n but G o d w as their sh a per the same O ld
1
my thic though t mu s t h a ve been present to his mi n d
It
2
i
reappe a rs n ancient Scy thi a ; a n d a g a i n in C hin a where

He a ven and E a r th are called in the Shu King F ather and

Mother o f a ll thi n gs C hinese philosophy naturally worked
this idea into the sch eme of the two great principles of
nature the Y n and Y ang male and fem a le heavenly and
earthly and from this disposition o f nature they drew a
practical moral lesson : Heaven said the philosophers of
the Sung dynasty made man and ear th made woman
and therefore woman is to be subj ect to man as E arth to
2
I I e av
en
E ntering next upon the world wide myths of Sun Moon
and S tars the regularity an d consistency of human imagina
tion may be rst displayed in th e beliefs connected w ith
eclipses It is well known that these phenomena to us
now cruci a l in stances of th e exactness o f natural laws are
throughout the lower stages o f civilization the very e mb o di
ment of miraculous d i saster A m eng the native races of
A merica it is possible to select a typical series of myths
describing and explaining according to t h e r u le s of savage
philosophy these portents o f dismay The C hiquitos of
the southern continent thought the Moon was hunted
across th e sky by huge dogs who caught and tore her till
h e r li gh t w a s reddened and quenched by the bl o od o wing
fr o m her wounds an d then the Indians raising a frightful
-

w here t h e

'

Pi ct e t O ri g i n es I n d o E u ro p pa rt ii pp

vol i p 2 20 P l a to R ep u b iii 4 14
5 ;
)
1

d h X 6 0 6 69 wt

r wu .

6 63 7
-

'

C l eb rook e Ess ys
o

a in ozz s

wimp

0 60 a.

dv
xe

H e ro d i v 5 9

3
P l a t h R e l i g i on d e r al t en C h i n es en p art i p 3 7 ; D a v i s C h i n ese

o
vl ii p 6 4 ; L egge C on fu c iu s p 1 0 6 ; B ast i a n M en s ch v
ol ii p 4 3 7
v
ol iii p 3 0 2
2

M YT H S

SUN

0 F

MOON

AND STARS

3 29

howl and lamentatio n would S ho o t across int o the sky to

drive the m o nsters o ff The C ari b s thin kin g that the
dem o n Ma b oy a h a ter o f all light was seeking t o devour
the Sun an d M o o n w o uld dance and h owl in co ncert all
night long to scare him aw a y The Peruvians imagining
such a n evil spirit in the shape of a monstrous beast raised
the like fr ightful din whe n the Mo o n was eclipsed shout
ing soundin g musical instruments a n d beatin g the dogs
to j oin their howls t o the hide o us chorus N or are such
ideas extinct in ou r own d ays In the Tupi language the

pr o per descripti o n o f a solar eclipse is o arasu j aguaret e

v that is J a guar has e a ten Sun ; an d the full mean

ing o f this phr a se is displ a yed by tribes w h o still shout and
let y burning arrows to drive the dev o uring be ast from his
prey
O n the northern continent a gain s o me s a vages
believed in a great s u n swallowin g dog while others would
shoot up arrows to defend their luminaries a g a inst the
enemies they fa ncied attacking them By the side o f these
prevalent notions the r e occur h o wever various others ;
thus the C aribs could imagine the eclipsed Moon hungry
S ick o r dying ; the Peruvi a ns could fancy the Sun angry
and hidi ng his face a n d the sick Moo n likely to fall in
total da r kness and brin g on the end o f the world ; the
Hurons thought the Moon sick and expl a ined their
custom ary charivari of S houting men and howling dogs as
performed to rec o ver her from her c o mplaint
Passing
o n from these most primitive conceptions it appears that
natives of b o th S o uth an d N orth A meric a fell up o n philo
sophic myths somewh a t ne a rer the real facts of the case
insomuch as they admit that the Sun and Mo o n cause
eclipses o f one another In C umana men t hought that
the wedded Sun an d Moon quarrelled and that one o f them
was wounded ; a n d the Oj ibw a s endeav oured by tumultuous
noise to distract the two from such a conict The course
o f pr o gressive science went fa r bey o nd this a mong the
A ztecs w h o a s pa rt o f their r em a rka ble astr o nomical
kn o wledge seem t o have had an ide a of the real c ause o f
,

330

M Y T H O LO G Y

eclipses but w h o kept up a relic o f the old belief by c on

t inn i ng t o s pe a k in myth o l o gic phr a se o f the Sun and Moon
1
being e a t en E l s ewhere i n t h e l o wer culture the re prev a iled
s imilar mythic c o ncepti o ns
In the S o uth Sea Islands
s o me supp o sed the Sun a n d Mo o n t o be sw a ll o wed by an
off ended deity wh o m they there fo re i n duced by liberal
2
O ff erings to ej ect the luminaries from his stomach
In
Sumatra we have the c o mparatively scientic notion that
an eclipse has to d o w ith the action of the Sun an d Moon on
one another and acc o rdingly they made a l ou d noise with
soundin g instruments to prevent the one from devouring
the other 3 S o in A frica there may be found both the
rudest theory o f the E cli pse monster a n d the more a d

v e nced concepti o n that a solar eclipse is the Moon catching

the Sun 4
I t is no cause for won der that an aspect of the heavens so
awful as an eclipse S hould in times of astronomic ignorance
have lle d men s min ds with terror o f a coming destruction
of the world It may help us still t o realiz e this thought if
we consider how as C a lme t pointed out many years ago the
prophet Joel adopted the plainest words of description o f

the solar and lunar ecli pse The sun shall be turned in to
darkness and the moon into bloo d ; n or could the thought
of any catastrophe of nature have brought his hearers face
to face with a more lurid and awful picture But to our
min ds now that the ecli pse has long passed from the realm
of mythology in to the realm o f science such words can
carry but a feeble gli mmer of their early mean i ng The
,

Am er U rrel i
g

J G Miill er
pp 5 3 21 9 2 3 1 2 5 5 3 9 5 4 20 ; Marti ns
E t h n og Am er v

ol i pp 3 29 4 6 7 5 8 5 v
ol ii p 1 0 9 ; S o u t h e y
B raz i l
ol i p 3 5 2 v
ol ii p 3 7 1
v
D e la B ord e
C aib es p 5 2 5 ; D ob ri h o ff r
i on es v

ol ii p 8 4 ; S m i t h a n d L o w e
J o u rn ey from L i m a t o P ar
Ab p

p 2 3 0 ; S ch oo l cr ft I n di n T ri b s o f N A p rt i p 2 7 1 ; C h arl ev o i x

N ou vF n c e v
ol v
i p 1 4 9 ; C r n z GrOn l an d p 2 9 5 ; B st i an M en s c h
vol iii p 1 9 1
E rly H i st o f M ank in d p 1 6 3

E ll i s Polyn Re vol i p 3 3 1

3
M rs d en S u m at ra p 1 9 4

G ran t i n Tr Eth So c vol iii p 9 0 ; R oll o K an u ri P rov erb s & c

p 2 07
1

ar

ra

s.

a,

ECLIPSE MYT H S

33 1

ancient doctrine of the ec lipse has not indeed lost its whole
in terest To trace it upwar d from its early savage st a ges
to the period when astronomy cl a imed it and to follow the
course of the ensuin g c onict over it between theology and
science ended among ourselves but still be i ng sluggishly
fought out among less cultured nations this is to lay
open a ch a pter o f the history o f O pinion from which the
student who looks forward as well as back may learn grave
lessons
There is reason to consider most o r all civilized nations
to have started from the myth of the E clipse monster in
forms as savage as those o f the N ew World It prevails
still among the great A si a tic nations
Th e Hindus say
th a t the demon R a hu insinuated himself among the gods
and obtained a portion o f the amrit a t he drink of i mmor
tality ; V ishnu smote o ff the now immortal head which
still pursues the Sun and Moon whose watchful gaze
detected his presence in the divine assembly
A nother
version o f the myth is that there are two demon s R a hu
and Ketu who devour Sun and Moon respectively and who
are described in conformity with the phenomena of eclipses
R a hu being black and Ketu red ; th e usu a l charivari is
raised by the populace to drive them O ff though indeed
as their bodies have been cut off at the neck their prey
must o f natural course slip out as so o n as swallowed O r
R a hu and Ketu are the head and body of the dissevered
demon by which conception the E c lipse monster is most
ingeniously a dapted to advanced astronomy the head and
t ail being identied with t h e ascending and descen ding
nodes The following remarks on the eclipse controversy
made by Mr Samuel D avis a century ago in the A si at i ck

R esearches are still full of interest

It i s evident from
what has been explained that the P undits learned in

the J y ot i sh sh ast rii have truer notions of the form of

earth and the economy o f the universe than are ascribed
to the Hindoos in general : and that they must rej ect
the ridiculous belief of the common B rah mn s that
.

MYTH O LOG Y

332

eclipses are occasi o ned by the interventi o n o f the monster

R ah o o wi t h m a n y o the r p a rt i cul a rs equ a lly u nscientic
I n t a s thi s b el i e f i s fo unded o n expl ic i t a n d
a n d a b surd
p o si t ive decl a r a t i o n s c o n t a ined i n the v
d i i s a n d po o ra n ii s
t h e divine a uth o r i t y o f which writi n gs n o dev o ut Hindo o
c a n dispu t e t h e a str o n o me rs h a ve s o me o f them c a uti o usly
expl ai n ed such pass ages in th o se w ritings a s disag ree with
t h e p rinciples o f t he i r o w n scie n ce : a n d whe r e rec o n
ciliation was impossible h a ve a pologized a s well a s they
could fo r propositions necessarily established in the
practice o f it by observing that ce r tain things as stated
in o ther sh as t rii s might have been so formerly and may
be so still ; but for astronomic a l purposes astronomical
1
rules must be followed
It is n o t easy to give a more
salient example than this of the conseque n ce o f investing
philosophy with the man tle o f religi on and allowi n g
priests an d scribes to convert the childlike science o f an
e a rly age into the s a cred dogma of a late o n e A siatic
peoples under Buddhist inuence S how the eclipse myth
in its different stages The rude Mo n g o ls make a clamour
o f rough music to drive the a ttacking A rach o ( R a hu ) from
Sun o r Moon
A Buddhist version mentioned by D r
Bastian describes Indr a the Heaven god pursuing R a hu
with his thunderbolt a n d rippi n g O pen his belly so that
although he can swallow the he a venly bodies he lets them
2
sli p ou t agai n
The more civili zed nati o ns of South E ast
A sia accepting the eclipse demons R ahu and Ketu were not
quite staggered in their belief by the fo reigners power o f
fo r etelli ng ec lipses n or even by le a rning roughly to do the
same themselves The C hinese have o fcial ann o uncement
o f an eclipse duly m a de beforehan d an d then p roceed t o
encounte r the ominous monste r when he comes with
,

V i s h n u

H H W i l son
pura n a pp 7 8 1 4 0 ; Sk r D i e s v rah u ; S i r

W J on es i n A s R es vol ii p 2 9 0 ; S D a v i s i bi d p 2 5 8 ; Pi c t e t O ri

O ri en t a l I ll ust ra t i on s p 7 ;
g i n es I n d o E ur o p p ar t ii p 5 8 4 ; R ob ert s

H ard y M an u a l of B udd h is m

2
F i n n My t h p 6 3 ; B a s t i an O est l A s i en v
ol ii p 3 4 4
Ge s t reu
1

ECLIPS E MYT H S

333

gongs and bells and the regularly appointed prayers

Travelle r s of a century o r two ag o rel a te curi o us det a ils
o f such c o mbined belief in the dr a gon and the a lm a nac
culminating in a n ingenious argume n t t o a ccount for the
a ccur a cy
of the E urope a ns predicti o ns
These clever
people the Siamese s a id know the m o nster s me altimes
a n d c a n tell h o w hung r y he will be that is h o w l a rge an
1
eclipse will be requir ed to satisfy him
In E urope popular mythology kept up ideas either of a
gh t o f sun o r moon with celestial enemies or o f the
moon s fainting or S ickness ; and especially remnants of
such arch a ic belief are manifested in the tumultuous
clamour r a ised in defe n ce or enc o uragement of the aficted
luminary The R om a ns u n g re b ran d s into the air and

blew trumpets an d cl a nged br a zen p o t s a n d p a ns labor

a nt i s u cc u rr e re lun a e
T a citus rel a ting the story o f the
soldiers mutiny a ga i n st Tiberius tells how their plan was
frustr a ted by the m o on suddenly languishing in a clear sky
l
l
n
r
: in vain by cl a ng
luna
claro
repente
o
vis
a
a
u
e
s
e
e
c
o
e
c
(
)
g
of brass and blast of trumpet they strove to drive aw a y the
darkness for cl o uds came up and covered all and the plot
ters saw lamenting th a t the gods turned a way from their
2
crime
In the period o f the conversi o n of E urope C hris
tian te a chers began t o attack the pag a n superstition and

t o urge that men should no longer clamour and cry vince

luna ! to aid the m o o n in her sore danger ; and at last
there came a time when the picture of the sun o r mo o n in
the dragon s m o uth bec a me a mere old fashioned symb o l t o

represent eclipses in the c a lendar and the saying D ieu

garde la lune d e S l o ups passed into a mocking pr o verb
against fear o f remote danger Y et the ceremonia l charivari
is mentioned in o u r o w n c o untry in the seve n tee n th centu ry :
.

Kl emm C G vol vi p 4 4 9 ; D ool i t t l e C h i n ese vol i p 3 0 8 ;

T u rp i n R i c h ard a n d B orri i n Pi n k ert on vol i v pp 5 7 9 7 2 5 8 1 5 B as t i an
O es t l A s i e n v
S ee E i s e n m en g er E n t d e c k t e s
ol ii p 1 0 9 v
ol iii p 2 4 2
Ju d e n t h u m v
ol i p 3 9 8 ( T a lm udi c my t h )
i 4 4 1 ; Plin ii 9 ;
P l u t arc h d e F ac i e i n O rb e L u n ae ; Ju v en a l S a t v
Ta c i t A n n al i 28

3 34

MY THO LOG Y

The Irish or Welsh during eclipses run about beating

kettles a n d pans thi n king thei r clamour a n d vex a ti o ns
available to the assist a nce o f the higher orbes
In 1 6 5 4
N uremberg went wild with terro r o f an impending solar
eclipse ; t h e markets ceased the chu rches were crowded
with penitents and a record o f the event remains in the
printed thanksgiving which was issued ( D an c kg e b e t h nach
vergangener h Oc h s t b e droh li c h und h o ch s ch ad li c h e r Sonnen
n s t e rn u s s ) which gives thanks to the A lmighty for grant
ing to poor terried sinners th e grace o f covering the sky
with C louds and sparing them the sigh t o f the awful S ign in
heaven In ou r o w n times a writer on F rench folklore was
surprised during a lunar eclipse to hear sighs and exclama

tions Mon D ieu qu elle est sou ffrante ! and found on

enquiry that the poor moon was believed to be the prey of
1
some invisible monster seeking to devour her
N o doubt
such late survivals have belonged in great measure to the
ignorant crowd for the educated classes of the West have
never su ffered in its extreme the f a tal C hinese union of
scepticism and superstition Y et if it is our mood to bewail
the slowness with which knowledge penetrates the mass o f
mankind there stand dismal pr o ofs before us here The
ecli pse remained an omen o f fear almost up to our own
century and could re n t a horro r stricken army and ll
E urope with dismay a thousand years after Pliny had
written in memorable words his eulogy of the astronomers ;
th o se great men he said an d a bove ordinary mortals who
by discovering the laws of the heavenly bodies had freed the
miserable mind o f men from terror at the portents of eclipses
D a y is d a ily swallowed up by N ight to be set free again
at dawn and from time t o time su ffers a like but shorter
d u rance in the maw o f the E clipse an d the Storm cloud ;
,

S l w M y t h p 2 6 8 B ran d
G ri mm D M pp 6 6 8
7 8 2 2 4 H n u sc b
Z u b er B i b l i t h k vl i v p 3 5 0 ; D
Po p A n t vl iii p 1 5 2 H o rs t

M o nn i er Tra di t i on s p o p u l i es c o m p r s p 13 8 ; see M i gn e Di c d es
S u p ers t it i ons art E c li p s e C orn el iu s Agri pp D O cc u l t P h i l o p h i a
ii 0 4 5 gi v e s a p i c t u re o f t h e l u n ec l i p s d g on
1

a r

e-

ra

a,

ar

so

S UNS ET AND S UNRIS E MYTH S

335

Summer is overcome a n d prisoned by dark Winter to be

again set free It is a plausible opinion that such scenes
from the great nature drama of the conict o f light and
d a rkness are generally speaking the S imple facts which in
many lands a n d ages have been told in mythic S hape as
legends of a Hero or maiden devoured by a Monster and
hacked out ag a in o r disgorged The myths j ust displayed
S how with absolute distin ctness th a t myth can describe
eclipse as the devouring and setting free o f the personal sun
and moon by a monster The followin g Maori legend will
supply pr o o f as positive that the episode of the Sun s o r the
D ay s death in sunset may be dramatized into a tale of a
pers o nal solar hero plunging into the body o f the personal
N ight

Maui the N ew Zealand cosmic hero at the end o f his

gl o rious c a reer c a me back to his father s country and w as
told that here perhaps he might be overcome for here dwelt
his mighty ancestress Hine nui te po G reat D aughter of

N ight whom you may see ashing an d a s it were opening

and S hutting there where the horizon meets the S ky ; what
you see yonder shining so brightly red are her eyes and
her teeth are as S harp and hard as pieces of volcanic glass ;
her body is like that of a man ; and as for the pupils of her
eyes they are j asper ; and her hai r is like the tangles
o f long S e a weed and her mouth is like that of a barra
couta
Maui boasted of his former exploits and said

L et us fearlessly seek whether men are to die o r live for

ever ; but his father c a lled to mind an evil omen that
when he was baptizin g Maui h e had left ou t part of th e t
ting prayers and th erefore he knew that his s on must

perish Y et he said O my last born and the strength

of my old age
be bold go and visit your gre a t
ancestress who ashes so ercely there where the edge o f
the horizon meets the S ky
Then the birds came to Maui
to be his companions in the enterprise a n d it was evening
when they we n t with him a n d th ey c a me to the dwelli n g o f
Hine nui te po an d fou n d h e r f a st a sleep Maui ch a rged
,

MYTH O LOG Y

336

the bi rds n o t t o laugh when they s a w him creep into the O ld

chie f ta i n ess b ut whe n he h a d g o t a l to gethe r i n side h e r a n d
w a s c o m i n g o u t o f her m o n t h then they migh t l augh l o ng
and l o ud S o Maui s tripped o ff his clothes and the skin
ta ttooed by the chisel O f U e t on ga looked
o n his hips
m o ttled and beautiful like a mackerel s as he crept in
The bird s kept silence but whe n he was in up to his waist
the little t i w a ka w a ka could hold its laughter in no longer
and burs t o u t l o ud with its merry note ; then Maui s an ces
tress aw o ke closed o n h i m an d c a ught him tigh t and he
was killed Thus died Maui and thus death came int o the
world fo r Hine nui te po is the goddess both o f night and
death and had Maui entered into her body and passed
safely through her men would have died no more The
N ew Zealanders hold that the Sun descends at night into
his c a vern bathes i n the Wai O ra Tane the W a ter o f L ife
and returns at d a wn fr o m the under world ; hence we may
interpret the thought that if Man could likewise descend
1
into Hades and return his race would be immortal
F urther evidence that Hine nui te po is the deity o f N ight
appears in another N ew Zealand myth Tane
o r Hades
descending to the shades below in pursuit of his wife comes
to the N ight ( P 0 ) of Hine a te po D a ughter o f N ight who

says to him I have spoken t h u s t o her R eturn fr o m this

place as I Hine a te po am here I a m the barrier between
2
night and day
It is seldom that s ola r c h arac t e ri s t i c s are
,

Pol

G rey
y n M y t h pp 5 4 5 8 ; i n h i s M aori t e x t s KO n g a M h i n g a
pp 2 8
3 0 K0 n g M t e t
pp xlv iii
i x I h v e t o t h an k Si r G G rey for
a m ore e x p l i ci t
n d my t h o l g i c a lly m ore c o n i s t e n t t r n s l t i on o f t h e s t
y
o f M a ui s e n tr an c e i n t o t h e w o m b o f H i n e n u i t e po a n d h e r c ru s h i n g h i m
C om p are
t o d e t h b e t w een h er t h i g h s t h a n i s gi v en i n h i s E n gl i s h v ers i on

R Tayl or N ew Z l n d p 1 3 2 ; S c h i rren Wa n d ersag en d er N eu s el

p 3 3 ; S h o t l n d T ad o f N Z p 6 3 (a v e s i on o f t h e my t h of M aui s

d eat h ) ; see al so pp 1 7 1 1 80 n d B k e i n Tr Et h S oc vol i p 5 3

2
A n c i en t H i st ory o f t h e M ori vol i p 1 4 6 I n form er
Jo h n W h i t e
st t m n t
e di t i o n s
i v d f m N e w Z l n d w a i n s rt ed t h a t t h c y o r
l au g h o f t h e t i w k aw k or p i e d f n t ai l i s on ly h a d t s u nse t Th i s h ow
d oes n ot agr wi t h t h e cc o u n t s o f S i W L w ry B u ll r w h o i n h i s
ev e
B i rd s of N ew Z e l an d vl i p 6 9 s u pp l em en t e d b y h i s answ er t o my
i n gs i n th e d y t i m e Th u s t h e g u
e n q uiry m ak es i t c l e r t h t t h e b i d
1

a ea,

or

ea a

s.

a e

rec e

ro

ea a

ee

r,

ar

S U N S E T AN D S UNRIS E MYTHS

more distinctly marked in the several details of a myth

than they are here
In the list of myths o f engulng monste rs there are
others which seem to display with a clearness a lm o st a p
proa ch i n g this a n origin suggested by the familiar spectacle
o r L ight and D arkness
The S imple
o f D ay a n d N ight
story of the D ay may well be told in the Karen tale o f Ta
Y wa who was born a tiny child and went to the Sun to
make him grow ; the Sun tried in vain to destroy him by
rain and heat and then blew him up large till his head
touched the sky then he went fo rth and t r avelled from his
home far over the earth ; and among the adventures which
befell him was this a snake sw a llowed him but they ripped
1
the creature up and Ta Y wa ca me back to life like the
Sun from the ripped up serpent demo n in the Buddhist
eclipse myth
In N o rth A me rican I n dian mythology a
principal personage is Man a b o zh o a n A lgo n quin hero or
deity whose s o lar character I S well brought into view in an
O ttawa myth which tells us th a t Man a bozho ( wh o m it calls
Na n a b ou j ou ) is the elder brother of N ing gah b e a r nong
M anit o the Spirit of the West god o f the country o f the
de a d in the region o f the setting sun Manab o zho s s o lar
nature is again revealed in the sto r y o f his driving the West
his father across m o untain and lake t o the brink o f the
world though h e cannot kill him
This sun her o Mana
b oz h o when he angled fo r the King o f F ishes was sw a l
lowed canoe and all ; then he smote the monster s he a rt
with his w a r club till he would fa in have cast him up in t o
the l a ke a gain but the hero set his ca n oe fast across the
sh s thro at inside and nished S layin g him ; when the
dead monster drifted ashore the gulls pe ek e d an o pening
for Man a bozho t o come out
This is a story fa miliar to
.

m en t

i g t h e s u n se t s on g wi t h t h e st ory a s a s u n set my t h f ll s aw a y
I n a n ot h er v e rsi o n o f M a ui s d ea t h i n W h i t e v
ol
ii p 1 1 2 t h e l a u g h i n g
b i rd i s t h e p a t at a i or l i t t l e s w a m p ra i l w h i c h c ri e s a t an d ft e r n i g h t fa ll
an d i n t h e e a rly m orn i n g ( B u ll er v
o l ii p
[N ot e t o 3 rd c d ]

1
M aso n K aren s i n J o urn A s S oc B e nga l 1 86 5 p art ii p 1 7 8 & c
Z
I
c on n e c t n

M YTHOLO G Y

338

E nglish readers f rom its intr o d uc t i o n into the poem of

Hi a wa t h a I n a nother ve rsion the t a le is told o f the L ittle
Me n e do o f the Oj i b was w h o a lso c o rr esp o nds with the N ew
Ze a l a nd M a ui i n b ei n g the Sun C atcher ; amo n g his vari ou s
pr o digies he i s sw a ll o wed b y t h e gre a t sh an d cut o u t
1
South A f rica is a region where there
a g a in b y h i s s ister
prev a il myths which seem t o tell the st o ry o f the world i m
pris o ned in the m o nster N ight a n d delivered by the dawn
ing Sun The Basutos have their myth o f the hero L itao
lane ; he came to m a n s stature and wisdom at his birth ;
all mankind s a v
e his mother and he had been devoured by
a monster ; h e a tta cked the creature and was swallowed
whole but cutting his way out he set free all the inhabitan ts
o f the w orld
The Zulus tell stories as pointedly suggestive
A mother follows her children into the maw o f the great
elephant and nds forests and rivers and highlands and
dogs and cattle a n d people who had built their villages
there ; a description which is simply that o f the Zulu
Hades When the Princess U n t omb i n de was carried o ff
loa t e d squatting bearded
by the I sikq u k q u made vu the
monster the King gathered his army and attacked it but it
swallowed up men and dogs a n d cattle all but on e warrior ;
he slew the monster an d th ere came out cattle and horses
and me n and last o f all the princess hersel f The stories
of these monsters being cut O pen imitate in graphic savage
fashion the cries of the imprisoned creatures as they came

back from darkness into daylight

There came ou t rst

a fowl it said Ku k u lu k u ! I see the world ! F or for a

long time it had been without seeing it A fter th e fowl

there came o u t a man he said H a n ! I at length see the

2
a n d so on with the rest
.

I n di a

h oolcra ft
p rt iii p 3 1 8 ; Algi c Res vol i p 1 3 5
n T ri b es

M y t h s o f N ew
1 44 ; J o h n T an n e
&c
N arra t i v e p 3 5 7 ; s ee B i n t on
W orl d p 1 6 6 F or l eg en d s o f S u n C at ch cr s ee E rly H i st o f M n k i n d
x ii
Ch
C asali s B asu t s p 3 4 7 C all a w y Z u l u T l es vol i pp 5 6 6 9 8 4
3 3 4 (s ee al s o t h e s t ory p 2 4 1 o f t h e fro g wh o s wall ow e d t h e p ri n c ess a n d
S e e C r n z p 2 7 1 ( G reen l an d a n g k k s w all o w e d b y
c arri ed h er s fe h o m e )
1

Sc

r,

S UNS ET AND S UNRISE MYTH S

339

The well known modern in terpretation of the myth o f

Perseus a n d A nd r omeda or of Herakles an d Hesi o ne a s a
description o f the Sun S laying the D arkness has its con
n e x i on with
this group of legends
It is rel a ted in a
remarkable version o f this st o ry that when the Tr oj an
King La omedon had b o und his daughter Hesione to the
rock a sacrice to Poseidon s destroying sea monster
Herakles delivered the maiden sprin ging full armed into
the sh s gaping throat and coming forth hairless after
three days hacking within This Singul a r story probably
in part o f Semitic origin combines the ordin ary myth of
Hesi o ne or A ndr o meda with the story o f J o n a h s sh for
which indeed the G reek sculpture o f A ndromeda s m o nster
served as the m o del in e a rly C hristian art while Jopp a was

the place where vestiges of A ndromeda s chains on a rock in

fr o nt of th e t o wn were exhibited in Pliny s time and whence
the bones o f a whale were carried t o R ome as relics O f
A ndromeda s m o nster To rec o gnize the place which the
nature myth O f the Man swallowed by the Monster o ccupies
in mythology among remote and s a vage r a ces and onw a rd
a mong the higher nations a ffects the argument on a p o int
o f Bibli c a l criticism
It strengthens the position o f the
critics w h o seein g that the Book of J o n a h consists o f two
wonder epis o des adapted to enfo rce two great religi o us
lesso n s no l o nger suppose intention o f literal narrative in
what they ma y fa irly consider as the m o st el a bo r ate parable
of the O ld Test a ment Had t h e Bo o k o f J o nah h a ppened
to be lost in o ld times and only recently recovered it is
indeed h a rdly likely that any other opinion o f it than this
1
would nd acceptance among scholars
-

M en sc h

v
wa l ru s a n d t h ro w n u p aga i n ) a n d B a st i a n
ol
ii pp

5 06 7
J M H arris i n Mem A n t hrop S oc V ol ii p 3 1 (s i m i l a r n ot i on s
i n A fri c a an d N e w G ui n e a )
1
T z e t z es a p L y c o p h ron C a ssan d ra 33 As t o c on n ex i on wi t h J o pp a an d
P h oen i c i a s ee Pli n V 1 4 ; i x 4 ; Mel a i 1 1 S t rab o xv i 2 2 8 ; M o v ers

Ph On i z i er v
ol
i pp 4 2 2 3 Th e e x p ress i on i n J on a h ii 2 ou t o f t h e
b elly of H a d es ( mi bt en s h eol ex K k ta s gram.) s eem s a rel i c o f t h e ori gi n al
m ea n i n g o f t h e my t h

be

ar an

oc

MYTHOLOG Y

340

The c o ncepti o n o f H a des a s a m o nster swall o wing me n in

de a th w a s a c tu a lly fa mili a r t o C h ri s ti a n th o ught Thu s t o
t a ke i n st a n ce s fr o m di ff e rent periods the a cc o u n t o f t h e
D e s cent i n t o H a des i n t h e A p o c ryph a l G o spel o f N ic o demus
makes H a de s s pe a k in his prO pe r pe rs o n ality c o mpl a ini n g
th a t his b elly i s in p a i n whe n the S a vi o ur is t o desce n d a n d
set f ree the s a i n ts imp ris o n ed in it fr o m the begi n ning o f
the w o rld ; a n d in m edi ae v a l rep r ese n tati o ns o f this deliver

a nce the s o c a lled

H a rr o wing o f Hell C h rist is depicted
s t andin g befo re a huge sh like m o nster s ope n j aws whence
A da m and E ve a re c o ming for t h rst o f mankind 1 With
eve n m o r e dis ti n ct n ess o f mythic a l meani n g the man
dev o u rin g monster is i n troduced in the Scandinavian B ircks
Saga E i re k j our n eying toward Pa radise comes t o a stone
bridge guarded by a drago n a n d entering into its maw
2
n ds that he has a rrived in the w o rld o f bliss
But in
another wonder tale bel o nging t o that legend a ry growth
which formed rou n d ea r ly C hristi a n hist o ry no such dis
t in g u i sh ab le remnant o f n a ture myth survives S t Margaret
daughter o f a priest o f A ntioch had been cast int o a
dungeon and there Satan came upo n her in the form o f a
d ragon an d swallowed her alive
,

M a id e n Me rg re t e

b es id e
A n d se e s a l oa t h l y d rag o n O u t o f an h i rn gl i d e
H i s ey e n w e re f u ll g ri e sly H i s m o u t h o p e n e d w id e
A n d Ma rg re t e m i g h t n o w h e re e e T h e re sh e m u s t a b id e
M a id en Ma rg re t e S t oo d s t i ll as a n y s t on e
An d t h a t l oat h l y w o r m To h e r w a rd g an g on e
T ook h e r i n h i s fo u l mon t h A n d s w allo w e d h e r es h an d b on e
A n o n h e b ras t D a m ag e h at h sh e n on e
M a id e n Me rg ret e U p on th e d rag on st oo d
Bl y t h w a s h e r h art e A n d j o yf u l w as h e r m oo d
th o

L oke d h e r

Stories belongi ng

to

the same group

not unknow n to

are

A p oc r G os p N i c od em us c h xx Mrs J a m es on H i s t ory o f our L ord

o l ii
p 25 8
i n A rt v
2
C h ri st i an i a 1 8 5 9 B ari n g
Eir ek s S a g a 3 4 i n F l a t eyj arb ok v
ol i
G o u l d M y t h s o f t h e M idd l e Ages p 2 3 8
3
ol ii p 1 3 8
Mr s J am eson S a cred a n d L eg en d ary Art v
1

DESCENT I NTO UNDER WORLD

34 1

E u r ope a n folk l o re

O ne is the st o ry o f L ittle R ed R iding

h oo d mutilated in the E nglish nurse r y version but known
-

m o re pe r fectly by old wives in G erm a ny w h o c a n tell that

the lovely little m a id in h e r shining red s a tin cloak w a s
sw a ll o wed with her gr a ndmothe r by the Wolf but they both
c a me o u t s a fe a n d sound when the hunter cut o pen the S leep

ing be a st A ny on e wh o c an fancy with prince H a l the

blessed sun himself a fa ir h ot wench i n ame coloured
taffeta and can then imagine her swallowed up by S kOll
the Sun devouring W o lf o f Sc a ndi n a v i a n mythol ogy may
be inclined to class the tale o f L ittle R ed Ri di n gh o o d as a
myth o f sunset an d su n rise The r e is indeed another story
in G rimm s M archen partly the same as this one which we
can hardly doubt to have a quaint touch o f sun myth in it
It is c a lled the W o lf a n d Seven Kids an d tells o f the Wolf
sw a llowi n g the kids a ll but the youngest o f the seven who
was hidden in the cl o ck case A s i n L ittle R ed R iding
h o od they cut o pe n the W o lf an d ll him with stones This
t a le which took its present S hape S i n ce the i n vention o f
cl o cks l oo ks a s though the tale telle r was thinki n g not of
r eal kids and w o lf but o f d a ys o f the week swallowed by
night or h o w S h o uld he have hit up o n such a fa ncy as th a t
the wolf could n o t get a t the y o ungest o f the seven kids
1
bec ause it was hidde n ( like to day ) i n the cl o ck case
It may be w o rth while t o r ai se the question apropos o f
this n u r sery tale d o es the pe a s a nt f o lk lore of modern
E u r ope really still displ a y epis o des o f nature myth not as
,

'

'

K i n d er u n d H au s march en
,

W G ri mm
v
ol i pp 2 6 1 4 0 ; v
ol iii
p 1 5 [S e e r e f t o t h es e t wo st ori e s E arly H i st o f M l s t e d ( 1 8 6 5 ) p

vol i p 3 5 8 h a d n ot i ce d t h e
I n d t h at Si r G W C o x My t h o l ogy
W o l f n d S e v e n K id s a s a my t h o f t h e d a y s o f t h e w eek ( N ot e t o 2n d

a
n
e
s
e
e
H
a
n
u
s
h
s
i
f
h
e
w
o
l
f
o
f
d
r
k
s
c
p
1
9
2
E
dd
a
Gy l fa
F or me n t o s o t
;
g i n n i n g 1 2 G i mm D M pp 2 2 4 6 6 8 W i t h t h e ep i s od e o f t h e s t on es
F o r v a ri o u s o t h e r s t o ri e s
c om p are t h e my t h o f Z e u s an d K r on os
s u b s t i t u t ed
b e l on g i g t o t h e grou p of t h e Man s w all ow e d b y t h e M on st er see L u c i an
H ard y M an u a l o f B udd h i s m p 5 0 1 L an e Th ou san d
H i st ori ae V erse I
H all iw ell Pop R h ym es p 9 8 N urs ery
v
ol iii p 1 0 4
an d O n e N i g h t s
R h ym es p 4 8 ; E arly H i s t of M a n k i n d p 3 3 7
1

an d

'

MYTHOLOGY

342

mere b r o ken down a n d senseless fragments but in full shape

and signi fi c ance ? In answer i t will be en o ugh t o quote the
story o f V a s i li ss a the Beautiful brough t f o rward b y Mr W
R a lsto n in on e o f h i s lec t ures o n R ussian F o lk lore V as i li ss a s
stepm o ther and t w o sisters plo tting a gainst her life send
h e r t o get a ligh t a t the h o use o f B a ba Y ag a the witch and
h e r j ourney contain s the f o ll o wing history o f the D ay told in
truest my t hic fa shion V a s ili ssa goes and wa n ders wanders
in the f o rest She goes an d she shudders Suddenly before
her bounds a rider h e himself white and clad in white the
horse under him white and the trappings white A nd day
beg a n to dawn She g o es farther when a second rider bounds
forth himself red clad in red and on a red horse The sun
beg a n t o rise She goes on all day and towards evening
arrives at the witch s house Suddenly there c o mes ag a in a
rider himself bl a ck clad all in black and on a black horse ;
he bounded to the ga tes o f the B a ba Y ag a and disappeared as
if he had sunk thr o ugh the earth N ight fell A fter this
when V a si li s sa asks the witch wh o was the white rider S h e

answers That is my clear D ay ; who was the red r ider

That is my red Sun ; who was the black r ider That is

my black N ight ; they are all my trusty friends
N ow
considering that the story of L ittle R ed Ri di n gh oo d belongs
to th e same cl a ss o f folk lore tales as this story o f V a si li s sa
the Beautiful we need not be a fr a id t o seek in the one for
traces o f th e same archaic type o f nature myth which the
oth er not o nl y keeps up but keeps up with the fullest
consciousness o f meaning
Th e development of nature myth into heroic legend seems
t o have t a ken place among the barbaric tribes of the S outh
S e a Isl a nds and N orth A merica much as it t oo k place am o ng
the a ncest o rs o f the classic nations of the O ld World We
are not t o expect accurate consistency o r prope r seque n ce o f
episodes in the heroic cycles but t o j udge from the ch a r a c
t e ri s t i c s of the episodes themselves as to the ideas which
suggested them
A s regards the less cultured races a
glance at two legendary cycles one from Polyn esia and t h e
-

D ES C ENT I NT O UN D ER WORLD
-

34 3

ther from N o rth A merica will serve to give an idea o f the

v a rieties o f treatme n t o f phases o f sun myth The N ew
Zealand myth of Maui mixed as it ma y be with other
fancies is in its most strikin g features the story o f D ay and
N ight The story o f the Sun s birth from the oce a n is thus
told There were ve brothers all called Maui and it was
the youngest Maui who had been throw n into the sea by
Taran ga his m o ther a n d rescued by his a ncestor Tama
nui ki te R angi G reat Man in Heaven who took him t o his
Then is given in fanciful
h o u se and hung him in the roof
personality the tale of the vanishing of N ight at d a wn O ne
night when Taranga c a me home she found little Maui with
his brothers and when sh e knew her last born the child o f
her ol d age she took him to Sleep with her a s she had been
used to take the o ther Mauis his br o thers before they were
grown up But the little Maui grew vexed and suspicious
when he found that every morning his mother r o se a t dawn
and d i s a ppeared fr om the house in a moment not to return
till nightfall S o on e nigh t he crept ou t and st o pped every
crevice in th e woo den wind o w and the doorway that the day
might not shin e i n to the house ; then br o ke the faint light
of early dawn and then the sun r o se a n d mounted into the
heavens but Taranga slep t on fo r S h e knew not it was broad
day outside A t last she sprang up pulled ou t the stopping
and ed in dismay
Then Maui saw her
o f the chinks
plunge into a hole in the ground and dis a ppear and thus he
found the deep cavern by which his mother went d o wn below
the earth a s each night dep a rted A fter this follows the
episode of Maui s visit t o his ancestress Mu r i rang a whenu a
a t that wester n L a nd s E nd where Mao r i s o uls descend i n to
the subterra n e a n regi o n of the de a d She sni ffs a s he comes
t o war d s her and diste n ds herself to dev o ur h i m but when
she h a s s n i ffed r o und fr om s o uth b y e a st t o n o rth S h e smells
his coming by the western breeze and s o k n ows that he is
a descenda nt o f hers He asks for h e r wond r ous j a w b one
S h e gives it to him and it is his we a pon in his next expl o it
when he catches the sun Tama nui te R a G reat M a n
Sun
o

M YT H O LO G Y

344

the n o o se and w o unds him and m a kes him go slowly

\Vith a s h h o o k p o inted with the miraculou s j a wbone and
sme a red w ith his o w n b l o od fo r bait Maui next performs his
m o st fa m o u s feat o f shi n g up N ew Zeal a nd still called Te
Ika a M a ui the fi s h o f M a ui To underst a nd this we must
c o mp a re the v a ri o us ve rsio n s o f the st o ry in these and other
P a cic Isl a nds which sh o w that it is a general myth o f the
rising o f dry l a nd from bene a th the ocean
It is said
elsewhere that it was Mau i s grandfather R angi Whenua
Heaven E a rth who gave the j awbone More distinctly it
is also said that Maui had two sons whom h e slew when
young t o take their j awbones ; now these two sons must be
the Morning and E vening for Maui made the morning and
evening stars fr o m an eye o f each ; and it was with the j aw
bone o f the eldest that he drew up the land from the deep
I t is related th a t when Maui pulled up his sh he found it
was l a nd on which were houses and stages on which to
put f o od and d o gs barking and res burning a n d people
working It appears moreover that th e submarine region
o u t o f which the land was li fted was the under world o f
N ight for Maui s hook had caught the ga ble o f the h ou s e
o f Hine nui te po G reat D aughter o f N ight and when the
land came up her house was on it an d sh e was standing
near A nother Maori legend tells how Maui takes re i n
his hands it burns him and he S prings with it into the sea :

When he sank in the waters the sun for the rst time
set and darkness covered th e earth W hen he found that
all w a s night h e immediately pursued the sun and brought
h i m b a ck in the morning
When Maui carried o r ung the
re int o the sea he set a volcano burning It is told a ga in
th a t when Maui had put o u t all r es on earth his m o ther
sent him t o get new re fr o m her ancestress Mah u i k a The
Tong a ns in their version o f the myth relate how the
y o u n gest Maui disc o vers the cavern that leads t o Bulotu
the west l a nd o f th e dead a n d h ow his father another
M a ui sends him to the yet older Maui who si t e by his great
r e ; the t w o wrestle and Maui brings away re for men
in

DESCEN T INTO UN DER WORLD

-

le a ving the o ld earthqu a ke go d lyi n g crippled bel o w The

legend a ry group thus dr a m a tizes the bi r th o f the sun fr o m
the o cean a n d the departure o f th e night the extinction of
the light at sunset and its return at d a wn a n d the descent
o f the sun to the western Hades the under world o f night
a n d death which is incident a lly identied with th e region
o f subterr a nean re and earthquake
Here indeed the
characteristics o f true nature myth are not indistinctly
marked and Maui s de a th by his ancestress the N ight t ly
1
ends his solar career
It is a sunset story very di ff erently conceived that
begins the beautiful N orth A merican Indian myth o f th e
R ed Sw a n
The story bel o ngs to the A lgonquin race
The hunter O j ibw a had j ust killed a bear and begun to

S kin him when suddenly s o mething red tinged all the air
around R e a ch i ng the S h o re o f a lake the I n dian saw it
was a be a utiful red sw a n wh o se plumage glittered in the
sun
In v a in the hunter S hot his S hafts for the bird
o ated unh a rmed a n d unheeding but at last he remem
bered three magic arrows at home which had been his
fathe r s
The rst and second a rrow ew near and
nearer the third struck the sw a n and app i ng its wi n gs
it ew o ff slowly tow a rds the sink i ng o f the sun With
full sense o f the poetic sol a r me a ning o f this episode
L o n gfellow h a s a dapted it as a sunset picture i n on e o f his
Indian poems :
-

C an i t b e t h e su n d esce n d i n g

O e r t h e l e v el p l a i n o f w a t er ?
O r t h e R e d S w a n oat i n g , y i n g ,
W o u n d e d b y t h e m ag i c arro w ,

G e y Poly n My t h p 1 6 & s e 1 4 4 J W h i t e A n c i en t H is t ory

vol ii p 7 6 1 1 5
O t h d et a i l s i n S c h i r n W a n d g en
o f t h e M ori
d er
pp 3 2 7 1 4 3 5 1 R T y lor N e w Z e l n d p 1 24 & c

1 16 14 1 &c
c om p
n d v o l ca n
myt h p 24 8 ; Y t
N ew Z ea l n d
p 1 4 2 ; P o l c k M n d C o f N w Z vo l i p 1 5 ; S S F rm
T on g I s
p 13 4 S
l so T u n P o ly n es i pp 2 5 2 5 2 7 ( S m n v e s i on ) I n
com p
i n g t h e g r u p o f M ui l g n d s i t i t o b e o b serv e d t h t N w Z l n d
M h uik
n d M a ui T i k i t i k i c orre s p on d t o T o n ga n M fa i k e an d Kij i kij i
S am o n M a fui e an d Ti i t i i
1

are

ar

a,

er ,

er ,

oa

a e,

ersa

a a

re

as.

er

ee a

c.

ea a

MYTH O LOG Y

34 6
S ta i n i n g

i m son
W i t h t h e c ri m so n o f i ts l i fe b lo o d
F i lli ng a l l th e a i r w i t h s ple n d o u r
W i t h t h e s p le n d o u r o f i t s p l u m ag e
a ll

t h e wa

ves

wi t

cr

The s t o ry g o es o n t o tell how the hunter speeds westward

i n pursuit o f the R ed Sw a n
A t l o dges where he rests
they tell him she has O ften passed there but those who
fo ll o wed her h a ve never returned She is the daugh ter of
an o ld magician w h o has lost his scalp which Oj ibwa
succeeds i n recovering for him and puts back o n h is head
and the old man rises from the earth no longer aged and
decrepit but splendid in youthful glory Oj ibwa departs
and the magician calls forth the beautiful maiden now n ot
his daughter bu t his sister and gives her to his victorious
friend It was in after days when Oj ibwa had gone home
with his bride that he tr a velled forth and coming to an
O pening in the earth descended and came to the abode of
dep a rted S pirits ; there he could behold the bright western
region o f the good and the dark cloud of wickedness But
the spirits told him that his brethren at home were quarrel
ling for the possession of his wife an d at last after long
wander i ng this R ed Indian O dysseus returned to hi s
mourning constant Penelope laid the m
agic arrows to his
1
bow and stretched the wicked suitors de a d at his feet
Thus savage legends from Polynesia and A merica possibly
indeed shaped u nder E uropean inuence agree with the
2
theory that O dysseus visiting the E lysian elds or O rpheus

desce n di ng to the l a nd of Hades to bring b a ck the wide

shining E urydik e a re but the Sun himself descending t o
a n d a scending from the world below
Where Night a n d Hades take personal shape in myth
.

S c h ool c ft Algi c Res vol ii pp 13 3 Th e t h ree r ows rec u r i n

M ab o zh s s l y i n g t h e S h i i n g M i t u vol i p 1 5 3 S e t h e r m k a b ly
c orr s p o n din g t h ee m g i c
N i l s s n S t o n e Ag e
ro w s i n O rvr O dd s S g
p 1 9 7 Th e R d S wa my t h o f su set i s i n t o du ce d i n G eorg e E l i ot s
S p i s h G y ps y p 6 3 L o g f llo w H i a w t h x ii

i x p 2 1 2 ; M Mii ll e C h i p s
S e K u h n s Z e i t sc h ri ft
1 860 v
ol
vol ii p 1 2 7 ; C o x Myt h o l ogy v
p 2 5 6 vol ii p 2 3 9
ol i
1

ra

an

an

an

a r

ar

a,

ax

r,

ar

G ATES

S UN SET AND S U NRI S E

or

347

we may expect to nd conceptions like that S imply shown

ie
raj a n i mu kh a
in a Sansk r it wor d for evening

mouth o f night
Thus the Sca n di navia n s t o ld o f Hel
the death goddess with mouth g a ping like the mouth o f
F e n ri r her brother the moon dev o uring wolf ; and an old
G erman poem describes Hell s abyss yawning from heaven
to ea r th :

d er w as d er H el l e n g el i eb

d i u d az

ab g r u n d e

b eg e n i t mi t i r

unde

d en

m un d e

h i me l

z uo

d er

er

d en

The sculptures o n cathedrals still display for the terror of

the wicked the awful j aws of D eath the mouth o f Hell
wide yawning to swallow its victims A gain where barbaric
cosmology accepts the doctrine o f a rmame n t arching
above the earth a n d o f an under world whither the sun
descends when he sets and man when he di es here th e
conception o f g a tes or portals wheth er really o r m e t aph ori
cally meant has its place Such is the great gate which
the G old C oast negro describes the Heaven as opening in
the morning fo r the Sun ; such were the ancient G reek s
g a tes o f Hades a n d the ancient Jew s g a tes o f Sheol
There are three mythic descriptions c o nnected with these
ideas fou n d among the Karens the A lgonqui ns a n d the
A ztecs which a re deserving O f S pecial notice The Karens
o f Burma a race a mong whom ideas are in great measure
borrowed from the more cultured Buddhists they have
been i n contact with have precedence here fo r the di s
t i n c t n e s s o f their statement
They s ay that in the west
there are t w o massive str a t a o f rocks which are con
t i n u a lly opening an d shutti n g and between these str a ta
the su n descends at sunset but how the upper st r a tum
is Supported n o one can describe The ide a c o mes well
int o V iew in the descripti o n o f a t ai festival where
sacriced fowls are thus a ddressed
Th e seven heavens
thou a scen d e s t to the top ; the seven earths thou de
,

G ri mm

M pp

29 1 , 7 6 7

MYTH OLOG Y

348

e s t a t Khu the ; thou

Th o u a rri v
g o es t u n t o Th a ma
Ya m a the Judge o f the D ead
in l l a d e s ] Th o u g o est th ro ugh t h e crevices o f r o cks
thou g o est thr o ugh the crevices o f precipices A t the
O pening a n d shutti n g o f the western gates o f rock thou
g o est in between ; thou g o est bel o w the e a rth where the
S u n t ra vels
I c mploy thee I exh o rt thee
I make thee
a messenge r
I make thee an angel & c 1 P a ssing from
Burm a to the regi on o f the N o rth A merican lakes we nd
a corresponding description in the O ttawa tale of I o sc o
already quoted here for its clearly marked pe rso n i ca
ti o n o f Sun and Moon
This legend though modern
in some of its description of the E uropeans their ships
an d
their far o ff l a n d across the sea is evidently
f o unded on a myth o f D a y and N ight I os co seems to
be I o skeha the White O ne whose contest with his brother
Ta w i s c a ra the D ark O n e is an ea rly and most genuine
Hur o n natu re myth o f D ay and N igh t I osc o and his
friends tr a vel fo r years e a stward a n d e a stward t o reach
the s u n an d c o me at last t o the dwelling o f Manabozho
near the edge o f the w o rld and then a little beyond
to the chasm t o be passed on the way to the l a nd o f th e
Sun a n d Moon
They began to hear the sound of the
beati n g sky an d it seemed near at h a nd but they had far
to tr a vel before they re a ch ed th e place Whe n the sky
came down its pressure would force gusts o f wind from the
o pe n ing
so str o ng th a t the tr a vellers could hardly keep
their feet a n d the s u n passed but a short distance
above their he a ds
The sky w o uld c o me down with
violence but it would rise sl o wly and gr a du a lly I osco and
o n e o f his f r iends stood near the edge
a n d with a great
e ff o rt leapt through a n d g a i n ed a f o o th o ld on the other
side ; but the o ther two were fe a rful a n d u n decided an d
s c e n de s t

the b o ttom

to

4
B n g l 1 8 6 5 p rt ii pp 23 3
G Ot t G el
o f t h e p resen t w ork i n
p 1 2 9 0 refe s t o B u m s l g en d i n B st i an O A vol ii
a M n g o l l g n d Gesser C h an b o k i v

M a son , K aren s , i n J ou rn A s S o c
P ro f i e b re c h t , i n h i s n o t i c e o f t h e l s t ed

Anz

1 8 7 2,

5 15,

an d

e e
,

GATES

S UNS ET AN D S UNRISE

OF

349

when their comp a ni o ns called t o them thr o ugh the d a r k

ness L eap ! leap ! the sky is o n its w ay dow n they

l o oked up and saw it descending but paralyzed by fear
they sprang s o feebly th a t they only reached the o ther
side with their h a nds and the S ky a t th e s a me m o ment
striking vi o le n tly on the e a rth with a terrible s ound
1
forced them int o the dre a dful bl a ck a byss
L a stly in the
funeral ritu a l o f the A ztecs there is found a like description
o f the rst peril that the S h a de had to encounter o n the
road leadi n g to th a t subterr a ne a n La nd o f the D ead which
the sun lights when it is nigh t o n e a rth
G iving the
corpse the rst o f the p a ssports that were t o carry him

s a fe t o his j ou rney s end the survivors said to him With

these y ou will pass between the two mount a ins th a t smite
2
on e against the o ther
O n the s u ggesti o n o f this group
of solar concepti o n s a n d th a t o f M a ui s death we m a y
perhaps expl a in as derived fr o m a br o ken down fa ncy o f
sola r myth th a t f a mous episode o f G reek legend where
the go o d ship A r go passed between the Sympl eg a des those
two huge c li ffs that O pened a n d cl o sed aga in with swift
?
an d vi o le n t co llisi o n
C a n a n y effort o f b a seless fa n cy
have br o ught i n t o the poet s mind a th o ught so quaint in
i tself yet s o tting with the K a ren a n d A ztec myths o f
the ga tes o f N ight a n d D e a th ? With the Mao r i lege n d
the A rg o nautic t a le has a yet deepe r coincidence In b o th
the event is t o determine the futu r e ; but this th o ught is
worked ou t in two converse w a ys If Maui passed through

S h l ft Alg i R
h vl ii p 4 0 &
L ki l
G k d
M i i n B b y 1 7 8 9 p 4 7 (t h E gl i h di t i p t i p 3 5 i i n
t)

S
l B i n t n My t h f N w W l d p 6 3 I n E q ui m u x t l
Gi v
i k
m t t h tw m u t i whi h hut d p
p dd l i g wi ft ly
b t w n h g t t h u gh b t t h m u nt i
l hi g t g th
u h th
t
f hi k y k Ri k
f
E k i m i h Evn t y
dt
g S gu p 9 8
by L i b ht

K i n g b u g h A t i q ui t i f M x i vl i ; T q u m n d M
q ui
I di
x iii 4 7 ; C
t
h
d p
m di d d S i
p
q e
t
e
b ti d y
l
l
t nd
t
ig
vl ii
Cl v

ss o

ee

oo c ra

ar

a so

co

ee

re c

es an

94

e s

ro

oro

on

en

n a ns

c.

on ,

an

a ns

c as

os

ar

o sc

or

es o

es o s

e n c on ra

o,

r o

en

ese

er c r
,

a e,

er

co r re c

co,

as

a sar

una

c on

or

or

o ra

re e rre

on a r

A po ll o d or

A ppol l on

Rh d
o

ii

erras ,

os

A rg o n au t i ca ,

a,

i 9 22 ;
P y t h i a C a rm i v 3 7 0
3

an a ,

es ,

es

s ern o
e

esea rc

ero ,

3 10 61 6 ;

Pi n d ar

M YT H OL O GY

350

the entrance o f N ight and returned to D ay death should

n o t hold m a nkind ; i f the A rgo passed the C lashers
the
w ay should lie O pen between them for eve r
Th e A rgo
sped through in sa fety and the Sympl egades c a n cl a sh no
l o n ger o n the pas s ing ship ; Maui was crushed and man
comes n o t forth again from Hades
There is another solar metaphor which describes the sun
not as a person a l creature but as a member o f a yet greater

being He is called in Java and Sumatra Mata ari in

M a dagascar Maso andro the E ye of D ay

If we
look for transl a tion o f this thought fr o m metaphor into
myth we may nd i t in the N ew Zealand stories o f Maui
setting his own eye up in heaven as the Sun and the eyes
1
of his two children as the Morning and the E vening Stars
The nature myth thus implicitly and explicitly stated is
on e widely developed on A ryan ground
It forms part o f
that macrocosmic description of the uni v
erse well known in
A si a tic myth and in E urope expressed in that p a ssage o f
the O rphic poem which tells of Jove at once the w o r ld s
ruler an d the world itself : his gl o rious head irradiates the
sky where ha n gs his st a rry hair the waters o f the sounding
ocean a re the belt that girds his sac r ed body the e a rth
omnip a rent his eyes are sun and moon his mind moving
and ruling by counsel all things i s the royal aether that no
voice nor sound esca pes :
,

u l i P h oeb u s Ph oeb oq u e ad v ersa rec u rren s

Men s v
e rax n u ll i q u e o b n ox i us aet h er
Cyn th ia
e t q u e reg i t q u e
Re g iu s i n t e ri t u q u i c u n e ta mo v
e n e c n l l us
C on s i l i o
Vox n u ll a p o t e s t s on i t u s v
H an c c e Jo v
i s s ob ol e m st re p i t u s n ec fama l at e re
S i c an i m i s e n s u m e t c ap u t i m m or ta l e b eat u s
O b t i n e t i l l u s t re i mme n su m i m m u ta b i l e pan d e n s
A t q u e l ace rt oru m v al id o stan s rob o re c e rt u s
S unt

oc

Where the A ryan myth maker takes no thought of the

-

M ann ers

P ol ac k
vol i p
of N Z
Y a t e p 1 4 2 ; S c h i rre n pp 88 1 6 5
Eu s e b Pree p E v a n g iii 9
1

16 ;

N ew

Z l nd vol i p
ea a

358 ;

E Y E O F HE A V E N

351

lesse r light he can in va r ious terms describe the sun as the

eye of he a ven In the R ig V eda it is the eye o f Mitr a

V arun a and A gni
ch aksh u h
Mi t ra sy a V a ru n a sy a h

1
A gn e h
In the Ze n d A vesta it is the shining su n with
the swift horses the eye o f A hura Mazda ; elsewhere both
?
eyes apparently sun an d moon are praised
To Hesiod it

is the all S eeing eye o f Zeus

7r oiI/T a i dd w A 1 69
Macr o bius spe a ks o f antiquity c a lli n g the sun the eye of
3

O l d G ermans in
J0 V8
The
7 i iih t o g ; o dp dmo g d 9 a h u dc

4
W
calling the sun
recognized W u ot a n W o den
u o t a n s eye
O dh i n as being himself th e divine Heaven
These mythic
expressions are o f the most unequivoc a l type By the hin t
they give conj ectur a l i n te r pretations may be here n o t indeed
asserted but suggested for two o f the qu a intest episodes o f
ancient E urope a n myth O din the A ll fa t h e r sa y the old
skalds of Scandinavi a sits a mong his I E S i r in the city
A sgard on his high throne H li d ski a lf ( L id shelf) whence
he can look down over the whole world discerning a ll the
deeds o f me n He is a n o l d man wr a pped i n his wide cloak

and cl o uding his face with his wide hat o s pileo n e c a ltu
O din
pro d e re t u r o b n u b e n s as Saxo G ra m ma t i c u s has it
is o n e eyed ; he desired t o d rink fr o m Mimi r s well but he
had t o leave there o n e o f his eyes in pledge as it is said in
the V oluspa
,

A ll

k n o w I O d i n W h e re t h o u h i dd est t h i n e ey e
I n M i m i r s fa m o u s w e l l
Mea d d ri n k s M i mi r e v e ry morn i n g
F ro m W al e fat h er s p l e d g e W i t y e w h at t h i s i s
,

AS

O din s single eye seem s certainly to be the

in
heaven on e m a y guess what is the lost eye in the well
perhaps the sun s o w n reection in any po o l o r more

Su n

1
2

3
4

Ri g V d i
-

Av es ta

en a

a,

tr

1 1 5 ; B eh t li n g k

S p i eg el

Y a cn a ,

R th
o

35 ;

s.

iii lxv ii
.

co

mp are Bu rn ou f,

S t u rnal i 2 1 1 3

G i mm D u t c h My t h p
Ma cr ob
r

an d

v mi t ra

M ull er
S ee a ls o

S e e Ma x

665

C h i p s vl ii p 8 5

S l a w My t h
H
s h

anu c

352

M Y TH O LO G Y

likely th a t o f the m o o n w hi c h in p o p u l a r m y th i s t o l d
1
a
s
o
of
f u n d in the w ell
P o s s ibl y t o o s o me such s o l a r
fa n cy may explain p a r t o f the m y th o f P e rs e us The r e
a re
th r ee S c a n d in a v i an N o r n s w h o s e names a re U rdh r
V e rdh a n d i an d Sk u l d W a s an d I s and Sh a ll b e

a n d the s e
th r ee maidens a re the Wei rd s i s te rs w h o
x the li fe t ime o f a ll men S o the F a te s the P a rk a i
d a u ghte rs o f the inevi t able A n ag ke divide among them
the periods o f time : L a c he s i s sings the p a s t Kloth o
the p r e s ent A t ro p os the fu t ur e N ow i s it allowable t o
consider the s e fa t a l s i s te rs as o f common n a t ur e w ith
t w o o the r m y thi c s i s te r t r i a ds the G r a i a i a n d thei r
2
?
kin sfo lk the G org o n s
I f it be so it i s e a sy t o u n d e r
s t and w h y of the th r ee G or g o n s o n e alone was m or t a l
w h os e li f e he r t wo imm o r t a l s i s te rs could n o t save for
the d e a thle ss p a s t and fu t ur e canno t save the e v e r dy ing
presen t N o r w o u l d the r i dd le be h a rd t o r e a d w h a t
i s the o n e e y e th a t the G ra ia i h ad bet w een them a n d
p a ss e d fro m on e t o a n o the r the e y e of daythe su n
,

V ol u s p a

G l fa i nn i n
y
g
g

Gr i mm, D

E dd
22
M p 133
S ee
15
R e inh a r t F uch s
2
A s t o th id e n t i c a t i o n of t h e N or n s an d t h e F a t e s see Gr i mm D M

pp 3 7 6 8 6 ; M M ull e r C hip s vol ii p 1 5 4 I t i s t o b e o bser v e d i n

c nn ex i o n w ith t h e P e rs eu s my th th t a n oth e r o f it s b s cu r e e pi s d es t h e
G org n s h e d tu r nin g th o s e w h o l ook on it into s to n c o rres p ond s w ith
my th s of t h e s un i ts lf I n H i s p ni ol m n c ame ou t o f t wo c a v e s ( thu s
b ein g b o r n o f th e i r mo th e r E r th ) ; t h e g i ant w h gu r d e d th s e c v s
s tr y e d o n e ni g ht an d t h e r i s in g s un tu r n e d h i m into a gre t r o c k c ll ed
K aut j u s t as t h e G org o n s h a d tu r n d A tl s t h e E r th b r r int o t h e
mo unt in th a t b e rs hi s n me a ft e r thi s o th e rs o f t h e e rly c v e me n w r e
s ur p r i s e d b y t h e s un l i g ht n d tu rn e d int o s to n e s t rees pl ant s or b s ts
ol
x ii p 80 ;
( F r i r Rom n P n e in L i fe o f C l um b us in P in k e rt n v

J G M u ll r A m er U rrel i g p
I n C e ntr al A meric a a Q uich e l eg e nd

re la tes h ow t h e nci e nt nim ls w ere p t r i d b y t h e S un ( Br ss eur P o p l

Vuh p
T hu s t h A mer ic n s h ve t h n al ogu e o f t h S c ndin v i n
my th s of g i nt s n d d wa rfs s u r p r i s d b y d yl ig ht o ut s id e th i r hidin g p l c e s
n d tu r n d t o s t o n e s
S uch f nci e s a pp r c onn e ct ed w ith t h f nci e d hu man

e
f
s h p s o r o cks or s t andin g s to n e s w hich p s a nt s s ti ll cc o unt f r s
t ra n sfor me d c r tu r es T hu s in F ij i t wo r o c ks are mal an d fem l d ity
tu r n e d t o s t o n e t d yl i g ht S eem nn V iti p 6 6 se e L i eb re cht in H e id el
b erg J h b 1 86 4 p 2 1 6 T hi s id a i s b r u g ht als o int t h e P ers eu s my th
for t h e r o c ks a b o undin g in S e r iph o s
e t h e i sl nd rs thu s p e t r i d b y t h
G rg n s h d
1

a,

ax

a,

ea

ea

a e

ar

ea

ea

e a

ea

ea e

a,

e,

MY T H S

S UN

or

M O ON

AN D

353

th a t the p a s t gi v e s u p t o the p r e s ent a n d the pr e s ent

t o the fu t ur e
C o mp a r e d w ith the s plen d i d L ord Of Day t h e p a l e L ady
o f N ight t a ke s
in m y th as in n a t ur e a l ow e r and le ss e r
pla c e A m o ng the w i d e legen d a ry g rou p w hi ch a ssoc i a te s
t o gethe r S u n a n d M oo n t w o s t r iking e x a mple s ar e t o b e
s een in the t r a d iti o n s b y w hi c h h a l f c i v ilize d r a c e s o f S ou th
A me r i c a t raced thei r r i s e fro m the c o n d iti o n o f the s a v a ge
t r ibe s a rou n d them The s e legen ds h a v e been a ppe a le d t o
e v en b y m o d e r n wr ite rs a s g r a te fu lly r emembe r e d r e c o rds
o f r e a l h u m a n bene f a c t o rs w h o c a r r ie d l o ng a o t o A me r i c a
g
the cu lt ur e o f the O l d W o r l d B u t h a ppil y fo r hi s t o r i c
t ru th m y thi c t r a d iti o n tell s i ts t a le s w ith ou t e x p ur ga ting
the epi sod e s w hi c h bet r a y it s r e a l c h a r a c te r t o m o r e cr iti c a l
o b s e rv a ti o n
The M uysca s o f the h i gh plai n s o f B o g o t a
w e r e o n c e the y s a i d s a v a ge s w ith ou t a g r i cu lt ur e r eligi o n
o r l a w ; b u t the r e c a me t o them fro m the E a s t an o l d and
be a rd e d ma n B o chi c a the c hil d o f the S u n and he t au ght
them t o till the el ds t o c l o the them s el v e s t o wors hip the
g o ds t o be co me a n a ti o n B u t B o c hi ca h a d a w i cke d
be a u ti fu l w i f e H u y t h aca w h o l ov e d t o s pite a n d s p o il he r
h us b a n d s wor k ; an d s he it w as w h o m a d e the r i v e r sw ell
till the l a n d w a s cov e r e d b y a ood an d b u t a f e w Of man
kin d e sca pe d t o the m ou nt a in t o p s Then B o chi c a was
wr o th a n d he drov e the w i c ke d H u y t h ac a fro m the e a r th
a n d m a d e he r the M o o n fo r the r e h a d been n o m oo n b e
for e ; a n d he c le f t the r o c k s an d m a d e the might y ca t a r a c t
Of Te q u en d a m a t o let the d el u ge ow a w a y Then w hen
the la n d w a s d r y he ga v e t o the r emn a nt o f m a nkin d the
y e a r and it s pe r i o d i c s a c r i c e s a n d the wors hip o f the
S un
N o w the pe o ple w h o t o l d thi s m y th h a d n o t for
g o tten w h a t in d ee d w e might gu e ss w ith ou t thei r help
th a t B o c hi ca w a s hi m s el f Zu h e the S u n a n d H u y t h aca
the S u n s w i f e the M o o n
,

P i ed r hit H i s t Gen de las C on q ui s tas d el N u e vo R ey n o d e Gran d a

A ntwer p 1 688 p ar t i l i b i c 3 ; H umb ol dt Monu mens p l v i J G

M ull er A mer U l i g pp 4 2 3 3 0
1

a,

rre

_ Z

3 54

M YTH O L O G Y

L ike t o

thi s in me a ning th o u gh d i ffe r ent in fa n cy i s the

c i v iliz a ti o n m y th o f the In c a s
Men s ai d thi s Q u i ch u a
legen d w e r e s av a ge s dw elling in c av e s like w il d be a s t s
d e v o ur ing w il d ro o t s and f r u it an d h u m a n e s h cov e r ing
them s elv e s w ith le av e s a n d b a r k o r s kin s o f a nim al s B u t
o u r f a the r the S u n t o o k pit y o n them a n d s ent t wo o f hi s
c hil d r en M a n c o C ca pac and hi s s i s te r w i f e M a m a O ccllo :
the s e ros e fr o m the l a ke o f Titi cac a and ga v e t o the u n cu l
t u re d h o rd e s law a n d g ov e r nment m a rr i a ge and m or a l
o r d e r till a ge a n d a rt a n d sc ien c e
Th us w as fou n d e d the
g r e a t P e ruv i a n empi r e w he r e in a f te r a ge s e a c h In ca an d
hi s s i s te r w i f e co ntin u ing the might y rac e o f M a n co C capac
a n d M a m a O cc llo r ep r e s ente d in ru le a n d r eligi o n n o t o nl y
the rs t e ar thl y r oya l a n c e s t o rs b u t the he av enl y fa the r an d
m o the r o f w h o m w e c an see the s e t o be pe rson i ca t i on s
1
n a mel y the S u n him s el f and hi s s i s te r w i f e the M oo n
Th us the n a ti o n s of B o g o t a and P e ru r emembe r ing thei r
d ays of for me r s a v a ge ry and the assoc ia ti o n of thei r cu lt ur e
w ith thei r n a ti o n a l r eligi o n emb od ie d thei r t r ad iti o n s in
m y th s o f a n of ten r e curr ing t y pe a scr ibin g t o the g ods
them s el v e s in h u m an s h a pe the e s t abli s hment o f thei r
o w n w o rs hip

The in co n s t a nt m oo n gur e s in a g rou p o f c h a ra c te r

i s t i c s t o r ie s Aus t r a li a n legen d s ays th a t M i t y an the M oo n
w as a n a ti v e c at w h o f ell in l o v e w ith so me o n e el s e s w i f e
2
The Kh a s i a s
a n d was dr i v en a w a y t o w a n d e r e v e r s in c e
of the Him a l ay a say th a t the M oo n f al l s m o nthl y in l ov e
w ith hi s m o the r in law w h o th rows as he s in hi s f a c e w hen c e
3
hi s s p o t s Sla vo ni c legen d fo ll ow in g the s ame t r a c k s ays
,

G a r cil as o d e l a V ega C ommen t ari os R ea l e s i c 1 5 P r es c o tt P er u

vol i p 7 ; J G M ull e r pp 3 0 3 8 3 2 839 O th er P er u v i a n v ers i on s s h ow
t h e fund am e nt a l s ol a r id ea i n di ff er e nt my thic s h a p e s ( T r o f C i e z a d e L eon
t r a nd e d b y C R M a rk h am H akl u y t S oc 1 8 6 4 pp xl ix 29 8 3 1 6

W B S te ve n s o n ( R es id e nc e in S A mer ic a vol i p 3 9 4 ) a nd B a s ti a n
vol iii p 3 4 7 ) met w ith a curi ou s p e r v e rs i o n o f t h e my th in
w hich I nca Ma n co C cap a c c o rr upt e d int o I ng a sma n C ocap a c g a v e r i s e t o a
s t ory o f a n E n g li sh ma n gu r in g in t h e mid s t o f P eru v i a n my th o l og y

9 S t n b r id g e
A b o r o f A u s tral i a in Tr E th S oc vol i p 3 0 1
a

3 H
J ou r n A s S oc B en ga l v
Y ul e
ol x iii p 6 2 8
,

D E A TH

REVIVAL

AN D

MOON

OF

355

th a t the M oo n King o f N ight and h us b a n d o f the S u n

fa ithle ss l y l o v e d the M o r ning St a r w he r e fo r e he w a s e l e v
en
th rou gh i n p u ni s h m ent a s w e s e e h i m in the sk y B y a
d i ffe r ent t r a in o f th ou ght the M oo n s pe r i od i c d e a th an d r e
vi va l h as su gge s te d a p a in fu l co nt r a s t t o the d e s tin y o f man
in o n e o f the m os t of ten r epe a te d a n d c h a r a c te r i s ti c m y th s
o f S o u th Afr i c a w hi c h i s th us t o l d a m o ng the N a m a q u a
The M oo n o n c e s ent the H a r e t o Men t o gi v e thi s me ss a ge

L ike as I d ie a n d r i s e t o li f e a ga in s o you a l so s h a ll d ie
b u t the H a r e w ent t o the Men a n d
a n d r i s e t o li f e a g a in

s a i d L ike a s I d ie a n d d o n o t r i s e ag a in so y o u s h a ll a l s o
Then the H a r e r et ur ne d
di e an d n o t r i s e t o li f e a g a in
an d t o l d the M o o n W h a t he h a d do ne a n d the M o o n s t ruc k
a t him w ith a h a t c het a n d s lit h i s lip a s it h a s r em a ine d
e v e r s in c e a n d s o me say the H a r e e d an d i s s till eeing
b u t o the r s s ay he c la w e d a t the M o o n s fa c e and le f t the
sc a rs th a t a re s till t o be s een o n it an d the y a l so s ay th a t
the r e a s o n w h y the N a m a q u a o bj e c t t o e a ting the h a r e (a
p r ej ud i c e w hi c h in fa c t the y s h a r e w ith v e ry d i ffe r ent r a c e s )
2
i s be c a us e he b rou ght t o men thi s e v il me ss a ge It i s re
m a r k a ble th a t a s t o r y s o c l os el y r e s e m bling thi s th a t it i s
d i fcu lt n o t t o su pp os e b o th t o be v e rs i o n s fro m a co mm o n
o r igin a l i s t o l d in the d i s t a nt F ij i I s l a n ds The r e w as a

d i s p u te bet w een t w o g o ds a s t o h o w m an s h o u l d d ie : B a
V u l a ( the M oo n ) c o nten d e d th a t man s h ou l d be like
him s el fd i s appe a r a w hile and then li v e a ga in B a K a la vo
the
a t ) wou l d n o t li s ten t o thi s kin d p ro p o s a l b u t s a i d
B
(
L et man d ie a s a r at d ie s
A n d he p r e v a ile d The d a te s
of the v e rs i o n s s eem t o s h o w th a t the p r e s en c e o f the s e
m y th s a m o ng the H o ttent o t s a n d F ij i an s a t the t w o
o pp o s ite s i d e s o f the gl o be i s a t a n y r a te n o t du e t o
t r a n s mi ss i o n in m od e r n ti m e s
,

M y th p 2 6 9

c
pp 6 9 7 4 ; C J A nd rss on L a k e N g mi
n r d in S A fr ic
p 3 28
Gr out Z ul u l nd p 1 4 8 A b ou sse t n d D u m s p 4 7 1 A s
t o c o nn ex i o n o f t h m oo n w ith t h e h r e c f S k r
n d in M e x ic o
c c nka
S h a gun b o ok v ii c 2 in K in gs b r ou g h vl v ii

3
W i ll i ms F ij i vol i p 20 5 C omp ar e t h e C ar o l in e I sl a nd my t h t h at
1

Sl

H a n u sc h ,

Bl e k R ey
,

s ee

aw .

a,

a a

M YTH O LOG Y

3 56

The r e i s a v e r y el a b o ra te s av a ge n a t ur e m y th Of the
gene r a ti o n o f the Sta rs w hi c h ma y u n q u e s ti o na bly s e rv e a s
a c l u e c o nne c ting the hi s t o ry o f t wo d i s t a nt t r ibe s The
rud e M i n t i ra o f the M a l a y a n P enin su l a e x p r e ss in pl a in
te r m s the belie f in a s o li d rma me n t usu a l in the l o w e r
g r ad e s o f c i viliz a ti o n ; the y s ay the s ky i s a g r e a t pot hel d
o v e r the e a r th b y a cord a n d i f thi s cord b ro ke e v e ry thing
o n e a r th wou l d be crus he d
The M oo n i s a wo m a n an d
the S u n a l so the Sta rs a re the M o o n s c hil dr en a n d the
S u n h a d in o ld time s a s m a n y F e a r ing h o w e v e r th a t
m ankin d c o u l d n o t be a r s o m uc h b r ightne ss a n d he a t the y
a g r ee d e a c h t o d e vour he r c hil dr en ; b u t the M oo n in s te a d
o f e a ting u p he r s t a rs hi d them fro m the S u n s s ight w h o
belie vi ng them a ll d e vour e d a t e u p he r ow n ; n o soo ne r h a d
s h e do ne it th a n the M o o n b r o u ght he r f a mil y o u t Of thei r
hi d ing pl a c e When the S u n s a w them lle d w ith r a ge
s he c h a s e d the M o o n t o kill he r ; the c h a s e h a s l a s te d e v e r
s in c e a n d so m etime s the S u n e v en c o me s ne a r en o u gh t o
bite the M o o n an d th a t i s a n e c lip s e ; the S u n as men ma y
s till s e e d e v o urs hi s St a rs a t d a w n a n d the M oo n hi d e s
he rs all day w hile the S u n i s ne a r an d o nl y b r ing s them
N o w a m o ng
ou t a t night w hen he r p ursu e r i s fa r a w a y
a t r ibe of N or th E a s t In di a the H o o f C h o t a N a gp or e
the m y th r e a ppe a rs o b vi o us ly fro m the s ame sourc e b u t
w ith a v a r ie d en ding ; the S u n c le f t the M o o n in t w a in
for he r d e c eit an d th us ele v
e n a n d g row ing w h o le a g a in
sh e r em a in s
a n d he r d a u ghte rs w ith he r w hi c h a re the
St ars
F ro m s av a ge ry u p t o c i v ili z a ti o n the r e may be t r a c e d in
-

in t h e b eg innin g m en o n ly q uitt ed l i fe on t h e l a s t d ay o f t h e w a nin g moon

a n d r e s u s cit a t e d a s fr om a p e a c e fu l sl e e p w h e n s h e r ea pp ea r e d ; b ut t h e e vi l
s pi r it Eri gi re rs in icted a d e a th fr om w hich th er e i s n o r e v i va l D e Br oss es
H i s t d es N a v
i g au x T err e s A u s tra l e s vol ii p 4 7 9 A ls o in a s on g o f
t h e I ndi a n s o f C a l i fo r ni a it i s s a id th a t e v e n a s t h e m o o n di e s a n d r e tu r ns
t o li fe s o th ey s h a ll b e r e b o r n a ft e r d e a th ; D u o t d e Mo fras in B a s ti a n
erh al t n i s se
p 3 85 see P sy ch ol ogi e p 5 4
Rec h t sv

1
J ou rn I nd Archi p vol i p 2 8 4 ; vol i v p 3 33 ; Ti ckell in J ou rn

e
a
l
a
9
a
A s S oc B n g l vo i x p r t ii p 7 7 ; L t ham D aser E th vol
p 422
,

MY THS

OF

STARS

357

the m y th o l o gy o f the St a rs a cours e o f th ou ght c h ange d

in d ee d in a ppli ca ti o n y et ne v e r b ro ken in it s e v i d ent co n
n e x i o n f r o m rs t t o l a s t
The s a va ge s ee s in d i v i du a l s t ars
as a nim a te being s o r co mbine s s t a r g r ou p s int o li v ing
c ele s ti a l cr e a t ur e s o r limb s o f them o r o bj e c t s co nne c te d
w ith them ; w hile a t the o the r e x t r emit y of the sc a le o f
c i viliz a ti o n the m o d e r n a s t ro n o me r keep s u p jus t suc h
a n c ient f a n c ie s t ur ning them t o a ccou nt in us e fu l surv i v a l
The s a v a ge
a s a me a n s o f m a pping ou t the c ele s ti a l gl o be
n a me s an d s t o r ie s o f s ta r s and co n s tella ti o n s may s eem a t
rs t b u t c hil d i s h a n d p ur p o s ele ss fa n c ie s ; b u t it a l w ays
h appen s in the s t udy o f the l ow e r r a c e s th a t the m or e
me an s w e h a v e o f u n d e rs t a n d ing thei r th ou ght s the m or e
sense a n d r e a so n d o w e n d in them The a b o r igine s o f
Aus t r a li a s ay th a t Y u rre e a n d W a nj e l w ho a re the s t a r s w e
c a ll C a s t or an d P o ll ux p u r su e P urr a the K a ng a r o o ( ou r
C a pella ) and kill him a t the beginn i ng o f the g r e a t he a t
a n d the mi r a ge i s the s m o ke of the r e the y r o a s t him b y
The y say a l so th a t M arpe an K u rrk an d N e i ll o an (A r c t u r us
a n d L y r a ) w e r e the d i scov e r e rs o f the a n t p u p a s a n d the egg s
o f the l o a n bi rd a n d t a u ght the a b o r igine s t o n d the m fo r
food T r a n s l a te d int o the l a ng u a ge o f f a c t the s e s i m ple
m y th s r e c o rd the su mme r pl ac e of the s t a rs in q u e s ti o n
a n d the s e a s o n s o f a n t p u p a s and l o a n egg s w hi c h s e a s o n s
a r e m a r ke d b y the s t a r s w h o a r e c a lle d thei r d i scov e r e rs
N o t le ss t r a n s p a r ent i s the me a ning in the be a u ti fu l A lg o n
q u in m y th of the S u m me r M ake r
In o ld d a ys ete r n a l
w inte r r eigne d u p o n the e a r th till a s p r ightl y little anim a l
c a lle d the F i s he r helpe d b y o the r beas t s hi s fr ien ds b ro ke
an o pening th rou gh the s k
int
o
the
l
ov
el
y
he
v
en
l
n
d
a
a
y
be yo n d let the w a r m w in ds p ou r fo r th an d the su mme r
d e scen d t o e a r th an d o pene d the c a ge s Of the p r i so ne d
bi rds : b u t w hen the dw elle r s in he a v en s a w thei r birds let
l o o s e a n d thei r w a r m g a le s d e sc en d ing the y s t ar t ed in p ur
su it an d s h o o ting thei r a r r o ws a t the F i s he r hit h i m a t
la s t in hi s o n e vu lne r a ble s p o t a t the tip Of hi s t a il ; th us
,

S t a n b r id g in
e

T r

E th

S oc

vo l i pp
.

301 3
-

3 58

M YTHOLOGY

he died fo r the g o od o f the inh a bit ant s o f e a r th a n d be ca me

the c n s tella ti o n th a t be a rs h i s name s o th a t s till a t the
p r o pe r s e a s o n men s e e him ly ing a s he fell t o w a r d the n o r th
o n the pl a in s o f he a v en w ith the f a t a l a rr o w s till s ti c king
in hi s t a il C o mp a r e the s e s a v a ge s t o r ie s w ith O r i o n p ur
su ing the P lei a d s i s te rs w h o t a ke r e fu ge fr o m him in the
a n d the m a i d en s w h o w ept them s el v e s t o d e a th a n d
sea
be ca me the s t a r r y c l us te r of the H y a d e s w h os e r i s ing a n d
s etting bet o kene d r a in : suc h m y thi c cr e a t ur e s might for
s imple s igni c a n c e h a v e been in v ente d b y s av a ge s e v en a s
the s a vage c on s tella ti o n m y th s m ight h ave been m ad e by
a n c ient G r eek s
When w e co n s i d e r th a t the Aus t r ali a n s
w h o c an in v ent suc h m y th s a n d in v ent them w ith suc h
fu lne ss o f me a ning a re s a v a ge s w h o p u t t w o an d o n e t o
gethe r t o m a ke thei r n u me r a l for th r ee w e may j ud ge h ow
d eep in the hi s t o r y o f cu lt ur e th os e co n c epti o n s lie o f
w hi c h the r eli cs a re s till r ep r e s ente d in ou r s t a r m ap s b y
C a s t or an d P o ll ux Arc t urus and Si r i us B o ote s an d O r i o n
the Ar g o an d the C h a r le s s W ain the T o uca n and the
S ou the r n C r o ss Whethe r c i v ilize d o r s a va ge w hethe r
a n c ient o r ne w m a d e a f te r the a n c ient m a nne r suc h n a me s
a r e so li ke in c h a r a c te r th a t a n
f
t
r
ibe
men
might
do
pt
o
a
y
them f r o m an y o the r a s A me r i ca n t r ibe s a re kn ow n t o
r e c ei v e E ur o pe a n n ame s int o th ei r ow n s kie s a n d a s our
co n s tell a ti o n o f the R oy al O a k i s s ai d t o h a v e f o u n d it s
w ay in ne w co pie s o f the o ld Hin du t r e a ti s e s int o the
c o mp a n y o f the Se v en S a ge s an d the o the r an c ient c on st e l
l at i on s o f B r a h m ani c In d i a
S uch fan c ie s are s o fa n c i fu l th a t tw o pe o ple s s el d o m fa ll
o n the same n a me for a co n s te l l a ti o n w hile e v en w ithin
the limit s o f the s ame r a c e te r m s may d i ffe r a lt ogethe r
Th us the s t a r s w hi ch w e ca ll O r i o n s B elt are in N e w
,

A lg ic

S ch ol c r ft
ol
i pp 5 7 6 6 Th s tory o f t h h er o or
Res v
d eit y i n v u l n er b l e l i k A chill e s s v e in on e w e k s p o t r cu rs in t h e t l e s
s c l p a l on e w s v u l n er b l e a n d
o f t h e sl yi n g o f t h e S hinin g M nitu w h s
f t h e w hit
f t h e m i g ht y Kw s i n d w h c o u l d b k ill e d o n ly b y t h e c o n
pin e wou nd i n g t h e vu ln erab l e pl c e o n t h e c r ow n o f hi s h e d (vo l i p 1 5 3
vl ii p
1

o e

e o

M YTH S O F C O N S TE LL A T I O N S

359

Ze a la n d eithe r the E lb ow o f M a u i o r the y fo r m the s te r n

o f the C a n o e o f Ta ma r e re t e
w h o s e a n c h o r dr o ppe d fro m
the p r o w i s the S ou the r n C ross The G r e a t B e a r i s e qu a lly
like a Wa in O r i o n s B elt s e r v e s a s w ell for F r igga s o r
M a ry s Spin d le o r J a co b s St aff Y et so metime s n a t ura l
c o rr e s p o n d en c e s occur The s e v en s i s te r P lei a d e s s eem t o
the Aus t r a li a n s a g rou p o f gi r l s pl ay ing t o a corro b or ee ;
w hile the N o r th A me r i c a n In d i a n s c a ll them the D a n c e rs
an d
the L a pp s the C o mp a n y of V i r gin s
Still m or e
s t r iking i s the co r r e s p o n d en c e bet w een s a v a ge s an d cu lt ur e d
n a ti o n s in fa n cie s o f the b r ight s ta r r y b a n d th a t lie s like a

r oa d a cross the s ky The B a su t os c a ll it the W ay of the

G o ds ; the Oj i s sa y it i s the W ay o f Spi r it s w hi c h

s o u l s g o u p t o he a v en b y
N o r th A me r i c a n t r ibe s kn ow it

as
the Pa th o f the M a s te r of L i f e the P a th o f Spi r it s

the R o a d o f S o u l s w he r e the y t r a v el t o the l an d be yo n d

the g r av e a n d w he r e thei r ca mp re s may be s een bl a zing
as b r ighte r s t a rs
S uc h s av a ge im a gin a ti o n s o f the Milk y

W ay t w ith the L ith u a ni a n m y th o f the R oa d o f the

B i rds a t w h o s e en d the sou l s Of the g ood fa n c ie d a s
itting a w ay a t d e a th li ke bi rds dw ell f r ee an d h app y
Th a t s o u l s dw ell in the G a l a xy w a s a th o u ght fa mili a r t o
the P y th a go r e an s w h o g av e it on thei r m a s te r s w o rd th a t
the s o u l s th a t cr o wd the r e d e sc en d a n d a ppe a r t o men a s
6
dr e a m s a n d t o the M a ni c h aean s w h os e f a n cy t r a n sf e rr e d

p ur e sou l s t o thi s co l u mn o f light w hen c e the y cou l d

,

T yl r

Z eal nd p 3 6 3

S tan b r id ge l c C h rl e voi x vol vi p 1 4 8 ; Leems L ap l nd in P in k er

t on v
ol
i p 4 1 1 Th e n ame o f t h e B r ccu rrin g in N r th A m er ic in
c o nn x i o n with t h e s t rs o f t h e Gr ea t an d L ittl e B a r ( C h arl e vo i x l c ;
C o tto n M a th e r in S ch ool c r ft Tr i b e s vol i p 2 84 ) h as l n g b een r em rk e d
on (Gog ue t v
ol i p 2 6 2 ; v
ol
ii p 3 6 6 b ut w ith r e fer nc e t o Gr een l nd
se e C r a n z p
S e O b s r v a ti n s on t h e hi s t o ry o f t h e A ry n n m e in
M x M u ll er L e ctu r e s 2 md s er i e s p 3 6 1
3
C s al i s p 1 9 6 ; W it z vl ii p 1 9 1
L n g s E x p vol i p 2 88 S ch o l c ra ft p ar t i p 2 7 2 Le J eun in Rel
d es Jes d e l N o u v ell e F r nc
1 6 3 4 p 1 8 ; Losk i el p a r t i p 3 5 ; J G
M ull e r p 6 3
H n u sc h pp 2 7 2 4 0 7 4 1 5
P o rph yr d e A nt r o N ymph ar u m 2 8 ; M ob d e S omn S eip i 1
1

N ew

ea

e,

ac r

M YTH OLOG Y

360

c o me d o w n
suc h i d e a s

e a r th

ga in r et ur n I t i s a fall fr o m

f t h e G a l a xy t o the Si a me s e
R oa d o f the

\Vh i t o E leph a nt
R o a d O f S a nti a g o or
t h e Sp a ni a r ds

the T u r ki s h l i lg r i ms l i oa d and a s till l o w e r fa ll t o the

S t r a w R oa d o f the S yr i a n the P e r s i an an d t h e T ur k
w h o th us c o mp a r e it w ith thei r l a ne s li tte r e d w ith the
m o r s el s o f s t r a w th a t fall fr o m the net s the y c a r r y it in
B u t o f all the fan c ie s w hi c h h a v e a tt a c he d them s el v e s t o
the c ele s ti a l r oa d w e a t h o me h a v e the q u a inte s t P a ss ing
a l o ng the s h o r t a n d c r o o ke d w a
y fro m St P a u l s t o C a nn o n
S t r eet o n e think s t o h o w s m a ll a r emn a nt h as s h ru nk the
n a me o f the g r e a t s t r eet o f the W aet li n g as w hi ch in o ld
d a ys ran fro m D o v e r th r o u gh L o n do n int o W a le s B u t
the r e i s a Wa tling St r eet in he a v en a s w ell a s on e ar th
o n c e f a mili a r t o E ngli s hmen th ou gh n ow a lm os t for g o tten
e v en in l oc a l d i a le c t C h a uc e r th us s pe a k s o f it in hi s

H ous e O f F a1n e :
L th r (q u d h ) c s t u p t hi n
y
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and a

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S e y on d i r, l o , t h e Gal a x e ,
Th e w h i ch e me n c l c pe Th e

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i s w hi t an d s o me p f y
al l i n i t h an W a t l y n e s t r e t e
g

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T ur ning fro m the m y th o l o g y o f the h e a v enly b od ie s a

gl an c e ov e r o the r d i s t r i c t s o f n a t u r e m y th w ill a ffo r d fr e s h
e v i d en c e th a t such legen d h a s it s e a r l y h o me w ithin the
p r e cin c t s o f s a va ge cu lt ur e It i s th us w ith the m y th s of
the Win ds The N e w Ze a l an d e rs tell h ow M a u i c a n r i d e
u p o n the o the r Win ds o r imp r i so n them in thei r cav e s b u t
he c ann o t ca t ch the We s t w in d n or n d it s c a v e t o r o ll a
,

M anich ee vol ii p 5 1 3

B s ti n O s tl A s i en vl iii p 3 4 1 ; C h r oni q u e d e T b ar i t r
p 2 4 ; Gr imm D M p 3 3 0 & c
D b
3
C h auc er H ou s e o f F me ii 4 2 7 W ith r e fe r e nc e t o q u es ti on s f A ry n

O r i g in es
y t h o l gy i ll u s tr t e d b y t h e s a va g e gal a xy my th s see P icte t

2
p rt ii p 5 8 & c M r J J er emi h in fo rm s m th t W tl in g S t re t i s
s ti l l ( 1 8 7 1 ) n m f r t h e M i lky W y in S c o tl nd ;
ls o hi s p p er n
Th e
W els h n mes o f t h e M i lky W y P hi l ol gi c l
N o v 1 7 1 87 1
c rr s p ndin g n me L o nd on R oa d i s u s e d in S u ff lk
1

B ea u s ob re ,

H ist

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se e

s t o ne a g ain s t the m ou th and the r e fo r e it p r e v a il s y et

fro m time t o tim e he all b u t ov e r t ake s it a n d hi d ing in
1
it s ca v e for s helte r it d ie s a w ay S uc h i s the f an cy in
c l a ss i c p o et ry of A e o l us h o l d ing the p r i s o ne d w in ds in hi s
du nge o n c a v e :
H i c v a s t o rex A eo l u s a n t r o
Lu c ta n t e s v e n t o s t e mpest a t e sq u e s o n o r a s
I m p e r i o p r e m i t ac i n cl i s e t c a r c e r e f rae n at 2
,

The m y th o f the F our Win ds i s d e v el o pe d a m o ng the

n a ti v e races o f A me r i ca w ith a r ange an d v ig o ur an d be a u t y
sc a rc el y r i v a lle d el s e w he r e in the m y th o l o g y o f the wor l d
E pi sod e s bel o nging t o thi s b r a n c h Of R e d In d i a n f o lkl or e

a re co lle c te d in S c h oo l c r a f t s
A lgi c R e s e arc he s an d then c e
r en d e r e d w ith a d m i r a ble t a s te and sy mp a th y th ou gh u n
f o r t u n a tel y n o t w ith p r o pe r t r u th t o the o r igin a l s in L o ng

f ell o w s m a s te r pie c e the S o ng Of Hi a w a th a

The We s t
Win d M u dj ek e e w i s i s Ka b e y u n F a the r o f the Win ds
Wa b u n i s the E a s t Win d S h a w on da se e the S o u th Win d
K a b i b on okk a the N o r th Win d
B u t the r e i s a n o the r
might y w in d n o t bel o nging t o the m ys ti c q u a te r ni o n
M an a b o zh o the No r th We s t Win d the r e for e d e scr ibe d w ith
m y thi c app r o p r i a tene ss as the u nla wfu l c hil d o f K ab e y un
The e rc e N o r th Win d K a bi b n okk a in v ain s t r i v e s t o
forc e Sh i n ge b i s the linge r in g d i v e r bi r d fr o m hi s w a r m
an d h a pp y w inte r l od ge ; a n d the l a z y S ou th Win d
Sh a
w on d ase e s igh s fo r the m a i d en o f the p r a i r ie w ith he r su nn y
h a i r till it t u r n s t o s ilv e ry w hite a n d as he b r e a the s u p o n
3
he r the p r a i r ie d a n d eli o n h as v a ni s he d M an n a t ur a lly
d i v i d e s hi s h o r iz o n int o f o ur q u a r te r s be for e an d b ehin d
r ight an d le f t an d th us co me s t o f a n cy the wor l d a s q u a r e
a n d t o r e f e r the w in ds t o it s four cor ne rs
D r B r int o n in

h i s M y th s of the N e w W o r l d h a s w ell t r a c e d fr o m the s e

i de as t h e g row th o f legen d a f te r legen d a m o ng the n a ti v e

N ew

P o l

te
Z ea l a nd p 1 4 4 see E ll i s
ol
y n Res v
V i rg A e n e id i 5 6 ; H o mer O d y ss x 1

3
oo
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S ch l c r ft A l g ic Res vol i p 2 0 0 ; vl ii pp 1 2 2
T r i b es p ar t iii p 3 2 4
1

Ya

417

21 4 ;

I ndi a n

3 62

M YTH OLOG Y

r a c e s Of A me r i ca w he r e f o ur b r o the r he r o e s o r m y thi c a n
c e s t o rs o r d i v ine p a t r o n s o f m a nkin d p r o v e o n c l os e r v ie w
l
t o be in pe rso n a l s h ape the F o ur Win ds
The V e d i c h y mn s t o the M a ru t s the St or m Win ds w h o
te a r a su n d e r the fo r e s t king s a n d m ake the rock s s hi v e r
and a ssu me ag a in a f t e r thei r wo nt the for m o f ne w b o r n
b abe s the m y thi c f e a t s o f the c hil d He r me s in the H o me r i c
h y mn the legen d a ry bi r th o f B or e as fro m A st rai o s an d Eds
St a rry He av en an d D a w n wor k ou t o n Ary a n g rou n d
m y thi c co n c epti o n s th a t R e d In d i a n t ale telle rs cou l d
?
u n d e rs t a n d an d r i va l
The pe a s a nt w h o keep s u p in re
s i d e t a lk the mem ory o f the Wil d H u nt s m an W o dej age r
the G r a n d V ene ur of F on t ai n e b le au He r ne the H u nte r o f
Win dsor F o r e s t h a s a lm os t l os t th e s igni ca n c e of thi s
g ran d O ld s t or m m y th B y me r e forc e o f t rad iti o n the

n ame of the Wi s h o r W us h h ou n ds o f the Wil d

H u nt s m an h as been p r e s e rv e d th r ou gh the w e s t o f E ngl a n d ;
the words m us t for a ge s p a s t h a v e l os t thei r me aning a m o ng
the cou nt ry fo lk th ou gh w e may plainly r e co gnize in them

W od en s a n c ient w ell kn ow n n a me o ld G e r m an W u n sc h
As of O l d the He av en Go d dr i v e s the c l ouds be for e him in
ra ging tempe s t across the s ky w hile s a f e w ithin t h e co tt age
w a ll s the t ale telle r u n w ittingl y d e scr ibe s in pe rso n al
?
legen dary s h ape thi s s ame Wil d H u nt o f the St o rm
It h as m a n y a time occurr e d t o the s av age p o et o r phil o
so phe r t o r e alize the th u n d e r o r it s c aus e in m y th s o f a
Th u n d e r bi rd O f thi s wo n dro us cr e a t ur e N o r th A me r i ca n
legen d h as m uch t o tell He i s the bi rd o f the g r e a t
M anit u as the e a gle i s o f Ze us o r he i s e v en the g r e a t
M a nit u him s el f in ca r n a te The Ass inib o in s n o t o nl y kn ow
,

'

Br int on M y th s o f t h e N e w W orl d ch iii

2
R i g V e d a t r b y Max M ull er v
i ( H y mn s t o M ar uts ) ; W el ck er
ol
Gri ech GOtt erl v
M y th o l o gy o f A rya n N a ti o n s vol ii
ol iii p 6 7
C ox
ch v

3
Gri mm D M pp 1 26 5 9 9 89 4 H unt Po p Rom l s t s er p x i x

B a r in g G ou l d B oo k o f W e rewol ve s p 1 0 1 ; s ee M y th s o f t h e M idd l e
A ges p 2 5 ; W u t t k e D eut s ch e V lks b ergl au b e pp 1 3 2 36 ; M onni e r
Tr a ditio n s pp 7 5 & c 7 4 1 7 4 7
1

M YTH S

THU NDER

0 F

3 63

hi s e x i s ten c e b u t h a v e e v en s een him an d in the fa r

n o r th the s t o ry i s t o l d h o w he cr e a te d the w o r l d The
A ht s of V a n c o uv e r s I s l a n d t a lk o f Too t o oc h the might y
bi rd dw elling a l of t an d fa r a w a y the ap o f w h os e w ing s
m a ke s the th u n d e r ( To o t a h ) an d hi s t o ng u e i s the f o r ke d
lightning The r e w e r e o n c e f o ur o f the s e birds in the la n d
a n d the y f e d o n w h a le s ; b u t the g r e a t d eit y Q u a w t e a h t
ente r ing int o a w h a le enti c e d on e th u n d e r bi rd a f te r a n
o the r t o S w oO
p d o w n a n d s eize him w ith it s t a l o n s w hen
pl u nging t o the b o tt o m o f the sea he d r o w ne d it Th us
th r ee o f the m pe r i s he d b u t the l a s t on e s p r e a d hi s w ing s
a n d e w t o the d i s t a nt height w he r e he h a s s in c e r em a ine d
The m e a ning o f the s t o ry may p r o b a bly be th a t th u n d e r
s t o r m s co me e s pe c i a ll y fr o m on e o f the f o ur q u a r te rs o f
he a v en O f suc h m y th s pe r h a p s t h a t t o l d a m o ng the
D a c o t as i s the q u a inte s t : Th u n d e r i s a l a r ge bi rd the y
s ay
hen c e i t s v el oc it y The o l d bi rd begin s the th u n d e r ;
it s ru mbling n o i s e i s ca us e d b y an i m men s e q u a ntit y o f
you ng bi rds o r th u n d e rs w h o c o ntin u e it hen c e the l o ng
du r a ti o n o f the pe a l s The In d i a n s ays it i s the y o u ng
bi rds o r th u n d e rs th a t do the mi schie f ; the y a re like the
y o u ng mi sc hie v o us men w h o w ill n o t li s ten t o g ood cou n s el
The O l d th u n d e r o r bi r d i s w i s e an d g o o d an d d o e s n o t
kill a n y b o dy n o r do an y kin d o f mi schie f D e sc en d ing
s o u th w a rd t o C ent r a l A me r i c a the r e i s fou n d menti o n
o f the bi rd V o c the me ss enge r o f H u ra k a n
the Tempe s t
g od ( w h os e n a me h as been a do pte d in E ur o pe a n l ang u a ge s
as h u m ca n o ou r ag a n h u rr i c n e) o f the L ightning an d
Of the Th u n d e r
S O a m o ng C a r ib s B r a zili a n s He rv e y
I s l a n d e rs an d K ar en s B e c h u an a s an d B a su t os w e n d
legen ds o f a a pping o r a s hing Th u n d e r bi rd w hi c h
s ee m s impl y t o t r a n s l a te int o m y th the th ou ght of th u n d e r
a n d lightn in g d e sc en d ing f r o m the u ppe r r egi o n s o f the
a i r the h o me o f the e a gle an d the vu lt ur e
of

R e i s e

Pr M v W i ed
2 23 ; S i r A l e x M c k e n z i e
L i f (V nc ou ve r s
pp
1

ax

in N A vol i pp 4 4 6 4 5 5 ; vol ii pp 1 5 2
V o ya g e s p c x v ii

S p r oa t S c e n e s o f S a v a g e

1 7 7 2 1 3 ; I r v in g
A s t or i vol ii h xx ii Le

a,

M YTHOLOG Y

3 64

The He av en g o d dw ell s in the r egi o n s o f the sky and

th us w h a t f o r m c ou l d be fitte r fo r him a n d for hi s me ss enge r s
th a n the likene ss o f a bi rd ? B u t t o c aus e the g rou n d t o
q u ake bene a th o u r f eet a being o f q u ite d i ff e r ent n a t ur e i s
nee d e d a n d a cc o rd ingly the O fc e of su pp o r ting the so li d
e a r th i s giv en in va r i ous cou nt r ie s t o v a r i ous m o n s t rous
cr e a t u r e s h u m a n or a nim a l in c h a r a c te r w h o m ake thei r
Ofc e m ani f e s t fro m time t o time b y a s h a ke giv en in
negligen c e o r s p o r t o r a nge r t o thei r b urd en Whe r e ve r
e a r th q u ake s a re f elt w e are likely t o n d a v e rs i o n of the
g r e a t m y th o f the E a r th be a r e r Th us in P o ly ne s i a the
T o nga n s s a y th a t M au i u ph o l ds the e a r th on hi s p r o s t r a te
b ody an d w hen he t r ie s t o t ur n ov e r int o an e as ie r p os t ur e
the r e i s a n e a r th qu ake an d the pe o ple s h ou t a n d be a t the
g rou n d w ith s ti ck s t o m a ke him lie s till A n o the r v e rs i o n
for m s p a r t of the in te r e s t i ng m y th l a tel y menti o ne d w hi c h
c o nne c t s the u n d e r wor l d w hithe r the s u n d e sc en ds a t night
w ith the r egi o n o f su bte r r a ne a n vo l c a ni c r e an d Of e a r th
q u a ke The O ld M au i lay b y hi s r e in the d e a d l an d o f
B u l o t u w hen hi s g r a n dso n M a u i c a me d o w n b y the c av e r n
ent ra n c e ; the you ng M au i c a rr ie d O ff the r e the y wr e s tle d
the O l d M a u i w as ov e rc o me an d h a s la i n the r e b ru i s e d a n d
drowsy e v e r s in c e u n d e r ne a th the e ar th w hi c h q u a ke s
w hen he t u r n s ov e r in hi s s leep
In C elebe s w e he a r o f
the w o r l d su pp or ting H o g w h o ru b s h i m s el f a ga in s t a t r ee
a n d then the r e i s an e a r th q u a ke
A m o ng the In di an s o f
N or th A me r i ca it i s s a i d th a t e a r th q u a ke s c o me o f the
m o v ement of the g r e a t wor l d
be a r ing T or t o i s e N ow thi s
T or to i s e s eem s b u t a m y thi c pi c t ur e o f the E a r th it s el f
-

J un e O p cit 1 6 3 4 p 2 6 ; S ch oo l c r a ft
Tr i b es p r t iii p 2 3 3

A lg ic R s vl ii pp 1 1 4 6 1 9 9 ; C tl i n vl ii p 1 6 4 ; Br ss eu r P p l

V uh
p 7 1 n d I nd e x H u k n J G M ull e r Am er U rrel pp 2 2 2
27 1
E l l i s Poly n Res vl ii p 4 1 7 J no W i ll i ams M i ss i o n ary E nt er
p r i s e p 9 3 ; M s n l o p 2 1 7 ; M o ffa t S outh A fric p 3 3 8 ; C as al i s

B s u t os p 2 6 6 C ll w y R l i g i n O f A m z ul u p 1 1 9

M ar in r T n ga I s vl ii p 1 2 0 ; S S F rm r To ng p 1 3 5 ;
S chi rr en pp 3 5
7

J ou r n I nd Arch i p vol ii p 83 7
e

ra

a o

a,

I ndi a n

a,

M YTH S

OF

A R TH Q U A KE

365

th us the s t ory o nly e x p r e ss e s in m y thi c ph ras e the v e ry

fa c t th a t the e a r th q u a ke s ; the me a ning i s b u t o n e d eg r ee
le ss d i s tin c t th a n a m o ng the C a r ib s w h o say w hen the r e i s
a n e a r th q u a ke th a t thei r M o the r E a r th i s d a n c ing
A m o ng
the highe r r a c e s of the co ntinent suc h i d e as r em ain little
c h a nge d in n a t ur e ; the Tl a sc a l a n s s ai d th a t the ti r e d wor l d
su pp or ting d eitie s s hi f ting thei r b urd en t o a ne w r el ay
2
c aus e d the e a r th q u a ke ; the C hib c h a s sa i d it w a s thei r g od
?
C h i b ch acu m m o vi ng the e ar th fro m s h ou l d e r t o s h ou l d e r
The m y th r a nge s i n As i a th rou gh a s w i d e a s t r et c h o f
cu lt ur e
The K am c h a d al s tell o f T u il the E a r th q u a ke
g od wh o s le d ge s bel o w g rou n d an d w hen hi s do g s h a ke s
Ta Y w a the
o ff e as or s n ow the r e i s a n e ar th q u a ke ;
so l ar he ro of t h e K a r en s s e t Shie o o bene a th the e ar th

t o c a r r y it a n d the r e i s an e ar t h q u ak e w h en he m ov e s
The wo r l d be a r ing eleph ant s o f the H i n dus the wor l d
su pp o r ting fr o g o f the M o ng o l L a m a s the w o r l d b u ll of the
M os lem s the gig a nti c O mo ph ore o f the M a ni c h ae a n cos m o
l o gy are a ll cr e a t ur e s w h o c a rry the e a r th on thei r b a ck s or
6
he ads an d s h a ke it w hen the y s t r et c h o r s hi f t Th us in
E uro pe a n m y th o l o gy the S c a n di n av i an L o ki s t r appe d dow n
w ith th o ng s of i ro n in hi s su bte rr a ne a n c av e r n wr ithe s
w hen the o v e r h anging s e r pent dro p s v en o m o n him ; or
P ro methe us s t ru ggle s bene a th the e a r th t o b r e a k h i s b o n ds ;
or
the L etti s h D re b ku ls or P os ei do n the E a r th s h a ke r
7
m a ke s the g rou n d roc k bene a th men s f eet
F ro m
th orou gh m y th s o f im a gin a ti o n suc h as m os t o f the s e it
may be so metime s p oss ible t o d i s ting u i s h phil oso phi c m y th s
l ike them in for m b u t w hi c h a ppe a r t o be a ttempt s a t
an d

J G M u ll er Am e r U r eli g pp 6 1 1 22

3
Br ss eu r M e x i q u e vo l i ii p 4 8 2

F ouch e t P l u r l ity f R a c s p 2
S t ell er K mt s ch tk a p 2 6 7

M s o n K ar e n s
p 1 82

B ell Tr in A s i in P in k er t on vol v ii p 3 69 ; B a s ti an O es tl A s i en
v
ol ii p 1 68
L n e T h ou s and an d on e N i g h t s vol i p 2 1 s e L ath m

D es et E th vol
p 1 7 1 B eau sob re M a nichee vol i p 2 4 3
7 E dd a
D M p 7 7 7 &c
Gy lfag i nn i n g 5 0 ; Gr i mm
1

a,

M YTH O LOG Y

3 66

s e r i o us e x pl a n a ti o n w ith o u t e v en a met a ph or The J a p a ne s e

think th a t e a r th q uake s are c a us e d by h u ge w h ale s cr eeping
u n d e r g r o u n d h av ing been p r o b abl y le d t o thi s i d e a b y
n d ing the foss il b o ne s w hi c h s eem the r em ain s o f suc h
su bte rr a ne a n m o n s te rs j us t as w e kn ow th a t the Sibe r i an s
w h o n d in the g r o u n d the m amm o th b o ne s a n d t us k s
a ccou nt fo r them a s bel o nging t o h u ge b urrow ing be a s t s
and b y f o rc e o f thi s belie f h a v e b r o u ght them s el v e s t o think
the y c a n s o m etime s s ee the e a r th he av e a n d s ink a s the
m o n s te rs cr a w l bel o w Th us in in v e s tiga ting the e a r th
q u ake m y th s o f the w o r l d it a ppe a rs th a t t wo p roc e ss e s
the t r an s la ti on int o m y thi c la ng u a ge o f the phen o men o n
it s el f a n d the crud e scienti c the ory t o accou nt for it b y a
r e a l m ov ing a nim a l u n d e r g rou n d may r e su lt in legen ds o f
?
v e ry s t r iking s imil a r it y
In th us surv e y ing the m y thi c wo n d e rs o f he av en an d
e a r th su n m o o n an d s ta rs w in d th u n d e r an d e ar th q u a ke
it i s p oss ible t o s e t ou t in in v e s tiga ti o n u n d e r co n d iti o n s o f
a c t u a l c e r t a int y
S o l o ng a s suc h be i ng s a s He a v en o r S u n
a re c o n sc i ous l y t a lke d o f in m y thi c l ang ua ge the me a ning
Of thei r legen ds i s o pen t o n o q u e s ti o n an d the a c ti o n s
But
a scr ibe d t o them w ill as a ru le be n a t ur a l and a pp os ite
w hen the phen o men a o f n a t ur e t ake a m or e a nth r o p o m or phi c
for m a n d be c o me i d enti e d w i th pe r son a l g ods an d he ro e s
a n d w hen in a f te r time s the s e be ing s l os ing thei r rs t c on
be co me c ent r e s rou n d w hi c h o a ting
sc i ou sn e s s o f or igin
fa n c ie s c l us te r then thei r s en s e be co me s O b scur e an d c o r
ru pt an d the co n s i s ten cy of thei r e a r lie r c h a r a c te r m us t n o
l onge r be d em a n d e d In f a c t the u n r e a s o n a ble e x pe c t a ti o n
o f suc h co n s i s ten cy in n a t u r e m y th s a f te r the y h a v e p a ss e d
int o w h a t m ay be ca lle d thei r he ro i c s t age i s on e of the
m y th o l o gi s t s m os t d a m a ging e rrors The p r e s ent e xami
n a ti o n o f n a t ur e m y th s h as m os tl y t a ken them in thei r
p r imiti v e an d u nmi s t a k a ble co n d iti o n an d h a s o nl y been
in so me d eg r ee e x ten d e d t o in c l ud e c l os el y corr e s p o n d ing
.

'

K a emp fer
in E arly H i s t
1

,
.

J a p an
of

in P in k er to n vol vii p
M ank ind p 31 5

6 84 ;

se e

mammot h my th s
o

M YT H S

E A R TH Q U AK E

0 F

3 67

legen ds in a le ss e a s il y inte r p r et a ble s t a t e It h as la in

b e yo n d m y sc o pe t o ente r int o an y sys tem a ti c d i scuss i o n o f
the v ie ws o f G r imm G ro te M ax M ulle r K u hn S chi rr en
E v en
C ox B r e a l D ase n t Kell y a n d o the r m y th o l o gi s t s
t h e o u tli n e s he r e s ket c he d o u t h a v e been p ur p os el y le f t
w ith ou t lling in surrou n d ing d et a il w hi c h might c o n fus e
thei r s h ape a lth ou gh thi s s t r i c tne ss h as caus e d the negle c t
o f m a n y a tempting hin t t o wor k o u t epi sod e a f te r epi sod e
b y t r ac ing thei r r el a ti o n t o the m y th s o f fa r off time s an d
la n d s It h as r a the r been m y o bj e c t t o b r ing p ro minentl y
int o v ie w the n a t ur e m y th o l o g y of the l ow e r r a c e s th a t thei r
c le a r an d fr e s h m y thi c co n c epti o n s may s e rv e a s a b a s i s in
s t udy ing the n a t ur e m y th s Of the w o r l d a t l a r ge
The
e v i d en c e an d inte r p r et a ti o n he r e b rou ght forw a rd impe rf e c t
a s the y a r e s eem t o cou nten a n c e a s t r o n
g O pini o n a s t o the
hi s t o r i ca l d e v el o pment of legen ds w hi c h d e scr ibe in pe rs o n a l
S h ape the li f e o f n a t ur e The s t ate o f min d t o w hi c h suc h
im agin a ti v e c ti o n s bel o ng i s fo u n d in fu ll v ig our in the
s a v a ge c o n di ti o n o f m a nkin d i t s g r o w th an d inhe r it a n c e
co ntin u e int o the highe r cu lt ur e o f b a r b a rous or h a l f c i v i
li z e d n a ti o n s a n d at l a s t in the c i v ilize d wor l d it s e ffe c t s
p ass m or e an d m o r e fro m r e a lize d belie f int o fan ci fu l
a ffe c te d a n d e v en a r ti c i a l p o et ry
.

C H AP TE R X

M Y T H 0 L 0 G Y (con ti nu ed )

P hi l os ophic al M y th s in fer enc es b e c o me p s eud o l is tory G e ol og ic l M y th s

Eect o f d ctrin e o f M ira c l es on M y thol ogyM gn etic M ounta in
M y th s o f rel ti o n of A p es t o Men b y d e v el o pment o r d egen er ti on
E thn ol ogica l i mp or t o f my th s o f A pe men Men w ith tai ls Men o f
t h e w oo d s
M y th s O f E rr or P e r v ers i on and E x aggera ti on s tor i es o f
G i nt s D warfs a n d M o n s t r ou s T r i b e s o f men Fa nci fu l e x pl an a tory
Myt h s M y th s a tta ch e d t o l eg e nd a ry or hi s t or ic l P e rs on a ge sEty mo
l og ic l M y th s o n n ames o f p l c e s n d p rs on s E p n y mic M y th s on
n me s o f tr i b s n tio n s c ount r i e s & c ; th ei r e thn ol gic l i mpor t
P r g m tic M y th s b y r e l iz a tio n o f met ph ors an d id ea s A ll eg ory
B e s t Fa b l e C o nc l us i on
:

A L T H O U GH the a ttempt t o r e duc e t o ru le a n d sys tem t h e

w h o le do m ai n o f m y th o l o g y wou l d as y et be r a s h an d p r e
m a t ur e y et the pie c eme a l in v a s i o n O f on e m y thi c p rov in c e
af te r a n o the r p rov e s f e as ible an d p ro t able H av ing d i s
cuss e d the the ory o f n a t ur e m y ths it i s wor th w hile t o ga in
in o the r di r e c ti o n s glim p s e s o f the crud e and c hil d li ke
th ou ght O f m ankin d n o t a rra nge d in ab s t r a c t doc t rine s
b u t emb o die d by m y thi c fan cy W e s h a ll n d the r e su lt in
m a ss e s o f legen ds fu ll o f inte r e s t a s be a r ing on the e a r l y
hi s t ory o f o pin i o n an d w hi ch m ay be r ou ghly c l a ss i e d
u n d e r the fo ll ow ing he adi n g s : m y th s phil oso phi ca l o r e x
l
a
n a t ory ; m y th s b a s e d o n r e a l d e scr ipti o n s mi sun d e rs t ood
p
e x agge r ate d o r pe rv e r te d ; m y th s a tt r ib u ting in f e rr e d e v ent s
t o legen d a ry o r hi s t o r i ca l pe rs o n a ge s ; m y th s ba s e d on r e a li
z a t i on o f f a n c i fu l met a ph or ; a n d m y th s m a d e o r a d a pte d t o
co n v e y m or a l or soc i a l or p o li ti c a l in s t ruc ti o n
M an s crav ing t o kn ow t h e caus e s a t wor k in e a ch e v ent
he w itne ss e s the r e a so n s w h y e a c h s t a t e o f thing s h e s u r
,

3 68

I N F ER EN CE M Y T H S

3 69

v e ys i s suc h a s it i s a n d n o o the r i s n o p r oduc t o f high

c i v iliz a ti o n b u t a c h a r a c te r i s ti c o f hi s r a c e d o w n t o it s
l ow e s t s ta ge s A m o ng r ud e s a v a ge s it i s a l r e a dy a n intel
le c t u a l a ppetite w h os e s a ti sfa c ti o n cl a im s m a n y o f the mo
ment s n o t eng r o ss e d b y w a r or s p or t food o r s leep E v en
t o the B o t ocud o o r Aus t r a li a n sc ient i c S pe cu l a ti o n h as it s
ge r m in a c t u a l e x pe r ien c e : he h as le a r nt t o do d e nite a c t s
th a t d e nite r e su lt s may fo ll ow t o s e e o the r a c t s d o ne an d
thei r r e su lt s f o ll o w ing in cou r s e t o m a ke in fe r en c e fro m the
r e su lt b a c k t o the p r e v i o us a c ti o n a n d t o n d h i s in f e r en c e
v e r i e d in f a c t When o n e d ay he h a s s een a d ee r or a
k a nga r oo le a v e foo tp r int s in the s o f t g rou n d an d the ne x t
day he h a s f o u n d ne w fo o tp r int s an d in f e rr e d th a t suc h a n
the
t
r
a nim a l m a d e them
an d h a s f o ll o w e d
a c k an d
p
u
kille d the g a me then he kn ows th a t he h as r e co n s t ruc te d a
hi s t o r y O f p a s t e v ent s b y in fe r en c e f r o m thei r r e su lt s B u t
in the e a r l y s tage s of kn o w le d ge the con fus i o n i s e x t r eme
bet w een a c t u a l t ra d iti o n of e v ent s an d i d e a l r e c on s t ruc ti o n
T o thi s day the r e g o a b ou t the wor l d en d le ss
o f them
s t o r ie s t o l d a s m a tte r o f kn ow n r e a lit y b u t w hi c h a cr iti ca l
e xa min a ti o n s h ows t o be me r e in f e r en c e s of ten u tte r l y illu
s o r y o ne s fro m f a c t s w hi c h h av e s tim u l a te d the in v enti o n o f
s o me cu r i ous en q u i r e r Th us a w r ite r in the A si a t i ck R e
s e a rc he s a t the en d o f the 1 8 th c ent u r y r el a te s the fo ll o w ing
a ccou nt o f the A n d a m a n i s l a n d e rs as a hi s t or i c a l f a c t o f

w hi c h he h a d been in for me d : Sh o r tl y a f te r the P or t u

g u e s e h a d d i sc o v e r e d the p a ss a ge t o In d i a r o u n d the C a pe
o f G ood H o pe o n e o f thei r s hip s o n b o a r d of w hi c h w e r e
a n u mbe r o f M o z a mbi q u e neg r o e s w as l os t on the A n d a m a n
i s la n ds w hi ch w e r e till then u ninh a bite d The bla c k s re
m aine d in the i s la n d a n d s ettle d it : the E ur o pe a n s m a d e a
s m a ll s h a ll o p in w hi c h the y s a ile d t o P eg u
M a n y r e a d e rs
m us t h a v e h a d thei r inte r e s t e xc ite d b y thi s cur i o us s t o r y
b u t a t the rs t t o uch o f fa c t it d i ss o l v e s int o a phil o so phi c
m y th m a d e b y the e a sy t r a n s iti o n fro m w h a t might h a v e
been t o w h a t w as S o fa r f r o m the i s l an ds h av ing been
u ninh abite d a t the time o f Va sc o d e G a m a s v o y a ge thei r
,

370

M YTHO LO G Y

p o p u l a ti o n o f n a ke d bl a ck s w ith fr izzle d h a i r h a d been d e

scr ibe d s i x h u n dr e d y e a rs e a r lie r a n d the s t o r y w hi c h
s o u n d e d r e a s o n a ble t o pe o ple p u zzle d b y the a ppe a r a n c e o f
a bl a c k p o p u l a ti o n in the A n d a m a n i s l a n ds
i s o f c o urs e
r ep ud i a te d b y ethn o l o gi s t s a w a r e of the w i d e d i s t r ib u ti o n
o f the neg ro i d P a p u a n s r e a ll y s o d i s tin c t fro m a n
y rac e o f
Afr i ca n neg r o e s N o t l o ng s in c e I met w ith a v e ry pe rf e c t
m y th o f thi s kin d In a b ri ck e ld ne ar L o n do n the r e h ad
been fou n d a n u mbe r o f foss il eleph a nt b o ne s a n d soo n
a f te rw a rds a s t ory w as in c i rcu l a ti o n in the neighb our h ood

s o me w h a t in thi s s h a pe : A f e w y e a rs ag o o ne o f W o mb
w ell s c a r a v an s w as he r e a n eleph a nt d ie d a n d the y b ur ie d
him in the el d an d n ow the sc ienti c gentlemen h av e
f o u n d hi s b o ne s a n d think the y h a v e g o t a p r ae Ada mite
eleph ant It s eeme d a lm os t cru el t o s p o il thi s ingeni o us
m y th by p o inting ou t th a t suc h a p r ize a s a li v ing mam
m o th was beyo n d the r e sourc e s e v en o f W omb well s me
n ag e ri e
B u t s o e x a c tl y do e s suc h a s t ory e x pl a in the f a c t s
t o min ds n o t t rou ble d w ith ni c e d is tin c ti o n s bet w een e x
i s t i n g a n d e x t i n c t s pe c ie s of eleph a nt s th a t it was o n
a n o the r occ a s i o n in v ente d el s e w he r e u n d e r s imil a r c i rcu m
s t a n c e s Thi s w a s a t O xford w he r e M r B uckla n d fou n d
the s t ory o f the W omb w e ll s c a rav a n an d d e a d eleph ant
curr ent t o e x pl ai n a s imil a r nd o f foss il b o ne s
S uc h
e x pl a n a ti o n s o f the n d ing o f fo ss il s ar e e a s il y d e vi s e d an d
us e d t o be fr eel y m ad e as w hen f o ss il b On e s f ou n d in t h e
A lp s w e r e s et dow n t o H a nnib a l s eleph a nt s o r w hen a
pet r i e d oys te r s hell fou n d ne a r M o nt C eni s s e t Vo lta i r e
r e e c ting o n the crowd of pilg r im s on thei r w ay t o R o me
o r w hen the o l o gi a n s su pp os e d suc h s hell s o n m ou nt a in s t o
h av e been le f t o n thei r s l o pe s an d su mmits by a r i s ing d el u ge
S uc h the or eti c a l e x pla n a ti o n s a re u nimpe a ch a ble in thei r
phil oso phi c s pi r it u ntil fur the r O b s e rv ati on ma y p rov e the m
,

A s Res

H ami l t o n in
vol ii p 3 4 4 ; C ol eb ro ok e i b id vol i v p 3 8 5 ;
E arl in J our n I nd A rch i p vol iii p 6 8 2 ; vol i v p 9 S ee Ren au dot
Tra vels o f Two M ah ommed an s i n Pi n k ei ton vol vi i p 1 8 3

3
F B uc kl and C u r i os iti es o f N at H i s t 3 rd s er i es vol ii p 3 9
1

TEST

OF

OSS IBILITY

371

t o be u n sou n d Thei r d i s a s t rous e ffe c t on the hi s t or i c c on

sc ien c e o f m a nkin d o nl y begin s w hen the in f e r en c e i s t u r ne d
u p s i d e dow n t o be t o l d a s a r e c o rd e d f a c t
In thi s co nne x i o n b r ie f n o ti c e ma y be t a ken o f the doc
t r ine o f mi r a c le s in it s s pe c i a l be a r ing o n m y th o l o gy The
m y thi c w on d e r epi sod e s r ela te d b y a s a v a ge t a le telle r the
a m a zing su pe r h u m a n fe a t s o f hi s g ods and he ro e s a re of ten
t o hi s min d mi r a c le s in the o r igin a l p o p u l a r s en s e o f the
word th a t i s the y a re s t r a nge an d m a rv ell o us e v ent s ; b u t
the y a re n o t t o hi s min d mi r a c le s in a fr e q u ent m od e r n
s en s e o f the w o r d th a t i s the y a re n o t v i o l a ti o n s or su pe r
s e ss i o n s o f r e c o gnize d l a ws o f n a t ur e
E xc epti o p ro b a t
r eg u l a m ; t o a c kn ow le d ge a n y thing as an e xc epti o n i s t o
impl y the r u le it d ep a r t s fr o m ; b u t the s a v age r e co gnize s
neithe r ru le n or e xc epti o n Y et a E ur o p ea n he a r e r b r ou ght
u p t o u se a d i ffe r ent c a n o n o f e v i d en c e w ill c a lml y r ej e c t
thi s s a va ge s m os t r e v e r e d a n c e s t r a l t r a d iti o n s s impl y on
the g r ou n d th a t the y r el a te e v ent s w hi c h a re imp oss ible
The ord in a ry s ta n d a rds o f p oss ibili t y a s a pplie d t o the
cr e d ibilit y o f t r a d iti o n h a v e in d ee d c h a nge d v a s tl y in the
cou r s e o f cu lt ur e th r ou gh i t s s a v a ge b a r b a r i c an d c i v ilize d
s t a ge s Wh a t co n c e r n s us he r e i s th a t the r e i s a n imp or t ant
d ep a r tment o f legen d w hi c h thi s c h a nge in p u bli c o pini o n
gene r a lly s o r e s i s tle ss le f t t o a g r e a t e x tent u n a lte r e d In
the mi dd le a ge s the l o ng a cc epte d p r a c ti c e r os e t o it s height
o f a ll ow ing the m e r e a ss e r ti o n o f su pe r n a t u r a l in u en c e b y
a ngel s o r d e v il s s a int s o r s o rc e r e rs t o ov e rr i d e the r u le s of
e v i d en c e an d the r e su lt s o f e x pe r ien c e The c o n s e qu en c e
w as th a t the doc t r ine o f mir a c le s be c a me a s it w e r e a b r i d ge
a l o ng w hi c h m y th o l o g y t r a v elle d f r o m the l o w e r int o the
highe r cu lt ur e P r in c iple s of m y th f o r m ati o n bel o nging
p ro pe r l y t o the ment a l s t ate o f the s a va ge w e r e b y i t s ai d
c o ntin u e d in s t r o ng a c ti o n in the c i v ilize d wo r l d M y thi c
epi s o d e s w hi c h E u r o pe a n s w o u l d h av e r ej e c te d c on t e mpt u
o u s ly i f t o l d o f s a v a ge
d eitie s o r he ro e s o nl y r e q u i r e d
t o be a d apte d t o a pp ro p r i a te l o c a l d et a il s an d t o be s et
for th as mi rac le s in the li f e o f so me su pe r h u m an pe r
.

'

372

M YT H O LOG Y
to

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hi s t o r y
F r m the en o r m ous mass o f available in s t an c e s in p ro o f
o f thi s
le t us t a ke t w o c a s e s bel o nging t o the c l a ss o f
ge o l o gi c a l my th s The r s t is the w ell kn ow n legen d of
S t P a t r i c k and the s e r pent s It is th us gi v en b y D r
A n d re w B o o r d e in hi s d e sc r ipti o n Of I r el a n d a n d the I r i s h

in Hen r y V I I I s t i me
Y et in I e rlan d i s s t u pe n dy o u s
t h y n g e s ; fo r the r e i s n e y t h e r P y e s n o r v
e n y mu s w o rm e s
The r e i s n o Add e r n or Sn a ke n or Too de n or Ly z e rd n o r
n o E u t n o r n o ne suc h l y ke
I h au e s ene s t o ne s the wh i ch e
y
h a u e h a d the for me a n d s h a p o f a s n ake a n d o the r ve n i mu s
w o rme s
A n d the pe o ple o f the c ou n t re s ay th th a t suc he
s t o ne s w e r e w o rme s a n d the y w e r e t ur ne d int o s t o ne s b y the
p ow e r o f G o d an d the p r ay e rs o f sayn t P at ryk A n d
E n g ly s h ma rc h au n t es o f E ngl a n d do f et c h o f the e r th o f
I rl o n d e t o c a s te in thei r g a rd en s t o kepe o u t a n d t o k y ll
ve n i mu s w orme s
In t r e a ting thi s p a ss age the rs t s tep
i s t o s ep a r a te pie c e s of imp o r te d for eign m y th bel o nging
p ro pe r l y n o t t o I r el a n d b u t t o i s l an ds o f the Me d ite rr a ne a n ;
the s t ory Of the e a r th o f the i s la n d o f K r ete being fa t a l t o
2
v en o m o us s e r pent s i s t o be fou n d i n E li a n a n d St
H on o rat u s c le a r ing the s n a ke s fro m hi s i s l a n d ( on e o f the
Le ri n s o pp os ite C a nne s ) s eem s t o t a ke p r e c e d en c e o f the
I r i s h s aint Wh a t i s le f t a f te r the s e d e duc ti o n s i s a phil o
so phi c m y th a ccou nting for the e x i s ten c e of foss il a mm o nite s
as being pet r i e d s n a ke s t o w hi c h m y th a hi s t or i c a l p os iti o n
i s gi v en by c l a iming it as a mi r a cle an d a scr ibing it t o St
P a t r i ck The s e co n d m y th i s v a l u a ble for the hi s t or i ca l an d
ge o l o gi ca l e v i d en c e w hi c h it in c i d ent a ll y p r e s e rv e s A t
the c eleb r a te d ru in s o f the temple o f J u pite r Se rap i s a t
P o zz u o li the an c ient P u te o li the m a r ble co l u mn s en c i rc le d
h a l f w ay u p b y b or ing s o f li t h o domi s ta n d t o p rov e th a t the
g r o u n d of the temple m us t h av e been for me r ly su bme r ge d
.

'

I nt ro ducti o n

A nd re w B rd e
o f K n o wl ed g e
E rly E n g T x t S c 1 8 7 0 p 1 3 3
E l i n D N t A ni m l v 2 s ee 8
3
A ct S nct orum B ll nd J n x vi
1

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ed .

b y F J F urn i v
all
.

G EOLOG I CA L M YTH S

373

m a n y f eet bel ow the s e a an d af te rw a rds u phe a v e d t o be co me

Hi s t o ry i s r em a r k a bl y s ilent as t o the e v ent s
a g a in dry l a n d
d em o n s t r a te d b y thi s co n c l us i v e ge o l o gi ca l e v i d en c e ; b e
t w een the r e c o rd e d a dor nment o f the temple b y R o m an
a n d the
e mpe r o rs fro m the s e c o n d t o the thi rd c ent ury
menti o n o f it s e x i s ten c e in ru in s in the 1 6 t h c ent ury n o
docu ment a ry in fo r m a ti o n w as till l a tel y r e c o gnize d It h as
n ow been p o inte d ou t b y M r T uckett th a t a p a ss age in the
A p ocry ph al Ac t s of P ete r an d P a u l d a ting a pp a r entl y m or e
or le ss be for e the en d o f the 9 t h c ent ury menti o n s the su b
s i de n c e of the temple a scr ibing it t o a mi r a c le o f St P a u l

The legen d i s a s f o ll o ws : A n d w hen he ( P a u l) ca me ou t of

Me ss in a he s aile d t o D i dy m us an d r em aine d the r e on e night
A n d h a v ing s aile d then c e he ca me t o P on t i ole ( P u te o li ) o n
the s e c o n d day A n d D i o s co ru s the s hipm as te r w h o b rou ght
him t o S yr a cus e sy mp a thizing w ith P a u l be ca us e he h a d
d eli v e r e d hi s s on f r o m d e a th h av ing le f t hi s o w n s hip in
S yr a cus e acco mp a nie d him t o P on t i o le A n d s ome o f P ete r s
d i sc iple s h a v ing been f o u n d the r e and h av ing r e c ei v e d P a u l
e x h or te d him t o s ta y w ith them A n d he s t ay e d a w eek in
hi d ing be c aus e o f the co mm an d o f C ae s a r ( th a t he S h ou l d
be p u t t o d e a th ) A n d a ll the t o p a rc h s w e r e wa iting t o s eize
a n d kill him
B u t D i o sc or u s the s hipm as te r being him s el f
also
b a l d w e a r ing hi s s hipm a s te r s dr e ss an d s pe a king
b o l d ly on the rs t day w ent ou t int o the c it y of P o n t i o le
Thinking the r e fo r e th a t he w a s P a u l the y s eize d him an d
behe a d e d him an d s ent hi s he a d t o C aes a r
A n d Pau l
being in P on t i o le an d h a v ing he a rd th a t D i o sc o ru s h a d been
behe a d e d being g r ie v e d w ith g r e a t g r ie f ga zing int o the
height of the he av en s ai d : O L ord A lmight y in He av en
w h o h a s t a ppe a r e d t o me in e v e ry pl a c e w hithe r I h av e g o ne
o n a cc o u nt o f Thine o nl y beg o tten W ord
o u r L ord Je sus
C h r i s t p u ni s h thi s c it y an d b r ing ou t a ll w h o h a v e belie v e d
in G od a n d fo ll ow e d Hi s w o r d
He s a i d t o them the r e

for e F o ll ow me
A n d g o ing f o r th fr o m P on t i o le w ith th os e
w h o h a d belie v e d in the word o f G od the y c a m e t o a pl a c e
c a lle d B ai a s ( B a i ae) an d l oo king u p w ith thei r e y e s the y a ll
,

374

M YTHOLOGY

th a t c ity ca lle d P o n t i o le su nk int o the s e a s h or e a b ou t

o n e f a th o m ; and the r e i t i s u ntil thi s d a
y fo r a r emem
b r a n c e u n d e r the s e a
A n d th os e w h o h a d been s a v e d
o u t o f the c ity o f P o n t i o le
th a t h a d been sw a ll o w e d u p
r ep o r te d t o C ae s a r in R o me th a t P o n t i o le h ad been swal
l ow e d u p w ith a l l it s m u ltit ud e
E pi s o d e s o f p o p u l a r m y th w hi c h a re Of ten item s o f the
s e r i ous belie f o f the ti me s the y bel o ng t o m ay s e rv e a s i m
p o r ta nt r e cords o f intelle c t u a l hi s t ory As a n e x ample
bel o ngin g t o the c la ss o f phil oso phi ca l o r e x pl an a t o ry m y th s
let us gl a n c e a t an Ar a bi an N ight s s t o ry w hi c h a t rs t
s ight m ay s eem an e ffor t o f the w il d e s t im agin a ti o n b u t
w hi c h i s ne v e r thele ss t r a c e a ble t o a sc ienti c or igin ; thi s i s
the s t ory o f the M agneti c M ou nt a in The Thi rd K a len t e r
r el a te s in hi s t a le h ow a co n t r a ry w in d drov e hi s s hip s int o a
s t r a nge s e a an d the r e b y the a tt r a c ti o n o f thei r n a il s and
o the r i ro n w o r k the y w e r e v i o lentl y dr a w n t ow a rds a m ou n
t a in of bl a c k l oa ds t o ne till a t l a s t the i ro n e w ou t t o the
m ounta in an d the s hip s w ent t o pie c e s in the surf The

epi sod e i s o l d e r th a n the d a te w hen the Th ous an d an d O ne

N ight s w e r e e d ite d When in Hen ry of V e lde ck s 1 2 th
c ent ury p o em Du ke E r ne s t an d h i s c ompan i on s s a il int o
the K le b e rme e r the y s ee the ro ck th a t i s ca lle d M agne s a n d

m an y a wor k
a r e them s el v e s dr a gge d in bel ow it a m o ng
of keel s w h os e m a s t s s t a n d like a f o r e s t
T ur ning fro m
t a le telle rs t o g r a v e ge o g r a phe rs an d tr a v elle rs w h o t a lk
o f the l o a ds t o ne m oun t a in w e n d E1 K a z w i n i li ke Se r a pi o n
be fo r e him belie v ing suc h b o a t s as m ay be s till s een i n
C e y l o n pegge d an d s e w n w ith ou t met a l n a il s t o be s o b u ilt
le s t the m agneti c roc k s h ou l d a tt r a c t them fr o m thei r cours e

Thi s q u a int n o ti o n i s t o be fou n d in Si r J o hn

at s ea
see

A ct s

P ul t ran s b y A W lk r in A nt N ice n e L i b r ary

2
i p
N a tu re O ct 2 0 1 8 7 0 Se e L y ll
vl x v
5 7 ; F F Tu c k tt in
P r incip l s o f G eo l ogy ch xxx P hi ll ip s V e s u v iu s p 2 4 4

L n e T h ou s nd n d O ne N vol i pp 1 6 1 2 1 7 ; vol iii p 7 8 ; H ol e

R m rks n t h e A r N p 1 0 4 ; H e in r ich v
o n V el d eck
H erz og E rn s t s
Amb erg 1 8 30 p 6 5 ; se L ud l ow
vo B y r n E h Oh n g & c e d Ri x n
P pul r E pic s f M idd l e Ag s p 22 1
1

of

P t er
e

and

e-

er ,

M A G N ET I C M O U N T A I N

375

M a n d e v ille : In an i s le clept C ru e s ben s ch i ppe s w ith

o u ten n ay le s
of i r en or b o n ds fo r the rocke s o f the
a da ma n d e s ; for the y ben a lle fu lle the r e a b o u te in th a t se e
th a t it i s marve y le t o spaken o f A n d gi f a sch i pp p ass e d
b y the m a rc he s an d h a dde eithe r i r en ba n d e s o r i r en n ay les
a n o n he s h o l d e ben
F or the a daman de o f thi s
pe ri sh e t
kin d e d r a ws the i r en t o him ; an d s o wo l d e it dr aw t o him
the sch i pp be caus e o f the i r en ; th at he sh olde ne v e r
d ep a r ten fro it n e ne v e r g o then s
N ow it s eem s th a t
a ccou nt s o f the m a gneti c m o u nt a in h a v e been gi v en n o t o nl y
a s bel o nging t o the sou the r n s e a s
b u t a l so t o the n o r th
a n d th a t men h a v e co nne c te d w ith suc h n o ti o n s the p o int
ing o f the m a gneti c nee d le a s Si r Th o m a s B row ne s ays

ascr ibing the r et o the c aus e of the nee d le s d i r e c ti o n an d

c on ce e v
i n g the e f u x i on s fro m the s e mou nt a in s a n d roc k s
in v ite the lilly t ow a rd the n or th
O n thi s e v i d en c e w e
h av e I think fai r g rou n d fo r su pp os ing th a t h y p o the s e s o f
p o la r m a gneti c m ou nt ain s w e r e rs t d e v i s e d t o e x plai n the
a c ti o n o f the co mp a ss a n d th a t the s e g a v e r i s e t o s t o r ie s of
suc h m ou nt a in s e x e r ting w h a t wou l d be co n s i d e r e d thei r
p ro pe r e ffe c t on the i ro n o f p ass ing s hip s The a r gu ment
i s c len c he d b y the co n s i d e r a ti o n th a t E u r o pe an s w h o
co ll o q u i a ll y say the nee d le p o int s t o the n or th n a t ur a ll y
r e q u i r e d thei r l o a ds t o ne m o u nt ain i n high n or the r n l a tit ud e s
w hile on the o the r h a n d it was as n at u r a l th a t O r ient al s
s h ou l d pl a c e thi s wo n drous roc k in the sou th for the y say
it i s t o the sou th th a t the nee d le p o int s The co n c epti o n o f
m agneti s m a m o ng pe o ple s w h o h a d n o t r e ache d the i d e a Of
dou ble p o l ar it y may be g a the r e d fro m the f o ll o w ing q u a in t
r em a r k s in the 1 7 th c ent ury cyc l o p ae d i a o f the C hine s e em
I n ow he a r the E uro pe an s s ay it i s t ow a rds
pe ro r K a ng h i
the N o r th p o le th a t the co mp a ss t ur n s ; the a n c ient s s ai d it
w a s t o w a r d the S ou th ; w hi c h h av e j ud ge d m os t r ightl y ?
Sin c e neithe r gi v e an y r e aso n w h y w e c o me t o n o m or e w ith
the on e s i d e th an w ith the o the r B u t the a n c ient s a re

1
2

S i r J ohn Mau n devi l V oi ag e and Travail e

S i r T h oma s Br wn e Vu lgar Errours
3
e,

M Y TH O LOG Y

376

the e a r lie r in d a te a n d the fa r the r I g o the m or e I pe rc ei v e

th a t the y u n d e r s t o o d the me c h a ni s m o f n a tur e A ll m ov e
ment l ang u i s he s a n d dies in p r o p or ti o n a s it a pp r oa che s
the n o r th ; it i s h a r d t o belie v e it t o be fr o m then c e th a t
1
the m ov ement o f the m a gneti c nee d le co me s
To s u pp o s e th a t the o r ie s o f a r el a ti o n bet w een man an d
t h e l o w e r m a mn i a l i a a re o nl y a p r o duc t o f a dv a n c e d sc ien c e
wou l d be an e x t r eme mi s t ake E v en a t l ow le v el s o f cu lt ur e
men a dd i c te d t o s pe cu l a ti v e phil o so ph y h av e been le d t o
a cc o u nt fo r the r e s embl a n c e bet w een a pe s a n d them s el v e s b y
so l u ti o n s s a ti sfac t ory t o thei r ow n min ds b u t w hi c h w e m us t
c l a ss as phil o s o phi c m y th s A m o ng the s e s t or ie s w hi c h
emb ody the th ou ght of a n u p w a rd c h a nge fro m a pe t o man
m o r e o r le ss a pp r o a ching the l as t c ent ury the ory o f d e v el o p
ment are t o be fou n d s i d e b y s i d e w ith o the rs w hi c h in the
co n v e r s e w ay a cco u nt for a pe s as d egene r a te fro m a p r e v i ous
h u ma n s ta te
C ent ra l A me r i c a n m y th o l o g y work s ou t the i d e a th a t
m o nke ys w e r e o n c e a h u m a n r a c e In S o u th E as t Af r i c a

F a the r D O S S ant os r em a r ke d l o ng S in c e th a t the y h o l d

th a t the a pe s w e r e a n c iently men a n d wo men an d th us the y
c a ll them in thei r t o ng u e the rs t pe o ple
The Z u l us s till
tell the t a le o f a n A mafe m e t r ibe w h o be ca me b a b oo n s
The y w e r e an i d le r a c e w h o d i d n ot like t o d ig b u t w i s he d

We s h all li v e
t o e a t a t o the r pe o ple s h ous e s s ay ing
a lth o u gh w e do n o t d ig i f w e e a t the f o o d o f th os e w h o
cu ltiv a te the s o il
S o the c hie f o f t h a t place o f the h ous e
a ss emble d the t r ibe
o f T us i
a n d the y p r ep a r e d fo o d a n d
w ent o u t int o the w il d e r ne ss The y f as tene d o n behin d them
,

M moi re s c onc l H is t & c d es C hin oi s vol i v p 4 5 7 C omp ar t h

s t ry o f t h e m g n e tic ( Cl) h o rs em n in T h o u s nd n d O n e N vol iii p 1 1 9
ld C hin s m nti o n o f m g n e tic c ars w ith
mo v b l r m e d
w ith t h
p intin g g ur A v H umb ol dt A s i e C e nt r l vol i p X ] C g ne t vol
iii p 2 8 4 (Th e l oad s ton e m unt in h as its p owe r fr om a tu r n in g b r z n
h o rs em n n t h e t op )

C omp re thi s C nt r l A mer ic n

Br ss eu r P o p ol Vu h pp 23
31
nci nt s n s l ss m nni k in s wh o b ec o m m n k ys w ith
myth o f t h

I ndi n T r i b s p a r t i p 3 2 0
P t t w t o mi l eg nd in S ch o ol c r a ft

e e

e,

a e,

e a
-

a e

e e

APES

MEN

AN D

377

the h a n d le s o f thei r n ow us ele ss d igging pi c k s the s e g r e w

a n d be c a me t a il s h a i r m a d e it s a ppe a r a n c e o n thei r b o di e s
thei r for ehe a ds be ca me o v e r h a nging a n d s o the y be ca me
1
M r King s le y s
ba b o o n s w h o are s till c a lle d Tu si s men
s t o r y o f the g r e a t an d fa m ous n a ti o n of the D oa sy ou li ke s
w h o d egene r a te d b y n a t ur a l s ele c ti o n int o g o r ill a s i s the
c i v ilize d c o u nte r p a r t o f thi s s a v a ge m y th O r m o nke ys may
be t r a n sfo r me d a b o r igine s a s the Mb oc ob i s r el a te in S o u th
A me r i ca : in the g r e a t c on a g ra t i on o f thei r for e s t s a man
an d wo m a n c limbe d a t r ee for r e fu ge fro m the e ry d el u ge
?
b u t the a me s s inge d thei r fa c e s an d the y be ca me a pe s
A m o ng m or e c i v ilize d n a ti o n s the s e fa n c ie s h a v e g r a phi c
r ep r e s ent a ti v e s in M os lem legen ds o f w hi c h on e i s as
fo ll ows The r e w a s a Je w i s h c it y w hi c h s t o od b y a r i v e r
fu ll o f s h b u t th e cu nning cr e a t ur e s n o ti c ing the h a bit s o f
the c itizen s v ent u r e d fr eel y in s ight on the S a bb a th th ou gh
the y c ar e fu ll y kept aw a y on w o r king
days A t l a s t the
tempt a ti o n w as t o o s t ro ng for the Je w i s h s he r men b u t
the y p a i d d e a r l y for a f e w d ays ne s p or t b y being mi racu
lo u s ly t ur ne d int o a pe s as a p u ni s hment for S a bb a th
b r e aking In a f te r time s w hen S o l o m o n p a ss e d th rou gh
the Va lle y o f A pe s bet w een Je rus a lem a n d M a r eb he
r e c ei v e d fro m thei r d e sc en d ant s m o nke ys liv ing in h ous e s
?
and dr e ss e d like men an a ccou nt o f thei r s t r a nge hi s t o ry
S O in c l a ss i c time s J o v e h a d c h a s ti s e d the t r e a c he r o us r a c e
o f the C e rco pe s ; he t o o k fro m them the us e o f t o ng u e s
b or n b u t t o pe rj ur e le av ing them t o be w ail in h oa rs e c r ie s
thei r fa te t r a n sfor me d int o the h ai ry a pe s of the Pi th ecu s ae
like an d y et u nlike the men the y h a d been
,

d e fo r m e v i r o s a n i mal mu t avi t u t i d e m
D i ss i mi l e s b omi n i posse n t s i m i l e sq u e v
i d eri

"

E thi opi O r i ent l E v or 1 6 0 9 p r t i ch p i x C ll

vol i p 1 7 7 S ee a ls o B u r t on F oo t s t p s in E A fr
Z
T
p 2 7 4 ; W it z A nth rop l og i vl ii p 1 7 8 ( W A fr
D O b i gn y
L H omm A m r ic in vl ii p 1 0 2
W i l B i b l L g d er Mu s lman n r p 2 6 7 ; L n e T h u s and an d O n e
N vol iii p 3 5 0 B u t on E l M din h & c vol ii p 3 4 3

vl
O vid Met mm x i v 8 9
1 0 0 W l c k er
Gr i chi s ch Go t t l h
iii p 1 0 8

D os
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378

M YTH OLO GY

T ur ning fr o m d egene ra ti o n t o d e v el o pment it i s fo u n d

th a t legen d s o f the d e sc ent o f h u m a n t r ibe s fro m a pe s a re
e s pe c i ally a pplie d t o r a c e s d e s pi s e d as lo w a n d be as t like b y
so me highe r neighb our ing pe o ple and the lo w r a c e may
e v en a c kn o w le d ge the h u mili a ting e x pl an a ti o n Th us the
a b o r igin a l f e a t u r e s of the ro bbe r c a s te o f the Ma ra w a rs o f
S o u th Ind ia a re the j us ti ca ti o n fo r thei r a llege d d e sc ent
fr o m R a m a s m o nke ys a s fo r the like gene a l o gy o f the
K a t h ku r i o r c a te c h u g a the r e rs w hi c h the s e s m a ll d a r k
l ow b row e d curl y h a i r e d t r ibe s a c t ua lly them s elv e s belie v e
in The J ai tw as of R aj p u t a n a a t r ibe r e ck o ne d p o liti ca lly
as
R aj p u t s ne v e r thele ss t rac e thei r d e sc ent fr o m the
m o nke y
g od H a n u m a n an d co n r m it b y a lleging th a t thei r
p r in c e s s till be a r it s e v i d en c e in a t a il like p ro l o nga ti o n o f
the s pine ; a t rad iti o n w hi c h h as p ro b a bl y a r e a l e t h n olo
i
a
l
c
me a ning p o inting ou t the J ai t w as a s o f n on Ary a n
g
1
rac e
Wil d t r ibe s o f the M al ay penin su l a l oo ke d d o w n o n
as l ow e r a nim a l s b y the m or e w a r like a n d c i v ilize d M a l a ys
h av e a m o ng them t ra d iti o n s o f thei r o w n d e sc ent fro m a

p a i r o f the u nk a p u teh or w hite m o nke ys w h o r e a r e d

thei r you ng o ne s a n d s ent them int o the pl ain s an d the r e
the y pe r f e c te d s o w ell th a t the y a n d thei r d e sc en d a nt s
be ca me men b u t th os e w h o r et ur ne d t o the m ou nt ain s s till
r em a ine d ape s
Th us B udd hi st legen d r el a te s the o r igin
o f the a t n os e d u n c o u th t r ibe s o f Tibet
o ffs p r ing o f t wo
mira cu l ous a pe s t r a n sfor me d t o pe ople t h e s n o w king do m
T au ght t o till the g rou n d w hen the y h a d g row n cor n a n d
e a ten it thei r t ail s an d h a i r g radua lly d i s a ppe a r e d the y
beg a n t o s pe a k be ca me men a n d c l o the d them s el v e s w ith
le a v e s The p op u l a ti o n g r e w c l o s e r the l an d w as m o r e a n d
m or e cu ltiva te d a n d a t la s t a p r in c e of the ra c e o f S a k ya
d r i v en fr o m hi s h o m e in In d i a u nite d thei r i s o l a te d t r ibe s
int o a s ingle king do m In the s e t r a d iti o n s the d e v el o p

C mpb ll in J u r n A s S B n g l 1 86 6 p r t ii p 1 3 2 L th m

D s E th vl ii p 4 5 6 ; T d A nn ls f R j s th n vl i p 1 14

B
i
in Tr E th S
J u r n I nd A h i p vl
vl iii p 7 3 ;
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271

oc .

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B a s tia n

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M en s ch

v
ol iii pp
.

347, 3 49,

APES

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379

ment fr o m a pe t o man i s co n s i d e r e d t o h a v e co me in suc

e gene r a ti o n s b u t the neg ro e s are s a i d t o a tt a in the
c e s si v
r e su lt in the in d i vi du a l b y w ay o f metemp syc h os i s F roe b e l
s pe a k s o f neg r o s l a v e s in the U nite d St a te s belie ving th a t
in the ne x t w o r l d the y s h a ll be w hite men an d fr ee n or i s
the r e a n y thing s t ra nge i n thei r c he r i s hing a h ope so p r e
v a lent a m o ng thei r kin dr e d in We s t Afr i ca B u t fr o m thi s
the t ra v elle r g o e s o n t o q uo te a n o the r s t ory w hi c h i f n o t
t oo g ood t o be t ru e i s a the o r y Of u p w a rd an d dow n w a rd
d e v el o pment a lm o s t th orou gh en ou gh for a B udd hi s t phil o

so phe r He s ays A G e r m an w h o m I met he r e t o l d me

th at the bla c k s belie v e the d amne d a m o ng the neg r o e s t o
be co me m o nke ys ; b u t i f in thi s s ta te the y beh av e w ell the y
a re a dv a n c e d t o the s t a te of a neg ro a g a i n an d bli ss i s e v ent
u a lly p oss ible t o them
co n s i s ting in thei r t ur ning w hite
be co ming w inge d an d s o on
To u n d e rs t a n d the s e s t o r ie s (an d the y a r e wor th so me
a ttenti o n for the ethn o l o gi c a l hint s the y co nt a in ) it i s n e c e s
s a ry th a t w e S h o u l d d i sc a rd the r e su lt s of m o d e r n sc ienti c
z oo l o gy a n d b r ing ou r min ds b a c k t o a rud e r c o n d iti o n o f
kn ow le d ge The m y th s of h u m a n d egene r a ti o n an d d e v el o p
ment h av e m uc h m o r e in co mm o n w ith the S pe cu la ti o n s of
L ord M on b o dd o th a n w ith the a n a t o mi c a l a r g u ment s o f
P rof e ssor H ux le y O n the on e h a n d u n c i v ili ze d men d e
li b e ra t e ly a ss ign t o a pe s an a m ou nt o f h u m a n q u a li t y w hi c h
t o m od e r n n a t ur a li s t s i s s impl y r i d i cu l ous
E v e ry o ne h as
he a rd the s t ory of the neg r o e s d e c l a r ing th a t a pe s r e a ll y c an
S pe a k b u t j u di ci o u ly h o l d thei r t o ng u e s le s t the y s h o u l d
be m a d e t o w o r k ; b u t it i s n o t s o gene r a ll y kn o w n th a t
thi s i s f o u n d as s e r i ous m a tte r o f belie f in s e ve ra l di st an t
r egi o n s We s t Af r i c a M a d a ga sca r S ou th A me r i c a & c
w he r e m o nke ys or a pe s a re fou n d
With thi s g o e s an o the r

3 8 7 ; K pp n
vl ii p 4 4 ; J J S chmidt Volk r M itt l A s i n s
,

oe

21 0

C e ntr al

G uin ea

F r e b el
A m r ic p 22 0 see B o sman
i n P in k r ton
vol x v i p 4 0 1 F
th e r tr diti o n s f hum n d es c nt from a p e s e
F rr r C h pt rs on L n g u g p 4 5

B s m n G uin
p 4 4 0 ; W itz vl ii p l 7 8 ; C uch e R el ti o n d e
1

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M YTH OLOG Y

3 80

i d el y s p r e a d anth r o p oi d s t o ry w hi c h r el a te s h w g r e a t
a pe s like the g o r ill a an d the o r a ng u ta n c a rry o ff w o men
t o thei r h o me s in the woods m uc h a s the A p a c he s an d
C o m a n c he s o f o u r o w n time c a rry o ff t o thei r p r a i r ie s
A n d o n the o the r h an d
t h e w o men o f N or th Me x i co
p o p u l a r o pini o n h a s u n d e r e s tim a te d the ma n a s m uch as it
h a s ov e r e s tim a te d the m o nke y
We kn ow h ow s a il o rs an d
e mig r a nt s can l o o k on s a v a ge s a s s en s ele ss a pe like b ru te s
a n d h o w s o m e wr ite rs o n a nth r o p o l o g y h a v e co nt r i v e d t o
m a ke o u t o f the m od e r a te intelle c t u a l d iffe r en c e bet w een a n
E ngli s hm a n a n d a neg r o s o methin g e q u i va lent t o the i m
men s e inte rva l bet w een a neg ro a n d a g o r ill a Th us w e
c a n h a v e n o d i fcu lt y in u n d e rs t a n d ing h ow sava ge s ma y
s eem me r e a pe s t o the e y e s o f men w h o h u nt them like w il d
be as t s in the for e s t s w h o c an o nl y he a r in thei r l angu age a
s o r t Of i rr a ti o n a l g ur gling a n d b a r k i ng an d w h o fail t o t a ll y
t o a pp r e c i a te the r e a l cu lt ur e w hi c h bette r a c q u a int an c e
a l w a ys s h ows a m o ng the rud e s t t r ibe s o f man
It i s w ell
kn ow n th a t w hen S a n s k r it legen d tell s o f the a pe s w h o
fou ght in the a r m y o f King H an u m a n it r e a ll y r e f e rs t o
th o s e a b or igin e s of the l a n d w h o w e r e dr i v en b y the Ary a n
in v a d e rs t o the hi ll s an d ju ngle s an d w h os e d e sc en d a nt s a r e
kn o w n t o us a s B hil s K o l s S on t h a ls and the like rud e

t r ibe s suc h a s the Hin du s till s pe ak s o f a s m o nke y

2
pe o ple
O ne of the m os t pe rf e c t i d enti ca ti o n s of the
s a v a ge an d the m o nke y in Hin dus t a n i s the fo ll ow ing d e

scr ipti o n o f the bn n ma n ns or man o f the w o ods ( S an s k r

The bn n ma nn s i s a n a nima l
na n a = w o o d m a n n sh a = m a n )
Hi s f ac e h a s a ne a r r e s embl an c e t o
o f the m o nke y kin d
w

A bi pon es ,

M d g as c r p
vol i p 2 8 8 ; B a s ti an
M n s ch vol ii p
F uch t P l u r l ity o f H u m n R c p 22

Mon b o d d o O r i g in n d P r gr ss f L n g 2 n d e d vl i p 2 7 7 ; D u

E qu at or i l A fr ic p 6 1 S t J ohn F or e s t s of F r E s t vol i
C h ill u
ol ii p 2 39
p 17 ; v

i p 3 4 0 ; J u rn A s
M M u ll e r in B un s e n P hi l U ni v H i s t v
ol

ol
xx i v p 2 0 7 S e e M rs d en in A s Res vol i v p 2 2 6 ;
S oc B e n g l v

F itch in P in k er t on vol i x p 4 1 5 ; B s ti n O t l A s i en vl i p 4 6 5 ;
vl ii p 2 0 1
a

1 2 7 ; D ob ri z h o ffe r,
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the h u ma n ; he h as n o t a il a n d w a lk s e r e c t The S kin of

hi s b o dy i s bl a ck an d S lightly c o v e r e d w ith h a i r Th a t
thi s d e scr ipti o n r e a ll y a pplie s n ot t o a pe s b u t t o the d a r k
s kinne d n on A r y a n a b o r igine s o f the l a n d a ppe a rs fur the r
in the en u me ra ti on o f the l oca l d i a le c t s of Hin dus t a n t o

w hi c h it i s s a i d may be a dd e d the j ar g o n of the b u n ma

n us o r w il d men of the w oo ds
In the i s la n ds o f the
In d i an Arc hipel ago w h o s e t ro pi ca l f o r e s t s sw a r m b o th w ith
high a pe s an d low s a v age s the co n fus i o n bet w een the t w o
in the min ds of the h al f c i v ilize d in h a bit ant s be co me s a lm os t
ine x t r i ca ble The r e i s a w ell kn ow n Hin du fa ble in the
H i t opa d e s a w hi c h r el a te s as a w a r ning t o s t u pi d imit a t ors
the fa te o f the a pe w h o imit ate d the c a r pente r a n d w as
c au ght in the c le f t w hen he p u lle d ou t t h e w e dg e ; thi s f a ble
h as co me t o be t o l d in S u m a t r a as a r e a l s t ory o f o n e o f the
in d igen ous s a va ge s of the i s la n d It is t o rud e for e s t men
th a t the M a l ays h a bit u a ll y gi v e the n a me of or a ng u ta n i e

ma n o f the woods
B u t in B or ne o thi s te r m i s a pplie d
t o the mi y a s ape w hen c e w e h av e le a r nt t o c a ll thi s cr e a t ur e
the or a ng u t a n an d the M a la ys them s el v e s are kn ow n t o
gi v e the n ame in o ne and the s a me d i s t r i c t t o b o th the s av a ge

an d the a pe
Thi s te r m man of the woods e x ten ds fa r
be yo n d Hin du a n d M a l ay li mit s The Si a me s e t a lk o f the

kh an p a
men o f the w o od me a ning a pe s ; the B r a zil

i a n s o f m a m o r wo o d men me aning a c e r t ain s a va ge

t r ibe The n a me of the B osj esma n s o a m us ingl y mi spro
n ou n c e d b y E ngli s hmen a s th ou gh it w e r e so me ou tl a n d i s h
n a ti v e w o rd i s me r el y the Du tc h e q u i va lent for B u sh ma n

m a n O f the woods o r b us h
In ou r own lang u age the
.

t ran s b y Gl ad wi n R e p or t of E thn ol ogic al C omm itt e e

J u bb u l p or e E x hi b iti o n 1 8 6 6
p ar t i p 3 S ee t h e menti o n o f t h e ba n

in K u mao n and N ep a l C amp b ell ; E thn o l ogy o f I ndi a in

J our n A s S oc B e n g a l 1 8 6 6 p ar t ii p 4 6

2
M ars d en S uma tr a p 4 1

3
L oga n in J ou r n I nd A rch i p vo l i p 2 4 6 vol i ii p 4 9 0 T h oms o n
i b id vol i p 3 5 0 ; C raw furd i b id vol i v p 1 8 6

a
a
B s ti n O est l A s i e n vol i p 1 2 3 ; vol iii p 4 3 5

5
Marti ns E thn o g A me r v
ol i pp 4 2 5 4 7 1
3
I t s a n al og u e i s bosj esbok b u s h go t t h e A fr ic n a nt el op e Th e d er i
1

A y e en Akb aree ,

M YT H O LO G Y

3 82

homo

be c ome the
lm g e
my
ma n
r
E u r o pe a n o pini o n o f the n a ti v e t r ibe s
o f the N e w W o r l d ma
y be j ud ge d of b y the f a c t th a t in
1 5 3 7 P o pe P a u l I II h ad t o m a ke e x p r e ss s t a tement th a t
the s e In d i an s w e r e r e a lly men (a t t e n de n t e s In d o s ip s o s
u t po t e
v e r o s h o mine s )
Th us the r e i s little c a us e t o
w on d e r a t the c i rcu l a ti o n o f s t or ie s o f a pe men in S ou th
A me r i c a and a t the r e being so me i n de n i t e n e s s in the l o c a l

ag e o r
al v
s a v age th a t h a i ry w il d ma n
a cc o u nt s o f the
O f the w o o ds w h o it i s s a i d li v e s in the t r ee s a n d so me
time s c a rr ie s O ff the n a ti v e wo men The m o s t pe rf e c t Of
the s e my s t i ca t i o n s i s t o be fou n d in a P or t u g u e s e m a n u
sc r ipt q uo te d in the a ccou nt o f C a s t e ln au s e x pe d iti o n a n d
gi v ing in a ll s e r i ous ne ss the fo ll ow ing accou nt of the

pe o ple c a lle d On a ta s : Thi s p o p u l ous n a ti o n dw ell s e a s t

o f the J n ru e n a in the neighb our h ood of the r i v e rs S a n J o ao
a dv a n c ing e v en t o the c o n u en c e o f the
a n d S a n Th o me
J u rn e n a an d the A r in os It i s a v e ry r em a r k a ble fa c t th a t
the In d i a n s co mp os ing it w a lk n a t ura lly l ike the q u a d r u
pe ds w ith thei r h a n ds o n the g roun d ; the y h a v e the bell y
b r e a s t a r m s an d leg s cov e r e d w ith h ai r a n d a re of s ma ll
s t a t u r e ; the y a re e rc e a n d us e thei r teeth as w e a p o n s ;
the y s leep o n the g r o u n d o r a m o ng the b r a n c he s o f t r ee s ;
the y h a v e n o in dus t ry n or a g r i cu lt ur e an d li v e o nly on
fru it s w il d r oo t s and sh
The wr ite r o f thi s r e cord
s h ows n o sy mpt o m o f being a w a r e th a t cn a ta or coa ta i s the
n a me o f the l a r ge bl a c k Simi a P ani scus an d th a t he h as
been r e a lly d e scr ibing n o t a t r ibe of In di a n s b u t a s pe c ie s
o f a pe s
Va r i o us r e as o n s may h av e le d t o the g row th o f a n o the r
q u a int g rou p of legen ds d e scr ibing h u m a n t r ibe s w ith t ail s

s il

m ti c ns

sa

or

fo r e s t man

h as

sa

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'

v a ti o n o f t h e B osj es ma n s n a me fr om hi s n es t l i k e s h el t er in a b u s h g i v e n
b y K ol b e n a nd o th ers s inc e i s n ewe r an d far fe tch e d
ol i p 5 0
Mar ti n s v

2 Hu
Bra z i l vol i p xxx ;
ol v p 8 1 ; S o uth e y
m b o l dt a n d B o np l a nd v

B a te s A m z o n s vol i p 7 3 ; vol
p 204
3 C st l
E x p d a n s l A mr d u S ud vol iii p 1 1 8 See Marti ns
a
e n au
6 33
v
ol i pp 2 4 8 4 1 4 5 63

TA I LED M E N

3 83

like be as t s TO pe o ple w h o a t o n c e belie v e m o nke ys a kin d

o f s a v a ge s
an d s a v a ge s a kin d o f m o nke ys men w ith t a il s
a re cr e a t ur e s co ming u n d e r
b o th d e niti o n s Th us the
H o m o ca uda t us or s a t yr Of ten a ppe a rs in p o p u la r belie f a s
a h a l f h u m a n cr e a t ur e
w hile e v en in old fa s hi o ne d wo r k s
o n n a t ur a l hi s t o ry he m a
be
fou
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e
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m o d el o f an a nth ro p o i d a pe In E a s t Af r i ca the im agine d
t r ibe o f l o ng t a ile d men ar e a l so m o nke y fa c e d w hile in

S o u th A me r i c a the coa m tapn y a or m o nke y men are as

2
n a t ura lly de scr ibe d as men w ith t ail s E ur ope a n t rav elle rs
h a v e t r ie d t o r a ti o n a lize the s t or ie s Of t aile d men w hi c h
the y meet w ith in Afr i c a an d the E a s t Th us D r K r ap f
p o int s t o a le a the r a ppen d age wor n behin d fro m the gi rd le

b y the W ak amb a an d r em a r k s It i s n o wo n d e r th a t
pe o ple say the r e a re men w ith t a il s in the in te r i or of
Afr i ca an d o the r wr ite rs h av e c alle d a ttenti o n t o h anging
m a t s or wa i s t c l o th s y appe rs o r a r ti c i a l t a il s wor n for
o r n a ment a s h a v ing m a d e thei r w e a r e rs lia ble t o be mi s
t aken a t a di s t an c e for t aile d men B u t the s e a pp a r entl y
s ill y m y th s h a v e of ten a r e a l ethn o l o gi c a l s igni c a n c e
d eepe r a t an y ra te th a n suc h a t r i v i a l bl u n d e r Wh en an
ethn o l o gi s t meet s in an y d i s t r i c t w ith the s t ory o f t a ile d
men he ou ght t o l oo k for a d e s pi s e d t r ibe of a b or igine s ou t
c a s t s o r he r eti cs li v ing ne ar o r a m o ng a d o min ant po pu la
ti o n w h o l oo k u p o n them as be a s t s a n d fur ni s h them w ith
t a il s accord ingl y A lth ough the a b o r igin a l Mia n t s z e o r

c hil dr en o f the so il c o me dow n fro m time t o time int o

C a nt o n t o t rad e the C hine s e s till r ml y belie v e them t o
h av e s h or t t ail s like m o nke ys ; the h a l f c i v ilize d M a l ays
d e scr ibe the rud e r for e s t t r ibe s as t aile d men ; the
M os lem n a ti o n s of Afr i c a tell the s a me s t ory of the N i a m
.

E gy pt & c
,

Pe th er ic k
p 3 67
S uth ey Br az i l vol i p 6 85 Mart i ns vol i pp 4 25 6 3 3

K r a p f p 1 4 2 ; B ak er A l b r t N ya n z vol i p 8 3 ; S t J o hn vo l i
pp 5 1 4 0 5 n d o th e rs

L o c k h ar t A b or O f C hin in T r E th S oc vol i p 1 8 1
J o u r n I nd A c h i
p 3 5 8 ; vl i v p 3 7 4 ; Ca mer on M l ya n
p vl
I ndi p 1 2 0 ; M ars d e n p 7 ; A nt ni o G a l v an o pp 1 2 0 2 1 8
1

a,

a,

a,

a a

M YT H O LO G Y

3 84

the inte r i o r ? The u t ca s t r ac e Of C ag o t s a b ou t

the Pyr enee s w e r e s a i d t o be b o r n w ith t ail s ; a n d in Sp a in
t h e me d i e v a l su pe r s titi o n s till surv i v e s th a t the Je ws h a v e
t a il s like t h e d e v il a s the y say In E ngl an d the n o ti o n
was t ur ne d t o the o l o gi c a l p r o t b y being c l aime d as a j ud g
ment o n wr et che s w h o in su lte d S t Au g us tine a n d St
Th om a s o f C a nte r b ury H or ne T o o ke q uo te s th us f r o m
th a t ze al ous a n d so me w h a t fou l m ou the d r e for me r B i s h o p

B a le : J o h a n C a pg ra v
e a n d A le x a n d e r o f E ss e b
s
y
th
a
y
th a t for ca s ty n ge o f fy sh e t ay le s a t th ys A ug u s ty n e D ors ett
B u t P o l ydorus
S h y re menne b add e t ay le s e v e r a f te r
a ppl i e t h it u nt o Kenti s h men a t St r o n d b y R oc he s te r fo r
Th us h a th E ng
c u t t i ng e of Th o m a s B e c ket s h o r s e s t a il
l a n d i n a ll o the r l a n d a pe rpe tu all in fa m y of t ayle s b y t h e yr
w ry t t e n legen d e s o f l y e s y et c an the y n o t w ell tell w he r e
an E n l s h man
t o b est ow e them t rne ly
g y
n ow ca nn o t t ravay le in a n o the r l a n d b y w a y of march au
dy s e o r a n y o the r h o ne s t occ u py i n g e b u t it i s m os t co n
t n me li on s ly th row n in h i s t e t h e th a t a l E ngli s hmen h a v e
3
The s t o ry a t l as t s a nk int o a co mm onpl a c e of
t ai le s
l o ca l s l an d e r bet w een s hi r e a n d s hir e an d the D e vo n s hi r e
belie f th a t C or ni s hmen h a d t ail s ling er e d a t le as t till a f e w
y e ars ag o
N o t le ss cur i ous i s the t r a d iti o n a m o ng s av age
t r ibe s th a t the t a ile d s ta te w a s a n e a r l y or o r iginal co n d i
ti o n of man In the F ij i I s l an ds the r e i s a legen d o f a t r ibe
t ail s like do g s w h o pe r i s he d in the g r e a t
o f men w ith
d el u ge w hile the T a s m ani a n s d e c l a r e d th a t men or igin a lly
h a d t a il s a n d n o k nee j o int s
A m o ng the n ati v e s of B r a zil
it i s r el ate d b y a P or tu g u e s e wr ite r of a b ou t 1 6 0 0 a f te r a
cou ple h av e been m a rr ie d the f a the r o r f a the r i n law cu t s a
wood en s ti c k w ith a s h a r p int imagining th a t b y thi s c e r e
m o n y he cu t s o ff the t a il s of a n y fu t u r e g r a n dc hil dr en s o
N am

of

'

D vi s

C r th ge p 2 3 0 B os to c k an d R il ey s P l in y ( Boh n s
p 1 3 4 n ote

F r nci sq u e M ich l Ra c e s Ma udit es vl i p 1 7 ; A rgo t p

F rn n C ab a ll er o La G v i o ta vol i p 5 9
H o rn e T oo k e D i v ers i on s o f P ur l y vl i p 3 9 7
B ar in g G o u l d My th s p 1 3 7
1

ol
v

349 ;

G I A N TS

DWARFS

AN D

385

th a t the y w ill be b or n t ai lle ss The r e s eem s n o e v i d en c e

t o co nne c t the occa s i o n a l occurr en c e o f t ail like p roj e c ti o n s
?
b y m al for m a ti o n w ith the s t or ie s o f t aile d h u m a n t r ibe s
A nth ro p o l o g y u ntil m od e r n time s c l a ss i e d a m o ng i t s
f a c t s t h e p a r ti cu l a rs o f m o n s t r o us h u m an t r ibe s gig anti c o r
d wa r sh m ou thle ss or he ad le ss o n e e y e d o r o ne legge d
a n d s o for th
The wor k s o f a n c ient ge o g raphe rs an d n a t ur
a li s t s a b ou n d in d e scr ipti o n s o f the s e s t r a nge cr e a t ur e s ;
wr ite rs suc h as I s i dor e o f Se ville an d R o ge r B a co n c o lle c te d
them an d s ent them int o fr e s h a n d w i d e r c i rcu la ti o n in the
mi d dl e age s a n d the p o p u l a r belie f of u n c i v ilize d n a ti o n s
r et a in s them s till It was n o t till the r e a l wor l d h a d been
so th orou ghl y e x pl or e d as t o l e av e little ro o m in it for the
m o n s te rs th a t a b ou t the beginning o f t h e p r e s ent c ent ury
sc ien c e b a ni s he d them t o the i d e a l wor l d o f m y th o l o g y
H a ving h a d t o gla n c e he r e at t w o of the p r in c ip a l s pe c ie s
in thi s a m a zing s emi h u m a n menage r ie it may be wor th
w hile t o l oo k a m o ng the r e s t for m or e hint s as t o the
sourc e s o f m y thi c fa n cy
Th a t so me of the m y th s of gi a nt s a n d dw a rfs a re c on
n ec t e d w ith t r a d iti o n s o f r e a l in d igen ous o r h os tile t r ibe s i s
s ettle d be yo n d q u e s ti o n b y the e vi d en c e b rou ght forward b y
G r imm N il sso n a n d H an u s ch
With all the di fcu lt y of
a n a l y zing the m i x e d n a t ur e o f the dw a rfs o f E uro pe a n f o lk
l or e an d j udging h ow far the y are el v e s or gn o me s or suc h
like n a t ur e s pi r it s a n d h ow far h u m a n being s in m y thi c
as pe c t it i s imp oss ible n o t t o r e co gnize the element d e r i v e d
?

F ij i

An s tr

W i l l i ams
p 5 5 7 ; P u r ch as
vol i p 2 5 2 B a c k h ou s e

ol i v p 1 2 9 0 ; D
L t N vu s O rb i s p 5 4 3
v

F or v a r i ou s o th e r s t or i e s O f t a i l e d men s ee A s R s v
iii p 1 4 9 ;
ol
Mem A nth r o p S oc vl i p 4 5 4 J on rn I nd Arc h i
ol
iii p 2 6 1
;
p v

& c ( N ic ob a r I sl a nd s ) ; K l emm
C G vol ii pp 2 4 6 3 1 6 ( S ry ts c h ew
L e tters of C o l u mb u s H a kl u y t S oc p 1 1 C u b
(
) &c & c
D e t ai ls of mon s tr ou s t r i b e s h v b ee n in p as t c entur i s s p e cially c ol
A n t h ro om t mor h os i s
le c t ed in t h e fo ll o win g w o rks
M n Tr n s
p
p
fo r med o t h e A t i c i ll C h n gel in g
s c r ip s it J B c g n omen t

C h i roso ph u s M D
L o nd on 1 65 3 C a l vi u s D Th u mat ant h r polog i
ve r p r it er tq u e c t t r cta tu s h i t o i c o ph y s i c us R o s to c k 1 685 J A

Fa b r iciu s D i sserta ti o d e h omi n ib u s o r b i s n os t r i i n c oli s

H m b urg
17 21
O n ly few p r incip l r e fer enc e s are h er g i v n
1

ae

e a

2 c

a,

3 86

M YT H O L O G Y

fro m the kin d l y o r mi sc hie vous a b or igine s o f the l a n d w ith

thei r s pe c i a l l ang u age a n d r eligi o n and cos t u me The
gi ant s a ppe a r in E ur o pe a n f o lkl o r e a s St o ne A ge he a then
sh
y o f the co n q u e r ing t r ibe s o f men l o a th i ng thei r a g r i
cu lt u r e a n d t h e sou n d o f thei r c h urc h bell s
The rud e
n a ti v e s f e a r of the m or e c i v ilize d int rud e r in hi s l a n d i s
w ell d epi c te d in the t a le o f the gi ant s d au ghte r w h o
f o u n d the b oo r pl ou ghi ng hi s el d a n d ca rr ie d h im h o me
in he r a p r o n for a pl ay thingpl ou gh a n d ox en an d a ll ;
b u t he r m o the r b a d e he r ca rry them b a c k t o w he r e s h e
fou n d them for s ai d s he the y a re o f a pe o ple th a t c an do
the H n n s m uc h ill The fac t of the gi ant t r ibe s be a r ing
suc h hi s t or i c n a me s as H u n or C h ud i s s igni c a nt an d
Sl a vo ni c men h a v e pe r h a p s n o t y et forg o tten th a t the
dwarfs t a lke d o f in thei r legen ds w e r e d e sc en d e d fro m the
a b or igine s w h o m
the O l d P russ i a n s fou n d in the l a n d
B e y o n d a dou bt the o ld S c an din av i a n s are d e scr ibing the
a n c ient
an d
ill us e d L a pp p o p u l a ti o n o n c e so w i d el y
s p r e a d ov e r N or the r n E uro pe w hen thei r s ag as tell o f the
dw a rfs s tu nte d an d u gly d r e ss e d in r ein d ee r ki r tle a n d
co l our e d c ap cun ning an d c o w a r d l y s h y of i nte rcours e e v en
w ith fr ien d l y N ors emen dw el ling in c a v e s o r in the m ou n d

lik e L apl a n d g amm a r me d o nl y w ith a rrows tippe d w ith

s t o ne an d b o ne y et f ea r e d an d h a te d b y thei r co n qu e rors
?
fo r thei r f a n c ie d p ow e rs of w it c h cr a f t
M o s lem legen d
r el a te s th a t the r ac e of G o g an d M ag o g (Y aj uj an d M aj uj )
a re of tin y s t a t ur e b u t w ith e ars li ke eleph a nt s ; the y a re a
n u me rous pe o ple an d r av age d the wor l d ; the y dw ell i n
the E a s t s ep a r a te d fr o m P e rs i a b y a high m ount a in w ith
b u t o n e p a ss ; an d the n a ti o n s thei r neighb ours w hen the y
he ard of A le xa n d e r the G r e a t (D h u l Karn ai n ) t ra v e rs ing
the wor l d p ai d t r ib u te t o him a n d he m a d e them a w all of
?
b ro nze an d i ro n t o keep in the n a ti o n of G og an d M ag og
,

Pr imiti v e

Gr i mm
M ch x v ii x v iii ; N i lss on

S ca ndin a vi a ch vi ; H anus ch S l aw M y th pp
V o l ksa b erg l p 2 3 1
C h r o ni q u e d e Ta b a r i t r Dub eux pa r t i ch viii
1

23 0 , 3 2 5
7

I nh b it nt s

of

W u tt k e

r)

S ee

K o ra n x v iii
,

9 2.

G IANTS

Wh o

DW ARFS

AN D

3 87

fail t o r e co gnize in thi s a m ys ti e d d e scr ipti o n

o f t h e T a t a rs Of High As i a ?
P rof e ss o r N il sso n t r ie s t o
accou nt in a gene ra l w ay for the h u ge o r tin y s t a t ur e Of
legen da ry t r ibe s a s bein g me r e e xa gg e ra ti o n Of thei r ac t u al
l a r gene ss o r s m alln e ss W e m us t a d mit th a t thi s so me
time s r e all y h a ppen s The accou nt s w hi c h E uro pe a n
e y e w itne ss e s b r o u ght h o me of the co l oss a l s t a t ur e o f the
P a t ag o ni a n s t o w h os e w a i s t s the y d e c l a r e d thei r ow n he a ds
r e a c he d are en o u gh t o s ettle o n c e for a ll the fa c t th a t
m y th s o f gia nt s may a r i s e fro m the S ight o f r e a lly t a ll
1
men ; an d it i s s o t oo w ith the dwarf legen ds of t h e s a me
r egi o n a s w he r e Kn i v
e t the o l d t r a v elle r r em a r k s of t h e

little pe o ple o f Ri o d e la P l a t a th a t the y are n o t s o v e ry

2
little as d e scr ibe d
2
N e v e r thele ss thi s s a me g rou p of gi a nt a n d dw a rf m y th s
may s e rv e as a w a r ning n o t t o s t r et c h t oo w i d el y a p a r ti a l
e x pla n a ti o n h ow e v e r sou n d w ithin it s p ro pe r lim it s The r e
i s plent y O f e v i d en c e th a t gia nt legen ds a re so metime s phil o
s o phi c m y th s m a d e t o a cc o u nt for the n d ing o f g r e a t foss il
b o ne s T o gi v e b u t a s ingle in s t a n c e o f suc h co nne x i o n
c e r t a in h u ge j a ws a n d teeth f o u n d in e xc a v a ting on the
H o e a t P l y m o u th w e r e r e c o gnize d as bel o nging t o the gi a nt
G o gm a g o g w h o in ol d time s fou ght hi s l a s t ght the r e
?
ag a in s t C or ine us the ep o n y mi c he r o o f C o r n w a ll
A S to
the dw a r fs ag a in s t o r ie s o f them a re cur i ous ly a ssoc ia te d
w ith th os e l o ng en dur ing m o n u ment s o f d ep a r te d r a c e s
thei r b ur ia l cys t s an d d o lm en s Th us in the U nite d St a te s
r a nge s of rud e s t o ne cys t s of ten o nly t w o o r th r ee f eet l o ng
a re c o nne c te d w ith the i d e a o f a p y gm y r a c e b u r ie d in them
In B r itt an y the do lmen s a re the a b od e s an d t r e a sur ie s
ca n

in P ink er ton vol x i p 3 1 4 S e e Bl u me n b a ch D e G e n er i s

H u ma n ae V ari et at e ;
F it zroy V oy o f A d v entu r e a n d B eagl e vol i ;
W a it z A nth r op ol og i e vol iii p 4 8 8
2
Kn i v
et in P u r ch a s v
ol i v p
12 3 1
c omp ar e H u mb ol dt a n d B o npl a nd

vol v p 5 6 4 with Mart i n s E thn og A mer p 4 2 4 see a ls o K r a p f E a s t

A fr ica p 5 1 D u C h a i llu Ash an g o l a nd p 3 1 9

3
a
o
f
a
d
E rly H i s t
M n k in ch x i H unt Po p Rom l s t s er i es pp
1

Pi g a fet t a

,
,

1 8, 3 0 4

3 88

M YTHO L OG Y

the dw a rfs w h o b u il t them a n d like w i s e in In d i a it i s a

usu a l legen d of suc h p r ehi s t o r i c b ur i al pl ac e s th a t the y
w e r e d w a rfs h o us e s the dw elling s o f the a n c ient p y gmie s
w h o he r e a g a in a ppe a r a s r ep r e s ent a ti v e s o f p r ehi s t o r i c
i ou s in a
t r ibe s
B u t a v e r y d i ffe r ent me aning i s o b v
me d i e va l t r a v elle r s a cc o u nt o f the h ai ry man like c r e a
tur e s o f C a th ay o n e cu bit high a n d th a t do n o t be n d
thei r knee s a s the y w a lk o r in an Ar a b ge o g r a phe r s d e
sc r ipti o n o f a n i s l a n d pe o ple in the In d ia n s e a s f o ur s p an s
high n ake d w ith r e d d o w n y h ai r o n thei r f a c e s an d w h o
c limb u p t r ee s a n d s h u n m a nkin d I f an y o ne c o u l d pos
s i b ly d o u bt the r e a l n a t ur e o f the s e dw a rfs hi s dou bt ma y
be r e so l v e d b y M a rco P o l o s s t a tement th a t in hi s time
m o nke ys w e r e r eg u l a r l y e mb a hn e d in the E a s t In d ie s an d
?
s o l d in b ox e s t o be e x hibite d o v e r the wor l d a s p y gmie s
Th us v a r i o us di ffe r ent fa c t s h a v e gi v en r i s e t o s t or ie s of
gi a nt s an d dw a rfs m o r e th a n o n e m y thi c element pe rh a p s
co mbining t o f o r m a s ingle legen d a r e su lt pe r ple x ing in
the e x t r eme t o the m y th ol o gi c a l inte r p r ete r
D e scr ipti o n s o f s t r ange t r ibe s m a d e in enti r e g ood f a ith
may co me t o be u n d e rs t o o d in ne w e x t rav ag a nt s en s e s w hen
c a rr ie d a m o ng pe o ple n o t a w a r e o f t h e or igin al f ac t s The
f o ll ow ing a re s o me inte r p r et a ti o n s Of thi s kin d a m o ng
w hi c h so me far f et c he d c a s e s are giv en t o s h ow th a t the

meth o d m us t n o t be t rus te d t oo m uch The te r m n os e

le ss i s apt t o be mi su n d e rs t ood y et it w
as f a i r l y en ou gh
a ppli e d t o a t n os e d t r ibe s suc h a s T ur k s o f the s teppe s
w h o m R a bbi B enj amin o f T ud el a th us d epi c t s in the t w el f th
c ent ury
The y h av e n o n os e s b u t dr a w b r e a th th rou gh
3
A g a in a m o ng the co mm o n o r na m ent al
t w o s m a ll h o le s
of

S q ui r A b or M o nument s o f N Y p 6 8 ; L on g s E x p vol i pp 6 2
C h a nt s P o pu l i r e s d l Br e t gn
p liv
2 7 5 ; H ers rt d V i ll em rq n

M ad ow s T yl o r in J u r n E th S oc vol i p 1 5 7
35

G u l d Ru b ru q i s in P in k e r to n vol v ii p 6 9 ; L n e T h o u s nd a nd
ol iii
pp 8 1 9 1 s ee 2 4 5 2 9 7 ; H o l e p 6 3 ; M r c o P ol o b oo k
On N v
iii ch x ii

B e nj min o f Tud l a I tin erary e d an d tr b y A s h er 8 3 ; Pli n v ii 2

v
ol i pp 3 4 6 3 5 8
S ee Max M ull r in B un s e n P hi l o s U ni v
1

e,

M ON STRO U S TRIB ES

3 89

m u tila ti o n s o f sav age s i s th a t o f s t r et ching the e ars t o a n

en o r m ous S ize b y w eight s o r c o il s a n d it i s th us v e r b a lly
qui te t r u e th a t the r e a re men w h os e e a r s h a ng d o w n u p o n
thei r S h ou l d e rs Y et w ith o u t e x pl a n a ti o n suc h a ph r a s e
w o u l d be u n d e rs t o od t o d e scr ibe n o t the a ppe a r an c e of a
r e a l s av age w ith hi s e a r l o be s s t r et c he d int o pen d a nt e s h y
l oo p s b u t r a the r th a t Of P lin y s P a n oni o r o f the In d i a n

K a r n ap r d v
ara n a
w h os e e a r s s e rv e them fo r c l o ak s o r o f
the Afr i can dw a rfs s a i d t o us e thei r e a rs o n e fo r m a tt r e ss
a n d the o the r for c o v e r let w hen the y lie dow n O ne o f the
m o s t e x t r av a gant o f the s e s t o r ie s i s t o l d b y F r a y P e dr o
Sim o n in C a li for ni a w he r e in fa c t the te r r it o r y of Oreg on

h as it s n a me fro m the Sp a ni s h te r m o f Or ej on es o r B ig
E a rs gi v en t o the inh a bit a nt s fr o m thei r p rac ti c e o f
s t r et c hing thei r e a r s w ith o r n a ment s
Ev
e n p u r el y met a
ph o r i cal d e scr ipti o n s i f t a ken in a lite r a l s en s e a r e c a p a ble
o f t ur ning int o c a t c he s li k e t h e s t o r y of the h ors e w ith it s
he a d w he r e it s t a il s h o u l d be I h a v e been t o l d by a
F r en c h P ro te s t a nt fro m the N i s me s d i s t r i c t th a t the epi

thet o f g org eo n eg r o or bl a c k th r o a t b y w hi c h C a th o li cs
d e scr ibe a H u g u en o t w a s t aken s o lite r a ll y th a t he r eti c
c hil dr en w e r e so metime s forc e d t o o pen thei r m ou th s t o
s a ti sfy the o r th o dox o f thei r being o f the usu a l co l o ur
w ithin O n e x a mining the d e scr ipti o n o f s a v a ge t r ibe s b y
highe r r a c e s it a ppe a rs th a t s e v e r a l of the epithet s usu a ll y
a pplie d o nl y nee d lite r a lizing t o t u r n int o the w il d e s t of the
l e g e i id ary m o n s te r s t or ie s
Th us the B u r me s e S pe a k of the

rud e K a r en s a s d o g men
M a r co P o l o d e scr ibe s the
A nga m a n (A n d a man ) i s l a n d e rs a s b ru ti s h an d s a v age c an
?
fEli a n S a cc o u nt o f the d og
w ith he a ds like do g s
n i b a ls
he a d e d pe o ple o f In d i a i s o n the f a c e o f it a n a ccou nt Of a
s av age r a c e The Ky n ok e ph a li he s ays a re s o c a lle d fro m
,

'

O est l

F l in i v 2 7 ; M el iii 6 ; B s ti n
A s i n vo l i p 1 2 0 ; vl

ii p 9 3 ; S t J hn vl ii p 1 1 7 ; M rs d e n p 5 3 ; L an e T h u s nd n d

vol iii pp 9 2 3 0 5 ; P th r ic k E gy pt & c p 3 6 7 ; B ur to n

On e N
C entra l A fr vol i p 2 3 5 P d r S i mon I ndia s O ccid ental es p 7
B s ti n O stl A s i en vol i p 1 3 3
M r c o P o l o b o o k i ii ch x v iii
1

a,

M YTHO LOG Y

390

thei r b od il y a ppe a r an c e bu t o the r w i s e the y a re h u m an and

the y g o d r e s s e d in t h e S kin s o f be a s t s ; the y a re j us t a n d
h a r m n o t men ; the y ca nn o t s pe a k b u t r o ar y et the y
u n d e rs t an d the l ang u a ge o f t h e In d i an s ; the y li v e b y
h u nting being sw i f t o f fo o t a n d the y c o o k thei r ga me n o t
b y r e b u t by te a r ing it int o fra gment s and d r y ing it in the
su n ; the y keep g o a t s and s heep an d dr ink the milk The
n a t ur a li s t co n c l ud e s by s ay ing th a t he menti o n s the s e t ly
a m o ng the i rr a ti o n a l a nim a l s be c a us e the y h a v e n o t a rt i c u
l a te d i s tin c t a n d h u m a n l ang ua ge Thi s l as t su gge s ti v e
r em a r k w ell s t a te s the o ld p r e v alent n o ti o n th a t b a r b a r i an s

h a v e n o r e a l l ang u age b u t a re s pee chle ss t o ng u ele ss

o r e v en m ou thle ss
A n o the r m o n s t rous pe o ple o f w i d e
c eleb r it y are P lin y s B le mmy ae s a i d t o be he a d le ss a n d
a cco r d ingl y t o h a v e thei r m ou th s and e y e s in thei r b r e a s t s ;
cr e a t ur e s o v e r w h o m P r e s te r J o hn r eigne d in As i a w h o
dw elt fa r a n d w i d e in S ou th A me r i c an for e s t s an d w h o t o
o u r m e di ee v
a l a n c e s t ors w e r e a s r e a l a s the c a nnib a l s w ith
w h o m O thell o cou ple s them
d m
wh s h ds
Th A nth r p p h g i
D g r w b n t h t h i r s h u l d rs
,

ea

en

an

o e

ea

I f h ow e v e r w e l o o k in d i c ti o n a r ie s for the A cep h a li w e

ma y n d n o t a c t u a l he a d le ss m o n s te rs b u t he r eti cs s o ca lle d
be caus e the i r or igin a l he a d o r fou n d e r w a s n o t kn ow n ;
a n d w hen the kingle ss T ur k o m a n h ord e s say o f them s el v e s

We are a pe o ple w ith ou t a he a d the m

et aph or i s e ven
m o r e pl a in and n a t ura l
M os lem legen d tell s o f the
,

'

iv

ZEl i a n ,

Pl i n

46

vi

v
ol i v p 1 1 9 1 ; v
ol v p
N ig ht s vol iii pp 3 6 9 4
D ese r E th v
ol
p 83
.

97,

v
ii

th er v ers io n s P u r ch a s

C ran z p 2 6 7 ; L an e T h ou s and an d O n e

C a r th age p 2 3 0 ; L a th am
3 05 ; D a v i s

35 ;
901 ;
.

S ee for

v i 2 4 3 5 v ii 2 ; M el a iii 9 ; H er b e rs te in in H a k l u y t

v
o l i p 5 9 3 ; L a th a m
l o
s ee
E arly
D e sc r E th v
ol i p 4 83 ; D a v i s
H i s t o f M a n k ind p 7 7
3
i p 3 3 ; vol ii p 3 7 7 ; vol iii p 8 1 ; E i s e n
Pli n v 8 ; L a n e v
ol
me n g e r v
ol ii p
M and e v i ll e p 2 4 3 ; Ra l e i g h in H a kl u y t vol iii
5 59
pp 6 5 2 6 6 5 H umb ol dt an d B o np l a nd vol v p 1 7 6 P u r ch a s vol i v
p 1 285 ; vol v p 9 0 1 I s id o r B i s p al s v A c eph a l i ; V amb ry p 3 1 0
s ee p 4 3 6
2

Pl i n

8 ;

M O N S T R O U S TRI BES

cr e a t ur e s like on e h a l f o f a s plit
man w ith on e a rm leg an d e y e
P oss ibl y it w as then c e
th at the Zu l us g ot thei r i d e a o f a t r ibe of h a l f men w h o in
on e o f thei r s t or ie s fou n d a Z u l u m a i d en in a c av e a n d
th ou ght sh e was t w o pe o ple b u t o n c l os e r in s pe c ti o n o f he r

a d mitte d
The th i ng i s p r ett y ! B u t o h the t wo leg s "
The s e r e a li s ti c fan cie s co in c i d e w ith the s imple met aph or

w hi c h d e scr ibe s a s a v age as o nl y h a l f a man seen th eme as

V i r gil ca ll s the f e roc i ous C acus 1 A g a in w hen the C hine s e
co mp a r e d them s el v e s t o the ou te r b a r b a r i a n s the y s a i d

We s ee w ith t w o e y e s the L a tin s w ith on e an d a ll o the r

n a ti o n s a re bli n d
S uc h met aph ors p r o v e r bi a l a m o ng
ours el v e s v e r b all y c o rr e s p o n d w ith legen ds o f on e e y e d
?
t r ibe s suc h a s the s av a ge c av e dw elling K y kl o pe s V e r b a l
co in c i d en c e o f thi s kin d u nt rus t wo r th y en ou gh in the s e
l a tte r in s t an c e s p a ss e s a t l as t int o the v ag u e s t fan cy The

neg ro e s c a lle d E ur o pe an s l o ng he a d e d us ing the ph r a s e

in ou r fa mili a r met aph or i ca l s en s e ; b u t t ra n s la te it int o
G r eek an d a t o n c e He s i od s Ma krokep h a lof co me int o
?
being A n d t o co n c l ud e the li s t on e Of the co mm o ne s t
o f the m o n s te r t r ibe s o f the O l d an d N e w W or l d i s th a t
d i s ting u i s he d b y h av ing f eet t ur ne d b a c k w a rd N o w the r e
i s r e a ll y a pe o ple w h os e n a me mem o r a ble in scienti c

co nt rov e rsy d e scr ibe s them as h av ing f eet the O pp os ite

S hi k k

the

391

an d

N e sn a s

L a n e vol 1 p 3 3 C ll awa y Z u l u T al es vol i pp 1 9 9 20 2 V i rg

s imil ar m ta ph o r i s t h e n me O f t h e m ch a s from Pe
I En v iii 1 9 4 ;

s i n n i m h a lf J ou r n E th S oc vol i p 1 9 2 c f F re nch d mi mon d e

C omp r t h e on e l egged tr ib es Pli n v ii 2 ; S ch oo l c r ft I ndi n T r i b es

p ar t iii p 5 2 1 ; C h rl e vo i x vol i p 2 5 Th A u s t ral i n s u se t h e m e t
ph o r O f on e leg (m tt a gy n ) t d e s c r i b e t r i b e s a s o f o n e s t oc k G F

e
M o r V o c ab pp 5 7 1

H y t on in P ur ch s vol iii p 10 8 see K l emm C G vol v i p 1 2 9

S t r b i 2 12 ; see S ch e rz er V oy
V amb y p 4 9 ; H omer O dy ss i x

L k e N g mi
p 4 53 ; D u
o f N va ra
v
ol ii p 4 0 ; C J A nd rss n

E q u t o r i l A fr ic p 4 4 0 ; S i r J R ich ar d s on P o l a r R eg i o n s
C h i l lu
p 3 0 0 F o t r ib s w ith mor e th a n t wo y e s s ee P l in y s me t ph r ic lly

e x p l in e d N i sa c aet h ae an d N i s t i
M en s ch
Pli n v i 3 5 ; a ls B s ti n
y

l
vo ii p 4 1 4 ; O est l A s i e n vol i pp 2 5 7 6 ; P e th er ic k l c B owen
Y o r u b Gr p xx
S chi rren p 1 9 6

KOll e
Th e a r ti ci lly e l o n g a t ed
V ei Gr p 2 29 ; S tr a b o i 2 3 5
sk u lls f r e l M p > ( H ipp okr tes D e A eri s
re fo und in t h e
b u r i l p l c e s o f K e r tch
1

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wa y ,

M YTH O LOG Y

and the y

till r et a in th a t a n cient name

A n ti

of

R et urning f r o m thi s d ig r e ss i o n t o the r egi o n o f phil o

so phi c m y th w e may e x a mine ne w g r ou p s o f e x pl a n a t o ry
s t o r ie s p roduc e d fro m th a t cr a v ing t o kn ow c au ses a n d
r e a so n s which ever be s et s m ankin d When the a ttenti o n
o f a ma n in the m y th m a king s t a ge o f intelle c t i s dr a w n t o
a n y phen o men o n o r cus t o m w hi c h h a s t o him n o o b v i ous
r e a s o n he in v ent s a n d tell s a s t ory t o a ccou nt for it an d
e v en i f he do e s n o t pe rsu a d e him s el f th a t thi s i s a r e a l
legen d Of hi s for e fa the rs the s t ory
telle r wh o he a rs it f r o m
him a n d r epe a t s it i s t rou ble d w ith n o suc h d i fcu lty O ur
t as k in d e a lin g w ith suc h s t or ie s i s m ad e e asy w hen the
cr ite r i o n o f p oss ibilit y can be b rou ght t o be a r u p o n them
It h as be co me a me r e c e r t ainty t o m od e r n s th a t as be s t os i s
n o t r e a ll y s a l a m a n d e r s woo l ; th a t m or bi d h u nge r i s n o t
r e all y caus e d b y a liz ard o r a bi rd in a m a n s s t o m a c h ; th a t
a C hine s e phil oso phe r c a nn o t r e a ll y h a v e in v ente d the r e
dr ill b y s eeing a bi rd peek a t the b ra n che s o f a t r ee till
s p a r k s c ame The Afr i ca n W aku a accou nt for thei r c a ttle
li f ting p roc li v itie s b y the ca lm a ss e r ti o n th a t En gai th a t i s
He a v en g av e a ll c a ttle t o them an d s o w he r e v e r the r e i s
?
a n y it i s thei r c a ll t o g o an d s eize it
S o i n S ou th A me r i ca
the e rc e Mbay a s d e cl ar e the y r e cei v e d fro m t h e C a raca ra
a di vine co mm an d t o m ake war o n al l o the r t r ibe s killing
?
the men an d a do pting the wo men an d c hil dr en
But
th ou gh it may be co n s i s tent w ith the n o ti o n s o f the s e
s av age s t o r el ate suc h e x pl a n a t ory legen ds it i s n o t co n
s i s tent w ith o u r n o ti o n s t o belie v e them F or t u n a tel y t o o
the e x p os t f a c t o legen ds are apt t o co me int o co lli s i o n w ith
m or e a u thenti c s o urc e s of in for m a ti o n or t o en cro ac h o n
the do m ain o f v al i d hi s t o r y It i s of n o us e for the
C hin e s e t o tell thei r s t u pi d s t ory o f wr itten c h a r a c te rs
h av ing been in v ente d fro m the m ar king s on a t or t o i s e s
,

'

vii 2 ; H umb ol d t an d B onp l and vol v p

Kra p f p 3 5 9
S outh ey Bra z i l vol ii i p 3 9 0
Pli n

81

EX P LA N ATO R Y M Y T H S

393

s hell fo r the e a r l y f o r m s of suc h c h a r a c te rs pla in an d

s imple pi c t ur e s o f o bj e c t s h av e been p r e s e rv e d in C hin a t o
thi s day N o r c an w e p r a i s e a n y thing b u t ingen ui t y in the
We s t Highl a n d legen d th a t the P o pe o n c e la i d a n inte rdi c t
o n the l a n d
b u t for g o t t o curs e the hill s s o the pe o ple
tille d them thi s s t ory being t o l d t o a ccou nt for t h e s e
a n c ient t r a c e s o f till a ge s till t o be s een o n the w il d hill

1
s i d e s the s o c a lle d el f furrows
The m os t emba rr a ss ing
c a s e s o f e x pl a n a t ory t r a d iti o n ar e th os e w hi c h are neithe r
imp oss ible en ou gh t o co n d emn n or p ro b a ble en ou gh t o
r e c ei v e E thn o g r a phe rs w h o kn o w h ow w o r l d w i d e i s the
p r a c ti c e of d e fa cin g the teeth a m o ng the l ow e r r a c e s an d
h o w it o nl y d ie s g r a du a ll y ou t in highe r c i v iliz a ti o n n a t u
r a ll y a sc r ibe the h a bit t o so me gene r a l r e aso n in h u m a n
n a t ur e a t a p ar ti cu l a r s t a ge o f d e v el o pm ent B u t the mu
t i la t i n g t r ibe s them s el v e s h a v e l oc a l legen ds t o a ccoun t for
l oc al cus t o m s ; th us the P e n on g s Of B u r m a h an d the B a
t o k a o f E a s t Af r i ca b o th b r e ak thei r fro nt teeth b u t the
o n e t r ibe s a ys it s r e a so n i s n o t t o l oo k like a pe s the o the r
?
th a t it i s t o be like o x en an d n o t like zeb ras O f the
legen ds o f t a tt oo ing on e o f the odd e s t i s th at t o l d t o
a ccoun t for the f a c t th a t w hile the F ij i a n s t a tt oo o nl y t h e
w o men thei r neighb ours the T o ngan s ta tt oo o nl y the men
It i s r ela te d th a t a T o nga n o n hi s w ay fr o m F ij i t o r ep or t
t o hi s c o u nt ry men the p r o pe r cus t o m fo r them t o O b s e rv e
w ent on hi s w ay r epe a ting the ru le he h a d ca r e fu ll y le a rnt

b y he ar t T a tt oo the wo men b u t n o t the men b u t u n

l uc kil y he t r ippe d ov e r a s t u mp g o t hi s le ss o n wro ng an d

r e ac he d T o ng a r epe a ting T a tt oo the m en b u t n o t the

w o men an o rd i n an c e w hi c h the y O b s e rv e d e v e r af te r
H ow r e as o n a ble suc h an e x pl an a ti o n s eeme d t o the P o ly
me s i a n min d may be j ud ge d fro m the S a m o a n s h a v in g a
v e rs i o n w ith d i ffe r ent d et a il s an d a pplie d t o thei r o wn
?
in s te a d o f the T o nga n i s l a n ds
,

D W i ls o n
p 1 23
a
e ol o gy & c O f S c o tl a nd
B s ti n O tl A s i en vl i p 1 28 ; L i v in gs to n e p 5 3 2

W i ll i ams F ij i p 1 6 0 S eem nn V iti p 1 1 3 T u r n er P ly n es i

.

A r ch

es

a,

M YTH OLOGY

94

A ll men f eel h o w w a nting in s en s e o f r e alit y i s a s t o ry

w ith n o pe rs o n a l n a me t o h a ng it t o
Thi s w a nt i s th us
g ra phi ca lly e x p r e ss e d by Sp r enge r the hi s t o r i a n in hi s li fe
o f M o h a mme d :
I t m a ke s o n me a t le a s t q u ite a d i ffe r ent

imp r e ss i o n w hen it i s r el a te d th a t t h e P r o phet s a i d t o

A lk a m a e v en i f I kne w n o thing w h a te v e r el s e o f thi s

A lk a m a th a n i f it w e r e me r el y s t a te d th a t he s a i d t o
s o meb ody
The f eeling w hi c h thi s a cu te a n d le a r ne d
c r iti c th us c a n d i d l y co n f e ss e s h as f r o m the e ar lie s t time s
a n d in the min ds o f men t rou ble d w ith n o suc h ni c e hi s
t o r i c co n sc ien c e ge r min a te d t o the p roduc ti o n o f m uc h
m y thi c fru it Th us it has co me t o p a ss th a t o n e o f the
le a d ing pe rs o n a ge s t o be met w ith i n the t r a d iti o n of the
wor l d i s r e a ll y n o m or e th a n S o meb ody The r e i s n o
thing thi s wo n drous cr e a t ur e c ann o t a c hie v e n o s h a pe he
c a nn o t p u t o n ; o n e o nl y r e s t r i c ti o n bin ds him a t a ll th a t
the n a me he a ssu me s s h a ll h av e so me sor t o f co ng ru it y
w ith the ofc e he u n d e r t ake s an d e v en fro m thi s he of ten
time s b r e ak s l oos e S o r i fe in ou r own day i s thi s m a n u
fa c t ur e o f pe rso n a l hi s t ory of ten tte d u p w ith d et a il s of
pl ac e a n d d a te int o the v e ry s embl a n c e o f r e a l c h ro ni c le
th a t it may be g u e ss e d h ow v a s t i t s wor king m us t h av e been
in d ays o f o l d Th us the ru in s o f an c ient b u il d ing s o f
w h os e r e a l hi s t ory a n d u s e n o t rus t wor th y t r a diti o n surv i v e s
in l oca l mem ory h av e been e a s ily fur ni s he d by m y th w ith a
b u il d e r an d a p ur p os e In Me x i c o t h e g r e a t S o meb ody
a ssu me s the n a me o f M o ntez u m a a n d b u il ds the a q u e duc t
o f Tez on co ; t o the P e rs i a n a n y h u ge an d a nti q u e ru in i s
the w o r k o f the he ro i c A nt ar ; in R uss i a says D r B a s ti a n
b u il ding s of the m os t v a r i ous a ge s a re s et dow n t o P ete r
the G r e a t as in Sp a in t o B o ab d il or C h a r le s V ; an d
E uro pe a n fo lkl or e ma y a tt r ib u te t o the D e v il a n y O ld b u il d
ing o f u n usu a l m a ss i v ene ss an d e s pe c i a ll y th o s e s t o ne
s t ruc t ur e s w hi c h a nti q u a r ie s n o w c l a ss as p rae hi s t or i c
.

in

A n oth er ta ttooin g
(a s i mi l a r l e g e nd t o l d b y t h e S a moa n s )

La th am, D escr E th vol i p 1 5 2 ; B a s ti an , O estl A s ie n ,

1 82

p 1 12

l e g en d
vol i
.

EX PL A NATORY M YTH S

395

m o n u ment s With a m or e g ra c e fu l th ou ght the In d i a n s of

N o r th A me r i ca d e c l a r e th a t the imit a ti v e t u m u li o f O hi o
g r e a t m ou n ds l a i d ou t in rud e imit a ti o n of anim al s w e r e
s h ape d in o l d d ays b y the g r e a t M a nit u him s el f in p ro mi s e Of
The N e w
a plenti fu l su ppl y o f g a me in the wor l d of s pi r it s
Ze a l a n d e rs tell h ow the he ro K u pe s ep a ra te d the N or th an d
S ou th I s la n ds a n d for me d C oo k s St ra it s G r eek m y th
pla c e d a t the g a te o f the Me d ite rr a ne an the t w in pillars o f
He r a kle s ; in m o r e r e ce nt time s the O pening of the St ra it s
o f G ib r a lt ar be c a me on e o f the m a n y f e a t s of A le x a n d e r of
M a c e do n S uc h a g r ou p of s t or ie s as thi s i s n o u n fa i r te s t
of the v a l u e o f me r e t r a d iti o n s of pe rso n a l n a me s w hi c h
s impl y an sw e r the q u e s ti o n s th a t m a nkin d h a v e been a s king
for a ge s a b ou t the or igin o f thei r r ite s l a ws cus t o m s a r t s
S o me suc h t ra d iti o n s are of cours e gen u ine a n d w e m ay be
a ble e s pe c i a ll y in the m or e m od e r n c a s e s t o s ep ar a te t h e
r e a l fro m the im a gin a ry
B u t it m us t be d i s tin c tl y l a i d
dow n th a t in the a b s en c e o f co r ro b or a ti v e e v i d en c e e v e ry
t r adi ti o n s t a n ds sus pe c t of m y th o l o g y i f it c an be m a d e b y
the s imple d e v i c e of tting so me pe rso n a l n a me t o the
p ur ely the or eti ca l ass e r ti o n th a t so meb ody m us t h av e int ro
d u ce d int o the w o r l d re m a king o r w e a p o n s o r or n a ment s
o r g a me s o r a g r i cu lt ur e o r m arr i a ge o r a n y o the r o f the
element s of c i v iliz a ti o n
A m o ng the v a r i ous m a tte rs w hi c h h a v e e xc ite d cur i os it y
a n d le d t o it s s ati sf a c ti o n b y e x pl a n a t ory m y th s a re l oca l
n a me s The s e w hen the p o p u l a r e ar h as l o s t thei r p r imi
ti v e s igni c a n c e be c o me in b a r b a r i c time s an apt su bj e c t
for the m y th m a ke r t o e x pl a in in hi s pe cu li a r f as hi o n
Th us the Tibet an s d e c la r e th a t thei r l a ke Ch omorz r z was
n a me d fro m a wo m a n (ch omo) w h o w as ca rr ie d int o it b y the
The Ar a b s
a k s h e w as r i d ing a n d c r ie d in te rror r i r i
y
sa y the f o u n d e rs o f the c it y o f S en n a a r sa w o n the r i v e r
b a nk a be a u ti fu l wo m an w ith teeth glitte r ing like r e
.

'

'

M e n s ch

H e ro

B a s ti an
ol iii pp 1 6 7 8 ; W i lk in s o n in R awl in s o n s
v
d ot u s v
ol ii p 7 9
Gr i mm D M pp 9 7 2
6 W G P algr a v e
A ra b i a
i p 2 5 1 S quie r an d D a v i s M onuments o f M i ss i ss ippi V all ey
v
ol

a
p 13 4 ; T yl o r N ew Z eal and p 2 5 8
1

M YTH O LO G Y

396

w hen c e the y ca lle d the pl ac e S i n na r i e

t oo th o f r e
The A rka d i an s d e r i v e d the n ame o f t h e i r t o w n j r np ez n s
fro m the t a ble ( t rap ez a ) w hi c h Ze us o v e r t ur ne d w hen the
w o l s h Ly k a o n s e rv e d a c hil d o n it for a b a n q u et t o him 1
S uc h crud e fa n c ie s in n o w ay d i ffe r in n a tur e fr o m E ngli s h
l o c a l legen ds curr ent u p t o r e c ent time s suc h as th a t w hi c h
r el a te s h o w the R o m an s c o ming in s ight o f w he r e E x eter

n ow s ta n ds e xc la ime d in d eli ght E ccc ter m a n d th us

the c ity h a d it s n a me N o t l o ng a g o a cur i o us en q u i r e r
w i s he d t o kn o w fro m the inh a bit ant s o f F ordi ng br q c or
as the cou nt ry pe o ple c a ll it F a r d en br fdg c w h a t the or igin
of thi s name might be an d he a rd in r epl y th a t the b r i d ge
w a s th o u ght t o h a v e been b u ilt w hen w age s w e r e s o c he a p

th a t m a so n s wor ke d for a fa rd en a day The F a lm ou th

fo lk s s t ory o f S q u i r e P en d a rv i s an d hi s a le i s w ell kn ow n
h ow hi s s e rva nt e xcus e d he rs el f for s el ling it t o the s a il o rs

be caus e a s s h e s a i d The p en n y come so q u i ck w hen c e

the pla c e came t o be ca lle d P en ny comegn fck ; thi s n o n s en s e
being in v ente d t o a ccou nt for an a n c ient C or ni s h n ame

p r o b abl y P eny cn mg wec he ad o f the cr eek v a lle y M y thi c

f an cy h ad f a llen t o a low e s t a te w hen it dw in d le d t o suc h
r emn a nt s as thi s
Th a t pe rso n al n a me s ma y p a ss int o n ou n s w e w h o t a lk
of broug h a ms a n d bln ch crs c a nn o t d en y
B u t a n y suc h
et ym o l o gy ou ght t o h av e co ntemp ora ry docu ment o r so me
e qu a ll y forc ible p roof in it s f a vour for thi s i s a for m o f e x
plan a ti o n t a ken b y the m o s t a g ra nt m y th s D av i d the
p a inte r it i s r el a te d h a d a p ro mi s ing p u pil n a me d Ch fcgn e
the s on o f a fru ite r e r ; the la d d ie d a t eighteen b u t h i s
m a s te r co ntin u e d t o h o l d him u p t o l a te r s t ud ent s as a
m od el of ar ti s ti c c le v e r ne ss an d hen c e a ros e the n ow

La th m D escr E th vol i p 4 3 L j c n in Revd s D u x M o nd es

15 F eb 1 8 6 2 p 85 6 ; A poll o d or iii 8
C omp r t h e d r i va tio n o f A re

=
b y t h e P r u v i n s from t h w ord s r t ! q u ep a y
q ip
y es ! r em in
s id t o h v b ee n dd r ss d to t h e c ol oni s t s b y t h e I nc
M ark h m
uichu Gr a d D i e
h
a ls
t h e s upp s d t y mo l o gy o f D h ome D
Q

=
from t h e s tory o f K in g D k o b ui l din g
h o men
o n t h e b e lly o f D nh

hi s p al ac e on t h e b d y o f t h e c o n q u e r ed K in g D anh : B u r t o n in Tr E th
S oc v
ol iii p
401
.

'

a.

a e

a :

o e

an

M YTHS

E TY M OL O G I O A L

397

famili a r te r m o f ch i c E ty m o l o gi s t s a rac e n o t w a nting

in e ffro nte ry h av e h a rd ly e v e r sur p a ss e d thi s ci rcu m s t a nti a l
ca n a rd ; the word ch i c d a te s a t a n y r a te fro m the s e v enteenth
?
c ent ury
A n o the r word w ith w hi c h s imil a r libe r t y h as

been t a ken i s ca n t Steele in the Spe c t a t or s ays th a t

so me pe o ple d e r i v e it fro m the n a me o f o n e A n d r e w C a n t
a S co t c h mini s te r w h o h a d th e gi f t of p r e a c hing in suc h a
d i a le c t th a t he w a s u n d e rs t ood b y n o ne b u t hi s ow n c o ng r e
Thi s i s pe r h a p s n o t a
g a t i on an d n o t b y a ll o f the m
v e ry a ccu r a te d eline a ti o n o f the r e a l A n dr e w C a nt w h o i s

menti o ne d in W h i t e lo ck s Mem or i a l s an d s eem s t o h av e

kn ow n h ow t o s pe a k ou t i n v e ry plain te r m s in d ee d B u t
a t a n y r a te he our i s he d a b o u t 1 6 5 0 w he r e a s the v e r b t o
ca n t w as then a lr e a dy a n o ld word
To a n te me a ning t o
c

s pe ak i s menti o ne d in H a r m a n s L i s t o f R og u e s W o r ds
i n 1 5 6 6 an d in 1 5 8 7 H a r r i s o n s ays o f the begga rs a n d
gy p s ie s th a t the y h av e d e v i s e d a l ang u age a m o ng them

s el v e s w hi c h the y n a me ca n teng b u t o the rs P e d l a rs

2
F re n c h e
O f all et y m o l ogie s a scr ibe d t o pe rso n al
n a me s on e o f the m os t cur i ous i s th a t o f the Da n s e Ma
ca br e o r D a n c e o f D e a th
S O w ell kn o w n fro m H o lbein s
pi c t ur e s I t s su pp os e d a u th or i s th us menti o ne d in the

B i o g r a phie U n i ve rs e ll e z
M a cabe r p o ete a llem an d s e
ra it t ou t a f ait in co nn u s a n s l O u v
ra e
q u o n a s o us s on
g
n om
Thi s it m ay be a dd e d i s t ru e en ough for the r e
ne v e r w as such a pe r so n a t a ll the D a n s e Ma ca br e being
r e a ll y C h or e a Ma ch a boeor mn the D a n c e o f the Ma cca bees
.

'

V e r b a N omi n a li a
,

chic

C h r n ck
s v
s ee
F r nci s q u e M ich el
;
A rgo t s v

S p e ct t r N o 1 4 7 Bra nd Pop A nt vol iii p 9 3 H o tt en S l n g

D icti on a ry p 3 ; C h r n c k s v c nt A s t o t h e r l e tymo l ogy th t

fr m t h e b egg r s w hinin g ch a n t i s d e fe cti v e for t h e b gg r d r p s thi s
t is
t o n e e x ctly w h e n h ca n ts i e t lks j rg n w ith hi s fe ll w s I f
di r ectl y from L tin n t re it w i ll c orr es p o nd w ith I t l i n c n t r n d
F r nch h n te b o th u s e d
sl n g wor d s fo t s p e k ( F n ci q u M ich el
A K e l tic o r ig in i s more p r ob b l G ael ic and I r i s h ca n n t c i n t
=t a lk l n g u g e di l e ct ( e e W e d g woo d E ty m l g ic l
Th

L i di on n
G el ic e q ui val e nt s for p ed l rs F r e nch o r tr mp s sl an g

n an
c
d
tin k ers L tin
j rg n or e x ct ly
a z nn t c h e
d
i
c i r d s ca n t
A d ep r c nn x i n b t w n c i n n t n d a n ta re d e s n ot
a ff ct thi s
1

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3 98

M YTHOLOG Y

kin d o f pi o us p ant o mime of d e a th pe rfor me d in c h urc he s

in the f teenth c ent ury Wh y the pe rfor m an c e r e c eiv e d
thi s n ame i s th a t the r ite o f M ass for the d e a d i s d i s tin
u i s h e d b y the r e a d ing o f th a t p a ss age fro m t h e t w el f th
g
c h a pte r o f B o o k II o f the Ill a cca becs w hi c h r el a te s h ow the
pe o ple bet oo k them s el v e s t o p ray e r and be sou ght the L ord
th a t the s in o f th os e w h o h ad been s l ain a m o ng them migh t
be w h o lly bl o tte d o u t ; for if J udas h a d n o t e x pe c te d th a t
the s l a in s h ou l d r i s e ag a in it h ad been su pe r uous an d
?
v a in t o p r ay for the d e a d
T rac e d t o it s origin it i s th us
s een th a t the D an s e Ma ca br e i s neithe r m or e n or le ss th a n
the D an c e o f the D e ad
It i s n o t an u n usu a l thing for t r ibe s an d n a ti o n s t o be
kn ow n b y the n a me of thei r c hie f a s in b oo k s of Afr i can

t r a v el w e r e a d o f Ey o s pe o ple o r K amraz i s pe o ple

S uch te r m s m ay be co me pe r m a nent li ke the n a me of the
Os ma n lf T ur k s t aken fro m the g r e a t 0 th ma n o r Osma n
The n o ti o n s of kin s hip an d c hie f tain s hip may e a s ily be c om
b i n e d as w he r e so me in d i v i du a l B r i a n or A lpine may h av e
gi v en hi s n a me t o a c l an o f O B r i en s or Ma c A lp i n es H ow
far the t r ib a l n a me s of the l ow e r r a c e s may h a v e been
d e r i v e d fro m in d i v i du al n a me s o f c hi e fs o r for e fa the rs i s a
q u e s ti o n on w hi c h di s tin c t e v i d en c e i s d i fcu lt t o O bt a in In
P a t ag o ni a b a n ds o r s u b d i v i s i o n s of t r ibe s are d e s ign a te d b y
the n a me s o f temp ora ry c hie fs e v e ry rov ing p a r t y h av ing

suc h a le a d e r w h o i s so metime s e v en St y le d y a nk i e

f a the r
The Z u l us an d M a or i s w e r e r ac e s w h o p a i d
g r e a t a ttenti o n t o the t ra di ti o n a l gene a l o gie s o f thei r c l an
a n c e s t ors w h o w e r e in d ee d n o t o nl y thei r ki n sfo lk b u t thei r
g ods ; an d the y di s tin c tl y r e co gnize the p oss ibility o f t r ibe s
being n a me d fro m a d e c e as e d a n c e s t or or c hie f The K a r
3

t r ibe of A ma X osa d e r i v e s it s n a me fro m a c hie f U X osa ;

a n d the M a or i t r ibe s o f N g a te W a ka n e an d N g a P n hf c l a im
a

v ma cca

ls o F r anci sq u e M ich el A rg o t s

2
M u s t ers Pa t ag o nia n s pp 6 9 1 8 4

3
D o hn e Z u l u D ic p 4 1 7 ; Arb ousset
v
352
o l ii pp 3 4 9
1

S ee

e,

ma cc ha e

n oy

an d

Dau mas ,

26 9 ;

W it z
a

E P ONYMI C M Y TH S

399

d e sc ent fr o m c hie fs c a lle d W a ka u e a n d P u hi

Arou n d thi s
n uc le us o f a c t u a lit y h ow e v e r t here ga the rs an en or m ous
m ass o f fi c ti o n s im u l a ting it s e ffe c t s The m y th m a ke r
cur i ous t o kn ow h ow an y pe o ple or count ry ga ine d it s n a me
h ad o nl y t o co n c l ud e th a t it c a me fro m a g r e a t a n c e s t or or
ru le r an d then the S imple p roc e ss of t ur ning a n ati o n a l or
l oca l title int o a pe rso n a l n a me a t o n c e add e d a ne w gene a l o gy
In so me cas e s the n ame of th e
t o hi s t or i c a l t r a d iti o n
im agine d a n c e s t or i s in v ente d in suc h for m th a t the l oca l or
gentile n a me may s t an d as g r a mm a ti cally d e r i v e d fro m it as
'
usu a ll y h a ppen s in r e a l c a s e s like the d e r i v a ti o n o f C ccsa r ea
fro m Caesa r o r of the B en edi cti n es fro m Ben ed i ct B u t in
the c titi ous gene a l o gy or hi s t ory of the m y th m a ke r the
me r e un a lte r e d n a me o f the n a ti o n t r ibe , cou nt ry or c it y
Of ten be co me s w ith ou t m or e a do the n ame o f the ep o n y mi c
he ro It h as t o be r emembe r e d m or e ov e r th a t cou nt r ie s
an d n a ti o n s c a n be pe rso ni e d b y a n im a gin a ti v e p r o c e ss
w hi c h h as n o t q u ite l os t it s s en s e in m od e r n S pee c h F r a nce
i s t alke d o f b y poli ti c an s as a n in d i v i du a l being w ith pa r
t i cu lar o pini o n s an d h a bit s an d may e v en be emb od ie d a s a
s t a t u e or pi c t ur e w ith su it a bl e a tt r ib u te s A n d i f o ne w e r e
t o say th a t B r i ta n n i a h a s t wo d a u ghte rs Ca n a d a an d
A u str a li a or th a t S he h as g o ne t o keep h ous e for a d e cr epit
O l d au nt c alle d I n d i a thi s wou l d be a d mitte d as pl a in f a c t
e x p r e ss e d in fant a s ti c la ng u age The in v enti o n of a n c e s t r ie s
fr o m ep o n y mi c he ro e s o r n ame a n c e s t ors h as h ow e v e r o f ten
h a d a s e r i o us e ffe c t in corru pting hi s t or i c t ru th b y helping
t o ll a n cient a nn a l s w ith sw a r m s of c titi ous gene a l o gie s
Y et w hen surv e y e d in a l a r ge v ie w the n a t ur e o f the e pon y
mi c c ti o n s i s p a tent an d in d i s p u t able an d S O r eg u l ar are
thei r f o r m s th a t w e cou l d sc a rc ely c h oos e m o r e telling e x
a mple s o f the co n s i s tent p roc e ss e s o f im a gin a ti o n a s S h ow n
in the d e v el o pment o f m y th s
The g r e a t n u mbe r o f the ep o n y mi c a n c e s t ors of a n cient
G r eek t r ibe s a n d n a ti o n s m a ke s it e a sy t o te s t them b y c om
p a r i s on a n d the te s t i s a d e s t ruc ti v e on e T r e a t the he r o i c
?

S h or tl nd
a

T ra d s

of

N Z p

22 4

MY T H O L O G Y

4 00

gene a l ogie s the y bel o ng t as t ra d iti o n s fou n d e d o n r e a l

hi s t ory a n d the y p r o v e h o pele ss ly in d epen d ent a n d i n com
p a tible ; b u t c o n s i d e r them as m o s tly l oc a l a n d t r ib a l m y th s
a n d suc h in d epen d en c e a n d in co mp a tibilit y be c o me thei r
p r o pe r f e a tur e s M r G r o te w h o s e ten d en cy i s t o t r e a t a ll
m y th s a s c ti o n s n o t o nly u ne x pl a ine d b u t u ne x pl a in a ble
he r e m a ke s a n e xc epti o n t ra c ing the ep o n y mi c a n c e s t o rs
fro m w h o m G r eek c itie s and t r ibe s d e r i v e d thei r legen d a ry
p a r entage t o me r e emb od ie d l oca l a n d gentile n ame s Th us
o f the f t y so n s o f L ka 6 n a w h o le l a r ge g rou p co n s i s t s o f
y
pe rso ni e d c itie s o f Ar k a d i a suc h as Ma n ti n ea s P h ig a los
Teg ea tes w h o acc o rd ing t o the s impl y in v e r ting legen d ar e
ca lle d foun d e rs o f Ma n ti n a P h i g a li a Teg ea The f a the r
o f King fEa kos w as Ze us
hi s m o the r hi s own pe rso ni e d
l an d E y i na the c it y o f Myh n a i h a d n o t o nl y an a n c e s t r e ss

My lc ne b u t a n ep o n y mi c a n c e s t or as w ell Myhen eu s L o ng
af te rw a rds me di aev a l E uro pe s tim u l a te d b y the s plen di d
gene a l o gie s th rou gh w hi c h R o me h a d a tt a c he d he rs el f t o
G r ee c e a n d the G r eek g ods a n d he ro e s d i scov e r e d the
s e cr et o f r i va l ling them in the c h ro ni c le s o f G e o ffry of
M o nm ou th an d o the rs b y c la iming a s fou n d e rs o f P a r i s a n d
Tou rs the T r oj a n s P a r i s an d Tu r n u s an d co nne c ting F r a nc e
a n d B r i ta i n w ith the T roja n w a r th rou gh F r a n cu s s on o f
He c t or a n d B ru tu s g r e a t g r a n dso n o f E ne a s A r em a r k
a bl y pe rf e c t ep o n y mi c hi s t or i c a l m y th a ccou nting fo r the
G y p s ie s o r E g y pti an s may be fou n d ci t e d s e r i ous l y in
B l ack s t o ne s C o mment a r ie s
w hen S u lta n Selim co n
q u e r e d E gy pt i n 1 5 1 7 s e v e r a l o f the n a ti v e s r e fus e d t o su b
mit t o the T ur ki s h yo ke an d r e vo lte d u n d e r on e Z i ng a n eu s
w hen c e the T ur k s c a lle d them Z i ng a n ees b u t bein g a t length
surroun d e d an d b a ni s he d the y a g r ee d t o di s pe rs e in s m a ll
p a r tie s ov e r the wor l d & c & c It i s cur i ous t o wa t c h
M i lt o n s min d eme r ging b u t n o t w h o lly eme rging fro m the
s t a te o f the me d i aev a l c h ro ni c le r He menti o n s in the

begi nning o f hi s Hi s t ory o f B r it a in the Ou tl a n d i s h g

ment o f the four kin g s Mag u s S a r an D r u i s an d B a r da s
he h as n o a pp r ova l for the gi a nt A lbi on s on o f N ept u ne w h o
o

'

EPONYMI C M YTH S

4 01

su b du e d the i s l an d an d c a lle d it a fte r hi s o wn n ame ; he

sc o ffs a t the four so n s of J aph e t c a lle d F r a n cu s R oma n u s
B u t w hen he co me s t o B ru tu s
A lema nn u s an d B r i tta
a n d the T roj a n legen ds o f O l d E ngli s h hi s t ory hi s sc epti ca l

cour a ge f a il s him : th os e O l d an d inb or n n a me s of succ e s

s i v e king s ne v e r an y t o h av e bin r e a l pe rs o n s or d on in thei r
li v e s a t le as t som p a r t o f w h a t S O l o ng h a th bin re me mb e r d
1
c ann o t be th ou ght w ith ou t t oo s t r i c t a n in cr e du lit y
A m o ng rud e r r ac e s o f the wor l d a ss e r te d gene a l o gie s o f
thi s c la ss may be in s ta n c e d in S ou th A m e r i ca n t r ibe s c a lle d
the A i n oip i r a an d P otyu a r a ? Kh o n d c l a n s c a lle d B a sha an d
4
Ja kso? T ur k o m a n h o rd e s c a lle d Y omu t Tehh e an d Ch a u d or
a ll o f
them p r o f e ss ing t o d e r i v e the i r d e s ign a ti o n s fro m
a n c e s t ors or c hie fs w h o b or e as in d i v i du a l s the s e v e ry n a me s
Whe r e cr iti ci s m c a n be b r o u ght t o be a r o n the s e gene a logie s
it s e ffe c t i s o f ten suc h a s drov e B ru t us an d hi s T r oj a n s ou t
o f E ngli s h hi s t o ry
When the r e a ppe a r in the gene al o g y o f
H a uss a in We s t Afr i ca pl a in n a me s o f t o w n s like K a n o a n d
K a i s en a 5 it i s n a t ur a l t o co n s i d e r the s e t ow n s t o h av e been
pe r s o ni e d int o m y thi c a n c e s t o rs Me x i ca n t r a d iti o n a ss ign s
a w h o le s e t o f ep o n y mi c a n c e s t ors o r c hie fs t o the v a r i o us
r a c e s o f the l a n d as Mar i the f o u n d e r o f Mex i co Oh i ch i
m eca tl the rs t king o f the Ch i chi mecs a n d S O fo r th d o w n t o
Otomi tl the a n c e s t or o f the Otomi s w h o s e v e ry n a me b y it s
?
te r min a ti o n bet r ays it s A zte c in v enti o n The B r a zi li a n s
a cc ou nt for the d i v i s i o n of the Tup i s a n d Gu a r a n i s b y the
legen d o f t wo a n c e s t r a l b ro the rs Tup i an d Gu a r a n i w h o
,

On

d opti on o f imag in a ry a n ce s tors a s c o nn e cte d with t h e cti o n o f

a c omm o n d e s c e nt a n d t h e i mp or t a nt p ol itic a l an d r el i g i ou s e ffe ct s o f th e s e

p r o c ee din gs s ee e s p eci a lly Gro t e H i s t ory o f Gr ee c e vol i Mc Len n a n

P r i miti ve M a rr i age M a in e A nci ent Law I nt er e s tin g d e ta i ls on e pon y
mi c a nc e s tors in P o tt A nti K a u l e n O d e r M y thi s ch e V o rs t ell un g e n v
om
U rs prun g e d er V olk e r an d S p r a ch e n
Ma rt i ns E thn og A mer v
ol i p 5 4
s ee p 2 83

3
Ma cph ers o n I ndia p 7 8

Va mb ry
C e nt r a l A s ia p 3 25 s ee a ls o L ath a m D es cr E th vol i
p 4 5 6 ( O s tyaks ) G eorgi R ei se i m Ru ss R eich vol i 2 4 2 (Tun g u z )
B ar th N C e ntr A fr vol ii p 7 1

3
J G M ll er A me r U rreli g p 5 7 4
1

th e

'

M YTH OLOG Y

4 02

q u a rr elle d a n d s ep a ra te d e a c h w ith hi s fo ll ow e rs : he r e a n
ep o n y mi c o r igin o f the s t ory i s m a d e likel y by t he w o rd
G u a ra n i n o t being a n o l d n a ti o n a l n a me a t a l l b u t me r el y

the d e s ign a ti o n o f w a r r i o rs giv en by the mi ss i o n a r ie s t o

?
a
c e r t in t r ibe s A n d w hen suc h fa c t s a re c o n s i d e r e d a s th a t
Cray
er
N o r th A me r i c an c l an s n a me d a f te r a nim a l s B ea v
h
i
s
a n d the like a cc o u nt fo r t hese n a me s b y s impl y c l a im
f
2
ing t h e v e r y cr e a t ur e s them s el v e s as a n c e s t ors the ten d en cy
o f gene r a l cr iti c i s m w ill p r o b a bl y be n o t s o m uc h in f a vour
o f r e a l for e fa the r s and c hie fs w h o le f t thei r n a me s t o thei r
t r ibe s a s o f ep on y mi c a n c e s t ors cr e a te d b y ba ck w a rds imi
t a t i o n o f suc h inhe r it a n c e
The e x a min a ti o n o f ep o n y mi c legen d h ow e v e r m us t b y
n o me an s s t o p s h o r t a t the d e s t ruc ti v e s t a ge In fa c t w hen
it h a s u n d e rg o ne the s h a r pe s t cr iti c i s m it o nly d i s plays the
m or e c le a r l y a r e a l hi s t or i c va l u e n o t le ss pe r h a p s th a n i f
a l l the n a me s it r e c o rds w e r e r e a l n a me s of a n c ient c hie fs
With a ll thei r fa n c ie s bl u n d e rs an d s h or t co mings the he ro i c
gene a l ogie s p r e s e rv e e ar l y the or ie s o f n a ti o n a lity t r a d iti o n s
o f mig r a ti o n in v a s i o n co nne x i o n b y kin dr e d or inte rcours e
The ethn o l o gi s t s o f O l d d ays b orrow ing the ph r as e o l o gy of
m y th s t a te d w h a t the y l oo ke d on as the a c t u a l r ela ti on s of
r a c e s in a pe rso ni fy ing l a ng u a ge of w hi c h the me a ning may
s till be r e a dil y inte r p r ete d Th e G re e k legen d o f the t w in
b r o the rs D a n a os an d E gg/p i es fou n d e rs o f the n a ti o n s o f
the D a na oi or H o me r i c G r eek s an d of the E gyp ti a ns
r ep r e s ent s a di s tin c t th ou gh w e a k e thn o l o gi c a l the ory
Thei r ep o n y mi c m y th o f H ellen the pe rs oni e d r a c e o f the
H ellen es i s a n o the r a n d m or e r e a so n a ble ethn o l o gi ca l d o cu
ment s t a ting ki n s hip a m o ng four g r e a t b ra n che s o f the
G r eek r a c e : the th r ee so n s of H ellen it r el a te s w e r e
A i olos D ar es a n d X ou th os the rs t t wo g a v e thei r n a me s
t o the E eli a ns an d D or i a n s the thi rd h a d so n s ca lle d
A ch a i os an d I on w h o s e n a me s p a ss e d a s a he r it age t o the
,

i pp 1 804 ; W a it z vol iii p 4 1 6

S ch o ol c r a ft I ndi a n T ri b es p a r t i p 3 1 9 p a r t iii p
p 4 9 C a tl in vo l ii p 1 2 8 ; J G M ull e r pp 1 3 4 3 2 7
1

ol
Ma rt i ns v
,

2 68 ,

s ee

p ar t ii

E P O N Y M I C MY T H S

4 03

The belie f of the Lydi a ns Mysi a n s

a n d K a r i a n s a s t o thei r n a ti o n a l kin s hip i s w ell e x p r e ss e d
in the gene a l o gy in He rodo t us w hi c h t r a c e s thei r d e sc ent
f ro m the th r ee b ro the r s Lg d os Mg sos an d E a r
The
P e rs i an legen d o f F e r i d u n ( Th ra e t aon a ) an d hi s th r ee so n s
I rej Tu r a n d S elm d i s ting u i s he s the t wo n a ti o n a litie s of
I r a n i a n an d Tu ra n i a n i e P e rs i a n an d T a t a r
The n a ti o n a l
gene a l ogy o f the Afgh a n s i s wor th y o f r em a r k It ru n s
th us Melik T a l u t (King S a u l ) h a d t wo so n s B e r ki a an d
I rmi a ( B e re ki a h an d Je r emi a h ) w h o s e rv e d D a v i d ; the s on
o f B e r ki a w as Af g h a n
a n d the s o n o f I rmi a w a s U s bek
Th a nk s t o the a qu ili ne n os e s Of the Afgh an s a n d t o thei r
us e o f B ib li ca l pe rso n a l n a me s d e r i v e d fro m B ibli ca l s o urc e s
the i d e a o f thei r being d e sc en d ant s of the l o s t t r ibe s of
I sra el fou n d g r e a t cr e d en c e a m o ng E ur o pe a n sc h o la rs u p t o
?
the p r e s ent c ent ury Y et the pe d ig r ee i s ethn o l ogi ca ll y
a b surd fo r the w h o le sourc e o f the im a gine d cous in s hip O f
the Ary a n Afg h a n an d the T ura ni a n U sbelc so d i s tin c t b o th
in fe a t ur e an d in l a ng u a ge a ppe a rs t o be in thei r u ni o n b y
co mm o n M o h amme d a ni s m w hile the r e ckle ss j u mble o f
S h a m hi s t o ry w hi c h d e r i v e s b o th fr o m a Semiti c sourc e i s
o nl y t o o c h a r a c te r i s ti c o f M os lem c h ro ni c le
A m o ng the
T a t a rs i s fou n d a m uc h m or e r e a s o n a ble n a ti o n a l pe d ig r ee ;
in the 1 3 t h c ent ury Willi a m of Ru y sb roe k r ela te s as s o be r
c i rcu m s t anti a l hi s t o ry th a t the y w e r e or igin a ll y calle d
Tu r ks fr o m Tu r k the el d e s t s on o f J a ph e t b u t o n e o f thei r
p r in c e s le f t hi s do mini o n s t o hi s t w in s o n s Ta ta r an d Mong ol
w hi c h ga v e r i s e t o the d i s tin c ti o n th at h as e v e r S in c e p r e
v a ile d bet w een the s e t wo n a ti o n s Hi s t o r i ca ll y a b surd thi s
legen d s t a te s w h a t a ppe a rs the u nimpe a ch a ble ethn o l o gi ca l
A ch a i oi

an d

on i a n s

Gr t
B ibl i 7

H i s t

Gr ee c e ; Pau s a n iii 2 0 ; Di o d S ic v A poll od or

3 v i 1 4 ; H ero dot i 1 7 1
2
Ma x M ull er in B un s e n v
ol i p 3 3 8
Tab ar i par t i ch x l v lx i x

3
S i r W J on e s in A s Res vol ii p 2 4 ; Va n s ittar t i b id p 6 7 ; s ee

Campb ell in J o urn A s S o c B en ga l 1 86 6 p a r t ii p 7

1
Wi ll d o Ru bru q ui s in P in k er to n vol v ii p 2 3 Gab elen t z in Z ei t sch r
fur d i e K und e d es M o rge n l a nd e s v
ol
ii p 7 3 ; S ch midt Volk e r M ittel
A s i en p 6
1

o e,

of

M YTH O LOG Y

4 04

f a c t th a t the Tu rks Mong ols a n d Ta ta rs a re c l os el y

co nne c te d b r a n c he s o f on e n a ti o n a l s t o c k a n d w e c an o nl y
di s p u te in it w h a t s eem s a n e xo r bit a nt c l a im o n the p a r t
o f the
Ta r /r t o r ep r e s ent the he a d o f the f a mil y the
a n c e s t o r o f t h e Mong ol and t h e Ta ta r
Th us the s e ep o n y mi c
n a ti o n a l gene a l o gie s m y th o l ogi c a l in fo r m b u t ethn o l o gi c a l
in su b s ta n c e emb o dy o pini o n s o f w hi c h w e may a d mit o r
d en y the t ru th o r v a l u e b u t w hi c h w e m us t r e co gnize as
?
d i s tin c tl y ethn o l o gi c a l docu ment s
It th us a ppe a r s th a t e a r l y ethn o l o gy i s h a bitu a lly e x
p r e ss e d i n a met aph or i ca l l ang u age in w hi c h l a n ds an d
n a ti o n s a re pe rso ni fi e d a n d thei r r el a ti on s i n d i ca te d b y
te r m s o f pe r so n al kin s hip Thi s d e scr ipti o n a pp lie s t o
th a t imp or tant d o cu ment o f a n c ient ethn o l o gy the ta ble o f
n ati o n s in the l 0 t h c h a pte r of G ene s i s In so me c a s e s it i s
a p ro blem O f min u te and d i fcu lt cr iti c i s m t o d i s ting u i s h
a m o ng it s a n c e s t r a l n a me s th o s e w hi c h are s impl y l oc a l or
n a ti o n a l d e s ign a ti o n s in pe rso n a l for m B u t t o cr iti cs co n
v e rs ant w ith the ethni c gene a l o gie s o f o the r pe o ple s suc h
as h a v e he r e been q uo te d s imple in s pe c ti o n o f thi s n a ti o n al
li s t ma y sufc e t o S h ow th a t p a r t o f it s n a me s a re n o t n a me s
o f r e a l men
b u t o f pe rso ni e d c iti es l a n ds and ra c e s
The c ity Z i d on ( rug ) i s b r o the r t o H elh ( r m) the fa the r o f
the H i tti tes an d ne x t fo ll ow in pe rso n the J e bu si t e an d
the A m o r ite A m o ng pl a in n a me s o f c o u nt r i e s C a sh or
I Et h i opi a ( e2 13 ) beget s N im rod A ssh u r o r A ssyr i a (war/s )
b u il ds N ine v eh an d e v en the du a l Mi z ra i m ( m m) the t wo
E g y pt s usu a ll y r eg a r d e d a s s igni fy ing U ppe r and L o w e r
E g yp t a ppe a r s in the line o f gene r a ti o n s a s a pe rs o n a l so n
a n d b r o the r o f o the r cou nt r ie s a n d a n c e s t or o f p o p u l a ti o n s
The Ary a n s t ock i s c le a r l y r e co gnize d i n pe rson i c a ti on s
llI a d a i ( m) the Med e
o f a t le a s t t w o o f it s membe rs
a n ( i ) the I on i a n
A
n
d
an d Ja v
a s r eg a rds the f a mil y t o
p
w hi c h the I s r a elite s them s el v e s bel o ng i f C a n a a n ( pm) the
f a the r o f Z i d on ( ni x) be t r a n sf e rr e d t o it t o r ep r e s ent the

A nti K aul n pp 1 9 23 ; R ss n pp 7 0 1 5 3 ; nd
S ee ls o P tt
r em rks on c ol ni z ati o n my th s in Max M u ll er C hip s vl ii p 6 8
,

EPONYMI C M YT H S

4 05

A r a m ( ms )
s i d e o f A ssh u r
a nt s of Shem the r e su lt
the
o
the
r
d
e
sc
en
d
E ber (3 3 v
an
d
)
w ill be m a inl y t o a r r a nge the Semiti c s t o c k a cco r di ng
t o the o r din a ry c l a ss i c a ti o n o f m od e r n c o mp a ra ti v e
philo l o g y
T ur ning n ow fr o m cases w he r e m y th o l o gi c ph r a s e s e rv e s
let us
a s a me d i u m fo r e x p r e ss ing phil oso phi c o pini o n
q u i ckl y cross the di s t r i c t w he r e f a n cy a ssu me s the s em
bl an c e o f e x pla n a t ory legen d The me d i aeva l sc h oo l men
h av e been j us tl y l au ghe d a t for thei r h abit o f t ra n s l a ting
pl a in fa c t s int o the te r m s o f met a ph ys ics an d then
so lemnl y o ffe r ing them in thi s sc ienti c g u i s e as e x pl a n a
ti o n s o f them s el v e s a ccou nting for O pi u m m a king pe o ple
s leep b y it s p o ss e ss i o n of a d o r miti v e v i r t u e The m y th
m ake r s p r o c ee d ing s may in o n e r e s pe ct be ill us t r a te d b y
co mp a r ing the m w ith thi s H a l f m y th o l og y i s occu pie d a s
m a n y a legen d c ite d in the s e c h a pte rs h as S h ow n in s h aping
the fa mili a r fa c t s o f d ail y li f e int o i magin a r y hi s t o r ie s o f
thei r own c a us e a n d or igin c hil d like a n sw e r s t o th os e wor l d
o l d q u e s ti o n s o f w hen c e a n d w h y w hi c h the s a v a ge a s k s a s
r e a di l y a s the s age S o f a mili a r i s the n a t ur e o f suc h d e
scr ipti o n in the dr e ss of hi s t ory th a t it s e a s ie r e x a mple s
t ra n s l a te O ff h a n d When the S a m o a n s say th a t e v e r s in c e
the g r e a t b a ttle a m o ng the pl ant a in s an d b an a n a s the
v a n q u i s he d h a v e h u ng dow n thei r he a ds w hile the v i c t o r
s t a n ds p r o ud l y e r e c t 1 w h o c an mi s t a ke the s i m ple met a ph o r
w hi c h c o mp a r e s the u p r ight an d the d r oo ping pl a nt s t o a
c o n q u e ror s t a n d ing a m o ng h i s be a ten fe e s ? In s imile jus t
as o b v i ous li e s the or igin o f a n o the r P o l y ne s i a n legen d
w hi c h r el a te s the cr e a ti o n o f the c o co n u t fro m a m a n s
he a d the che s tn u t s fr o m h i s ki dne ys an d the ya m s fr o m
?
hi s legs To dra w o ne m o r e e x a mple fr o m the m y th o l o gy
h ow t r an s p a r ent i s the Oj ib w a fan cy o f th a t
o f pl a nt s
he a v enly you th w ith g r een ro be an d w a ving f e a the rs w h o m
for the g ood o f men the In d i a n ov e rc a me an d b u r ie d an d

P h oeni c i a n s b y

th e

S eema nn

Ell i s P oly n
,

V iti

Re s

T u r n er
vol i p 6 9
3 11

P o ly n e s i a

25 2

M YTH OLOGY

406

s p r ang a ga in f r o m hi s g r a v e as the In d ia n cor n M on

1
d amin the Spi r it s g ra in
The N ew F o r e s t pe a s a nt
d ee ms th a t t h e m a r l he d ig s i s s till r e d wi t h the bl ood o f
hi s a n c ient fo e s the D a ne s ; the M a o r i s ee s o n the red c li ffs
m a d e w hen
o f C o o k s St r a it s the bl o o d s t a in s th a t K q
m o u r ning fo r the d e a th o f h is d a u ghte r he cu t hi s for ehe a d
w ith pie c e s o f O b s i d i an ; in the s p o t w he r e B udd h a offe r e d
his o w n b ody t o f ee d the s t a rv e d tig r e ss s cu b s hi s bl ood
for e v e r r e dd ene d the so il a n d the t r ee s an d ow e rs The
m od e r n A lb ani a n s till s ee s t h e s t a in of s l au ghte r in s t r e am s
ru nning r e d w ith e a r th a s t o the a n c ient G r eek the r i v e r
th a t ow e d b y B y bl os b or e dow n in it s su mme r oods the
r e d bl ood o f Ado ni s The C or ni s hm a n kn ows fro m the r e d
lm y g row th o n the b roo k pebble s th a t m urd e r h a s been
do ne the r e ; J o hn the B a pti s t s bl ood s till g rows in
G e r m an y on hi s d ay an d pe a sa nt s s till g o ou t t o s e a rc h for
it ; the r e d me al fu ngus i s bl ood dro ppe d b y the y ing
H u n s w hen the y h ur t thei r f eet a g ain s t the high t o w e r
r o ofs The t r a v elle r in In d i a might s ee o n the ru ine d w a ll s
o f G a ng a R aj a the t r a c e s of the bl ood o f t h e c itizen s s pilt
in the s iege an d y et m or e m a rv ell ous t o r el a te a t St
D eni s s c h urc h i n C or n w a ll the bl ood s t a in s on the s t o ne s
?
a
ff
f ell the r e w hen the s int s he ad w as cu t o so me w he r e el s e
O f suc h t ra n s l a ti o n s o f d e scr ipti v e met a ph or u n d e r thin
p r eten c e of hi s t ory e v e ry co lle c ti o n o f m y th i s crowd e d
w ith e x ample s b u t it s t r engthen s ou r j udgment o f the co m
bi n e d co n s i s ten cy a n d v a r iet y o f w h a t ma y be c alle d the
m y thi c l a ng u a ge t o e x t r a c t fro m it s di c ti o n a ry such a g r ou p
w hi c h in v a r i ous l y im a gin a ti v e fa s hi o n d e scr ibe s
a s thi s
the a ppe a r a n c e o f a bl ood r e d s t ai n
wh o

Al i c Res
g

S ch ool c ra ft
vol i p 1 22
T r i b e s p ar t i p 3 20
p r t p 23 0

J R W i s e Th e N ew F or es t p 1 60 ; T yl o r N w Z e l nd p 2 6 8 ;

v
4
ol
i p 2 9 ; M A W lk r M c d oni a p 19 2 ;
M x M ull r C hip s
M o v ers Ph On i z i vol i p 6 6 5 L uci n d e D 3 S yr i a 8 H unt Pop
Volks ab ergl au b e pp 1 6 9 4 ; B a s tian
Rom 2 n d S e r i es p 1 5 ; W u t t k e
M e n s ch vol ii p 5 9 vol iii p 1 85 B uch a n an M ys or e & c in P in k er
p 7 14
ol
t on v
1

I ndi a n

er ,

a a

REALIZED

META P H O R S

4 07

The me r e s t s h a dowy fan cy or b ro ken do w n met a ph or

w hen o n c e it g ain s a s en s e o f r e a lit y may begin t o be
S p o ken o f a s an a c t u a l e v ent The M os lem s h a v e he a rd the
v e ry s t o ne s p r a i s e A ll a h n o t in s imile o nl y b u t in f a c t an d
a m o ng them the s a y ing th a t a m a n s f a te i s w r itten o n hi s
f o r ehe a d h as been ma te r i alize d int o a belie f th a t it c an be
d e c iphe r e d f r o m the lette r like m a r king s o f the su t ur e s o f
hi s s k u ll O ne Of the mi r a cu l ous p a ss a ge s in the li fe Of
M o h a mme d him s el f i s t r a c e d pla us ibly b y Sp r enge r t o
suc h a p r agm a tize d met a ph or The a ngel G ab r iel legen d
d e c l a r e s o pene d the p ro phet s b r e a s t an d t o o k a bl ac k
c l o t fro m hi s he a r t w hi c h he w as he d w ith Zemzem w a te r
a n d r epl a c e d ; d et a il s a re gi v en Of the a ngel s dr e ss a n d
go l d en b a s in an d A n a s ibn M a lik d e c la r e d he h a d S een the
v e ry m ar k w he r e the wou n d w as s e w n u p We may v ent ur e
w ith the hi s t o r i a n t o a scr ibe thi s m a rv ell o us in c i d ent t o the
f a mili ar met a ph or th a t M o h a mme d s he a r t w a s di v inel y
o pene d an d c le a n s e d an d in d ee d he do e s say in the K o r a n
th a t G od o pene d hi s he a r t A s ingle in s t a n c e i s en ou gh t o
r ep r e s ent the s ame h a bit in C h r i s ti a n legen d M a rc o P o l o
r el a te s h ow in 1 2 2 5 the Kh a li f o f B a g da d co mm an d e d the
C h r i s ti an s o f hi s do mini o n s u n d e r pen a lty o f d e a th o r
I s la m t o jus ti fy thei r S cr ipt ura l te x t b y r em o v ing a c e r t ain
m ou nt ain N ow the r e w a s a m o ng them a s h o em a ke r w h o
h a v ing been tempte d t o e xc e ss o f a d mi ra ti o n for a wo m an
h a d pl uc ke d ou t hi s o ffen d ing e y e
Thi s man co mm an d e d
the m o u nt a in t o r em ov e w hi c h it d i d t o the te rr o r of the
Kh a li f an d all hi s pe o ple an d S i n c e then the anni v e rs a ry of
the mi ra c le h as been kept h o l y The V eneti a n t ra v elle r
af te r the manne r o f me di aev a l wr ite rs r e cords the s t ory
w ith ou t a sy mpt o m o f sus pi c i o n ; y et t o ou r min ds it s
w h o le o r igin s o o b v i o us l y lie s in th r ee v e rs e s o f St
M atthe w s g o s pel th a t it i s nee d le ss t o q uo te them To
m o d e r n t as te suc h wo o d en c ti o n s as the s e a re fa r f r o m
In fa c t the p r agma tize r i s a s t u pi d cr e a t ur e ;
a tt r a c ti v e
-

S p r en ger L b e n d e M oh amm d vol i pp

M a r c o P ol o b ook i c h v iii
e

7 8 , 1 19 , 1 6 2, 3 10

4 08

MYTHOLOGY

n o thing is t o o be a u ti fu l o r t oo s a cr e d t o be m a d e du ll a n d
vu lg a r b y his t uc h fo r it i s th r o u gh the v e ry in ca p a c it y o f
h i s min d to h o l d a n a b s t r a c t i d e a th a t he i s f o rc e d t o
e m b o dy it in a m a te r i a l in ci d ent Y et w e ar i so me a s he
ma y be it i s n o ne the le s s nee dfu l t o u n d e rs t a n d h i m t o
a c kn o w le dge the v a s t in u en c e he h as h a d o n the belie f of
m ankin d a n d t o a pp r e c i ate him a s r ep r e s enting in it s
e x t r eme a b us e th a t ten d en cy t o c l o the e v e ry th ou ght in a
co n cr ete s h ape w hi c h h as in a ll age s been a m a in s p r ing o f
m y th o l o gy
Th o u gh a lleg ory ca nn o t m a int a in the l ar ge pl ac e of ten
c l a ime d for it in m y th o l o g y it h as y et h ad t oo m uc h i n u
en c e t o be p a ss e d ov e r in thi s surv e y It is t ru e th a t the
s e a rc h fo r alleg or i ca l e x pl an a ti o n i s a p ursu it th a t h as le d
m a n y a ze a l ous e x pl o r e r int o the qua gmi r e s o f m ys ti c i s m
Y et the r e a re c as e s in w hi c h a lleg ory is c e r t ainl y us e d w ith
hi s t o r i ca l intent a s for in s ta n c e in the a p ocry ph a l B oo k of
E n oc h w ith it s cows an d s heep w hi c h s t a n d for I sr a elite s
an d asses a n d wo l v e s for Mi d i a nite s a n d E g y pti an s the s e
cr e a t ur e s g ur ing in a p s e udo p ro pheti c s ket c h o f O l d
Te s t a ment c h ro ni c le s As for m or a l a lleg ory it i s i m
m e n s e ly plent i fu l in the wor l d a lth ou gh it s l imit s a re
n a rrow e r th a n m y th o l o gi s t s o f p a s t c ent ur ie s h av e su p
p os e d I t i s n ow r e a so n a bly th ou ght p r ep os te rous t o inte r
p r et the G r eek legen ds as m o ra l apolog u es a fte r the m a nne r
o f H e ra k l e i d e s the phil oso phe r w h o cou l d d i sc e r n a p a r abl e
o f r epent a nt p rud en c e in A thene s eizing Ac hille s w hen j us t
a b ou t t o dr a w hi s sword on A g a memn o n
Sti ll suc h a
m o d e of inte r p r et ati o n h as th us m uc h t o jus ti fy it th a t
n u mbe rs o f the f an c i fu l m y th s o f the wor l d a re r e a lly a lle
The r e i s a lleg o ry in the He s i odi c m y th of P a n dor a
g o ri e s
w h o m Ze us s ent do w n t o men d e cke d w ith g o l d en b an d
and g a r l a n d o f s p r ing ow e rs t c aus e o f l o ng i ng an d t h e
p ang s o f l ov e b u t us in g w ith a do g l ike min d he r gi f t s of
lie s a n d t r e ache ry an d ple as a nt S pee c h Hee d le ss of hi s
w i s e r b ro the r s words the foo li s h E pimethe us t oo k he r ;
o

Gro t e vol i p
,

347

ALLEGORY

4 09

s he r a i s e d t h e li d o f the g r e a t cas k a n d S h oo k o u t the e v il s

th a t w a n d e r a m o ng m a nkin d an d the d i s e a s e s th a t b y day
a n d night co me s ilentl y b r inging ill ; s h e s et o n the li d
a g a in an d S h u t h o pe in th a t e v il might be e v e r h o pele ss t o
m ankin d Shi f te d t o t a d i ffe r ent m ora l the a lleg ory
r em a ine d in the l a te r v e rs i o n o f the t a le th at the c a s k hel d
n o t curs e s b u t ble ss ing s ; the s e w e r e let g o an d l os t t o men
w hen the v e ss el w as t oo cur i ous l y O pene d w hile H o pe a l o ne
?
wa s le f t behin d for co m for t t o the l uckle ss h u m a n r a c e
Y et the p r imiti v e n a t ur e o f suc h legen ds u n d e r lie s the
m or a l s h ape u p o n them Ze us i s n o a lleg or i c c ti o n a n d
P r o methe us u nle ss m o d e r n m y th o l o gi s t s j ud ge him v e ry
wr o ngl y h as a me a ning fa r d eepe r th a n p a r a ble X en o ph o n
tell s (a f te r P ro di k os ) the s t o ry o f He ra kle s ch oo s ing bet w een
the s h o r t an d e a sy p a th o f ple asur e an d the l o ng an d t oil
so me p a th o f v i r t u e ? b u t th ou gh the m y thi c he r o may th us
be m a d e t o g ur e in a m ora l a p o l o g u e a n i ma gin a ti o n so
little in keeping w ith hi s u nethi c n a t ur e j ars u p o n the
r e a d e r s min d
The gene ra l r el a ti o n o f a lleg ory t o p ur e m y th c an h ard l y
be b r o u ght m or e c le a r l y int o v ie w th a n in a c l a ss o f s t o r ie s
f amili a r t o e v e ry c hil d the B e a s t f a ble s F ro m the ordi n a ry
c i v ilize d p o int O f v ie w the a lleg ory in suc h c ti o n s s eem s
fu n d a ment a l the n o ti o n o f a m o r a l le ss o n s eem s b o u n d u p
w ith thei r v e ry n a t u r e y et a b ro a d e r e x a min a ti o n ten ds t o
p r o v e the a lleg o r i c a l g row th as it w e r e p a r a s iti c on an o l d e r
t runk o f m y th w ith ou t m o r a l It i s o nl y b y an e ffor t o f
intelle c t u a l r e a c ti o n th a t a m od e r n w r ite r c an i mit a te in
p a r able the be a s t of the o l d B e a s t fa ble N o w on d e r for
the cr e a t ur e h a s be co me t o hi s min d a m o n s te r o nl y co n
ce i v
a b l e as a c a r i c a t ur e o f man m a d e t o c a r r y a m o r a l le ss o n
o r a s a ti r e
B u t a m o ng s a v a ge s it is n o t s o To thei r
min ds the s emi h u m a n be a s t i s n o c titi o us cr e a t ur e i n
v ente d t o p r e a c h o r s nee r he i s a ll b u t a r e a lit y B e a s t
f a ble s a re n o t n o n s en s e t o men w h o a scr ibe t o the l o w e r
a nim a l s a p ow e r o f s pee c h a n d l oo k on them as p a r t a kin g
,

W el c k er vol i p
,

756

2
.

en o ph .

M emor ab i l ia ii
,

M YTH O LOG Y

4 10

of m o ra l h u m a n n a t ur e ; t o men in w h os e e y e s a n y h y aen a
o r wo l f ma
m
a n h y aen a o r a w e r e wo l f ; t o
p
ro
b
a
bl
y
be
a
y

men w h o so u tte r ly belie v e th a t the s o u l o f ou r g ra n da m

might h a pl y inh a bit a bi rd th a t the y w ill r e ally r eg u l a te
thei r o w n d iet s o a s t o a vo i d e a ting an a n c e s t o r ; t o men a n
integ ra l p a r t o f w h os e r eli gi o n may a c tua ll y be the wors hip
S uc h be lie fs bel o ng e v en n ow t o h al f m a nkin d
o f be a s t s
a n d a m o ng suc h the
be a s t s t or ie s h ad thei r rs t h o me
E v en the Aus t r a li a n s tell thei r q ua int be a s t t a le s o f the
Ra t the O w l a n d the fa t B l a ck f ell ow o r o f P ussy b ro the r
?
w h o s inge d hi s fr ien ds n os e s w hile the y w e r e as leep
The K a m ch ad a l s h av e a n el a b ora te m y th o f the a dv entur e s
o f thei r s t u pi d d eit y K u tk a w ith the Mi c e w h o pl a y e d t r i c k s
u p o n him suc h a s p a inting hi s fac e like a wo m a n s so th a t
w hen he l oo ke d in the wa te r he f ell in l ov e w ith him s elf ?
B e a s t t ale s a b ou n d a m o ng suc h r a c e s as the P o ly ne s i an s
a n d the N or th A me r i c a n In di a n s w h o va l u e in them inge
the h a bit s an d
n u i t y o f in c i d ent a n d ne a t a da pt a ti o n Of
c h a r a c te rs o f the cr e a t ur e s Th us in a legen d o f the F l a t
he a d In di a n s the L ittl e W o l f fou n d in C l oud l an d hi s g ra n d
sires the Spi d e rs w ith thei r g r izzle d h a i r a n d l o ng croo ke d
n a il s an d the y s p un b a ll s o f th r e a d t o let him dow n t o
e ar th ; w hen he came dow n a n d f o u n d hi s w i f e the Spe ckle d
Duck w h o m the O l d W o l f h a d t ak en fro m him sh e e d in
co n fus i o n a n d th a t i s w h y s he li v e s a n d di v e s a l o ne t o thi s
?
v e ry day
In G u ine a w he r e be as t fa bl e i s o n e of the g r e a t
s t a ple s o f n a ti v e co n v e rs a ti o n the fo ll ow ing s t ory i s t o l d as
a t ype O f the t a le s w hi c h in thi s w ay a ccou nt for pe cu li ar i
tie s of a nim a l s The g r e a t E u gen a m o nke y offe r e d h i s
dau ghte r t o be b r i d e o f the c h a mpi o n w h o s h o u l d pe rfor m
the f e a t of dr inking a w h o le b a rr el of ru m The d igni e d
E leph a nt the g r a c e fu l L e o p a rd the sur l y B o a r t r ie d the
rs t m o u th ful o f the re w a te r an d r et r e a te d Then the
tin y Teling a m o nke y ca me w h o h a d cunnin gly hi dd en in
-

'

O l d el d in Tr E th S oc vol iii p

S t ell e r K amt s ch a t k a p 2 5 5

W ils o n in T r E th S oc vol i v p

25 9

3 06

E A S T FABLE S

4 11

l o ng g rass th ousa n ds of hi s f ell ows ; he t oo k hi s rs t

gla ss an d w ent a wa y b u t in s te a d o f h i s co ming ba c k a n
o the r jus t li ke h i m c ame for the s e co n d an d s o on till the
b arr el w as emptie d a n d Teling a w a lke d off w ith the M o nke y
king s d a u ghte r B u t in the n a rrow p a th the E leph ant an d
L e o p a rd a tt a c ke d him a n d drov e him o ff an d he t o o k r e fu ge
in t h e highe s t b ou gh s o f th e t r ee s vow ing ne v e r m or e t o
li v e on the g rou n d an d su ffe r suc h v i o len ce a n d inj us ti c e
Thi s i s w h y t o thi s day the l ittl e telinga s are o nl y fou n d in
t h e highe s t t r ee t o p s ?
S uc h s t or ie s h av e been co ll e c te d by
scor e s fro m s ava ge t radi ti o n in thei r or igin a l s ta te w hile a s
y et n o m or a l l e sso n h as ente r e d int o them Y e t the e a sy
a n d n a t ur a l t r a n s iti o n fro m the s t ory int o the p ar a ble i s
m a d e a m o ng s a vage s pe r h a p s w ith ou t h elp fro m highe r
ra c e s In the H o ttent o t T a le s S i d e b y S i d e w ith t h e m y th s
o f the cu nning J a c k a l t r i c king the L i o n ou t o f the be s t o f
the c arca s e a n d getting the bla c k s t r ipe b ur nt on h i s own
b a c k b y c a rry ing o ff the S u n the r e occurs the m ora l
a p o l o g u e Of the L i o n w h o th ou ght him s el f w i s e r th a n hi s
M o the r a n d pe r i she d b y the H u nte r s s pe a r for w ant of
hee d t o he r w a r ning a ga in s t the d e a d ly cr e a t ur e w h os e he a d
i s in a line w ith hi s b r e a s t a n d s h ou l d e rs
S o the Z u l us
h av e a th orou gh m ora l a p o l o g u e in the s t ory of the h yra x
w h o d i d n o t g o t o f et c h hi s t a il o n the day w hen t a il s w e r e
gi ve n ou t be ca us e he d i d n ot like t o be ou t in the ra in ; he
o nl y a s ke d the o the r a nim a l s t o b r ing it for him an d s o h e
ne v e r g o t it ? A m o ng the No r th A me r i ca n legen ds o f
M a n a b o zh o the r e i s a fa ble q u ite E sopi an in i t s h u m our
M a n a b o zh o t r a n sfo r me d int o a W o l f kille d a fa t m oos e
a n d being v e ry h u ng ry sa t dow n t o e a t
B u t he f ell int o
g r e a t dou bt s as t o w he r e t o begin for s a i d he i f I begin a t
the hea d pe o ple w ill l au gh an d say he a t e him b a ck w a rds
th e

J L W i ls on
A fr p 3 8 2

Bleek
R ey n r d in S A fr
pp 5 4 7 6 7 ( th es e
s t or i e s w hich s eem r ec ent ly b orro we d fr om E u r op ean s )
p 10
o f M a n k ind

3
C all aw y Z u l u Ta l e s vol i p 3 5 5
1

are n o t

Se e

mon g t h e

E arly H is tory

M YT HOLOGY

4 12

bu t i f I begin a t the s i d e the y w ill s ay he a t e him S i d e ways

A t l a s t he m ad e u p h i s min d a n d w a s j us t p u tting a d eli c a te
pie c e int o hi s m o u th w hen a t r ee c l o s e by cr e a ke d St o p
s t o p ! s a i d he t o the t r ee
I cann o t e a t w ith suc h a n o i s e
a n d in s pite o f hi s h u nge r he le f t the me a t a n d c limbe d u p
t o q u iet the c r e aking b u t w a s c a u ght bet w een t wo b r an c he s
and hel d fa s t a n d p r e s ently he s a w a p a c k o f wo l v e s co ming
G o th a t w ay ! G o th a t w ay ! he cr ie d ou t w he r e u p o n t h e
w o l v e s s a i d he m us t h av e so mething the r e o r he wou l d n o t
tell us t o g o a n o the r w a y S o the y ca me o n a n d fou n d the
m oos e and a t e it t o the b o ne s w hile M a n a b o zh o l oo ke d
w i s t fu ll y o n The ne x t he avy bl a s t of w in d o pene d the
b r a n c he s a n d let him ou t an d he w ent h o me thinking t o

him s el f See the e ffe c t Of me dd ling w ith fr i vo l ous thing s

w hen I h ad c e r t a in g o o d in m y p o ss e ss i o n
In the O l d W o r l d the m o ra l B e a s t fa ble was o f n o me a n
a nti q u it y b u t it di d n o t a t o n c e su ppl a nt the a nim a l m y th s
p ur e an d s imple F o r age s the E u r o pe an min d was ca p a ble
a t o n c e o f r e c ei v
ing le sso n s o f w i sdo m fro m the I Esopi an
crows an d fox e s an d o f enj oy ing a r ti s ti c b u t b y n o me a n s
e di fy ing be as t s t or ie s o f m or e p r imiti v e t y pe In fac t the
B ab ri u s a n d P h ae drus co lle c ti o n s w e r e ov e r a th ous a n d y e a r s
O l d w hen the gen u ine B e a s t E pi c r e a c he d it s fu lle s t g row th

in the in c o mp a ra ble R e y n a rd th e F ox t r a c e able in J a k o b

G r imm s v ie w t o an or i gin a l F r a nki s h co mp os iti o n of the
?
1 2t h c ent ury it s el f co nt a ining m a te r i a l so f fa r e a r lie r d a te
R e y n a rd i s n o t a d i dac ti c p o em a t le a s t i f a m or a l h a ng s on
t o it he r e a n d the r e it i s of tene s t a Macch i ave lli an on e ;
n o r i s it e ss enti a ll y a s a ti r e s h a r pl y a s it la s he s men in
gene r a l an d the c le r gy in p a r ti cu la r It s cr e a t ur e s a re i n
c a r n ate q u a litie s the F o x O f cu nning the B e a r o f s t r ength
the Ass o f du ll co ntent the Sheep o f g u ilele ss ne ss The
c h a r m o f the n a rr a ti v e w hi c h e v e ry c l a ss in me d i aeva l
E u r o pe d eli ghte d i n b u t w hi c h w e h a v e a ll ow e d t o dro p
o u t o f a ll b u t sc h o l a rs kn ow le d ge lie s in g r e a t me a sur e in
.

S ch ool c r ft Al gic Res vl i p 1 6 0 ;

J ak ob Gr imm R einh r t F uch s I nt r d
a

s ee

pp

4 3, 51

BE

A S T F A B LE S

4 13

the c le v e r l y sus t ai ne d co mbin a ti o no f the be a s t s n a t ur e an d

the ma n s H ow g r e a t the in u en c e o f the R e y n a rd E pi c
w as in the mi dd le a ge s may be j ud ge d fro m R ey n a r d B ru i n
Ch a n ti cleer being s till n a me s f a m ili a r t o pe o ple w h o h a v e
n o i d e a o f thei r h a v ing been or igin a ll y n a me s o f the c h a
ra c t e r s in the g r e a t be a s t f a ble
E v en m o r e r em a r k able
a re it s t r a c e s in m od e r n F r en c h
The do nke y h as it s na me
o f ba u d et fro m B a u d oi n B a l dw in the A ss
C o mm o n F r en c h
di c ti o n a r ie s do n o t e v en co nt ain the word g oup i l (cu lp es)
S O e ffe c t u a ll y h as the L a tin n a me of the fox been dr i v en ou t
o f us e b y h i s F r a nki s h title in the B e a s t E pi c R ag i n h a r d
the C ou n s ell or R ei nh a r t R eyn a r d B en a r t r en a r d The
m or a lize d a p o l o g u e s like [E so p s w hi c h G r imm c o n

t e mpt u o u sly c a ll s
f a ble s thinne d d o w n t o me r e m or a l

a n d a lleg ory
a fou r th w a te r ing o f the o ld g r a pe s int o a n
i n s ipi d m ora l in fus i o n a re l ow in ae s theti c q u a lit y a s c o m
p a r e d w ith the gen u ine be a s t my th s M y th o l o gi c a l cr iti cs
w ill be apt t o judge them a f te r the m anne r o f the c hil d w h o

s a i d h o w c o nv enient it w as t o h a v e M or a l p r inte d in
[E so p s f a ble s th a t e v e ry b ody might kn ow w h a t t o s kip
The w a nt o f p o w e r o f a b s t r a c ti o n w hi c h h as e v e r h a d
suc h di s a s t r o us e ffe c t o n the belie fs o f m a nk i n d co n f o u n d
ing m y th a n d c h ro ni cle an d crus hing the s pi r it of hi s t o ry
u n d e r the ru bbi s h o f lite r al ize d t r a d iti o n co me s v e ry c le a r l y
int o v ie w in the s t udy o f p a r a ble The s t a te of min d o f
the d e a f du mb a n d blin d L a ura B r i d gm an s o in s t ruc ti v e
in illus t r a ting the ment a l h a bit s of u ne duca te d th ou gh fu ll
s en s e d men d i s pl a ys in a n e x t r eme for m the d ifcu lt y suc h
men h av e in c o mp r ehen d ing the u n r e a lity of an y s t ory
She cou l d n ot be m a d e t o see th a t a r ithmeti ca l p ro blem s
w e r e a n y thing b u t s t a tement s o f co n cr et e f a c t a n d w hen

he r te ac he r a s ke d he r I f you c an b uy a ba rr el of c i d e r
fo r f o ur do ll a rs h ow m uc h c a n y ou b uy for o n e do ll a r ?

S he r eplie d q u ite s impl y I c a nn o t gi v e m uc h for c i d e r

be c aus e i t i s v e ry s o ur
It is a sur p r i s in g in s ta n c e o f
thi s ten d en cy t o co n cr eti s m th a t a m o ng pe o ple s o c i v ilize d

A cc o unt o f L u r Br id gman p
a

1 20

MYTHO L O GY

4 14

the B udd hi s t s the m os t O b v i ous l y m or a l be a s t f able s

h a v e be co me lite r a l in c i d ent s o f s a c r e d hi s t ory G a u t am a
dur ing hi s 5 5 0 j at a k a s o r bi r th s t oo k the for m of a fr o g a
s h a cr o w an a pe a n d v a r i ous o the r a nim a l s an d S O fa r
w e r e the legen ds o f the s e t ra n sfor m a ti o n s fro m me r e m y th
t o hi s fo ll ow e r s th a t the r e h av e been p r e s e rv e d a s r eli cs
in B udd hi s t temple s the h a i r f e a the rs a n d b o ne s o f the
cr e a t ur e s w h os e b o d ie s the g r e a t te ac he r inh a bite d N o w
a m o ng
the in c i d ent s w hi c h h a ppene d t o B udd h a dur ing
hi s s e r ie s of a nim a l bi r th s he a ppe a r e d as a n ac t or in the
f a mili a r fa ble o f the F o x and the St or k an d it w as he w h o
w hen he w a s a S q u i rr el s e t an e x a mple of p ar ent a l vi r t u e
b y t ry ing t o dry u p the oc e a n w ith hi s t a il t o s av e hi s
you ng o ne s w h os e ne s t h ad dr i f te d ou t t o s e a till hi s pe r
?
s e v e r ing cour a ge w as r e w a rd e d b y a mi ra c le
T o our
m od e r n min ds a m ora l w hi c h s eem s the v e ry p ur p os e o f a
s t ory i s e v i d en c e u n f a vou r a ble t o it s t ru th a s f a c t B u t i f
e v en a p o l o g u e s o f t a lking bi rds an d be a s t s h av e n o t been
s a f e fro m lite r a l belie f it i s c le a r th a t the m os t e v i d ent
m ora l c an h a v e been b u t s light p ro te c ti o n t o p a ra ble s t o l d
o f p oss ible a n d li f e like men
It w as n o t a nee d le ss p r e
c a u ti o n t o s t a te e x pli c itly o f the N e w Te s t a ment p a r a ble s
th a t the y w e r e p a ra ble s a n d e v en thi s g u a rd h as n o t a va ile d
enti r el y M rs J a me s o n r ela te s so me cur i ous e x pe r ien c e in

the fo ll ow ing p a ss a ge
I kn ow th a t I w a s n o t v e ry
y o u ng w hen I ente r t a ine d n o m or e dou bt o f the su b s t a nti a l
e xi s ten c e o f L a z a rus an d D i v e s th a n o f J o hn the B a pti s t
and He r o d ; w hen the G o o d S a m a r it an w as a s r e a l a pe r
s o n a g e a s an y o f the A p os tle s ; w hen I w as fu ll o f s in c e r e s t
pit y for t h es e p o or foo li s h V i r gin s w h o h a d for g o tten t o
t r im thei r la mp s an d th ou ght them i n m y s e cr et sou l
r a the r h a rd l y t r e a te d Thi s imp r e ss i o n o f the lite ra l a c t u a l
t ru th o f the p a ra ble s I h av e s in c e met w ith in m an y c hil dr en
a n d in the un e duca te d b u t d e vou t he a r e rs an d r e a d e rs o f
as

B owr in g S i am vol i p 3 1 3
t h e fab l e o f t h e C r o w an d P itc h er
vol i p 7 6
1

H ar d y , M anu al o f Bu dh i sm, p 9 8 S ee

n d Bastian
in Fl in x
M e n s ch
.

60 ,

P A RA B L ES

4 15

the B ible ; an d I r emembe r th a t w hen I o n c e t r ie d t o

e x pla in t o a g ood o ld w o m a n the p ro pe r me a ning of the
word p a r able an d th a t the s t ory of the P rod ig al S on w a s
n o t a fa c t s h e w a s sc an d a lize d s he w a s q u ite sur e th a t
Je sus wou l d ne v e r h av e t o l d a n y thing t o hi s d i sc iple s th a t
Th us s he s ettle d the m a tte r in he r own min d
w as n o t t r u e
N or
a n d I th ou ght it be s t t o le a v e it the r e u n d i s t ur be d
it may be a dd e d h a s suc h r e a liz a ti o n been co n ne d t o
the min ds o f the p oor an d ign or ant St L a z arus p a t ro n
s a int o f lepe rs a n d thei r h os pit a l s a n d fr o m w h o m the
l a z z a r on e an d the la z z a r etto t a ke thei r n a me o b v i o us l y
d e r i v e s the s e q u a litie s fro m the L a z a rus o f the p a r a ble
The p r o of of the forc e an d o b s tin a cy of the m y thi c f a cu lt y
th us gi v en b y the r el a p s e of p a ra ble int o p s e udo hi s t ory
m a y co n c l ud e thi s d i ss e r t a ti o n on m y th o l o gy
In it s c o urs e
the r e h a v e been e x a mine d the p roc e ss e s of a nim a ting an d
pe rso ni fy ing n a t ur e the for m a ti o n o f legen d b y e x agge ra
ti o n a n d pe rv e r s i o n o f fa c t the s ti ffening o f met a ph or b y
mi s ta ken r e aliz a ti o n of words the co n v e rs i o n of s pe cu la ti v e
the or ie s an d s till le ss su b s t anti a l c ti o n s int o p r eten d e d
t ra d iti o n a l e v ent s the p ass a ge of m y th int o mi r a c le legen d
the d e niti o n b y n a me an d pl a c e gi v en t o an y o ating
im a gin a ti o n the a d a pt a ti o n of m y thi c in ci d ent as m ora l
e x ample an d the in c e ss a nt crys t alli z a ti on o f s t ory int o
hi s t o ry The in v e s tiga ti o n of the s e int ri ca t e a n d d e vi ous
O pe r a ti o n s h as b rou ght e v e r m or e an d m or e b ro a d l y int o
vie w t wo p r in c iple s o f m y th o l o gi c sc ien c e The rs t i s tha t
legen d w hen c la ss i e d on a su fc ient sca le di s plays a
r eg u l a r it y o f d e v el o pment w hi c h the n o ti o n of m o ti v ele ss
fa n cy q u ite f ail s t o a ccou nt for an d w hi c h m us t b e at t ri
b u te d t o l aws o f for m a ti o n w he r eb y e v e ry s t ory old an d
ne w ha s a r i s en fro m it s d e nite o r igin an d sufc ient c a us e
S o u ni fo r m in d ee d i s suc h d e v el o pment th a t it be co me s
p oss ible t o t r e a t m y th as a n or gani c p roduc t o f m a nkin d a t
l a r ge in w hi ch in d i v i dua l n a ti o n a l an d e v en raci a l di s
t i n c t i o n s s t a n d su b ord in a te t o u ni v e rs a l q u a litie s Of the
,

me s on ,

H i s tory o f O u r L or d in A r t vol i p

3 75

4 16

M YTH OLOG Y

h u ma n min d The s e co n d p r in c iple c on c e r n s the r el a ti o n

of m y th t o hi s t ory It i s t r u e th a t the s e a rc h for m u til a te d
a n d m ys ti e d t r a d iti o n s o f r e a l e v ent s
w hi c h for me d s o
m a in a p a r t o f o ld my th o l ogi ca l r e s e a rc he s s eem s t o g r ow
m o r e h o pele ss the fa r the r the s t udy o f legen d e x ten ds
E v en the fr a g ment s of r e a l c h ro ni c le f o u n d embe dd e d in
the m y thi c s t ruc tur e a re m os tl y in s o c o rru pt a s ta te th a t
fa r f r o m thei r el uc i d a ting hi s t o ry the y nee d hi s t ory t o
el uc i d a te them Y et u n c o n sc i ous ly a n d a s it w e r e in s pite
o f them s el v e s the s h a pe rs a n d t r a n s mitte rs o f p o eti c legen d
h av e p r e s e r v e d fo r us m a ss e s of sou n d hi s t o ri ca l e v i d en c e
The y m ou l d e d int o m y thi c li v e s of g ods an d he r o e s thei r
o w n a n c e s t r a l hei r l oo m s O f th ou ght a n d word the y d i s pl a y e d
in the s t ruc t ur e o f thei r legen ds the o pe ra ti o n s o f thei r ow n
min ds the y pl a c e d o n r e c o rd the a r t s a n d m a nne rs the
phil oso ph y an d r eligi o n o f th ei r o wn time s time s o f w hi c h
f o r m a l hi s t o ry h as of ten l os t the v e ry mem ory M y th i s
the hi s t ory o f it s a u th ors n o t o f it s su bj e c t s ; it r e cords the
li v e s n o t of su pe r h u m a n he ro e s b u t o f p o eti c n a ti o n s
.

C H A PTER X I

AN IMI SM
R el

i g i ou s id eas ge n er a lly a pp ear amon g low ra c e s o f M a n k ind N ega ti v e

s ta teme nts on thi s s u bj e ct fr e q u e ntly mi sl ea din g a n d mi s tak en : man y
c a s e s unc er t ainM ini mu m d e nitio n o f R el ig i o n D o ctr in e o f S pi r itu al
B e ings h er e t erme d A ni mi s mA ni mi s m tre a t ed as b el on g in g t o N a tu ral
R el i g i o n A ni m i s m di v id e d int o t wo s e cti o n s t h e phi l o s o ph y o f S o u ls
a n d O f o th e r S pi r it s D o ct r in e o f S o u ls
it s p r e v
a l e nc e a n d d e niti o n
a mo n g t h e l ow e r r a c e s D e n i t i on o f A pp a r iti o n a l S o u l or G h o s t S ou l
I t i s a th eo r e tic al c o nc e pti o n o f p r i m iti v e P hi l o s o ph y d e s i gn e d t o
a cc ount for ph e n ome n a n o w c l a ss e d und e r B i o l ogy
e s p e ci a lly L i fe a n d
D ea th H e al th an d D i s eas e S l ee p an d D r eams I Tan c e a n d V i s i o n s
R e l a ti o n o f S o u l in n ame an d n a tu r e t o S h a d ow Bl oo d Br ea th
D i vi s ion or P l u r al ity of S ou ls S ou l ca u s e o f L i fe ; it s r es tora ti on t o b od y
w h e n s upp o s e d a b s e n t E x it O f S ou l in T r a nc e s D r eams a n d V i s i on s :
th eory o f e x it o f d r eame r s or s eer s own s o u l th eory o f v
i s it s r e ce i ve d
b y th em fr om o th e r s ou ls G h o s t S ou l s ee n in A pp a r iti on s W ra ith s
a n d D ou b l e s S o u l h as fo r m o f b o d y
s u ffers muti l a ti o n w ith i t V o ic e
o f G h o s t S o u l t r ea t e d a n d d e n e d as o f M a t e r i a l S u b s t a nc e
thi s
a pp e ars t o b e t h e o r i g in a l d o ct r in e
Tran smi ss i o n o f S ou ls t o s er vic e in
futu r e l i fe b y F un e ra l S a c r i ce o f w i ves a tt e nd a nt s & c S ou ls o f
A nimals T h ei r t ran s mi ss io n b y F un eral S acri ce S ou ls o f Pl ant s
S ou ls of O bj e ct s T h e i r tr an s mi ss i on b y F un era l Sacri ceRe l a ti on
o f d o ct r in e o f O bj e ct S o u ls t o E picu r e a n th e o ry o f I d ea s
H i s t or ic al
d e v el o pme nt o f D o ct r in e O f S o u ls fr om t h e E th er eal S o u l of p r imiti v e
B i ol ogy t o t h e I mma ter i a l S ou l of mo d er n T h eol ogy
,

'

A R E the r e o r h a v e the r e been t r ibe s of men s o l ow in

cu lt ur e a s t o h a v e n o r e li gi ous co n c epti o n s w h a te v e r ? Thi s
i s p rac ti ca ll y the qu e s ti o n o f the u ni v e rs a lit y o f r eligi o n
w hi c h for s o m a n y c ent ur ie s h as been a fr me d a n d d enie d
w ith a co n d en c e in s t r iking c o nt ra s t t o the impe rf e c t
e v i d en c e on w hi c h b o th a fr m a ti o n an d d eni a l h a v e been
b a s e d E thn o g ra phe rs i f l oo king t o a the o ry o f d e v el o p
ment t o e x pla in c i v iliz a ti on a n d r ega r d ing it s succ e ss i v e
,

2 E

417

4 18

AN I M I S M

s t a ge s a s a r i s ing o n e fr o m a n o the r w ou l d r e c ei v e w ith

pe cu li a r inte r e s t a cc o u nt s o f t r ibe s d e vo i d o f a ll r eligi o n
He r e the y w o u l d n a t ura ll y s ay a re men w h o h a v e n o r eli
gi o n be c a u s e thei r fo r e fa the r s h a d n o ne men w h o r ep r e s ent
a p i ne r eligi o us c o n d iti o n o f the h u m a n r a c e
o u t Of w hi c h
in the c o u r s e o f time r eligio us c o n d iti o n s h a v e a r i s en It
do e s n o t h o w e v e r s eem a dv i s a ble t o s t a r t f r o m thi s g rou n d
in a n in v e s tiga ti o n o f r eligi o us d e v el o pment Th ou gh the
the o r eti c a l ni che i s r e a dy a n d co n v enient the a c t ua l s ta t u e
The c as e i s in so me d eg r ee
t o ll it i s n o t for th c o ming
s imila r t o th a t of the t r ibe s a ss e r te d t o e x i s t w ith o u t l ang ua ge
o r w ith ou t the us e o f r e ; n o thing in the n a t ur e of thing s
s eem s t o f o r bi d the p oss ibi lit y of suc h e xi s ten c e b u t as a
m a tte r o f fa c t the t r ibe s a re n o t fou n d Th us the a ss e r ti o n
th a t rud e n o n r eligi ous t r ibe s h av e been kn ow n in a c t u a l
e x i s ten c e th ou gh in the o r y p oss ible a n d pe r h ap s in fa c t
t ru e do e s n o t a t p r e s ent r e s t o n th a t sufcient p roof
w hi c h for an e xc epti o n a l s t a te o f thing s w e are entitle d
t o d em a n d
It i s n o t u n usu a l for the v e ry wr ite r w h o d e c l ar e s in
gene ra l te r m s the a b s en c e o f r eligi ous phen o men a a m o ng
so me s a v a ge pe o ple him s el f t o gi v e e v i d en c e th a t s h ows
hi s e x p r e ss i o n s t o be mi s le a d ing Th us D r L a ng n o t o nl y
d e c l a r e s th a t the a b or igine s of A u st ra li a h av e n o i d e a of a
su p r eme di v init y cr e a t or an d jud ge n o O bj e c t o f w ors hip

n o i do l te mple o r s a cr i c e b u t th a t in s h o r t the y h av e
n o thing w h a te v e r of the c h a r a c te r o f r eligi o n or of r eli
gi o n s o b s e rva n c e t o d i s ting u i s h them fr o m the be as t s th a t
pe r i s h M o r e th a n on e w r ite r h a s s in c e m ad e us e of thi s
telling s t a tement b u t w ith ou t r e fe rr ing t o c e r t a in d et ail s
F ro m the s e it a ppe ars
w hi c h o ccur in the v e ry s a me b oo k
th a t a di s e a s e like s m a ll pox w hi c h so metime s a tt a ck s the

n a ti v e s i s a scr ibe d b y them t o the in u en c e of B u dy ah

th a t w hen the
a n e v il s pi r it w h o d elight s in mi sc hie f ;
n a ti v e s rob a w il d bee s hi v e the y gene r ally le a v e a little Of
the h o ne y for B u dda i ; th a t a t c e r ta in bienni a l ga the r ings
O f the Q u een s l a n d t r ibe s y o u ng gi r l s a re s l a in in s a cr i c e
,

RELIGION

L O W E R R A C ES

OF

4 19

p ro piti a te so me e vil d i v init y ; a n d th a t l as tly a ccord ing

t o the e v i d en c e o f the R e v W R i d le y
w hene v e r he h a s
co n v e rs e d w ith the a b o r igine s he f o u n d them t o h a v e d e
nite t r a di ti o n s c o n c e r ning su pe r n a t ur a l being s B a i a me
w h os e vo i c e the y he a r in th u n d e r an d w h o m a d e all thing s
Tu rra mu llu m the c hie f o f d em o n s w h o i s the a u th or o f
d i s e a s e mi sc hie f an d w i sdo m an d a ppe a rs in the f o r m o f a
1
s e r pent a t thei r g r e a t a ss emblie s & c
B y the co n curr ing
te s tim o n y o f a cr o wd o f o b s e rv e rs it i s kn ow n th a t the
n a t i v e s Of Aus t r a li a w e r e a t thei r di scov e ry an d h av e s in c e
r em a ine d a r a c e w ith min ds s a t ur a te d w ith the m os t v i v i d
belie f in s o u l s d e mo n s a n d d eitie s In Afr i ca M r M o ffa t s
d e c l a r a ti o n as t o the B e c h u a n a s i s sc a rc el y le ss sur p r i s ing

th a t m a n s imm or t a lit y w as ne v e r he ard o f a m o ng th a t

pe o ple he h a v ing r em a r ke d in the s enten c e ne x t be for e
th a t the w o rd for the s h a d e s o r m a ne s o f the d e a d i s

li ri t i
In S ou th A me r i ca a ga in D on F eli x d e A z a ra
c o mment s o n the p os iti v e fa l s it y o f the e cc le s i as ti cs a ss e r
ti o n th a t the n a ti v e t r ibe s h a v e a r eligi o n He s impl y
d e c l a r e s th a t the y h a v e n o ne ; ne v e r thele ss in the c o urs e o f
h i s w o r k he menti o n s suc h f a c t s as th a t the P ay a g u a s b ury
a r m s a n d c l o thing w ith thei r d e a d a n d h a v e so me n o ti o n s
o f a fu t ur e li f e a n d th a t the G u a n a s belie v e in a B eing w h o
r e w a rds g o o d a n d p u ni s he s e v il
In fa c t thi s a u th o r s
r e c kle ss d eni a l o f r eligi o n a n d la w t o the l o w e r r a c e s of thi s

r egi o n jus ti e s D O rb i gn y s S h a r p cr iti c i s m th a t thi s is

in d ee d w h a t he s a ys o f a ll the n a ti o n s he d e sc r ibe s w hile
a c t u a ll y p rov ing the c o nt r a ry o f hi s the s i s b y the v e ry f a c t s
he a llege s in it s su pp o r t
S uc h ca s e s S h o w h ow d e c epti v e a re j ud gment s t o w hi c h
b r e a d th a n d gene r a lity are gi v en b y the u s e o f w i d e wo r ds in
n a r r o w s en s e s L a ng M o ffa t a n d A z a r a a re a u th o rs t o w h o m
ethn og r a ph y ow e s muc h v a l u a ble kn ow le d ge o f the t r ibe s
to

L n g Q u ee n sl and pp 3 4 0 3 7 4 3 80 3 88 4 4 4 (Bud dai a pp rs

p 3 7 9 a s c u s in g d e l u ge h e i s p r ob b ly id entic l w ith Bu dy ah )

M ff t S outh A fr ic p 2 6 1

A z r V oy d an s l A m i q u M r idi o n le vol ii pp 3 1 4 2 5 5 1 60

D O b ig n y
L H mme A m r ic in vl ii p 3 1 8
9 1 119 &
1

J D
.

a,

a a,

c.

ea

4 20

ANI M ISM

the y v i s ite d b u t the y s eem h a rd l y t o h av e r e cognize d any

thing s h o r t o f the r g a nize d and e s t a bli s he d the o l o g y o f the
highe r ra c e s a s being r eligi o n a t a ll The y a tt r ibu te i r r e
li g i o n t o t r ibe s w h o s e d o c t r ine s a re u nlike thei rs in m uc h
the a me m a nne r a s the o l o gi a n s h a v e so Of ten a tt r ib u te d
a t heism t o th o s e w h o s e d eitie s d i ff e r e d fro m thei r o w n f r o m
the ti m e w hen the a n cient in v a d ing Ary a n s d e scr ibe d the

a b o rigin a l
t r ibe s o f In d i a a s a d era i e g od le ss an d
the G r eek s x e d the c o rr e s p o n d ing te r m
o n the e a r l y
C h r i s ti a n s a s u nbelie v e r s in the c l a ss i c g ods t o the c o m
p a r a ti v ely m od e r n age s w hen d i s belie v e rs in w it ch cra f t a n d
a p os t o li c a l succ e ss i o n w e r e d en o u n c e d as a thei s t s ; a n d dow n
t o ou r o w n d ay w hen co nt r ov e rs i a li s t s a re a pt t o in f e r as in
p a s t c ent ur ie s th a t n a t ur a li s t s w h o su pp o r t a the ory of
d e v el o pment of s pe c ie s the r e for e ne c e ssar il y h o l d a thei s ti c
O pini o n s
The s e a re in f a c t b u t e x a mple s O f a gene ra l
pe r v e rs i o n o f j ud gment in the o l o gi ca l m a tte rs a m o ng the
r e su lt s o f w hi c h i s a p o p u l a r mi sco n c epti o n O f the r eli gi o n s
s impl y a m a zing t o s t ud ent s w h o h a v e
o f the l o w e r r a c e s
r e a c he d a highe r p o int o f v ie w
S o me mi ss i o n a r ie s n o
d o u bt th orou ghl y u n d e rs t a n d the min ds o f the s a v age s
the y h a v e t o d e a l w ith a n d in d ee d it i s fro m men like
C r a nz D ob ri z h offe r C h a r le v o i x E lli s H a r dy C a ll a w a y
J L Wil so n T Willi a m s th a t w e h a v e O bt aine d o u r be s t
kn ow le dge o f the l ow e r ph a s e s o f r e ligi o us belie f B u t for

the m o s t p a r t the r eligi ous w orld i s s o occu pie d in

h a ting an d d e s pi s ing the belie fs o f the he a then w h o s e v a s t
r egi o n s o f the gl o be a re p a inte d bl a c k o n the mi ss i o n a r y
m ap s th a t the y h av e little time or c a p ac ity le f t t o u n d e r
s t a n d them I t c ann o t be s o w ith th os e w h o f ai r l y s eek t o
co mp r ehen d the n a t ur e an d me a ning o f the l ow e r ph as e s o f
r eligi o n The s e w hile fu lly a li v e t o the a b su r d itie s be
w ill y et
li e v
e d an d the h orr o rs pe r pet r a te d in it s n a me
,

"

S a n skr it

M ui r
B in g h am b oo k i
L ec ky Hi s t o f
S up e rs titi o n
1

T x ts p r t

H i s t E cc l i v
c h ii
V ani ni
D e A d mi ran d i s N a tu r ae A rc an i s di l
R a ti o n a l i s m v
ol i p 1 2 6 ; En cy cl o p Br it
( 5 t h ed )
e

4 3 5 ; Eu s eb

15 ;
37
s.

v
.

RELIG ION

LOWER RACES

or

4 21

r eg a rd w ith kin d l y inte r e s t a ll r e co r d o f men s e a r ne s t

s eeking a f te r t ru th w ith suc h light a s the y cou l d n d S uc h
s t ud ent s w ill l o o k fo r me a ning h ow e v e r crud e a n d c hil d i s h
a t the r o o t o f doc t r ine s o f ten m o s t d a r k t o the belie v e rs
w h o a cc ept them m o s t ze a l ous l y ; the y w ill s e a rc h fo r the
r e as o n a ble th o u ght w hi c h o n c e ga v e li f e t o O b s e rva n c e s n ow
be co me in s eeming or r e a lity the m os t a bj e c t an d su pe r
The r e w a r d o f the s e en q u i r e rs w ill be a
s t i t i o u s fo ll y
m or e r a ti o n a l co mp r ehen s i o n o f the fa ith s in w h o s e mi ds t
the y dw ell for n o m o r e ca n he w h o u n d e rs ta n ds b u t on e
r eli gi o n u n d e rs t a n d e v en th a t r eligi o n th a n the man w h o
kn ows b u t o n e la ngu age c an u n d e rs ta n d th a t l a ng ua ge N o
r eligi o n o f m a nkin d lie s in u tte r i so l a ti o n f r o m the r e s t
o d e r n C h r i s ti a nit y
a n d the th ou ght s a n d p r in c iple s o f
m
a re a tt a c he d t o intelle c t u a l c l u e s w hi c h ru n b a c k th r o u gh
fa r p r ae C h r i s ti a n a ge s t o the v e ry o r igin o f h u m a n c i v i l i
z a t i o n pe r h a p s e v en o f h u m a n e x i s ten c e
While o b s e r v e r s w h o h a v e h a d fa i r O pp o r t u nitie s o f s t udy
ing the r eligi o n of s av age s h a v e th us s o metime s d o ne sc ant
jus ti c e t o the f a c t s be for e thei r e y e s the h a s t y d eni a l s of
o the rs w h o h av e j ud ge d w ith o u t e v en f a c t s can c a rry n o
g r e a t w eight A 1 6 th c ent ury t r a v elle r g av e a n a ccou nt o f

the n a ti v e s o f F l o r i da w hi c h i s t y pi ca l of suc h : T o uching

the r eligi o n of thi s pe o ple w hi c h w ee h av e fou n d for w a nt
o f thei r l a ng u a ge w ee cou l d n o t u n d e r s t a n d neithe r b y s ign s
n o r ge s t u r e th a t the y h a d a n
r l a w e a t a ll
r
eligi
o
n
o
y
We su pp os e th a t the y h a v e n o r eligi o n a t all a n d th a t the y
1
li v e a t thei r o w n li b e r t i e
B ette r kn o w le d ge o f the s e
F l o r i d a n s ne v e r thele ss s h ow e d th a t the y h a d a r eligi o n an d
bette r kn o w le d ge h as r e v e r s e d m a n y a n o the r h a s ty a ss e r
ti o n t o the s a me e ffe c t ; a s w hen wr ite rs us e d t o d e c la r e
th a t the n a ti v e s o f M a d aga sca r h a d n o i d e a of a fu t ur e s t a te
2
a n d n o w o r d fo r sou l or S pi r it
o r w hen D a mpie r en q ui r e d
a f te r the r eligi o n o f the n a ti v e s o f Tim or a n d w a s t o l d

V err z n o in H kl u y t vol iii p 3 0 0

S e W E ll i s
H i s t f M ad agas c r vol i p
M ad g as car p 5 9
1

de

a a

4 29 ;

F la cour t

H is t

de

4 22

ANI MIS M

th a t the y h a d n o ne ; o r w hen Si r Th pmas R o e la n d e d in

S a l d a nh a B a y o n his w a y t o the c o u r t o f the G r e a t M o gu l

a n d r em a r ke d o f the H o ttent o t s th a t
the y h av e le f t o ff
thei r cus t o m o f s te a ling b u t kn ow n o G od or r eligi o n
A m o ng the mnn e ro n s a ccou nt s co lle c te d b y L ord Av eb ury
a s e v i d en c e be a r ing o n the a b s en c e o r l o w d e v el o pment
o f r eligi o n a m o ng l ow r a c e s
s o me may be s ele c te d a s
ly ing o pen t o cr iti c i s m fro m thi s p o int o f v ie w Th us
the s t a tement th a t the S a m o a n I s l a n d e rs h a d n o r eligi o n
c ann o t s t an d in f a c e o f the el a b o r a te d e scr ipti o n b y the
R e v G T u r ne r o f the S a m o a n r eligi o n it s el f ; a n d the
a ss e r ti o n th a t the T u pin a mb a s o f B r a zil h a d n o r eligi o n
i s o n e n o t t o be r e c ei v e d o n me r el y nega ti v e e v i d en c e for
the r eligi ous doc t r ine s an d p ra c ti c e s of the T u pi r a c e h av e
been r e cord e d b y L e r y D e L a et an d o the r w r ite r s E v en
w ith m uc h time a n d c a r e a n d kn ow le d ge O f l a ng u a ge
it i s n o t a l w a ys e asy t o eli cit fro m s a v a ge s the d et a il s o f
thei r the o l o g y The y t ry t o hi d e fro m the p ry ing a n d co n
t e mpt u o u s f o r eigne r thei r wors hip o f g o ds w h o s eem t o
s h r ink like thei r wors hippe rs be for e the w hite man a n d hi s
m ightie r D eit y
M r S pro at s e x pe r ien c e in Va n couv e r s
I s la n d i s an a pt e x a m ple o f thi s s t a te o f thing s He s a ys :

I w as t w o y e a rs a m o ng the A ht s w ith m y min d c on s t a ntly

di r e c te d t ow a rds the su bj e c t O f thei r r eligi o us belie fs be for e
I c ou l d d i scov e r th a t the y p oss e ss e d a n y i d e a s as t o a n
o v e r r u ling p o w e r o r a fu t ur e s t a te o f e x i s ten c e
The t ra d e rs
o n the c oa s t a n d o the r pe rso n s w ell a c q u a inte d w ith t h e
pe o ple t o l d m e th a t the y h a d n o suc h i d e a s a n d thi s
o pini o n w a s c o n r me d b y co n v e rs a ti o n w ith m a n y o f the
le ss intelligent s a va ge s ; b u t a t la s t I succ ee d e d in getting
It then a ppe a r e d th a t the A ht s h a d
a s a ti sf a c t o ry c l u e
a ll the ti m e been hi d ing a w h o le c h a r a c te r i s ti c sys tem o f
r eligi o us doc t r ine s a s t o s o u l s a n d thei r mig r a ti o n s the
1

'

mpi e r ,

76

138

v
o l ii p a r t ii p

in P in k er t on vol v iii p 2
L u bb o c k P re hi s t or ic T imes p

Ro e

V o yag es ,

5 64

se e a

ls o

O r i

S proat

S cen es and S tudi es o f S a v ag e L i fe p

205

g in

of

C i v il i z ti on
a

RELI GI ON

s pi r it s

OF LOWER RACES

4 23

do g o o d an d ill t o men a n d the g r e a t g ods a b ov e

a ll
Th us e v en w he r e n o p o s iti v e p r oof of r eligi ous i d e a s
a m o ng a n y p a r ti cu l a r t r ibe h as r e a c he d us w e s h ou l d d i s
t rus t i t s d eni a l by o b s e rv e r s w h os e a c qu aint a n c e w ith the
t r ibe in q u e s ti o n ha s n o t been intim a te as w ell as kin d l y
It is s a i d o f the A n da m a n I s l a n d e rs th a t the y h a v e n o t the
rud e s t element s o f a r eligi ous f a ith ; y et it a ppe a rs th a t
the n a ti v e s d i d n o t e v en d i s pl ay t o the for eigne r s the rud e
m us i c w hi c h the y a c t u a ll y p oss e ss e d s o th a t the y cou l d
sc a r c ely h av e been e x pe c te d t o be co mm u ni ca ti v e as t o
?
thei r the o l o gy i f the y h a d an y In o u r time the m o s t
s t r iking nega ti o n o f the r eligi o n o f s a v a ge t r ibe s i s th a t
p u bli s he d b y Si r S a m u el B a ke r in a p ape r r e a d in 1 8 6 6
be fo r e the E thn o l o gi ca l S oc iet y o f L o n do n a s f o ll o ws :

The m o s t n or the r n t r ibe s o f the W hite N ile are the

D i nk a s S h i llo o k s N u e h r Ky t c h B o h r A lia b a n d Shi r
A gene r a l d e scr ipti o n w ill sufc e for the w h o le e xc epting
the Ky t c h With ou t a n y e xc epti o n the y a re w ith ou t a
belie f in a S u p r eme B eing neithe r h a v e the y a n y for m O f
w o r s hip o r i d o l a t r y ; n or i s the da r kne ss o f thei r m in ds
enli ghtene d b y e v en a ra y o f su pe rs titi o n H a d thi s
d i s ting u i s he d e x pl o r e r s p o ken o nl y o f the L a t u k a s o r o f
o the r t r ibe s h a rd l y kn o w n t o ethn o g r a phe rs e xc ept th r o u gh
h i s o w n inte r c o urs e w ith them hi s d eni a l of an y r eligi o us
c o n sc i ous ne ss t o them wou l d h a v e been a t le a s t entitle d t o
s t a n d a s the be s t p r o cu r a ble a ccou nt u ntil m or e intim a te
co mm u ni c a ti o n s h o u l d p r ov e o r d i s p r ov e it B u t in s pe a k
ing th us of c o mp a ra ti v ely w ell kn ow n t r ibe s suc h a s the
D ink a s Shill u k s an d N u e hr Si r S B ake r ign o r e s the
e x i s ten c e of p u bli s he d e v i d e n c e suc h as d e sc r ibe s the
s a cr i c e s o f the D ink a s thei r belie f in g ood and e v il S pi r it s
d
k
d
k
a
o
n
a
o
d
( j
j y ) thei r g o o d d eit y a n d he a v en dw elli ng
c r e a t o r D e n di d a s like w i s e N a r the D eity o f the N u eh r
a n d the Shill u k s c r e a t o r w h o i s d e sc r ibe d a s v i s iting like
o the r s pi r it s
a s a c r e d w ood o r t r ee
K a ufm a nn B ru n
wh o

M ou t A nd m n I sl nd ers pp 2 2 7 9 30 3 S inc e t h e b ov e was

w r itt n t h e r m rk a b l
A nd m n r e l ig i o n h s b ee n d e s c ri b d b y M E

H Man in J ou r n A nth r o p I n s t vol x ii ( 1 883 ) p 1 5 6 [N o t e t o 3 d ed ]

1

r.

4 24

ANIMISM

the r bs e rv e rs h a d th us pla c e d o n
r e c o rd d et a il s o f the r eligi o n o f the s e White N ile t r ibe s
y e ars be fo r e Si r S B a ke r s r a s h d eni a l th a t the y h a d a n y
r eligi o n a t a ll
The rs t r e q u i s ite in a sys tem a ti c s t udy o f the r eligi o n s
o f the l ow e r r a c e s i s t o la
on
dow
n
rud
iment
ry
d
e

niti
a
a
y
o f r eligi o n
B y r e q u i r ing in thi s d e niti o n the belie f in a
su p r eme d eit y or o f j ud gment a f te r d e a th the ador a ti o n o f
i do l s o r the p r a c ti c e of sacr i c e o r o the r p ar ti a lly d i ffus e d
doc t r ine s o r r ite s n o dou bt m a n y t r ibe s m ay be e xc l ud e d
fro m the c a teg ory o f r e ligi ous B u t suc h n a rrow d e niti o n
h as the f a u lt o f i d enti fy ing r eligi o n ra the r w ith p a r ti cu l a r
d e v el o pment s th a n w ith the d eepe r m o ti v e w hi c h u n d e r lie s
them It s eem s be s t t o f a ll b a c k a t o n c e o n thi s e ss enti a l
sourc e a n d s impl y t o c l a im as a minim u m d e niti o n of
R eligi o n the belie f in Spi r it u a l B eing s I f thi s s ta n d a rd
be a pp lie d t o the d e scr ipti o n s of low ra c e s as t o r eligi o n
the fo ll ow ing r e su lt s w ill a ppe a r It c a nn o t be p os iti v el y
a ss e r te d th a t e v e ry e x i s ting t r ibe r e co gnize s the belie f in
s pi r it u a l being s for the n a ti v e co n d iti o n Of a c o n s i d e r a ble
n u mbe r is o b scur e in thi s r e s pe c t an d fro m the ra pi d c h a nge
or e x tin c ti o n the y ar e u n d e r g o ing may e v e r r em ain s o It
wou l d be y et m o r e u n warr a nte d t o s et dow n e v e ry t r ibe
menti o ne d in hi s t o r y o r kn o w n t o us by the d i scov e ry o f
a nti q u a r i a n
r eli cs as ne c e ss a r il y h av ing p oss e ss e d the
d e ne d minim u m of r eligi o n G r e a te r still wou l d be the
u n w i sdo m of d e c l a r ing suc h a rud iment a ry belie f n a t ur a l or
in s tin c ti v e in a ll h u m a n t r ibe s of a ll time s ; for n o e v i d en c e
l o lle t

Lej e a n

and

'

B k er Ra c es o f t h e N i l e B a s in in T r Et h S oc vol v p 2 3 1 Th e

A l b er t N y an z a v
ol i p 2 4 6
S chi l d er un g e n au s Ce nt ra l
S ee K a u fma nn
a fr i k a
p 1 2 3 Brun R oll e t Le N il Bl anc e t l e S oud a n pp 1 00 2 22 als o

1
4
6
2
00
2
4
pp
3 ; G Lej ean in Re v d e s D e u x M A p r i l 1 1 8 6 2 p 7 60 ;
M e n s ch vol iii p 2 08
W a it z A nth r o p o l ogi e vol ii pp 7 2
5 B as ti a n
O th e r r ec o rd e d c as es O f d eni al o f r el i g i o n o f s a va g e t r i b e s o n n a rrow d e niti on

a
or in d e q u a t e e v
id enc e may b e found in M ein e rs Ges ch d er Rel vol i

pp 1 1 1 5 ( Au s t rali a n s a n d C a l i for nia n s ) ; W a it z A nth ro p ol og ie vol i

2
3
3
a
p
(Am I sl nd ers & c ) F a rr a r in A nth r o p Rev A u g 1 86 4 p cc x v ii

a
K

r
s
M
a
t
s
r in
E thn og A me r vol i p 5 83 ( M a n a o s ) ; J G
(
Pa lfr ey H i s t o f N e w E n gl a nd vol i p 4 6 (N ew E n gl and tr i b es )
1

DEFINITION

RELI G I ON

OF

4 25

j us ti e s the o pini o n th a t ma n kn ow n t o be c a p a ble o f so

v a s t a n intelle c t u a l d e v el o pment c a nn o t h av e eme r ge d fro m
a n o n r eligi ous co n d iti o n p r e v i ous t o th a t r eligi ous c o n d i
ti o n in w hi c h he h a ppen s a t p r e s ent t o co me w ith su fcient
c le a r ne ss w ithin o u r ra nge o f kn ow le d ge It i s d e s i ra ble
h ow e v e r t o t a ke o u r b a s i s o f en q u i ry in o b s e rva ti o n r a the r
th a n f r o m s pe cu l a ti o n He re s o far as I c an j ud ge fro m t h e
immen s e m a ss o f a cc e ss ible e v i d en c e w e h av e t o a d mit th a t
the belie f in S pi r it u a l being s a ppe a rs a m o ng a ll l ow r a c e s
w ith w h o m w e h av e a tt a ine d t o th or o u ghl y intim a te ao
q u a int a n c e ; w he r e a s the ass e r ti o n o f a b s en c e o f suc h belie f
m us t a pply eithe r t o a n cient t r ibe s o r t o m or e or le ss i m
pe rf e c tl y d e scr ibe d m od e r n o ne s The e x a c t be ar ing O f thi s
s t a te of thing s on the p r o blem of the or i gin o f r eligi o n may
be th us b r ie y s ta te d We r e it d i s tin c tl y p rov e d th a t n on
r eligi ous s a v a ge s e x i s t o r h av e e x i s te d the s e might be a t
le a s t pl a us ibly c la ime d a s r ep r e s ent a ti v e s o f the co n d iti o n
of Man be for e he a rr i v e d a t the r eligi ous s t a te o f cu lt u r e
It i s n o t d e s i ra ble h o w e v e r th a t thi s a r gu ment s h o u l d be
p u t forw a rd for the a ss e r te d e x i s ten c e O f the n o n r eligi ous
t r ibe s in q u e s ti o n r e s t s a s w e h av e s een o n e v i d en c e of ten
mi s t aken an d ne v e r co n c lus i v e The a r gu ment for the
n a t ur a l e vo l u ti o n o f r eligi o us i d e a s a m o ng m a nkin d i s n o t
in va li d a te d b y the r ej e c ti o n Of an a lly t oo w e a k a t p r e s ent
t o gi v e e ffe c t u a l help N on r eligi ous t r ibe s m ay n o t e x i s t
in ou r day b u t the fa c t be a rs n o m or e d e ci s iv el y on the
d e v el o pment o f r eligi o n th a n the imp o ss ibilit y o f n d ing a
m od e r n E ngli s h v ill age w ith ou t sci ssors o r b o o k s o r l uc i f e r
m a t c he s be a r s o n the fa c t th a t the r e w as a time w hen n o
suc h thing s e x i s te d in the l a n d
I p r o p o s e he r e u n d e r the n a me o f A nimi s m t o in v e s tiga te
the de ep ly ing do c t r ine o f Spi r it u a l B eing s w hi c h emb o d ie s
the v e ry e ss en c e of Spi r it u a li s ti c as O pp o s e d t o M a te r i a li s ti c
phil os o ph y A ni m i s m i s n o t a ne w te c hni ca l te r m th o u gh
?
n ow s el do m us e d F ro m it s s pe ci a l r el a ti o n t o the doc t r ine
,

t erm h as b ee n es p e cia lly u s e d t o d en o te t h e d o ctr in e o f S t a hl

t h e p r omu lga t or ls o O f t h e ph l og i s t o n th eo ry
Th e A ni m i s m o f S ta h l i s a
1

Th e

ANIM ISM

4 26

the s o u l it will be s een t o h a v e a pe cu li a r a pp r o p r i a te

ne s t o the v ie w he r e t a ken o f the mo d e in w hi ch the o l o gi c a l
i d e a s h av e been d e v el o pe d a mo ng m a nkin d The w o rd
Spi r it u a li s m th o u gh it may be an d s o metime s i s us e d in a
gene r a l s en s e h a s thi s O bv i ous d e f e c t t o us th a t it h a s b e
co m e the d e s ign a ti o n o f a p a r ti cu l a r m o d e r n s e c t w h o in d ee d
h o l d e x t r eme s pi r it u a li s ti c v ie ws b u t c a nn o t be t aken a s
ty pi ca l r ep r e s ent a ti v e s o f the s e v ie ws in the wor l d a t l a r ge
The s en s e Of Spi r it u a li s m in it s w i d e r a cc ept a ti o n the
gene r a l be lie f in s pi r it u a l being s i s he r e gi v en t o A nimi s m
A nimi s m c h a r a c te r i ze s t r ibe s v e ry l ow in the sca le o f
h u m a nit y a n d then c e a sc en ds d eeply m od i e d in it s t ra n s
mi ss i o n b u t f r o m rs t t o l a s t p r e s e rving a n u nb ro ken c on
t i n u i t y int o the mi ds t o f high m od e r n cu lt u r e
D o c t r ine s
a dv e r s e t o it s o l a r gel y hel d b y in d i v i du a l s o r sc h oo l s a re
usu a ll y du e n o t t o e a r l y l ow ne ss o f c i viliz a ti o n b u t t o l a te r
c h ange s in the intelle c t u a l cou r s e t o d i v e r gen c e fro m or
r ej e c ti o n of a n c e s t ra l f a ith s ; an d suc h ne w e r d e v el o pment s
d o n o t a ffe c t the p r e s ent en q u i ry a s t o the fu n d a ment a l
r eligi o us co n d iti o n o f m a nkin d A nimi s m i s in f a c t the
g r o u n dwo r k o f the P hil oso ph y o f R eligi o n fro m th a t of
s a v a ge s u p t o th a t of c i vi li ze d men A n d a lth ou gh it may
a t rs t s ight s eem t o a ffo r d b u t a b a r e an d me a g r e d e n i
ti o n o f a minim u m o f r eligi o n ,it w ill be fou n d p r a c ti ca ll y
s u fc ient ; for w he r e the roo t i s the b r a n c he s w ill gene r a ll y
be p roduc e d It i s h a bit u a lly fou n d t h at the the o ry of
A ni m i s m d i v i d e s int o t wo g r e a t do gm a s for ming p a r t s o f
o n e co n s i s tent d o c t r ine ; rs t co n c e r ning sou l s of in d i vi du a l
cr e a t ur e s c a p a ble of co ntin u e d e xi s ten c e a f te r the d e a th o r
d e s t ruc ti o n o f the b o dy ; s e c o n d co n c e r ning o the r s pi r it s
u p w a rd t o the r a nk o f p o w e rfu l d eitie s Spi r it u a l being s
a r e hel d t o a ffe c t o r co nt ro l the e v ent s of the m a te r i a l wor l d
a n d m a n s li f e he r e a n d he r e a f te r ; a n d it being co n s i d e r e d
of

'

r e vi v a l an d d e v el o p ment in mo d e r n s ci enti c s h ap e o f t h e c l a ss ic th eo ry
id enti fyin g v ita l p rincip l e a nd s ou l S ee h i s T h eor i a M edic a V era H a ll e

1 7 3 7 ; an d t h e c r itic a l dis s er t a ti o n o n hi s v i e ws L e mo in e
Le V it al i s me e t
l A n i mi s me d e S t a h l P a r i s 1 8 6 4

PHI LO S O PH Y O F S P I R I TU AL BEI N G S

th a t the y h o l d inte rcours e w ith men an d r e c e iv e ple a sur e o r

d i s ple a sur e f r o m h u m a n a c ti o n s the belie f in thei r e x i s ten c e
le a ds n a t ura lly an d it might a lm o s t be s a i d ine v it a bl y soo ne r
or l a te r t o a c ti v e r e v e r en c e a n d p ro piti a ti o n
Th us A nimi s m
in it s fu ll d e v el o pment in c l ud e s the belie f in sou l s an d in a
fu t ur e s t a te in c o nt ro lling d eitie s a n d su b ord in a te s pi r it s
the s e d o c t r ine s p r a c ti c a ll y r e su lting in s o me k i n d o f a c ti v e
wors hip O ne g r e a t element of r eligi o n th a t m o r a l element
w hi c h a m o ng the highe r n a ti o n s for m s it s m os t v it a l p a r t i s
in d ee d little r ep r e s ente d in the r eligi o n o f the l ow e r ra c e s
It i s n o t th a t the s e r a c e s h a v e n o m or a l s en s e o r n o
m ora l s t an da rd fo r b o th a re s t r o ngl y m a rke d a m o ng the m
i f n o t in f o r m a l p r e c ept a t le a s t in th a t t r a d iti o n a l c on
s en sus o f s o c iet y w hi c h w e c a ll p u bli c o pi ni o n a ccor di ng t o
w hi c h c e r t a in a c ti o n s a re hel d t o be g o o d o r b a d r ight or
w r o ng It i s th a t the c o nj u n c ti o n o f ethi cs an d A nimi s ti c
phil os oph y S O intim a te a n d p ow e rfu l in the highe r cu lt ur e
s eem s sc a rc el y y et t o h a v e beg u n in the l ow e r I p r o p o s e
he r e h a rd l y t o t ouc h u p o n the p ur el y m ora l a s pe c t s o f r eli
gi o n b u t ra the r t o s tudy the a nimi s m of the wor l d S O fa r
as it co n s tit u te s as u n q u e s ti o n a bl y it do e s co n s tit u te an
a n c ient an d wor l d w i d e phil os o ph y o f w hi c h belie f i s the
the o r y an d w o rs hip i s the p ra c ti c e E n d e a vour ing t o S h ape
the m a te r i a l s fo r a n en qu i ry hithe r t o s t ra ngel y u n d e rva l u e d
a n d negle c te d it w ill n o w be m y t a s k t o b r ing a s c le a r l y as
ma y be int o v ie w the fu n d a m ent a l a nimi s m o f the l ow e r
ra c e s a n d in so me s light a n d b ro ken ou tline t o t r a c e it s
cours e int o highe r r egi o n s o f c i v iliz a ti o n
He r e let me
s t a te o n c e fo r a ll t wo p r in c ip al co n d iti o n s u n d e r w hi c h the
r
e
s
ent
r
e
s
e
a rc h i s c a r r ie d o n
F
i
rs
t
a s t o the r eligi ous
p
doc t r ine s a n d p r a c ti c e s e x a mine d t hese ar e t r e a te d a s
bel o nging t o the o l o gi ca l sys tem s d e v i s e d b y h u m a n r e a so n
w ith ou t su pe r n a t ur a l ai d o r r e v el a ti o n ; in o the r w o rds a s
being d e v el o pment s of Na t ur a l R eligi o n Se co n d a s t o
the co nne x i o n bet w een s imil a r i d e a s an d r ite s in the r eli
gi o n s o f t h e s a vage and the c i v ilize d wo r l d While dw ell
ing a t so me length o n doc t r ine s an d c e r em o nie s of the l o w e r
,

4 28

ANI M ISM

r a c e s a n d s o me t ime s p a r ti cu l a r izing fo r s pe c i a l r e a so n s the

r el a te d d o c t r ine s a n d c e r e mo nie s o f the highe r n a ti o n s it
h a s n o t s eeme d m y p r o pe r t a s k t o w o r k o u t in d et a il the
,

p r o blem s th us su gge s te d a m o ng the phil oso phie s a n d cr ee ds

of
C h ri s ten do m
S uc h a ppli c a ti o n s e x ten d ing fa r the s t
f r o m the di r e c t sco pe o f a wor k o n p r imiti v e cu lt ur e a re
b r ie fl y s ta te d in gene ra l te rm s o r t o uche d in s light a ll us i o n
E duc a te d r e ad e rs
o r t a ken fo r g r a nte d w ith o u t r em a r k
p o ss e ss the in f o r m a ti o n r e q u i r e d t o wor k o u t thei r gene ra l
be a r ing o n the o l o gy w hile m o r e te chni ca l d i scuss i o n i s le f t
t o phil oso phe r s and the o l o gi a n s S pe ci a lly occu pie d w ith
suc h a r g u ment s
The rs t b r a n c h of the su bj e c t t o be co n s i d e r e d i s the
doc t r ine o f h u m a n and o the r S ou l s a n e x a min a ti o n of
w hi c h w ill o ccu p y the r e s t o f the p r e s ent c h a pte r W h a t
the d o c t r ine o f the s o u l i s a m o ng the l ow e r ra c e s may be
e x pla ine d in s t a ting the a nimi s ti c the o r y o f it s d e v el o pment
It s eem s a s th ou gh thinking men a s y et a t a l ow le v el o f
cu lt ur e w e r e d eepl y imp r e ss e d b y t w o g rou p s of bi o l o gi c a l
p r o blem s In the rs t pl a c e w h a t i s it t ha t m ake s the
di ffe r en c e bet w een a li v ing b ody a n d a d e a d o n e ; w h a t
c a us e s w aking s leep t r a n c e di s e a s e d e a th ?
In the
s e c o n d pl a c e w h a t a re t h e se h u m a n s h a pe s w hi c h a ppe a r in
d r e am s a n d v i s i o n s ? L o o ki n g a t the s e t wo g rou p s o f phe
n o men a the a n c ient s a v a ge phil oso phe rs p r o ba bly m a d e
thei r rs t s tep by the o b v i ous in f e r en ce th a t e v e ry man h as
t w o thing s bel o nging t o him n a mel y a li f e a n d a ph a nt o m
The s e t w o a re e v i d entl y in c l os e co nne x i o n w ith the b ody
the li f e a s en a bling it t o f eel an d think a n d a ct the ph a nt o m
a s being it s im a ge o r s e co n d s el f ; b o th a l s o a re pe rc ei v e d
t o be thing s s ep a r a ble fr o m the b ody the li f e as a ble t o g o
a w a y and le a v e it in s en s ible o r d e a d the ph a nt o m a s a ppe a r
ing t o pe o ple a t a di s t a n c e f ro m it The s e co n d s tep w o u l d
s ee m a l so e a sy fo r s av age s t o m ake s eeing h o w e x t r emel y
d i fcu lt c i viliz e d men h a v e fou n d it t o u nm a ke It i s me r el y
t o c o m bine the li f e a n d the ph a nt o m
As b o th bel o ng t o the
b ody w h y s h ou l d the y n o t a l s o bel o ng t o o ne a n o the r a n d
.

DOCTRINE

SOULS

OF

4 29

be m ani f e s t a ti o n s o f on e an d the s a me sou l ? L et them

then be c o n s i d e r e d a s u nite d an d the r e su lt i s th a t w ell
kn o w n co n c epti o n w hi c h may be d e sc r ibe d as an app a r i
t i on a l sou l a gh os t s o u l
Thi s a t a n y r a te corr e s p o n ds
w ith the a c t u a l co n c epti o n o f the pe rso n a l sou l o r S pi r it
a m o ng the l o w e r r a c e s w hi c h m a
: It
be
d
e

ne
d
as
fo
ll
ows
y
is a thin u n su b s t a nti a l h u m a n im a ge in it s n a t ur e a sor t o f
v ap our lm o r s h a d o w ; the c a us e of li f e a n d th o u ght in
the in d i v i du a l it a nim a te s ; in d epen d entl y p o ss e ss ing the
pe rs o n a l co n sc i o us ne ss an d vo liti o n o f it s cor p or e a l ow ne r
p a s t o r p r e s ent ; c a p a ble o f le a v ing t h e b ody far behin d t o
a s h sw i f tl y fro m pl a c e t o pl a c e ; m os tl y imp a lp a ble an d i n
v i s ible y et a l s o m a ni f e s ting ph ys i ca l p ow e r an d e s pe ci a ll y
a ppe a r ing t o men w a king o r a s leep as a p a nt a s m s ep a r a te
h
fr o m the b ody o f w hi c h it be a r s the likene ss ; c o ntin u ing t o
e x i s t an d a ppe a r t o men a f te r the d e a th o f th a t b o dy ; a ble
t o ente r int o p oss e ss an d ac t in the b o d ie s of o the r men
o f a nim a l s a n d e v en Of thing s
Th ou gh thi s d e niti o n i s b y
n o me an s of u ni v e rs a l a ppli c a ti o n it h as sufcient gene
ra l i t
y t o be t a ken a s a s t a n d a rd m od i e d b y m o r e or le ss
F a r fr o m the s e
d i v e r gen c e a m o ng an y p a r ti cu la r pe o ple
wor l d w i d e o pini o n s being a r bit r a ry or co n v enti o n a l p ro
duc t s it is s el do m e v en j us ti a ble t o co n s i d e r thei r u ni
for mit y a m o ng d i s t a nt r a c e s a s p r o v ing c o mm u ni c a ti o n o f
an
The y a re d o c t r ine s a n sw e r ing in t h e m os t f o rc ible
y sor t
w ay t o t h e pl a in e v i d en c e o f m en s s en s e s a s inte r p r ete d b y
a f a i r l y co n s i s tent a n d r a ti o n a l p r imiti v e phil oso ph y
So
w ell in d ee d d o e s p r imiti v e a nimi s m a cc o u nt for the fa c t s
o f n a t ur e th a t it h a s hel d it s pl a c e in t o the highe r le v el s o f
e duca ti o n Th o u gh c la ss i c an d me d i aeva l phil o s oph y m od i
e d i t m uc h a n d m o d e r n phil o so ph y has h a n d le d it y et
m or e u n s p a r ingl y i t has s o far r et a ine d the t ra c e s of it s
o r igin a l c h a r a c te r th a t hei r l o o m s o f p r imiti v e a ge s ma y be
c l aime d in the e x i s ting p syc h o l o gy o f the c i v ilize d wor l d
O u t o f the va s t m a ss of e v i d en c e co lle c te d a m o ng the
m o s t v a r i o us a n d d i s t a nt r a c e s of m ankin d t y pi ca l d et a il s
may n o w be s ele c te d t o d i s pla y the e a r lie r the o ry o f the
,

430

ANI M I SM

sou l

the r el a ti o n of the p a r t s o f thi s the o ry a n d the

m anne r in w hi c h the s e p ar t s h av e been a b an do ne d m o d i
e d o r kept u p a l o ng the cours e o f cu lt ur e
To u n d e rs t a n d the p o p u l a r co n c epti o n s Of the h u m a n
sou l o r s pi r it it i s in s t ruc ti v e t o n o ti c e the w o rds w hi c h
h av e been fou n d su ita ble t o e x p r e ss it The gh os t or ph a n
t a s m s een by the dr e a me r o r the v i s i o n ary i s a n u n su b s t a n
ti a l for m like a s h a dow o r re e x i on a n d th us the fa milia r
te r m o f the sh a d e co me s in t o e x p r e ss the so u l Th us the
1
T a s m ani a n word for the s h a dow i s a l so th a t for t h e s pi r it ;

the A lg o n q u in s d e scr ibe a m a n s sou l a s ol a h ch u lc h i S

s h a dow ;
the Q u i c h e l a ng u a ge us e s n a tu b for s h adow

3
sou l ;
the Ara w a k n ej a me a n s s h adow sou l im a ge ;

the A b i pon e s m a d e the on e word loalea l s e rv e for s h adow

3
sou l e c h o im a ge
The Z u l us n o t o nl y us e the word

tu nz i fo r
S h a dow s pi r it gh os t b u t the y co n s i d e r th a t
a t d e a th the S h a dow of a m a n w ill in so me w a y d ep a r t fro m
?
the cor p s e t o be co me a n a n c e s t ra l s pi r it
The B asu t os
n o t o nl y c a ll the s pi r it r em a i ning a f te r d e a th the ser i ti o r

s h a dow b u t the y think th a t i f a m a n w a lk s o n t h e r i v e r

b a nk a crocod ile may s eize hi s S h a dow in the w a te r an d
7
r
d a w him i n ; w hile in O l d C a l a b a r the r e is fou n d the
s a me i d enti c a ti o n o f the s pi r it w ith the u lcp on o r

?
S h a dow for a man t o l os e whi c h i s f a t a l
The r e ar e
th us fou n d a m o ng the l ow e r rac e s n o t o nl y the ty pe s o f
th os e f a mili a r c l a ss i c te r m s t h e slei a and u mbr a b u t a l so
w h a t s eem s the fu n da ment a l th ou ght o f the s t o r ie s o f
s h a d o w le ss men s till curr ent in t h e f o lkl o r e o f E uro pe an d
f a mi li a r t o m od e r n r e a d e rs in C h a mi s s o s t a le of P ete r

B n wic k T s m ni n s p 1 82
,

T nn r s N rr p 2 9 1 C ree t c h k s ou l
3
Brass eur L n g u e Q i c h s v

M t i n s E thn og A m r v
ol i p 7 0 5 ; v
ol ii p 3 1 0

D ob iz h ffe
Abi p n es v
ol ii p 1 9 4

Z u l u D ic s v tun z i C ll wa y Re l o f A maz ul u pp
D Oh n e

Z u l u T l e s vol i p 3 42
126
7 C s a l is
B as ut os p 2 4 5 ; Arb ous se t n d B um s V y ge p 1 2

G ol di e Ek D icti o n ry s v ; s e KOlle A fr N ti v e L it p

A ls o J ur n I nd A rch i p vol v p 7 1 3 ( A u s tr l i n )
( K nu r i )
2

r,

9 1,

e,

ar

324

AP P A R ITI ONAL

V ITAL SOUL

AN D

431

S c hlemihl Th us the d e a d in P ur ga t ory kne w th a t Da nte

w a s a li v e w hen the y sa w th a t u nlike thei rs hi s g ur e c a s t a
?
s h a dow o n the g r o u n d
O the r a tt r ib u te s a re ta ken int o
the n o ti o n of sou l or S pi r it w ith e s pe c i a l r ega rd t o it s being
the ca us e of li f e Th us the C a r ib s co nne c ting the p u l s e s
w ith s pi r it u a l being s an d e s pe ci a ll y co n s i d e r ing th a t in the
he a r t dw ell s m a n s c hie f s o u l d e s tine d t o a fu t ur e he a v enl y

li f e co u l d r e a s on a bly us e the on e word i ou a n n i for S ou l

li f e he a r t
The T o nga n s su pp os e d the sou l t o e x i s t
th rou gh o u t the w h o le e x ten s i o n of the b o dy b u t p a r ti e n
l a rly in the he a r t
O n on e o cca s i o n the n a ti v e s w e r e
d e c l a r ing t o a E uro pe a n th a t a m a n b ur ie d m o nth s a go w as

ne v e r thele ss s till a li v e A n d on e en d ea vour in g t o m a ke

me u n d e rs ta n d w h a t he me a nt t oo k h o l d Of m y h an d an d

s q u eezing it s a i d Thi s w ill d ie b u t the li f e th a t i s w ithin

n w ill ne v e r d ie ;
o my
w
ith
h
i
o
the
r
h
n
d
p
o
i
n
t
i
ng
t
s
a
o
y
he a r t
S o the B a su t o s say o f a d e a d man th a t h i s he a r t
i s g o ne ou t an d of on e r e cov e r ing fro m S i c kne ss th a t hi s
he a r t is co ming b a ck Thi s corr e s p o n ds t o the fa mili a r
O l d W or l d v ie w of t h e he a r t a s the p r ime m ov e r in li f e
th ou ght a n d p ass i o n The co nne x i o n o f sou l an d bl o o d
fa mili a r t o the K a r en s an d P a p u a s a ppe a rs p ro minentl y in
Je w i s h a n d Ara bi c phil oso ph y T o e duca te d m od e r n s the
idea Of the M a cus i In d i a n s o f G u i a n a ma y s eem q u a int

th a t a lth o u gh the b ody w ill d e ca y the man in ou r e y e s

?
n
o
w ill
Y et the a ss o c i a ti o n Of
t d ie b u t w a n d e r a b o u t
pe rso n a l a nim a ti o n w ith the p u pil of the e y e i s fa mili a r t o
E uro pe a n f o lkl or e w hi c h n o t u n r e a so n a bl y d i sc e r ne d a S ign
o f be w it c hment o r a pp ro ac hing d e a th in the di s a ppe a ra n c e
o f the im a ge p u pil o r b a b y f r o m the d im e y eb a ll s o f the
7
S i c k m an
D nt D i v C mm P u rg t r i c nt iii C mp r Gr h m nn A b r
.

e,

a o

o,

a e

gl a u b e n a u s B o h me n p 2 21 S e e a n te p 8 5
2
R och e for t pp 4 29 5 1 6 ; J G M u ll e r p 20 7

3
M a r in e r To n g I s vo l ii p 1 3 5 S S F a rmer T on ga

1
C a s al i s
S ee a ls M a r in e r i b id
B a s ti a n P sy ch o l o gi e pp 1 5 2 3
3
J H B er n au Br it G uia n a p 1 3 4

7
Gr i mm D M pp 1 0 28 1 1 3 3 A n gl o Sa x o n m a n li ca

&c

131

432

ANI MISM

The a c t o f b r e a thing so c h a ra c te r i s ti c o f the highe r

a nim a l s dur ing li fe a n d c o in c i d ing s o c l os el y w ith li f e in i t s
d ep a r t ur e h a s been r epe a te d l y and n a t ur a ll y i d enti e d w ith
the li fe o r s ou l it s el f L a ura B r i d gm a n s h o w e d in he r i n
s t r uc ti v e w a
h
f
f
f
t
e
a
n
a
l
o
g
y
bet
w
een
the
e
e
c
t
s
o
r
e
s
t
r
i
c
te
d
y
s en s e a n d r e s t r i c te d c i v i liz a ti o n w hen o ne day s he m a d e

the ge s t ur e of t a king s o mething a w ay f r o m he r m o u th : I

dr e a me d s h e e x pl a ine d in words th a t G o d t oo k a w a y
m y b r e a th t o he av en
It i s th us th a t We s t Aus t r a li a n s

us e d o n e word wa u g for b r e a th S pi r it sou l ; th a t in the

N e t e la l a ng u a ge o f C a li for ni a p i n ts me a n s li f e b r e a th
s o u l ; th a t c e r t a in G r eenl a n d e rs r e c k o ne d t wo sou l s t o
man n a mel y hi s s h a dow a n d hi s b r e a th ; th a t the M a la ys
s ay the sou l o f the dy ing m a n e sca pe s th r o u gh h i s n o s t r il s

and in J a v a us e the s a me wo r d na u a fo r b r e a th li f e
sou l
H o w the n o ti o n s o f li f e he a r t b r e a th a n d ph a nt o m
u nite in the o ne c o n c epti o n o f a sou l or S pi r it an d a t the
s ame time h ow l oos e a n d v a g u e suc h ideas a re a m o ng
b a r b ar i c r a c e s i s w ell b rou ght int o v ie w in the a n sw e rs t o
a r e ligi ous in q u e s t hel d in 1 5 2 8 a m o ng the n a ti v
es of

N i ca ragu a
When the y d ie the r e co me s o u t o f thei r
m ou th so mething th a t r e s emble s a pe rso n a n d is c a lle d
u li o
u li = t o li v e
a
A
zte
c
Thi
s
being
g
o
e
s
t
o
the
pl
ce
j
g
]
[
w he r e the m an a n d wo m a n are It i s like a pe rs o n b u t

do e s n o t di e a n d the b ody r em a in s he r e
Qu esti on D o
th os e w h o g o u p on high keep the s ame b ody the s a me

?
A nsw er
No;
f a c e a n d the s a me limb s a s he r e bel ow

the r e i s o nl y the he a r t Qu esti on B u t S in c e the y te a r

ou t thei r he a r t s [i e w hen a ca pti v e w a s s a cr i c e d] w h a t

?
A n sw er
h appen s then
It is n o t p r e ci s ely the he a r t
b u t th a t in them w hi c h m a ke s them li v e an d th a t q u it s the
b ody w hen the y d ie O r as s t a te d in a n o the r inte rro
,

'

L i eb e r
Br id gman in S mith s oni n C ontr i b vol ii p
G F M oo r e V ca b o f W A u s tral i a p 1 0 3
B rin t o n p 5 0 s ee p 2 3 5 B s ti an P sy ch ol og i e p 1 5

C r n z Gr on l n d p 2 5 7
C wf d
M l y Gr n d D ic s v M rs d n S u m t r p
,

L a u r a
.

ra

a a

ur

a,

3 86

LIFE

H EART

REATH

433

n o t thei r he a r t th a t g o e s u p a b ov e b u t w h a t
It
i
s
g
y
m a ke s the m li v e th a t i s t o s ay the b r e a th th a t i ssu e s fro m
thei r m ou th a n d i s c a lle d j u li o
The co n c epti o n of the
sou l as b r e a th may be fo ll ow e d u p th r o u gh Semiti c a n d
Ary a n et y m o l o g y an d th us int o the m a in s t r e am s o f t h e

phil oso ph y o f the w o r l d Heb r e w s h ows n ep h esh b r e a th

p a ss ing int o a ll the me a ning s o f li f e sou l min d a nim a l

w hile r u a ch a n d n esh a ma h m a ke the like t r a n s iti o n f r o m

b r e a th t o S pi r it ; an d t o the s e the Ara bi c n ef s a n d

r u h c o rr e s p o n d
The s a me i s the hi s t o r y of S a n s k r it d lma n
a n d p r an a o f G r eek psy ch e a n d p n eu ma
o f L a tin a n i mu s
a n i ma s i r i tu s
S o Sl a v o ni c clu ch h as d e v el o pe d the me a n
p

ing of b r e a th int o th a t o f sou l o r S pi r it ; an d the d i a le c t s

o f the G y p s ie s h a v e thi s w o rd d uh w ith the me a ning s o f

b r e a th S pi r it gh o s t w hethe r t hese p a r i a h s b r ou ght the

w o rd f r o m In di a a s p a r t o f thei r inhe r it a n c e o f Ary a n
s pee c h or w hethe r the y a d o pte d i t in thei r mig r a ti o n a cr o ss
Sla v o ni c la n ds G e r m a n g ei st an d E ngli s h g h ost t oo may
p oss ibly h av e the s a me o r igin a l s en s e o f b r e a th A n d i f an y
s h ou l d think suc h e x p r e ss i o n s du e t o me r e met a ph o r the y
may jud ge the s t r ength of the implie d c o nne x i o n bet w een
b r e a th a n d s pi r it b y cas e s o f m os t u ne qu i v o ca l S igni ca n c e
A m o ng the Semin o le s o f F l o r i d a w hen a wo m an d ie d in
c hil dbi r th the in fa nt w as hel d o v e r he r f a c e t o r e c ei v e he r
p a r ting S pi r it a n d th us a c qu i r e s t r ength an d kn o w le d ge fo r
it s fu t ur e us e The s e In d i a n s cou l d h av e w ell u n d e rs t ood
w h y a t the d e a th be d o f a n a n c ient R o m a n the ne a r e s t
kin s m a n le a nt ov e r t o inh ale the l a s t b r e a th o f the d ep a r t
ing ( e t e x ci pi e s h a n c a nim a m ore pi o) Thei r s t a te o f min d
i s kept u p t o thi s day a m o ng T yr o le s e pe a s a nt s w h o c an
s till f a n cy a g o o d m a n s sou l t o i ssu e f r o m hi s m o u th a t
d e a t h li ke a little w hite c l oud
ator

H i s t d u

O v i ed o
N icarag u a pp 2 1 5 1
2
P o tt Z i g eun e r vol ii p 3 0 6 ; I nd o G er m W u rz e l W Ort erb u ch vol i

p 1 0 7 3 ; B orr ow La veng ro vol ii ch xx vi wr it e t h e l i l o f h i m w h os e

d ock g a ll op s d o w n th a t hi ll e v e ry ni g ht s e e v
ol iii ch i v
3
Br int o n
M y th s of N e w W o rl d p 25 3 C o mm in V i rg E n i v 68 4
1

ANI M I S M

4 34

I t w ill be s h o w n th a t me n in thei r co mp o s ite a n d co n

fus e d n o ti o n s o f t h e s o u l h a v e b r o u ght int o c o nne x i o n a
li s t o f m a ni fe s t a ti o n s o f li fe a n d th ou ght e v en m o r e m u lti
f e r i o n s t h a n t his B u t a l s o S eeking t o a v o i d s uc h pe r
ple x i t y o f c o mbin a ti o n the y h a v e s o m etime s en d e a v o u r e d
t o d e ne a n d c l a s s i fy m or e c l os el y e s pe c i a ll y b y the the o r y
t ha t ma n h a s a c o m bin a ti o n Of s e v e r a l kin ds o f S pi r it s o u l
o r i ma ge t o w hi c h d i ff e r ent fu n c ti o n s bel o ng
A l r e a dy
in the b a r b a r i c w o r l d suc h c l a ss i ca ti o n h as been in v ente d
o r a d o pte d
Th us the F ij i a n s d i s ting u i s he d bet w een a m a n s

d a r k s pi r it o r s h a dow w hi c h g o e s t o H a d e s an d hi s

light S pi r it o r re e x i on in w a te r o r a mi rr o r w hi c h s ta ys
ne a r w he r e he d ie s The M a la ga sy s a y th a t the sa i n a o r
m in d v a ni s he s a t d e a th the a i n a or li f e be c o me s me r e a i r
b u t the ma toa l oa o r gh o s t h o v e r s rou n d the t o mb In
N o r th A me r i c a the du a li t y o f the sou l i s a s t ro ngl y m a r ke d
A lg o n q u in belie f ; on e sou l g o e s ou t a n d s ee s dr e a m s w hile
the o the r r em ain s behin d ; a t d e a th on e o f the t wo a bi d e s
w ith the b ody a n d for thi s the surv i vors le a v e o ffe r ing s o f
f o od w hile the o the r d ep a r t s t o the l a n d o f the d e a d A
d i v i s i o n int o th r ee sou l s i s a l so kn ow n an d the D a k o t a s
s a y th a t m an has f o ur sou l s o ne r em a in i ng w ith the co r p s e
on e s t a y ing in t h e v ill a ge on e g o ing in the a i r a n d o n e t o
?
the l a n d o f S pi r it s The K a r en s d i s ting u i s h bet w een the

l a o r kel a h the pe rs o n a l li f e ph a nt o m an d t h e th a h the

r e s p o n s ible m or a l sou l M o r e or le ss u n d e r Hin du in u en c e
the Kh o n ds h a v e a fourfo l d d i vi s i o n as fo ll ows : the rs t sou l
i s th a t c a p a ble of b e a t i c a t i on o r r e s t or a ti o n t o B oo r e the
G ood D eit y ; t h e s e co n d i s a tt a c he d t o a Kh o n d t r ibe o n e a r th
an d i s r e b or n gene r a ti o n a f te r gene r a ti o n so th a t a t the bi r th
,

C ic V err v 4 5 ; \V t tk e V olks ab ergl au b e p 2 1 0 ; R ochh olz D eut s che r

Gl au b e & c vol i p 1 1 1

1
W i ll i ams F ij i vol i p 2 4 1
2
E ll i s M d ga s c ar vol i p 3 9 3

3
C h arl e vo i x N o u v ell Fr a nc e vol vi pp 7 5 8 ; S ch ool c ra ft I ndi n
T r i be s p r t i pp 3 3 83 p a r t i v p 7 0 ; Wa itz vol ii i p 1 9 4 ; J G
M ul l e r pp 6 6 2 0 7 8

C r oss in J o u r n A m r O r ie nta l S c vol i v p 3 1 0

u

P LU RA LI TY

SOULS

OF

4 35

e ac h c hil d the p r ie s t a s k s w h o h as r et ur ne d ; the thi rd

g o e s ou t t o h o l d S pi r it u a l inte rcours e le av ing the b ody i n a
la ng u i d s t a te an d it is thi s sou l w hi c h can p a ss for a ti m e
int o a tige r an d t r a n s mig r a te s for p u ni s hment a f te r d e a th ;
the fou r th di e s o n the d i sso l u ti o n of the b ody
S uc h
c l a ss i c a ti o n s r e s e m ble th os e o f highe r n a ti o n s a s for
in s t a n c e the th r ee f o l d d i v i s i o n o f S h a d e m a ne s a n d
S pi r it
s u nt b m i n i m n s c r s p i r i t u s u mb r
Bi d
t
i pi
Q u tu r i s t l c i b i s d
mvl t u mb r
T rr t g i t
m t m l m i
O r cu s h b t m n s s p i r i t u s s t r p t i t
of

uo

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u u

a o,

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un

a,

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c rc u
a

ttempting t o f o ll o w u p the d et a il s o f suc h p syc hi c a l

d i v i s i o n int o the el a b or a te sys tem s o f lite r a ry n a ti o n s I
S h a ll n o t d i scuss the d i s tin c ti o n w hi c h the a n c ient E g y pti a n s
s eem t o h av e m a d e in t h e R it u a l o f the D e a d bet w een the
m a n s ba a lch ha leh a ba t r a n s l a te d b y D r B i rc h as hi s

sou l min d im age S h a d e or the R a bbini c a l d i v i s i o n

int o w h a t may be r ou ghl y d e scr ibe d a s t h e b od il y s pi r it u a l
a n d c ele s ti a l s o u l s o r the d i s tin c ti o n bet w een the em a n a ti v e
a n d geneti c s o u l s in Hin du phil oso ph y o r the d i s t r ib u ti o n
o f li f e
a pp a r iti o n
a n c e s t r a l s pi r it
a m o ng the th r ee sou l s
o f the C hine s e o r the d em a rc a ti o n s o f t h e n ou s p sy ch e a n d
n eu ma
or
of
the a n i i n a an d a n i mu s o r the fa m ous
p
c l a ss i c an d me d i ae v a l the or ie s o f the v eget a l s en s iti v e a n d
r a ti o n a l sou l s S u fc e it t o p o int o u t he r e th a t suc h S pe cu
l a ti o n d a te s b a ck t o the b a r b a r i c c o n d iti o n of ou r r a c e in a
s t a te f a i r l y c o m p a r ing as t o sc ienti c v a l u e w ith m uc h th a t
h as g a ine d e s tee m w ithin the p r e c in c t s o f highe r cu lt ur e
It wou l d be a di ffi cu lt t a s k t o t r e a t suc h cl a ss i ca ti o n on a
co n s i s tent l ogi ca l b a s i s Te r m s c o rr e s p o n di ng w ith th os e o f
li f e min d sou l s p i r it gh o s t an d s o f o r th a re n o t th ou ght
o f a s d e sc r ibing r e a ll y s ep a r a te entitie s
s o m uc h as t h e
s e v e r a l for m s an d fu n c ti o n s O f on e in d i v i du a l being Th us
N ot

9 1
2

K l emm , C

M cph e rs on pp
S ee als o

S t J o hn F E s t vol i p 1 89 ( D ay aks )
1

ar

G vol iii p

7 1 ( L a pp )

436

ANI M IS M

the c o n fus i o n w hi c h he rc p r e v ail s in o u r o w n th ou ght a n d

l a ng u age in a m a nne r ty pi c a l o f the th o u ght a n d l a ng u a ge
f m a nkin d i n gene r a l i s i n f a c t du e n o t me r el y t v ag u e
ne s s f te r m s bu t t o a n a n c ient the o ry o f su b s t a nti a l u nity
w hi c h u n d e r lie s t he m
S uc h a mbig u ity o f l a ng u age h o w
e v e r w ill be f o u n d t o inte rfe r e little wi t h the p r e s ent
en q u i ry fo r the d et a il s giv en o f t h e n a t ur e a n d a c ti o n o f
s pi r it s s o u l s ph ant o m s w ill them s el v e s d e ne the e xac t
s en s e suc h w o r ds a re t o be t a ken in
The e a r l y a ni mi s ti c the o ry o f v it a lit y r ega rd ing the fu n c
ti o n s o f li fe a s c aus e d by the s o u l o ffe r s t o the s a va ge min d
a n e x pl a n a ti o n o f s e v e r a l b o d il y a n d m ent a l c o n d iti o n s as
being e ff e c t s o f a d ep a r t u r e o f the s o u l o r so me o f it s c on
s t i t u en t
S pi r it s
Thi s the o r y h o l ds a w i d e a n d s t r o ng
p os iti o n in s a v a ge bi o l o g y The S ou th Aus t ra li a n s e x p r e ss
it w hen the y say o f o n e in s en s ible o r u n co n sci o us th a t he

i s w i ly ama rra b a i e w ith ou t s ou l

A m o ng the A lg o n
q u in In d i a n s o f N o r th A me r i c a w e he a r o f S i c kne ss being

a ccou nte d for b y the p a tient s

s h a d o w being u n s ettle d o r
d et a c he d f r o m hi s b o dy a n d of the c o n v a le sc ent being
r ep r oa c he d fo r e x p os ing him s el f be f o r e hi s S h a dow w a s
s a f el y s ettle d d o w n in him ; w he r e w e s h ou l d say th a t a
man w a s ill a n d r e c o v e r e d the y w o u l d c o n s i d e r th a t h e
d ie d b u t c a me ag a in A n o the r a ccou nt fr o m a m o ng the
s a me r a c e e x pl a in s the co n d iti o n o f men l y ing in leth
a r g y o r t r a n c e ; thei r s o u l s h a v e t r a elle d t o the b a nk s
of the R i v e r o f D e a th b u t h a v e been dr iv en b a c k a n d
r et u r n t o r e a nim a te thei r b o d ie s
A m o ng the F ij i a n s

w hen an y o ne f a int s or d ie s thei r S pi r it it i s s a i d m ay

s o metim e s be b rou ght b a c k b y c a lling a f te r it ; a n d o cca
s i on a lly the l ud i cr o us sc ene i s w itne ss e d o f a s t o u t m a n
l y ing a t fu ll length and b a w ling o u t l us til y fo r t h e r et u r n of
hi s o w n s o u l
To the neg r o e s o f N o r th G u ine a d e r a nge
,

V o c ab

L ng s v
2
T nn er s N r p 2 9 1 K e tin g N a rr O f L on g s E x p vol ii p 1 5 4

W i ll i m s F ij i vol i p 2 4 2 ; s ee t h e c on v ers e p r o c ss o f c tchin g

w y a m a n s s o u l c u s in g h i m t o pin e n d d i e p 2 5 0
1

S h urma n n ,

ar

of

Parn k al l a

DEPA RT URE

RET URN

AN D

SOUL

OF

4 37

ment or do ta ge i s c aus e d by the p a tient being p r em a t ur el y

d e s e r te d b y hi s s o u l S leep be i ng a m o r e temp o r a r y w ith
d ra w a l
Th us in v a r i ous c o u nt r ie s the b r ingi ng b a c k o f
l o s t s ou l s be co me s a r eg u la r p a r t o f the s o rc e r e r s o r p r ie s t s
p r o f e ss i o n The S a li s h In d i a n s of O r eg o n r ega rd the S pi r it
a s d i s tin c t fr o m the v it a l p r in c iple a n d c a p a ble o f q u itting
the b ody fo r a s h o r t time with o u t the p a tient being c on
sc i o us o f it s a b s en c e ; b u t t o a v o i d f a t a l co n s e qu en c e s it
m us t b e r e s t o r e d a s s oo n a s p o ss ible a n d a cco r d ingl y the
me d i cine man in so lemn f o rm r epl a c e s it d o w n th r o u gh the
?
p a tient s he a d The T ur a ni an or T a t a r r a c e s o f N o r the r n
As i a s t ro ngl y h o l d the the o ry o f the s o u l s d ep a r t ur e in
d i s e a s e an d a m o ng the B udd hi s t t r ibe s the L a m a s c a rry
the c e r e m o n y o f s o u l r e s t o r a ti o n i n m os t ela b o r a te
ou t
f o r m When a m a n h a s been ro bbe d b y a d em o n of hi s
r a ti o n a l sou l a n d h a s o nl y hi s a nim a l s o u l le f t hi s s en s e s
a n d me m o ry g r ow w e a k a n d he f a ll s int o a d i s m a l s t a te
Then the L ama u n d e r t a ke s t o cu r e him a n d w ith q u a int
r ite s e x e rci s e s the e v il d e m o n B u t i f thi s f ail s then it i s the
p a tient s s o u l it s el f th a t ca nn o t o r w ill n o t n d it s way ba ck
S o the S i c k m a n i s l a i d ou t in hi s be s t a tti r e an d su r r ou n d e d
w ith hi s m o s t a tt r a c ti v e p o ss e ss i o n s the f r ien ds a n d r el a
e s g o th r i c e r o u n d t h e dw elling a ffe c ti o n a tel y c a lling b a c k
tiv
the s o u l by n am e w hile a s a fu r the r in duc ement the L a m a
r e a ds f r o m hi s b o o k d e sc r ipti o n s o f the p a in s o f hell a n d
t h e d a nge r s in cu r r e d b y a s o u l w hi c h w il fu ll y a b a n do n s it s
b o dy an d then a t l a s t the w h o le a ss e mbl y d e c l a r e w ith o n e
v o i c e th a t the w a n d e r ing s pi r it h as r et ur ne d a n d t h e p a tient
w ill r e cov e r
The K a r en s of B u r m a w ill r un a b o u t p r e
ten d ing t o ca t c h a S i c k m a n s w a n d e r ing s o u l o r a s the y

w
ith
h
e G r eek s a n d Sl a vs
hi
s
b
u
tte
r

y
leip
t
a
sa
(
py )
y
The K a r en doc
a n d a t l a s t d r o p i t d o w n u p o n hi s he a d

t r ine o f t h e l a is in d ee d a pe rf e c t a n d w ell m a r ke d
,

J L W ils on
A fr p 22 0

B a s ti an M en s ch vol ii p 3 1 9 als S p r oa t p 2 1 3 ( Vanc ou v r s

B s ti n P sy ch l og i p 3 4 ; G mel in R ei s e n d ur ch S i b i r i e n vl ii
p 3 5 9 (Y k ut s ) Ra ven s tein Amu r p 3 5 1 (T un gu z )
1

2
3

e,

ANIMI SM

45 8
0

v ita li s ti c sys tem

Thi s i t s ou l gh o s t o r geni us may be
s ep a r a te d f r o m the b o dy i t bel o ng s t o an d it i s a m a tte r o f
the d eepe s t inte r e s t t o the K a r en t o keep hi s 15 w ith him
b y c alling it m a king o ffe rings o f food t o it and s o f o r th
I t i s e s pe c i a ll y w hen the b o dy i s a s leep th a t the s o u l g o e s
o u t a n d w a n d e rs ; i f it i s d et a i ne d be y o n d a c e r t a in time
d i s e a s e en su e s a n d i f pe r m a nentl y then it s ow ne r d ie s

When the w ee o r S pi r it doc t or i s empl oy e d t o c a ll b a c k

the d ep a r te d S h a d e or li f e Of a K a r en i f he ca nn o t r e cov e r
it fro m the r egi o n o f the d e ad he w ill so metime s t a ke the
s h a d e o f a li v i ng man a n d t r a n sf e r it t o the d e a d w hile it s
p r o pe r o w ne r w h os e sou l h as v ent ur e d ou t in a dr e a m
s i c ken s an d d ie s O r w hen a K ar en be co me s s i c k l ang u i d
h av in g le f t him hi s fr ien ds w ill
a n d pining fro m hi s
pe rf o r m a c e r em o n y w ith a ga r ment of the in va li d s an d
fow l w hi c h i s co o ke d an d O ffe r e d w ith r i c e i n v
a
ok
ing the s pi r it w ith for m a l p r ay e rs t o co me ba c k t o the
?
p a tient
Thi s c e r em o n y i s pe r h a p s ethn o l o gi ca ll y co n
n e c t e d th ou gh it i s n o t e a sy t o s ay b y w h a t m a nne r o f
di ffus i o n o r w hen w ith a r ite s till p r a c ti s e d in C hin a
When a C hine s e i s a t the p o int o f d e a th an d h i s sou l
is su pp os e d t o be a l r e a dy o u t o f h i s b ody a r el a ti v e
may be s een h o l d ing u p the p a tient s co a t o n a l o ng
b a mb o o t o w hi c h a w hite cock i s of ten fa s tene d w hile
a T a ni s t p r ie s t b y in ca nt a ti o n s b r ing s t h e d ep ar te d
S pi r it int o the co a t i n o rd e r t o pu t it b a c k int o the
S i c k man I f the b a mb o o a f te r a time t ur n s rou n d S l ow l y
in the h o l d e r s h a n ds thi s S h ows th a t the s pi r it i s in s i d e
?
the ga r ment
S uc h temp or a ry e x it o f the sou l h as a wor l d w i d e appli
c a ti o n t o the p r o c ee d ing s of the sorc e r e r p r ie s t o r s ee r
him s el f He p rof e ss e s t o s en d for th hi s S pi r it on d i s t a nt
.

es l
O t

B as ti a n
A s i e n vol i p 1 4 3 vol ii pp 3 8 8 4 1 8 vol iii

p 2 3 6 M a s o n K ar e n s
p 1 9 6 & c C r o ss K ar e n s in J ou rn

ol i v 1 8 5 4 p 3 0 7
S ee a ls o S t J o hn
F a r Eas t
Ame r O r i e nt a l S oc v
l c ( D ay a ks )

2
D ooli tt l e C hin es e vol i p 1 5 0
1

D EPA RT UR E A N D R ETU R N

SOUL

OF

4 39

j o ur ne ys a n d p r o b abl y of ten belie v e s hi s s o u l r ele a s e d for a

time fr o m it s b od il y p ri so n as in the c a s e o f th a t r em a r k
a ble d r e a me r a n d v i s i o n a r y Je r o me C a rd a n w h o d e sc r ibe s
him s el f a s h av ing the fa cu lt y o f p a ss ing ou t of his s en s e s as
int o e cs t a sy w hene v e r he w ill f eelin g w hen he g o e s int o
thi s s t a te a sor t o f s ep a r a ti o n ne a r the he a r t a s i f h i s s o u l
w e r e d ep a r ting thi s s t a te beginning fro m his b r a in an d
p a ss ing d o w n hi s S pine an d he then f ee li ng o nl y th a t he i s
?
o u t o f hi m s el f
Th us the Aus t r a li a n n a ti v e doc t or i s a l
l e g e d t o O bt a in hi s initi a ti o n b y v i s iting the wor l d o f s pi r it s
2
in a t ra n c e of t w o o r th r ee days dura ti o n ; the Kh o n d p r ie s t
a u thenti c a te s his c l a i m t o Of c e b y r em a ining fr o m o n e t o
four teen d a ys in a l a ng u i d a n d d r e a m y s t a te c a us e d b y o ne of
3
o
di
hi s s u l s being a w a y i n the v ine p r e s ence ; the G r eenl a n d
a ngek o k s sou l g o e s for th fr o m his b ody t o f et c h hi s f a mili a r
4
d em o n ; the T u r a ni a n S h a m a n lie s in leth a r g y w hile hi s
sou l d ep a r t s t o b r ing hi dd en w i sdo m fro m the l a n d o f
?
S pi r it s
The lite r a t ur e o f m o r e p r o g r e ss i v e r a c e s su pplie s
S imil a r a cc o u nt s A c h a r a c te r i s ti c s t ory f r o m o ld S c a n d i
nav i a i s th a t of the N ors e c hie f I n g i mu n d w h o Sh u t u p
th r ee F inn s in a b u t for th r ee night s th a t the y might v i s it
I c ela n d a n d in for m h i m o f the lie o f the cou nt r y w he r e he
w a s t o s ettle ; thei r b od ie s be c a m e r igi d the y s ent thei r
s o u l s on the e r r a n d an d a w a kening a f te r the th r ee d ays the y
?
ga v e a d e scr ipti o n o f the V a t n s dael The t y pi ca l c l a ss i c
c a s e i s the s t o r y o f H e rm o t i mo s w h os e p r o pheti c s o u l w ent
ou t f r o m time t o time t o v i s it d i s t a nt r egi o n s till a t l a s t hi s
w i f e b u r nt the li fele ss b ody o n the fu ne r a l pile a n d w hen
the p oo r sou l c a me b a ck the r e w a s n o l o nge r a dw elli ng for
?
it t o a nim a te
A g r o u p o f the legen da ry v i s it s t o the
,

C ar d a n , D e Va ri et a t e R eru m,
S ta n br id g e A b or o f V icto r ia

I ndi

B a s el 1 5 5 6 c a p xl iii

in Tr E th S oc vol i p
.

M cph rs n
p 1 03
a
C r n z Gr n l nd p 2 6 9 S ee als o S pr a t

R ub s
F in l nd p 3 0 3 ; C s tr em F inn M y th p
M e n s ch vol ii p 3 1 9
3
V t n s d ael S g
B ar in g G ou l d W e rewol v e s p 2 9
7
Pli n v ii 5 3 ; L uci n H ermot i m n M u s e E uc om 7
3

3 00

s,

134 ;

B a s ti a n

AN IMI S M

440

s pi r it w o r l d w hi c h w ill be d e scr ibe d in the ne x t c h a pte r

belo ng t o thi s c la s s A ty pi c a l s pi ritu a li s ti c in s ta n c e may
be q u o te d f r o m J u ng Stilling w h o s ays th a t e x a mple s h av e
co me t o hi s kn o w le dge o f s i c k pe rso n s w h o l o nging t o
s e e a b s ent fr ien ds
h a v e fa llen int o a sw o o n during w hi ch
the y h a v e a ppe a r e d t o the d i s t a nt o bj e c t s of thei r a ffe c ti o n ?
As a n ill us t ra ti o n f r o m our o wn f o lkl or e the w ell kn ow n
su pe rs titi o n may s e rv e th a t f a s ting wa t c he rs on St J o hn s
E v e m ay s e e the a pp a r iti o n s o f th os e doo me d t o d ie dur ing
t h e y e a r co me w ith the c le r g y m a n t o the c h u r c h door a n d
kn ock ; the s e a pp a r iti o n s a re s pi r it s w h o co me for th fro m
thei r b odie s for the mini s te r h as been n o ti c e d t o be m uc h
t rou ble d in hi s s leep w hile hi s ph a nt o m w as th us eng a ge d
a n d w hen o n e o f a p a r t y o f w a t c he rs f ell int o a s o u n d S leep
a n d c o u l d n o t be rous e d the o the rs saw hi s a pp ar iti o n
?
kn oc k a t the c h urch door
M o d e r n E uro pe h as in d ee d
kept c l os el y en ou gh t o the line s of e a r l y phil oso ph y for
suc h ideas t o h av e little s t r angene ss t o o u r o w n time
L a ng ua ge p r e s e rv e s r e cord o f them in suc h e x p r e ss i o n s

as ou t o f o ne s el f
be s i d e o ne s el f
in an e cs t a sy
s ays th a t hi s S pi r it g o e s for th t o meet a
a n d he w h o
fr ien d c an s till r e ali ze in the ph r a se a me a n i ng d eepe r
th a n met a ph or
Thi s s a me doc t r ine for m s on e s i d e o f the the ory o f dr e a m s
p r e va lent a m o ng the l ow e r r a c e s C e r t a in of the G r een
l a n d e rs C ra nz r em a r k s co n s i d e r th a t th e sou l qu it s the
b o dy in the night a n d g o e s ou t h u nting d an c ing a n d v i s it
ing ; thei r d r e a m s w hi c h a re fr e q u ent an d li v el y h aving
?
o
b rou ght them t thi s o pini o n
A m o ng the In di a n s o f
N or th A me r i ca w e he a r o f the dr e a me r s sou l le a v i ng hi s
b ody a n d w a n d e r ing in qu e s t o f thing s a tt ra c ti v e t o it
The s e thing s the w a king man m us t en d e a vour t o O b t ain
-

D O wen Fo ot falls on t h e B ound a ry o f a n o th er W orl d p 2 5 9 S ee

A R W all a c e S ci nti c A s p ect o f t h e S up er n tural p 4 3

P
o
v
o
l
Brand
i p 3 3 1 vol iii p 23 6 S ee C almet D i ss
p A nt
s u r l es E s p r its M au ry M agi e p ar t ii ch i v
C ran z GrOnl n d p 2 5 7
1

D R E A M EX I T

or

SOUL

44 1

le s t h i s sou l be t rou ble d a n d q u it the b ody a lt o gethe r

The N e w Ze a l a n d e rs c o n s i d e r e d the dr e a ming s o u l t o le a v e
the b o dy an d r et ur n e v en t ra v elling t o the r egi o n o f the
d e a d t o h o l d co n v e rs e w ith it s fr ien ds
The T a ga l s of
L u z o n o bj e c t t o w a king a s leepe r on a ccou nt o f the a b s en c e
?
o f hi s s o u l
The K a r en s w h os e the o r y o f the w a n d e r ing
s o u l h as jus t been n o ti c e d e x pl a in dr e a m s t o be w h a t thi s
la s ee s a n d e x pe r ien c e s in it s j ou r ne ys w hen it h as le f t the
b o dy a s leep The y e v en a ccou nt w ith m uc h a cu tene ss for
the fa c t th a t w e a re a pt t o d r e a m of pe o ple a n d pl a c e s
w hi c h w e kne w be f o r e ; t h e leip py a the y s ay c an o nl y
v i s it the r egi o n s w he r e the b ody it bel o ng s t o h as been
a l r e a dy
O n w a rd fr o m the s a va ge s t a te the i d e a of the
S pi r it s d ep a r t ur e in S leep may be t r a c e d int o the s pe en
l a ti v e phil os o ph y o f highe r n a ti o n s as in the V e d a nt a
sys tem a n d the K a bba l a
St Au gus tine tell s on e O f t h e
d o u ble n a r r a ti v e s w hi c h so w ell ill us t r a te the o r ie s Of thi s
kin d The man w h o tell s Au gus tine t h e s t o r y r ela te s th a t
a t h o me on e night be fo r e g o ing t o S leep he sa w c o ming t o
him a c e r t a in phil oso phe r m os t w ell kn ow n t o him w h o
then e x p o u n d e d t o h i m c e r t a in P l a t o ni c p a ss a ge s w hi c h
w hen a s ke d p r e v i o us l y he h a d r e fus e d t o e x pl a in A n d
w hen he ( a f te rw a rds ) en qu i r e d o f thi s phil o so phe r w h y he
d i d a t hi s h o us e w h a t he h a d r e fus e d t o do w hen a s ke d a t

h i s o w n : I d i d n o t do it s a i d the phil o s o phe r

bu t I
dr e a mt I d i d
A n d th us s a ys Au g us tine th a t w a s e x
h i bi t e d t o o n e b y ph a nt a s ti c im age w hile w a king w hi c h the
?
o the r s a w in dr e a m
E ur o pe a n f o lkl o r e t o o h a s p r e s er v e d
inte r e s ting d et a il s o f thi s p r i miti v e dr e a m
the ory suc h a s
?

W a itz vol iii p 1 9 5

Tayl or N e w Z ea l a nd pp
.

p 57
.

1 0 4 , 1 84 , 3 3 3

B a k e r in Tr E th
.

S oc

vo l i
.

B a s ti a n

175

M en s ch

vol ii p
.

3 19 ;

J g or in
e

J ou r n

E th

S oc

vol ii

O e s t l

Kar en s
p 1 9 9 C r oss l c B a s tia n
A s i e n vol i
p 1 4 4 vol ii p 3 8 9 vol iii p 2 66

5
a
a
B s ti n P sy ch ol og i e pp 16
2 0 ; E i s en men g er v
ol i p 4 5 8 v
o l ii
pp 1 3 2 0 4 5 3 ; F ra nc k K a bb al e p 23 5
3
A u gu s tin D e C i v D ei x v iii 1 8
4

M s n
a o

44 2

AN I M IS M

the fe a r o f t ur ning a S leepe r o v e r le s t the a b s ent s o u l s h o u l d

mi ss the w a y ba c k King G u n t h ra m s legen d i s o n e of a
g r ou p inte r e s tin g fro m the same p o int o f v ie w The king
lay in the w o od a s leep w ith his he a d in hi s f a ith fu l hen c h
m a n s la p ; the s e r va nt s a w a s it w e r e a s n a ke i ssu e fr o m
hi s l o r d s m ou th a n d ru n t o the b roo k b u t it c o u l d n o t
p a ss s o the s e rva nt l a i d hi s sw o rd a c r oss the w a te r a n d the
cr e a t ur e ran a l o ng it a n d u p int o a m ou nt a in ; a f te r a w hile
it ca me b ac k and r et ur ne d int o the m ou th o f the S leeping
ki ng w h o w a king t o l d h i m h o w he h a d dr e a mt th a t he w ent
o v e r a n i ro n b r i d ge int o a m ou nt a i n fu ll o f g o l d
Thi s i s
o n e o f th os e in s t ruc ti v e legen ds w hi c h p r e s e rv e for us as in
a m us e u m r eli cs o f a n e a r l y intelle c t u a l co n d iti o n o f o u r
Arya n r a c e in th ou ght s w hi c h t o o u r m od e r n min ds h av e
f al len t o the le v el o f q u a int f an cy b u t w hi c h s till r em a in
sou n d an d r e a so n a ble phil oso ph y t o the s av age A K a r en
a t thi s d a
o u l d a pp r e c i a te e v e r y p o int of the s t ory ; the
w
y
f a mili a r n o ti o n o f s pi r it s n o t cross ing w a te r whi c h b e e x
f o r e s t s b y s t r et c hing th r e a ds
e mpli e s in hi s B u r me s e
a c r o ss the b r o o k fo r the gh os t s t o p a ss a l o ng ; the i d e a o f
the sou l g o ing for th emb odie d in an a nim a l ; an d the the ory
the s leepe r s soul
o f the d r e a m being a r e a l j o ur ne y o i
F in a ll y thi s o l d belie f s till n ds a s suc h be li e fs s o Of ten
do a r e fu ge in m od e r n p o et ry :

'

c hi l d i s d r eami n g far away

An d i s n o t w h e r e h e s e e m s

Y on

Thi s o pin i o n h o w e v e r o nly co n s tit u te s on e of s e v e r a l

p a r t s of the the o ry of dr e a m s in s ava ge p sych o l o g y A n
o the r p a r t h as a l so a pl a c e he r e the v ie w th a t h u m a n sou l s
co me f r o m w ith ou t t o v i s it the S leepe r w h o s ee s them a s
d r e a m s The s e t wo v ie ws a re b y n o me a n s in c o mp a tible
The N o r th A m e r i c an In di a n s a ll o w e d them s el v e s the a lte r n a
ti v e o f su pp os ing a dr e a m t o be eithe r a visi t fr o m the s o u l
o f the pe rs o n or o bj e c t dr e a mt o f o r a s ight s een b y the
r a ti o n a l sou l g o ne ou t for an e xcurs i o n w hile the s en s i
,

Gr i mm

D M p

103 6

DREA M V I S IT

SOUL

To

443

ti v e sou l r em a in s in the b o dy S O the Z u l u may be v i s ite d

in a dr e a m b y the S h a d e o f a n a n c e s t o r the i t on g o w h o
c o me s t o w a r n him o f d a nge r o r he may him s el f be t a ken
b y t h e i t on g o in a dr e a m t o v i s it his d i s t a nt pe o ple an d see
th a t the y are in t rou ble ; as for the m a n w h o i s p a ss ing int o
the m or bi d co n d iti o n of the p r o f e ss i o n a l seer ph a nt o m s are
co ntin u al l y co ming t o t a lk t o him in h i s s leep t i ll he be c o me s

2
as the e x p r e ss i v e n a ti v e ph r a s e i s a h ous e of dr e a m s
In the l ow e r r ange of cu ltur e i t is p e r h a p s m os t fr e qu ently
t a ken for g ra nte d th a t a m a n s a pp a riti o n in a dr e a m i s a
vi s it fro m hi s di s emb od ie d s pi r it w hi c h t h e dr e a me r t o u se

a n e x p r e ss i v e O j ib w a i di o m S ee s w hen a s leep
S uc h a
th ou ght co me s o u t c le a r l y in the F ij i a n o pini o n th a t a livi ng
ma n s s pi rit m ay le a v e the b ody t o t rou ble o the r pe o ple in
thei r S leep or in a r e c ent a ccou nt o f an o l d In di a n wo m a n
o f B r iti s h C o l u mbi a s en di ng for the me di c ine m a n t o dr i v e
?
A
a w a y the d e a d pe o ple w h o c a me t o he r e v e ry night
m od e r n O b s e rv e r s d e scr ipti o n of the s t a te o f min d of t h e
neg ro e s o f We s t Afr i c a in thi s r e s pe c t is e x t r emel y c h ara c

A ll thei r dr e a m s a re co n s t ru e d
t e ri s t i c a n d in s t ru c ti v e
int o vis it s fro m t h e s pi r it s Of thei r d e c e a s e d fr ien ds Th e
c a u ti o n s hint s a n d w a r ning s w hi c h co me t o them th rou gh
thi s sourc e are r e c ei v e d w ith the m os t s e r i ous a n d d e f e r enti a l
a ttenti o n a n d a re a l w a ys a c te d u p o n in thei r w a king h ours
The h abit o f r ela ting thei r dr e a m s w hi c h i s u ni v e rsa l
g r e a tl y p ro m o te s the h a bit of dr e a ming it s el f a n d hen c e
thei r S leeping h ours a re c h a rac te r ize d b y a lm os t a s m uc h
inte r cours e w ith t h e d e a d as thei r wa king a re w ith the
li v ing Thi s i s n o dou bt on e of the r e a s o n s of thei r e x c e s
s i v e su pe rs titi ous ne ss Thei r im agin a ti o n s be co me s o li v el y
th a t the y c an sca r c el y d i s ting u i s h bet w een thei r dr e am s an d
thei r w a king th ou ght s bet w een the r e a l a n d the i d e a l a n d
?

N o u v e ll e

M oeu rs d es

C h rl v i x
F r nc v v i p 7 8 L t au
S u v g s vol i p 3 63

C all aw y R eli g o f A ma z u l u pp 22 8 2 60 3 1 6 ; J o u r n A nth r o p

I n s t vl i p 1 7 0 S ls o S t J hn F r E s t vol i p 1 9 9 ( D y ks )

3
W i ll i ams F ij i vol i p 2 42

M ay n e Br it C o l umb i a p 2 6 1 ; s ee S p r oat l c
1

e,

ol .

ee a

AN I M I S M

44 4

the y c o n s e q u ently u tte r fa l s eh o o d w ith ou t inten d ing an d

p r o fe ss t o s e e thing s which ne v e r e x i s te d
T o t h e G re e k o f o ld the d r e a m s o u l was wha t t o the
m od e r n s av age it s till i s Sleep l o os ing c a r e s o f min d fell
o n Ac hille s a s he la y b y the sou n d ing se a a n d the r e s t ood
o v e r h i m the sou l o f P a t r o kl o s
like t o him a lt o gethe r in
s t a t u r e a n d the be a u te o us e y e s a n d the vo i c e a n d the
r
a
g
ment s th a t wra ppe d hi s s kin ; he s p a ke an d Achil le s
s t r et c he d ou t t o g r a s p him w ith l o v ing h an ds b u t c au ght
him n o t and like a s m o ke the sou l s pe d t w itte r ing bel ow
the e a r th A l o ng the a ge s th a t s ep a r a te us fro m H o me r i c
time s the a pp a r iti o n in dr e a m s of men li v ing o r d e a d has
been a su bj e c t o f phil o s o phi c s pe cu l a ti o n a n d of su pe rs titi o us
f e ar
B o th the ph a nt o m of the li v ing and the gh o s t o f
the d e a d g ur e in C i c e r o s t y pi c a l t ale Tw o Arca d i a n s
c a me t o Meg a r a t o gethe r on e l od ge d a t a fr ien d s h o us e the
o the r a t a n inn In the night thi s l a tte r a ppe ar e d t o h i s
f ell ow t r a v elle r impl o r ing hi s help fo r the innkeepe r w as
pl o tting hi s d e a th ; the S leepe r s p r a ng u p i n a la r m b u t
thinking the v i s i o n O f n o co n s e q u en c e w ent t o s leep aga in
Then a s e co n d time hi s co mp a ni o n a ppe a r e d t o him t o
ent r e a t th a t th o u gh he h a d f a ile d t o help he wou l d a t le a s t
a v enge
fo r the inn keepe r h a d kille d him a n d hi dd en his
b o dy i n a du ng c a r t w he r e fo r e he c h a r ge d his f ell ow
t r a v elle r t o be e a r l y ne x t m orni ng a t the c it y g a te be f o r e
the c a r t p a ss e d ou t St r uc k w ith thi s Se c on d d r e am the
t r a v e lle r w ent a s bi dd en a n d the r e fou n d the ca r t ; the
b o dy o f the m urd e r e d man w as in it a n d the innkeepe r

w a s b r o u ght t o j us ti c e
Q u i d h oc s omni o d i c i p o te s t
i ni u s ?
di v
Au g us tine di scuss e s w ith r e f e r en c e t o the
n a t u r e o f the s ou l v a r i ous d r e a m s t o r ie s o f his ti m e w he r e
the a pp a r iti o n s o f men d e a d or li ving a re s een in d r e a m s
,

J L

i es ,
.

W i ls on

A fr ic pp 2 1 0 3 9 5 ; M H K in gsl y
A fr ic n

S t ud
p 2 05 S ls o Ell is Poly n R s vol i p 3 9 6 ; J G M ull r
A e r U

l
p 2 8 7 ; B uch n a n M ys or e in P in k er t on vol vii i p
m

Early H i s t f M a n k i nd p 8
67 7 ;
H omer I l xxi ii 5 9 S ee l s o O dy ss x i 2 0 7 2 22 ; P o r ph yr D e A ntr o
N ym ph ar um V ir gil E n ii 7 9 4 ; O v id F as t v 4 7 5
Ci c er o D e D i vi n t i on i 2 7
1

e,

ee a

rre

a,

V I S I ONS

In

44 5

the l a tte r he him s el f g ur e d for w hen a d i sciple

o f hi s E u l og i u s the r het or o f C a r th a ge o n c e c o u l d n o t get
t o s leep fo r thinking o f a n o b scur e p a ss age in C i c e ro s
R het o r i c th a t night Au g us tine c a m e t o h i m in a dr e am a n d
e x pl a ine d it B u t Au g us tine s ten d en cy w a s t o w a rd the
m od e r n the o ry of dr e a m s an d in thi s ca s e he s ays it w as
c e r t ai nl y his im age th a t a pp e a r e d n ot him s el f w h o w a s far
a cross the s e a neithe r kn ow ing n or c a r ing a b o u t the m a tte r ?
A s w e surv e y the immen s e S e r ie s of d r e a m s t o r ie s o f s imil a r
t y pe s in p a t r i s ti c me d i aeva l an d m od e r n lite ra t u r e w e may
n d it d i fcu lt en ou gh t o d e c i d e w hi c h a re t ru th an d w hi c h
a r e c ti o n
B u t a l o n g the c o urs e o f the s e m yr ia d n a r r a
t iv
e s o f h u m a n ph a nt o m s a ppe a r ing in d r e a m s t o c hee r o r
t o r ment t o w a r n o r in f o r m o r t o d em a n d ful lment Of thei r
o w n d e s i r e s the p ro blem of d r e a m a ppa ri t i bn s m a y be t r a c e d
in p r o g r e ss Of g r a du al d ete r m in a ti o n f r o m t h e e a r lie r c on
vi c t i on th a t a di s emb od ie d sou l r e a ll y c o me s int o the p r e s en c e
o f the s leepe r t o w a rd the l a te r O pini o n th a t suc h a ph a nt a s m
i s p roduc e d in the d r e a m e r s min d w ith ou t the pe rc epti o n o f
a n y e x te r n a l o bj e c ti v
e gur e
The e v i d en c e o f v i s i o n s c o rr e s p o n ds w ith the e v i d en c e of
dr e a m s in thei r be a r ing o n p r i m iti v e the o r ie s o f t h e s o u l
a n d the t w o c l a ss e s o f phen o m en a su b s t a nti a te a n d su pple
ment o n e a n o the r E v en in he a lth y w a king li fe the s a va ge
o r b a r b a r i a n has ne v e r le a r nt t o m a ke th a t r igi d di s tin c ti o n
bet w een su bj e c ti v e a n d O bj e c ti v e bet w een im agina ti o n an d
r e a lit y t o en forc e w hi c h i s o n e o f t h e m a in r e su lt s o f
sc ienti c e duca ti o n Still le ss w hen d i sord e r e d in b o dy a n d
min d he s ee s a r o u n d him ph a nt o m h u m a n for m s can he d i s
t rus t the e v i d en c e o i h i s v e r y s en s e s Th us it c o me s t o
p a ss th a t th r o u gh o u t the l o w e r c i viliz a ti o n men belie v e w ith
the mos t V i v i d a n d inten s e belie f in the o bj e c ti v e r e a lit y of
the h u m a n S pe c t r e s w hi ch the y see in s i ckne ss e x h a us ti o n o r
e xcitement As w ill be he r e a f te r n o ti c e d o n e m a in r e a so n
o f the p r a c ti c e s o f f a s ting pen a n c e n a rc o ti s in g b y dru g s a n d
on e of

A u g u s tin D e C u r d p o Mort u i s x x ii E pi s t c l v iii

C o mp r e V l t i r e s r e m rks D i e t P hi l
m
t
r

ar

e,

&c

4 46

ANI M IS M

o the r me a n s Of b r inging o n m o r bi d e x a lt a ti o n i s th a t the

p a tient s may o bt a in the s igh t o f s pe c t ra l being s fro m w h o m
the y l oo k t o g a in s pi r itu a l kn o w le d ge an d e v en w o r l d l y p ow e r
H u m a n gh o s t s a re a mo ng the p r in cip a l o f the s e ph anta s mal
g ur e s The r e i s n o d o u bt th a t h o ne s t v i s i o n a r ie s d e scr ibe
gh o s t s a s the y r e a ll y a ppe a r t o thei r pe rce pt i on w h i le e v en the
imp os t o r s w h o pre t end t o S ee the m c o n for m t o the d e scri p
ti o n s th us e s t a bli s he d ; th us in We s t Afr i ca a m an s ki d o r
s o u l be co ming a t hi s d e a th a s i sa o r gh os t ca n r em ain in the
h o us e w ith the cor p s e b u t i s o nl y v i s ible t o the w o ng man
?
the s pi r it d o c t or S o metime s the ph a nt o m has the c h a r a c
t e ri s t i c q u a lit y o f n o t being v i s ible t o a ll o f a n a ss emble d
c o mp a n y Th us the n a ti v e s Of the A ntille s belie v e d th a t
the d e a d a ppe a r e d o n the ro a ds w hen on e w ent a l o ne b u t
2
n o t w hen m a n y w ent t o gethe r ;
th us a m o ng the F inn s the
gh o s t s o f the d e a d w e r e t o be s een b y the S h a m a n s b u t n o t
?
b y men gene ra ll y u nle ss in dr e a m s S uch i s pe r h a p s the
me a ning of the d e scr ipti o n of S a m u el s gh os t v i s ible t o
the w it c h o f E n dor b u t n o t t o S a u l for he h as t o a sk he r
?
w h a t it i s S he s ee s
Y et thi s te s t of the n a t ur e of a n
a pp a r iti o n i s o n e w hi c h e a s il y b r e a k s dow n
We kn ow w ell
h ow in c i vi lize d cou nt r ie s a curr ent ru m our o f so me on e
h a ving s een a ph a nt o m i s en ou gh t o b r ing a S ight of it t o
o the rs w h os e min ds are in a p r ope r l y r e c epti v e s t a te The
co n di ti o n o f the m od e r n gh o s t s ee r w h o s e im agin a ti o n
p a ss e s o n suc h S light e xc itement int o p o si ti v e h a ll ucin a ti o n
i s r a the r the ru le th a n the e xc epti o n a m o ng un cu lt ur e d an d
inten s el y i m agin a ti v e t r ibe s w h o s e min ds may be th row n off
thei r b a l an c e b y a t ouch a word a ge s t ur e an un accus t o me d
n o i s e A m o ng s a vage t r ibe s h ow e v e r a s a m o ng c ivil iz e d
r a c e s w h o h av e i nhe r ite d r em a in s o f e a r l y phil oso ph y for me d
u n d e r s imil a r c o n di ti o n s the doc t r ine o f v i s ibilit y or i n
,

B as e

S t e in h au s e r
l 1 85 6 N o

Rel

2,

i gi o n
135

d es

N eg ers in M ag az in

d er

E va n g M i ss i on en

H is t ori c d el
,

3
1

S D F rn a nd o C ol omb o t r A lfon s o U ll oa
p 1 2 7 E n g Tr in P in k e r t on vol x ii p 80

F inn M yth p 1 20
C as tr n
1 S m xx v
i ii 1 2
2

Ve

nic e

157 1,

WRA ITHS

AN D

DO UBLES

447

vi s ibilit y of ph a nt o m s h as been o b vmu sly sh aped w ith

r e f e r e n c e t o actual e x pe r ien c e T o d e c l ar e th a t souls o r
gh o sts ar e ne c e ssar il y eithe r v i s ible o r in v i s ible wo u l d
d i r e c tl y co nt radi c t th e e v i d en c e of men s s en s e s B u t t o
ass e r t or impl y as the l ow e r rac e s do th a t the y ar e v i s ible
so metime s a n d t o so me pe rso n s b u t n o t a l ways or t o e v e ry
o ne i s t o l ay dow n a n e x pl a n a ti o n of fac t s w hi c h i s n o t
in d ee d o u r u s u a l m od e r n e x pl a n a ti o n b u t w hi c h i s a pe r
fec t ly ra ti o n a l a n d intelligible p rod u c t of e ar l y sc ien c e
With o u t d i sc u ss ing o n thei r me r it s the acco u nt s of w h a t

i s ca lle d s e co n d s ight it m ay be p o inte d ou t th a t the y ar e

r el a te d a m o n g savage t r ibe s as w hen Ca pt a in J o n a th a n
Carv e r o bt a ine d fro m a Cr ee me di c ine m a n a t r u e p ro phe cy
o f the arr i va l o f a ca n o e w ith ne ws ne x t day a t n oo n ; or
w hen M r J M aso n B row n t rav elling w ith t wo voya ge u rs
o n the Co ppe r min e R i v e r was met b y In d i a n s o f the v e ry
b a n d he was s eeking the s e h av ing been s ent b y thei r

me d i c ine m a n w h o on enq u i ry s t a te d th a t H e saw them

co ming a n d he ard them t a lk o n thei r jo u r ne y
The s e ar e
a n a l o g o u s t o acco u nt s of the H ighl a n d s e co n d s ight as w hen
Penn a n t he ard of a gentlem a n of the H eb r i d e s sa i d t o h av e
the co n v enien t gi f t o f for e s eein g v i s it ors in time t o get r e ady
for them o r w hen D r J o h n so n was t o l d b y a n o the r l a i rd
th a t a l a b o u r in g m a n o f hi s h ad p r e d i c te d hi s r et u r n t o the
i s l a n d a n d d e scr ibe d the pe cu li ar li v e ry hi s s e rva nt h ad
been ne w l y dr e ss e d in
A s a gene ra l r u le pe o ple ar e apt t o co n s i d e r it imp oss ible
for a m a n t o be in t wo pl ac e s a t on c e a n d in d ee d a say ing
t o th a t e ffe c t h as be co me a p o p u l ar saw B u t the r u le i s so

far fro m being u ni v e rsa ll y acc epte d th a t th e word bi loca

ti o n h as been in v ente d t o e x p r e ss the mi rac u l o u s fac u lt y
p oss e s se d b y c e r t a in S a int s of the R o m a n C h u rch o f being
in t wo pl ac e s a t o n c e ; like S t A l fo n so d i Lig u or i w h o h ad
the u s e f u l p ow e r of p r e ac hing hi s s e r m o n in c h u rc h w hile
.

Br i n t on M yth s o f N e w W o rld p 2 6 9
Pe n n an t 2 n d T our i n S c o tl a n d i n P i nkerton vol
J our n ey t o the H e b r i de s
1

i ii

315

J oh n s on

ANIMI SM

44 8

he w a s co n f e ss ing penitent s a t h o me
The r e c epti o n a n d
e x pl a n a t i o n o f the s e var i o u s c l ass e s o f s t or ie s fi t pe rf e c tl y
w ith the p r imiti v e a ni mi s ti c the ory o f a pp ar iti o n s a n d the
sa me i s t r u e o f the fo ll ow ing m os t n u me ro u s c l ass o f the
s e co n d s ight n arra ti v e s
D e a th i s the e v ent w hi c h in a ll s t a ge s of c u lt u r e b r ing s
th o u gh t t o be ar m os t i n ten s el y th o u gh n o t a l ways m os t
he a lthil y o n the p ro blem s of p syc h o l o g y The a pp ar iti o n
o f the d i s emb od ie d so u l h as in a ll a ge s been th o u gh t t o be ar
e s pe c i a l r el a ti o n t o it s d ep ar t u r e fro m it s b ody a t d e a th
Thi s i s w ell s h ow n b y the r e c epti o n n o t o nl y of a the ory o f

gh os t s b u t o f a s pe c i a l doc t r ine o f wra ith s or f et c he s

Th u s the K ar en s say th a t a m a n s s pi r it a ppe ar ing af te r
2
d e a th m ay th u s a n n o u n c e i t In N e w Z e a l a n d it i s o min o u s
t o s ee the g u r e o f a n a b s ent pe rso n for i f it be s h adowy
a n d the fac e n o t v i s ible hi s d e a th m ay e r e l o ng be e x pe c te d
b u t i f the fac e be s een he i s d e ad a l r e ady
A p ar ty o f
M aor i s ( o ne o f w h o m t o l d the s t ory ) w e r e s e a te d ro u n d a
r e in the o pen a i r w hen the r e a ppe ar e d s een o nl y b y t wo
o f them
the g u r e of a r el a ti v e le f t ill a t h o me ; the y
e xc l a ime d the g u r e va ni s he d a n d on the r et u r n of the p ar t y
it a ppe ar e d th a t the s i c k m a n h ad d ie d a b o u t the time o f the
3
v i s i o n E xa mining the p os iti o n of the doc t r ine o f wra ith s
a m o ng the highe r rac e s w e n d it e s pe c i a ll y p ro minent in
th r ee intelle c t u a l d i s t r i c t s C h r i s ti a n h a gi o l o g y p o p u l ar fo lk
l or e a n d m od e r n s pi r it u a li s m S t A nth o n y saw the so u l o f
S t A mmon i u s carr ie d t o he av en in the mi ds t of c h o i rs o f
a ngel s the sa me day th a t the h o l y he r mit d ie d v e days
j o u r ne y o ff in the d e s e r t of N i t ri a ; w hen S t A mb ros e d ie d
o n E as te r E v e s e v e ra l ne w l y b a ptize d c hil dr en saw the h o l y
bi s h o p a n d p o i nte d him o u t t o thei r p ar ent s b u t the s e w ith
4
thei r le ss p u r e e y e s co u l d n o t beh o l d him ; a n d so for th
1

Fa i th s

J G rd n er
o f the W o rld
s v bi l o c a t i on
M as on K re s
p 198
S h rtl n d Tr d s o f N e w Z e l d p 14 0 P ol c k M a n d C f N ew
Z ea l der s vol i p 2 68 S ee l s o E ll i s M ad ag s c ar vol i p 3 9 3 ; J G
1

2
3

M ul ler p
,

26 1

C a l me t ,

a an

an

D i ss

s ur le s Es p r i ts vol i c h x ]

WRAITHS AN D DO UBLES

4 49

F o lkl or e e xa mple s

a b o u n d in S ile s i a a n d the T yro l w he r e

the gi f t o f wra ith s eei n g s till o u r i s he s w ith the c u s t o m ary
d et a il s o f f u ne ra l s ch u rche s fo u r cross roads an d he ad le ss
ph a nt o m s a n d a n e s pe ci a l assoc i a ti o n w ith N e w Y e ar s E v e

The acco u nt s o f s e co n d s ight fro m N or th B r it a in m os tl y

bel o ng t o a so me w h a t o l d e r da te Th u s th e S t Kil da pe o ple
u s e d t o be h a u nte d b y thei r ow n s pe c t ra l do u ble s for e
r u n n e rs of impen ding d e a th a n d in 1 7 9 9 a t rav elle r wr ite s

of th e pe asa n t s o f Ki r k cu d b r ight s hi r e It i s co mm o n a m o n g
them t o fa n cy th a t the y s ee the wra ith s o f pe rso n s dy ing
w hi c h w ill be v i s ible t o o ne a n d n o t t o o the rs p r e s ent w ith
him Within the s e l as t t w ent y y e ars it was h ard l y p oss ible
t o meet w ith a n y pe rso n w h o h ad n o t s een m a n y wra ith s a n d
gh os t s in the co u rs e of hi s e x pe r ien c e
Th os e w h o d i scu ss
th e a u thenti c it y o f the s e co n d s ight s t or ie s as ac t u a l
e v i d en c e m u s t be ar in min d th a t the y p rov e a little t o o
m u ch ; the y vo u ch n o t o nl y for h u m a n a pp ar iti o n s b u t for
s u c h ph a nt o m s as d em o n do g s a n d for s till m or e fa n c i f u l
sy mb o li c o men s Th u s a ph a nt o m s h ro u d s een in s pi r it u a l
v i s i o n o n a li v ing m a n p r e d i c t s hi s d e a th imme d i a te i f it i s
u p t o hi s he ad le ss ne ar l y a pp r oac hi n g i f it i s o nl y u p t o
hi s wa i s t ; a n d t o s ee in s pi r it u a l v i s i o n a s p ar k o f r e fa ll
u p o n a pe rso n s ar m or b r e as t i s a for e r u nne r of a d e ad
c hil d t o be s ee n in hi s arm s A s v i s i o n ar ie s of ten s ee
ph a nt o m s o f li v ing pe rso n s w ith o u t an y r em ar k a ble e v e n t
co in c i d i n g w ith thei r h a ll u c i n a ti o n s it i s n a t u ra ll y admitte d

th a t a m a n s ph a nt o m o r do u ble m ay be s een w ith o u t

p or ten di ng an y thi n g in p ar ti c u l ar The s pi r it u a li s ti c the ory
s pe c i a ll y i n s i s t s on cas e s of a pp ar iti o n w he r e the pe rso n s
d e a th corr e s p o n ds m or e o r le ss ne ar l y w ith the time w he n
so m e fr ien d pe rc ei v e s hi s ph a nt o m N arra ti v e s of thi s c l ass
w hi c h I c a n he r e o n l y s pe ci fy w ith o u t arg u ing o n them ar e
,

V lk s b ergl u b e pp

Br a n d P o pula r A n t i qu i

t i e s vol iii pp 1 5 5 2 3 5 ; J o h n s o n J o ur n ey t o the H e b r i de s M a rti n

W e s tern I s l an d s o f S c o tl a n d i n P i n kert on vol iii p 6 7 0
S ee R D O w e n F oo tfa l l s o n the B ou n d ry o f n o ther W orld Mrs
C r o w e N i ght S i de o f N a ture H ow i t t s T r o f En n emos er s M a gic & c
W u ttke

4 4 , 5 6 , 20 8

ANIMISM

450

a bu n d antl y in c i rc u l a ti o n Th u s I h av e a n acco u nt by a

l ady w h o saw a i t w e r e the for m o f so me o n e l a i d o u t

ne ar the ti me w he n a b ro the r d ie d a t M elb o u r n e a n d w h o
men t i o n s a n the r l ady kn ow n t o he r w h o th o u ght s he saw
he r w n fa the r l o o k i n a t the c h u rc h w in dow a t the m o men t
h e w a s dy ing in hi s o w n h o u s e A n o the r acco u n t i s s ent me
by a S hetl a n d l ady w h o r el a te s th a t a b o u t t w ent y y e ars
a g o s he a n d a gi r l le ad i n g he r p o n y r e co gnize d the fa mili ar
g u r e o f o n e Pete r S u the r l a n d w h o m the y k n e w t o be a t
the time in ill he a l th i n E d inb u rgh ; he t u r ne d a cor ne r a n d
the y saw n o m or e o f him b u t ne x t w eek ca me the ne ws of
hi s s u dd e n d e a th
Th a t the a pp ar iti o n a l h u m a n so u l be ars the likene ss of it s
e s h ly b ody i s the p r in c iple impli c itl y acc epte d b y a ll w h o
belie v e i t r e a ll y a n d o bj e c ti v el y p r e s ent i n dr e a m s a n d
v i s i o n s M y o wn v ie w i s th a t n o thin g b u t dr e a m s a n d
v i s i o n s co u l d h av e e v e r p u t int o men s min ds s u ch a n i d e a
as th a t o f so u l s be i ng ethe r e a l im age s of b od ie s It i s th u s
h a bit u a ll y t a ken for g ra nte d in a nimi s ti c phil oso ph y sava ge
or c i v ilize d
th a t so u l s s et fr ee fro m the e ar thl y b ody ar e
r e co gnize d by a likene ss t o it w hi c h the y s till r et a in w hethe r
as gh os tl y wa n d e r e rs on e ar th or inh a bit ant s o f the wor l d
be yo n d the g rav e M a n s S pi r it says S w e d enb or g i s hi s
min d w hi c h li v e s af te r d e a th in co mplete h u m a n for m a n d

thi s i s the p o et s di c t u m in In M em or i a m
.

E t e r n al fo r m

s h all s t ill d i v i d e
Th e et e r n al s o u l f r o m all b e s i d e
A n d I s h a ll kn o w h i m w h e n w e

m e et

Thi s wor l d w i d e th o u ght co ming i n t o v ie w he r e in a m u lti

t u d e o f cas e s fro m a ll g rad e s o f c u lt u r e nee ds n o co lle c ti o n
1
B u t a q u a int a n d
o f ord in ary in s t a n c e s t o ill u s t ra te i t
s pe ci a l g ro u p of belie fs w ill s e rv e t o di s pl ay the th oro u gh
-

c on c e p t i on of the s oul a s m ll hu m n i ma ge i s fou n d i n var i ou s

d i s tr ic t s s ee Eyr e A u s tr l i a vol ii p 3 5 6 S t J o h n F r E as t vol i

p 1 8 9 ( D y k s ) W i tz vl iii p 1 9 4 ( N A
T he i de a o f s oul as

s ort o f thumb l i ng i s fami l i r t the H i n du s n d t G erma n fo lk l ore ;

c omp re the re pre s en t a ti on s f t i n y s ul s i n m ed i ae v l p ic ture s
1

Th e

as

a.

FORM

SOUL

or

4 51

ne ss w ith w hi c h the so u l i s th u s co n c ei v e d as a n im age o f

the b ody A s a co n s i s tent coro ll ary t o s u c h a n o pini o n it
i s arg u e d th a t the m u til a ti o n o f the b ody w ill h av e a c o r
r e s p o n d ing e ff ec t u p o n the so u l a n d v e ry l ow savage rac e s
h av e phil oso ph y en o u gh t o wor k o u t thi s i d e a Th u s it
was r e cord e d of the In di a n s of B ra zil b y o ne o f the e ar l y

E u ro pe a n v i s it ors th a t they belie v e th a t the d e ad arr i v e

in the o the r wor l d wo u n d e d or h ac ke d t o pie c e s in fac t j u s t
1
as the y le f t thi s Th u s t oo the A u s t ra li a n w h o h as s l a in
hi s ene my w ill c u t o ff the r ight th u mb of the cor p s e so th a t
a lth o u gh the s pi r it w ill be co me a h os tile gh os t it ca n n o t
th row w ith it s m u til a te d h a n d the s h adowy s pe ar a n d m ay
2
be saf el y le f t t o wa n d e r m a lign a nt b u t h ar mle ss
The
neg ro f e ars l o ng s i ckne ss be for e d e a th s uc h as w ill s en d
him le a n a n d f eeble i n t o the ne x t wor l d H i s the ory of the
m u til a ti o n of so u l w ith b ody co u l d n ot be b ro u ght m or e
vi v i d l y int o v ie w th a n i n th a t u gl y s t ory of the We s t In d i a
pl a nte r w h os e s l av e s beg a n t o s eek in s u i c i d e a t o n c e r e lie f
fro m p r e s ent mi s e ry a n d r e s t ora ti o n t o thei r n a ti v e l a n d ;
b u t the w hite m a n wa s t oo c u n n ing for them he cu t o ff th e
he ads a n d h a n ds o f the cor p s e s a n d the s u rv i vors saw th a t
n o t e v en d e a th co u l d sav e them fro m a m as te r w h o co u l d
3
m a im thei r v e ry so u l s in the ne x t wor l d
The sa me r u d e
a n d p r imitiv e belie f co ntin u e s a m o ng n a ti o n s r i s en far
highe r in intelle c t u a l ra nk The C hine s e h o l d i n e s pe c i a l
h orror the p u ni s hment o f d e ca pit a ti o n co n s i d e r i ng th a t he
w h o q u it s thi s wor l d l acking a membe r w ill so arr i v e i n the
ne x t a n d a cas e i s r e cord e d l a tel y of a cr imin a l a t A m oy
w h o for thi s r e aso n begge d t o d ie in s te ad b y the cr u el d e a th
4
a n d was cr u c i e d accordi n gl y The s e r ie s
o f cr u c i x i o n
en ds as u s u a l i n the fo lkl or e o f the c i v ilize d wor l d The
ph a nt o m s kelet o n in c h a i n s th a t h a u nte d the h o u s e a t
.

Ma ei , I n d i e

de Gan da vo p 1 1 0 ;
O r i e n t al i p 1 0 7

3
O ld el d i n T r Et h S oc vol iii p 2 8 7

3
W a i tz vol ii p 1 9 4 ; R om er G u i n ea p 4 2
M e i n er s vol ii pp 7 5 6 7 6 3 Pur ch a s vol 111 p 4 9 5 ; J J on e s i n Tr
E th S oc vo l iii p 1 3 8
Mag a lh a n es

4 52

ANIMISM

B o l o g n a s h ow e d the w ay t o the g ard en w he r e was b u rie d

the r e a l c h a i n e d fl e s hle s s s kele to n it bel o n ge d t o a n d ca me
n o m o r e w he n the r em a i n s h ad been d u l y b u r ie d
W hen
the E ar l o f Cor n wa ll me t the f et c h of hi s fr ien d Willi a m
l n fu s c a rr ie d bl ac k a n d n a ke d o n a bl ac k g oa t across the
B o d mi n m o o rs h e saw th a t i t w a s wo u n d e d th ro u gh the
mi ds t o f th e b r e as t ; a n d af te rwards he he ard th a t a t th a t
v e ry h o u r t h e king h ad been s l a i n i n the N e w F or e s t by the
1
arrow o f W a lte r Ti re ll
In s t u dy ing the n a tu r e o f the so u l as co n c ei v e d a m o ng
the l ow e r rac e s a n d in t rac ing s u c h co n c epti o n s o n ward
a m o n g the highe r c i rc u m s t a nti a l d et a il s ar e ava il a ble It
i s as w i d el y r e co gnize d a m o ng m a n kin d th a t so u l s or gh os t s
h av e vo i c e s as th a t the y h av e v i s ible for m s a n d in d ee d the
e v i d en c e for b o th i s o f the sa me n a t u r e M en w h o pe rc ei v e
e v i d entl y th a t so u l s do t a lk w hen the y p r e s ent them s el v e s
in dr e a m o r v i s i o n n a t u ra ll y t a ke for g ra nte d a t o n c e the
o bj e c ti v e r e a li t y of the gh os tl y vo i c e a n d of the gh os tl y
for m fro m w hi c h it p roc ee ds Thi s i s in vo l v e d in the s e r ie s
o f n arra ti v e s o f s pi r it u a l co mm u ni ca ti o n s w ith li v ing men
fro m sava ge ry o n ward t o c i v iliz a ti o n w hile the m or e m od e r n
doc t rine of the s u bj e c ti v it y o f s u c h p hen o men a r e co gnize s
the phen o men a them s el v e s b u t o ffe rs a d i ffe r ent e x pl a n a
ti o n of them O ne s pe c i a l co n c epti o n h ow e v e r r eq u i r e s
p ar ti cu l ar n o ti c e Thi s d e ne s the s pi r it vo i c e as being
a lo w m u r m u r c hi r p o r w hi s tle as i t w e r e the gh os t o f
a vo i c e The A lg o n q u in In d i a n s o f N or th A me r i ca co u l d
2
he ar the s h adow so u l s o f the d e ad c hi r p like cr i cket s
The d i v ine s pi r it s of the N e w Z e a l a n d d e ad co ming t o
co n v e rs e w ith the li ving u tte r thei r words in w hi s tling
t o ne s an d s u ch u tte ra n c e s b y a s q u e a king n o i s e ar e men
3
i
o
n
d
el s e w he r e in P o l y ne s i a
The Z u l u di v ine r s fa mili ar
t
e
,

C almet ,

156

v
ol i c h xxx v i
.

Pli n Ep

vi i

27 ;

Hun t

Po p

Roman c es v
ol

L e J eu n e i n R el de s J su i te s 1 6 3 9 p 4 3 s ee 1 63 4 p 1 3

S h ortl and T rad s f N Z p 9 2 ; Y a te p 1 4 0 R Tayl or pp

1 5 3 ; E ll i s
Bo ly n R e s v
ol i p 4 0 6
2

1 04 ,

VOICE

s pi rit s ar e a n c e s t ra l m a ne s
t o ne s h or t o f a f u ll w hi s tle

of
i mi loz i
o r w hi s tle rs
c l ass i c d e scr ipti o n s of the
or thin m u r m u r

5
6
n
x

qi xe ro
'

T er

v
f
a
y

4 53

w h o t a lk in a low w hi s tling
w hen c e the y h av e thei r n a me
The s e i d e as corr e s p o n d w ith

gh os tl y vo i c e as a t w itte r

Iv

SOUL

or

og 7 U TG
X Qo v
T
I

Ka r o.

b r a c r ue ta R e mi v i s a e s t a ss i s te re l e t
A t q ue h
e xi g u m u r m u r v e r b a l q i

Um

Ka m /o s ,

c o,

aee

A s the a tt r ib u te s o f the so u l o r gh os t e x ten d t o o the r

s pi r it u a l bei n g s an d the u tte ra n c e s o f s u c h ar e t o a g r e a t
e x te n t gi v e n b y the vo i c e o f me d i u m s w e co nne c t the s e
acco u nt s w ith the n o ti o n th a t the l an g u a ge o f d em o n s i s
a l so a l ow w hi s tle o r m u tte r w hen c e the w ell kn ow n p rac ti c e

the s u s u rr u s ne cro
o f w h i s pe r i ng or m u r m u r i ng c h ar m s
ma n t i c u s o f sorc e r e rs t o w h o m the a l r e ady c ite d de sc ri p

ti o n o f w iz ards th a t peep (i e c hi r p ) a n d m u tte r i s

4
w i d el y a ppli ca ble
The co n c epti o n o f dr e a m s a n d v i s i o n s as ca u s e d b y
p r e s e n t o bj e c ti v e g u r e s a n d the i d enti ca ti o n of s u c h
ph a nt om so u l s w ith the s h adow a n d the b r e a th h as le d
t o the t r e a tme n t o f so u l s as s u b s t a nti a l m a te r i a l being s
Th u s it i s a u s u a l p roc ee d i n g t o m a ke o pening s th ro u gh
so li d m a te r i a l s t o a ll ow so u l s t o p ass The I ro q u o i s in
o l d ti m e s u s e d t o le av e a n o peni n g in th e g rav e for the
linge r ing so u l t o v i s it it s b ody a n d so me o f them s till
,

R el

C a ll a w ay ,

A m zulu pp

of

26 5 , 3 4 8 , 3 7 0

H om er I l xxiii 1 0 0
O vi d F s t v 4 5 7
I s i a h viii 1 9 xxix 4 T he A r ab s h te w h i s tl i n g ( l si f ) i t i s t lk i n g
F i r s t F t s te p s i n E s t A fr ic p
N ic ol u s R e mi
t de vi l s ( Burt on
gi u s w h os e D em n ol t ei a i s o o f the gh s tl i e s t v o lu me s i n the gh s tly
l i ter ture f w i t c h c r ft ci te s H mol us B b rus as h vi n g he rd the v o ic e
fter g ivi n g o ther i n s t n c e s ddu c e s the u th o
nd
s da m n i
su b s i bi l n m
r i ty o f Ps ell us t o p r o v e th a t the de vi l s gen er lly s p e k v ery l o w an d on
S e b as ti n E v n s i n N ture
fu s e dly i n rder n t t b e c ught bb i n g D
J u n e 22 1 8 7 1 p 1 4 0 ( N ic ol i Remi g ii D m n l t i C l Ag ri pp 1 5 9 6

l i b i c 8 pl r eq e l i e vc e m i ll i s e ss e i u n t q l em mi t t n t qu i

i n d o l i u m au t re s t am ri mosa m i ns ert um h ab e n t
u t D e m n e s e p el vi
s tr i dul a v o c e ac ten u i s i b i l o v er b a
2

oo

a,

ne

a r

er

ar

s, a

e a

r.

ae

o a re a ,

ua

os

ANIMISM

454

b o r e h o le s i n the c o fli n fo r the sa me p u r p os e ] The M a l a

g a s y s o rc e r e r fo r t h e c u re o f a s i c k ma n w h o h ad l o s t hi s
w o u l d m a ke a h o le i n a b u r i a l h o u s e t o let o u t a
Soul
S pi r it w hi c h he w o u l d ca t c h in hi s ca p a n d so co n v e y t o
2
the p a tient s he ad
The C hi n e s e m a ke a h o le in the roof
3
t o le t o u t the so u l a t d e a th
A n d l as tl y the c u s t o m
o f o pe n i n g a w i n dow o r d o o r for the d ep ar ti n g s o u l w he n
it q u it s the b o dy i s t o thi s day a v e ry fa mili ar s u pe rs titi o n
4
A g a i n the so u l s o f
i n F ra n c e G e r m a n y a n d E ngl a n d
the d e ad ar e th o u ght s u sc eptible o f being be a ten h u r t
like a n y o the r liv ing cr e a t u r e s
Th u s the
a n d dr i v e n
Q u een s l a n d a b or igine s wo u l d be a t th e a i r i n an a nn u a l
m oc k ght hel d t o scar e away the so u l s th a t d e a th h ad
5
m
let l oos e a o ng the liv ing s in c e l as t y e ar
Th u s N or th
A me r i ca n In di a n s w hen the y h ad t or t u r e d a n enem y t o
d e a th ra n a b o u t cry i n g a n d be a tin g w ith s ti ck s t o scar e
the gh os t away ; the y h av e been kn ow n t o s et n et s ro u n d
thei r ca bin s t o ca t c h an d keep ou t neighb o u rs d ep ar te d
so u l s ; fa n cy ing the so u l o f a dy ing m a n t o g o o u t a t the
W ig wa m roof th e y wo u l d h a bit u a ll y be a t the s i d e s w ith
s ti c k s t o dr i v e it for th ; w e e v e n he ar of the w i dow g o ing
o ff fro m he r h u s b a n d s f u ne ra l fo ll ow e d b y a pe rso n o u ri sh
i n g a h a n df u l o f t w ig s a b o u t he r he ad like a y appe r t o
dr i v e off he r h u s b an d s gh os t an d le av e he r fr ee t o m arry
6
agai n
With a kin d lie r f eeli ng t h e C on go neg ro e s ab
s t a ine d fo r a w h o l e y e ar af te r a d e a th fro m sw eeping the
h o u s e le s t the d u s t s h o u l d inj u r e the d eli ca te s u b s t a n c e of
7
the gh os t ; the To n q u in e se avo i d e d h o u s e c le a ning d u r ing
the f e s ti va l w he n the so u l s of the d e ad ca me b ac k t o thei r
.

M o rgan I r oqu o i s p 1 7 6
2
F l a c ourt M ad a ga s c a r p 1 0 1
3
N B D e n n y s F olk Lore of C h i n a p 22

4
M on n i er T r a d i t i o n s P o p ul a i re s p 1 4 2 ; W u t tk e V olk sa b ergl au b e

p 2 0 9 ; G r i mm D M p 8 0 1 ; M e i n er s vo l ii p 7 6 1

5
Lan g Q ueen sl an d p 4 4 1 B on w ic k T a s man i an s p 1 8 7

6
N o u v elle F ra n c e vol vi pp 7 6 1 22 L e J eu n e i n R el
C h a rle v o ix
de s J s u i te s 1 6 3 4 p 2 3 1 6 3 9 p 4 4 Ta n n er s N a rr p 2 9 2 P eter J on e s
H i s t o f Oj eb w ay I n d i an s p 9 9
M e n s c h v
7 B a s ti a n
ol ii p 3 23

S UBS TAN CE

SOUL

or

4 55

h o u s e s for the N e w Y e ar s v i s it ; a n d it s eem s likel y th a t

the s pe c i a l p rof e ss i o n of the R o m a n e v

who
e rri a t ore s
sw ept the h o u s e s o u t af te r a f u ne ra l was co nne c te d w ith a
2
s imil ar i d e a T o thi s day it r em a in s a G e r m a n pe asa nt s
say ing th a t it i s wro ng t o s l a m a door le s t o ne s h o u l d pin c h
a
a so u l in i t The n o t u n co mm o n p rac ti c e of s t r e w ing
as he s t o S h ow the foo tp r int s of gh os t s or d em o n s t a ke s for
g ra nte d th a t the y ar e s u b s t a nti a l b od ie s In the lite ra
t u r e o f a nimi s m e x t r eme te s t s of the w eight of gh os t s ar e
n ow a n d then for th co min g The y ra nge fro m the d e c l ara
t i o n of a B as u t o d i v ine r th a t the l a te q u een h ad been
be s t r i d ing hi s s h o u l d e rs a n d he ne v e r f elt s u c h a w eight
i n hi s li f e t o G l an v
il s s t ory o f D av i d H u nte r the ne a t
he rd w h o li f te d u p the o l d wo m a n s gh os t a n d S h e f elt
j u s t like a b a g of f e a the rs i n hi s ar m s or the p a theti c
G e r m a n s u pe rs titi o n th a t the d e ad m o the r s co ming b ac k
in the night t o s u c kle the b a b y S h e h as le f t o n e ar th m ay
be kn ow n b y the h o ll ow p r e ss e d dow n in the be d w he r e
s he l ay a n d a t l as t dow n t o the a llege d m od e r n S pi r it u a li s ti c
r e c k o ning o f the w eight of a h u m a n so u l a t fro m 3 t o 4
4
o u nce s
E x pli cit s t a tement s as t o th e s u b s t a n c e of so u l ar e t o
be fo u n d b o th a m o ng l ow a n d high rac e s in a n in s t r u c ti v e
s e r ie s of d e niti o n s The T o ng a n s im agine d the h u m a n
so u l t o be th e ne r or m or e a e r i for m p ar t of the b ody
w hi c h le av e s it s u ddenl y a t the m o ment of d e a th ; so me
thing co mp ara ble t o the pe rf u me a n d e ss en c e o f a ow e r as
5
r el a te d t o the m or e so li d v eget a ble b re The G r eenl a n d
s ee rs d e scr ibe d the so u l as the y h a bit u a ll y pe rc ei v e d it in
thei r v i s i o n s ; it i s p a le a n d sof t the y sa i d a n d he w h o
t r ie s t o s eize it f eel s n o thing for it h as n o e sh n or b o ne

M e i n er s vol i p 3 1 8
2
F e s tu s s v e verri a t ores s ee B as t i an
a n d c omp a re H art k n oc h
ci ted b el o w vol ii p 4 0

3
V olk s a b ergl a u b e pp 1 3 2 2 1 6
W u t t ke

B a s uto s p 2 85 Gl n vi l S a du ci smu s Tri u mph atu s p a rt ii

C asal i s

p 1 6 1 W u t t k e p 2 1 6 B a s t i a n P s y c h ol o g i e p 1 9 2
M ar i n er Ton ga I s vol ii p 1 3 5
1

ANIMISM

4 36

The

s ine w
Car ib s d i d n o t think the so u l so imm a
t e ri a l as t o be in v i s ible b u t sa i d it was s u btle a n d thin like
a p u r i fi e d b ody
T u r ning t o highe r rac e s w e m ay t ake
the S i a me s e as a n e xa mple of a pe o ple w h o co n c ei v e of
so u l s as co n s i s ting of s u btle m a tte r e sca ping s igh t a n d
3
t o u c h or as u nite d t o a sw i f tl y m ov ing a e r i a l b ody
In
the c l ass i c wor l d it i s r e cord e d as a n o pini o n of E pi c u r u s

th a t the y w h o say th e so u l i s in cor p or e a l t a lk fo lly fo r it

co u l d neithe r do n or s u ffe r a n y thing w e r e it s u c h
Among
the F a the rs I re n ze u s d e scr ibe s so u l s as in cor p or e a l in co rn
p ar i so n w ith m or t a l b od ie s a n d Te r t u lli a n r el a te s a v i s i o n
or r e v el a ti o n o f a c e r t ain M o n t a ni s t p ro phete ss of the so u l
s een by he r cor p or e a ll y thin a n d l u c i d a e r i a l in co l o u r a n d
h u m a n in for m
F o r a n e xa mpl e of me d i ae va l doc t r ine

m ay be c ite d a 1 4 t h c ent u ry E ngli s h p o em the A y enbite

of I n wy t (i e R em ors e of Co n scien c e ) w hi c h p o int s

o u t h ow the so u l b y r e aso n of the thinne ss of it s s u b s t a n c e
s u ffe rs a ll the m or e in p u r g a t ory :
no r

Th e

sou l i s

mo r e

te n d r e an d n esch e
Than t h e b o d i t h a t h at h b on e s an d ey sch e
Th an n e t h e s o u l t h a t i s so te n d e re o f ki n d e
Mo t e n e d i s h ur e pe n a u n ce h ard e re y n d e
Th an e n i b o d i th a t e v er e o n li v e was 7

The doc t r ine of the ethe r e a l so u l p ass e d o n int o m or e

m od e r n phil oso ph y a n d the E u ro pe a n pe asa nt h o l ds fas t t o
it s till ; as W u t t k e says the gh os t s of the d e ad h av e t o him
a mi s t y a n d e va ne sc ent m a te r i a lit y for the y h av e b od ie s as
w e h av e th o u gh o f o the r kin d : the y c an e a t a n d dr ink
S
the y ca n be wo u n d e d a n d kill e d
N or was the a n cient
,

C ra n z G r o n l a n d p 2 5 7

3
R o c hefort I le s A n ti lle s p 4 29

3
Lo u b ere
S i am vo l i p 4 5 8 ; Ba s t i an O es t l A s i e n vol iii p
se e p 2 7 8
4
B i o g L a ert x 6 7
s ee S er v a d ZEn iv 6 5 4
8
5
I ren aeu s c o n tra H a re v 7 1 s ee O r i gen D e P r i n ci p ii 3 2
5
Tert u ll D e A n i ma 9
A ye n b i te o f I n w t
7 H a m p o le
y

8
W u tt k e V o lk s a b ergl a u b e pp 2 1 6 22 6
1

'

s.

25 9 ;

S UBSTANCE

or

SOUL

457

doc t r ine e v e r m or e d i s tin c tl y s t a te d th a n b y a m od e r n

S pi r it u a li s ti c wr ite r w h o o b s e rv e s th a t a s pi r it i s n o
imm a te r i a l s u b s t a n c e ; o n the co nt rary the s pi r it u a l
or g a niz a ti o n i s co mp os e d of m a tte r
in a v e ry high
s t a te o f r e nement a n d a tten u a ti o n
A m o ng r u d e rac e s the or igin a l co n c epti o n of the h u m a n
so u l s eem s t o h av e been th a t o f ethe r e a lit y or va p oro u s
m a te r i a lit y w hi c h h as hel d so l ar ge a pl ac e i n h u m a n
th o u ght e v e r s in c e In fac t the l a te r met a ph ys i ca l n o ti o n
of imm a te r i a li t y co u l d scarc el y h av e co n v e y e d a n y me an in g
t o a sava ge It is m or e ov e r t o be n o ti c e d th a t as t o the
w h o le n a t u r e a n d ac ti o n of a pp ar iti o n a l so u l s th e l ow e r
phil oso ph y e sca pe s var i o u s d i f c u ltie s w hi c h dow n t o
m od e r n time s h av e pe r ple x e d met a ph ys i c i an s an d t h e olo
gi a n s o f the ci v ilize d wor l d Co n s i d e r ing the th i n ethe r e a l
b ody of the so u l t o be it s el f s u f c ient a n d s u it a ble for v i s i
b ili t y m ov e m ent a n d s pee c h the p r imiti v e a n imi s t s r e
q u ir e d n o add iti o n a l h y p o the s e s t o acco u nt for the s e m an i
fe st at i o n s ; the y h ad n o pl ac e for the or ie s s u c h as d et a ile d
b y C a lme t as th a t i mm a te r i a l so u l s h av e thei r ow n va p oro u s
b odie s o r occas i o n a ll y h av e s u c h va p oro u s b od ie s p rov i d e d
fo r them b y s u pe r n a t u ra l me a n s t o e n a ble them t o a ppe ar
as S pe c t r e s or th a t the y p oss e ss the p ow e r o f co n d en s ing
the c i rc u m a mbient a i r int o ph a n t o m like b odi e s t o in v e s t
them s el v e s in or o f for ming fro m it voca l in s t r u ment s
It
a ppe ars t o h av e been w ithin sys tem a ti c sch oo l s of c i v ilize d
phil oso ph y th a t the t ra n sc en d e n t a l d e niti o n s of the imm a
t e ri a l so u l w e r e o bt a ine d b y ab s t rac ti o n fro m the p r imiti v e
co n c epti on of the ethe r e a l m a te r i a l so u l so as t o r e du c e it
fro m a ph ys i ca l t o a met a ph ys i ca l e n tit y
D ep ar ti n g fro m the b ody a t the time of d e a th the so u l
or s pi r it i s co n s i d e r e d s et fr ee t o lin ge r n e ar the t o mb t o
wa n d e r on e ar th o r it in the a i r or t o t rav el t o the p ro pe r
r egi o n of s pi r it s the wor l d be yo n d the g rav e The p rin
c i pa l co n c epti o n s of the l ow e r p syc h o l o g y as t o a F u t u r e
,

A J D vi s P h i l os p hy f S p i r i tu l I ter c ur s e N e w Y rk
C lm t vl i c h x l i & c
.

1 85 1 ,

49

4 58

ANIMISM

Li f e

w ill be c o n s i d e re d in the f o ll o w i n g c h a pte rs b u t fo r

the p r e s en t p u r p os e o f i n v e s tig a ting the the ory o f so u l s i n
gene ra l it w ill be w ell t o en te r he r e u p o n o n e d ep ar tment
o f the s u bj e c t
M en d o n o t s t o p s h or t a t the pe rs u as i o n
th a t d e a th r ele as e s the so u l t o a fr ee a n d ac ti v e e x i s ten c e
b u t the y q u ite l o gi ca ll y p roc ee d t o ass i s t n a t u r e b y s l ay in g
men i n ord e r t o libe ra te thei r so u l s fo r gh os tl y u s e s Th u s
the r e ari s e s o n e of the m os t w i d e s p r e ad d i s tin c t a n d intel
ligible r ite s of a nimi s ti c r e ligi o n th a t o f f u ne ra l h u m a n
sacr i c e fo r the s e rv i c e o f the d e ad When a m a n o f ra nk
d ie s a n d hi s so u l d ep ar t s t o it s ow n pl ac e w he r e v e r a n d
w h a te v e r th a t pl ac e m ay be it i s a ra ti o n a l in f e r en c e o f
e ar l y phil oso ph y th a t the so u l s o f a tte n da nt s s l av e s a n d
w i v e s p u t t o d e a th a t hi s f u ne ra l w ill m a ke the sa me
j o u r n e y an d co ntin u e thei r s e rv i c e in the n e x t li f e a n d the
arg u ment i s fr eq u entl y s t r et che d f u r the r t o in c l u d e the
so u l s o f ne w v i c tim s sacr i c e d in ord e r th a t the y m ay ente r
u p o n the sa me gh os tl y s e rvit u d e It w ill a ppe ar fro m the
ethn o g ra ph y of thi s r ite th a t it i s n o t s t ro ngl y m ar ke d in
th e v e ry l ow e s t le v el s o f c u lt u r e b u t th a t ar i s in g in the
l ow e r b ar b ar i c s t age it d e v el o p s it s el f in the highe r a n d
iv
th en c e for th co ntin u e s or dw in d le s in s u rv
al
O f the m u rd e ro u s p rac ti c e s t o w hi c h thi s o pini o n le ads
r em ar k abl y di s tin c t acco u nt s m ay be c ite d fro m a m o ng
t r ibe s o f the In di a n A rc hipel a g o The fo ll ow ing acco u nt i s
gi v en of the f u ne ra l s of g r e a t men a m ong the r u d e K aya n s
of B or ne o
S l av e s ar e kille d in ord e r th a t the y m ay
fo ll ow the d e c e as e d a n d a tten d u p o n him B e for e the y ar e
kille d the r el a ti o n s w h o s u rro u n d them enjo in them t o t a ke
g r e a t car e of thei r m as te r w hen the y j o in him t o wa t c h a n d
s h a mp oo h i m w hen he i s in di s p os e d t o be a l ways ne ar him
a n d t o o be y a ll hi s behe s t s The f em a le r el a ti v e s of the
d e c e as e d the n t ake a s pe ar a n d s lightl y wo u n d the v i c tim s
af te r w hi c h the m a le s s pe ar them t o d e a th A g a in the

o pini o n of the I daa n i s th a t a ll w h o m the y kill in thi s

wor l d s h a ll a tten d them as s l av e s af te r d e a th Thi s n o ti o n
of f u t u r e inte r e s t in the d e s t r u c ti o n o f the h u m a n s pe cie s i s
,

FUNERAL HUMAN S ACRIFICE

4 59

a g r e a t impe d iment t o a n inte rco u rs e w ith them as m u rd e r

g o e s far the r th a n p r e s ent adva nt a ge or r e s entment F ro m
the sa me p r in c iple the y w ill p u rc h as e a s l av e g u ilt y of a n y
ca pit a l cr ime a t fo u rfo l d hi s va l u e th a t the y m ay be hi s
e x e cu ti o ne rs
With the sa me i d e a i s co nne c te d the f e ro

he ad h u nting so p r e va lent a m o ng the

c i o u s c u s t o m of
D aya ks be for e R aja h B roo ke s time The y co n s i d e r e d th a t
the ow ne r o f e v e ry h u m a n he ad the y co u l d p roc u r e wo u l d
s e rv e them i n the ne x t wor l d w he r e in d ee d a m a n s ra n k
wo u l d be accord ing t o hi s n u mbe r of he ads in thi s The y
wo u l d co ntinu e the m o u r ning for a d e ad m a n till a he ad was
b ro u ght in t o p rovi d e him w ith a s l av e t o acco mp a n y him

t o the h a bit a ti o n of so u l s ; a fa the r w h o l os t hi s c hil d

wo u l d g o o u t a n d kill the rs t m a n he met as a f u ne ra l
c e r em o n y ; a yo u ng m a n might n o t m arry till he h ad p ro
cu r e d a he ad a n d so me t r ibe s wo u l d b u ry w ith a d e ad m a n
the rs t he ad h e h ad t a ken t o gethe r w ith s pe ars c l o th r i c e
a n d betel W ay l ay ing a n d m u rd e r ing men for thei r he ads
be ca me in fac t the D aya k s n a ti o n a l s p or t a n d the y re

mar ke d the w hite men r e ad b oo k s w e h u nt for he ads

in s te ad
O f s u c h r ite s in the P ac i c i s l a n ds the m os t
hi d e o u s l y p u r p os e f u l acco u nt s r e ac h u s fro m the F ij i g ro u p
Till l a tel y a m a in p ar t of the c e r em o n y of a g r e a t m a n s
f u ne ra l was the s t ran gli n g o f w i v e s fr ien ds a n d s l av e s for
the di s tin c t p u r p os e of a tten ding h i m i n t o the wor l d o f
s pi r it s O rdi n ar il y the rs t v i c tim was the w i f e o f the
d e c e as e d an d m or e th a n o ne i f he h ad s e v e ra l a n d thei r
cor p s e s o ile d as for a f e as t c l o the d w ith ne w fr inge d
gi rd le s w ith he ads dr e ss e d a n d or n a mente d a n d v e r mili o n
a n d t u r me r i c p owd e r s p r e ad o n thei r fac e s a n d b oso m s
w e r e l a i d b y the s i d e of the d e ad warr i or A ssoci a te s a n d
in f e r i or a tten da nt s w e r e like w i s e s l a in a n d the s e b od ie s
,

J o urn

E as ter n

I nd

A r ch i p

ol
ii p
v

iii pp
v
ol
E a s t vol i pp

359 ;

F a r

E rl

a ,
104, 556 ;
5 2, 7 3 , 7 9 , 1 1 9 ;

S e as p 2 66 ; S t J h n
M u n dy N arr fr m Br o ke s J ur n l s p 2 03 H e d s w ere t aken s fu n er l

offer i n g s b y t h e G r o s o f N
E I n d i El i ot i n A s R e s v0 1 iii p 2 8
D lton B e s er E th no l o f Ben g l p 6 7 s ee a l s o pp 4 6
7 ( K uk i s )
,

a,

ANIMISM

4 60

w e r e s p ken o f as g rass fo r be dding the g rav e When

{ a M b i t h i t h e p r i d e o f S o m oso m o was l os t a t s e a s e v en
tee n o f hi s w i v e s w e r e kille d ; a n d af te r the ne ws of the
m assacr e o f the N a men a pe o ple in 1 8 3 9 eight y wo men
w e r e s t ra ngle d t o acco mp a n y the s pi r it s o f thei r m u rd e r e d
h u s b a n ds S u c h sacr i c e s t oo k pl ac e u n d e r the sa me p r e s
s u r e O f p u bli c o pi n i o n w hi c h kept u p the w i dow b u r ning in
m od e r n In d i a The F ij i a n w i dow was wor ke d u p o n b y h e r
r el a ti v e s w ith a ll the p r e ss u r e o f pe rs u as i o n a n d of m en ac e ;
s he u n d e rs t ood w ell th a t li f e t o he r hen c e for th wo u l d me a n
a wr et che d e x i s ten c e of negle c t d i s g rac e a n d d e s tit u ti o n ;
a n d tyra nn o u s c u s t o m as h ard t o s t r u ggle a g a in s t in the
sava ge as i n the c i v ilize d wor l d drov e he r t o th e g rav e
Th u s far fro m r e s i s ting s he be ca me imp or t u n a te fo r d e a th
a n d the n e w li f e t o co me a n d till p u bli c o pini o n r e ache d a
m or e enlightene d s t a te the mi ss i o nar ie s of ten u s e d thei r
in u en c e in va in t o sav e fro m the s t ra ngling cord so me w i f e
w h o m the y co u l d h av e r e sc u e d b u t w h o he rs el f r e f u s e d t o
li v e
S o r ep u gn a nt t o the n a ti v e min d was the i d e a of
a C hie f t a in g o ing u n a tten d e d int o the o the r wor l d th a t
the mi ss i o n ar ie s p ro hibiti o n of the c he r i s h e d c u s t o m was
o ne r e aso n o f the p o p u l ar d i s like t o C h r i s ti a nit y M a ny o f
the n o min a l C h r i s ti a n s w hen o n c e a c hie f of thei rs was s h o t
fro m a n a mb u s h e s tee m e d it m os t for t u n a te th a t a s t ray
s h o t a t the sa me time kille d a yo u ng m a n a t a d i s t a n c e
fro m him a n d th u s p rov i d e d a co mp a ni o n for the s pi r it
o f the S l a in c hie f
In A me r i ca the f u n e ra l h u m a n sacr i c e m a ke s it s c h arac
t e ri s t i c a ppe ara n c e
A g ood e xa mple m ay be t a ken fro m
a m o n g the O sa ge s w h os e h a bit was so metime s t o pl a nt in
the ca i r n ra i s e d ov e r a cor p s e a p o le w ith a n enem y s S ca lp
h a ngin g t o the t o p Thei r n o ti o n was th a t b y t a king a n
enem y a n d s u s pen d i n g hi s sca lp ov e r the g rav e of a d e c e as e d
fr ie n d the s pi r it of the v i c tim be ca me s u bj e c te d t o the s pi r it
o

T Wi ll i
.

ms ,

N e w Z e al n d a cc ou n ts s ee R

P ol a c k N e w Z e a l n der s vol i pp

2 20

227 ;

F ij i vol i pp 1 882 0 4 ; M a r i n er

F or

T on ga

I s vol ii

Tayl o r N e w Z eal an d pp 2 1 8
,

66, 7 8 , 1 1 6

F U N E R A L H U M AN S A C R I F I C E

4 61

of the b u r ie d warr i or in the l a n d of s pi r it s H en c e the

l as t a n d be s t s e rv i c e th a t co u l d be pe rfor me d for a d e c e as e d
r el a ti v e was t o t ake a n ene my s li f e a n d th u s t ran s mit it
b y hi s sca lp
The corr e s p o n d en c e of thi s i d e a w ith th a t
j u s t menti o ne d a m o ng the D ayak s i s v e ry s t r iking With
a s imil ar intenti o n the Car ib s wo u l d s l ay on the d e ad
m as te r s g rav e a n y of hi s s l av e s the y co u l d l ay h a n ds o n
A m o ng the n a ti v e pe o ple s r i s en t o co n s i d e ra bl y highe r
g rad e s of soci a l an d p o liti ca l li f e the s e p rac ti c e s w e r e n o t
s u pp r e ss e d b u t e xa gge ra te d i n the gh as tl y sacr i c e s of war
r i ors s l av e s a n d w i v e s w h o d ep ar te d t o co ntin u e thei r
d u te o u s o f c e s a t the f u ne ra l of the c hie f or m o n arc h in
6
C ent ra l A me r i ca a n d M e x i co in B o g o t a a n d Pe r u It
i s inte r e s ting t o n o ti c e in so me w h a t favo u ra ble co nt ras t
w ith the s e c u s t o m s o f co m p ara ti v el y cu lt u r e d A me r i ca n
n a ti o n s the p rac ti c e of c e r t ain r u d e t r ibe s of the N or th
We s t
The Q u ak e ol t h s for in s t a n c e d i d n o t ac t u a ll y
sacr i c e the w i dow b u t the y m ad e he r r e s t he r he ad on he r
h u s b a n d s cor p s e w hile it was being b u r ne d u ntil a t l as t
s he was dra gge d m or e d e ad th a n a li v e fro m the a me s ; i f
s h e r e cov e r e d s he co lle c te d he r h u s b an d s as he s a n d carr ie d
them a b o u t w ith he r for th r ee y e ars d u r i n g w hi c h a n y
le v it y or d e cien cy o f g r ie f wo u l d r en d e r he r an o u t cas t
Thi s l oo k s like a mitig a te d s u rv i va l fro ma n e ar lie r c u s t o m
of ac t u a l w i dow b u r nin g 7
O f s u c h f u ne ra l r ite s carr ie d o u t t o the d e a th g ra phi c
.

20 0
2

222

M C oy , H i s t

B a p t i s t I n d i an M i ss i on s p

of

W i tz vol iii

3 60 ;

R c hef rt I le s A t i lle s pp
o

4 29 , 5 1 2 ;

s ee a l s o J G M uller pp :
.

174 ,

O vi ed o

N ou v

H i s t de l as I n d i s l i b xxix c 3 1 C h arle v ix
Fr
vol vi p 1 7 8 ( N t c hez ) ; W i tz vl iii p 2 1 9 S ee Br i n to
Myth s
o f N e w W o rld
p 23 9

Br ss eur M e xi que vol iii p 5 7 3

P i edr h i t N ue v o R eyn o de G r n d p art i l i b i c 3

C i ez a de L e on p 1 6 1 ; R iv er o an d Tseh u d i Peru v A nt p 20 0 ;

P re s c tt P eru vol i p 2 9 S ee s t teme n t s s t o e fgi es J G M uller

p 379
S imp s n J ourn ey vol i p 1 9 0 ; s i mi l r p ra c t ic e mo ng Taku lli or
C rr i er I n d W i tz vl iii p 2 0 0
3

a,

a,

ANIMISM

4 62

a n d h orri d d e scr ipti o n s ar e r e cord e d in the co u nt r ie s across

A fr i ca E as t C e n t ra l a n d We s t A he ad m a n of the W ado s
i s b u r ie d s itting in a s h a ll ow pit a n d w ith the cor p s e a
m a le a n d f em a le s l av e a li v e he w ith a bill h oo k in hi s h a n d
t o c u t f u el fo r hi s l ord in the d e a th wor l d s he s e a te d o n a
little s t oo l w ith the d e ad c hie f s he ad i n he r l a p A c hie f
of U n y a mw e z i i s ent o mbe d in a va u lte d pit s itting on a
l ow s t oo l w ith a b ow in hi s r igh t h a n d a n d p rov i d e d w ith a
p o t of n a ti v e bee r ; w ith him ar e s h u t in a li v e th r ee wo men
s l av e s a n d the c e r em o n y i s co n cl u d e d w ith a lib a ti o n o f
bee r o n the e ar th he a pe d u p a b ov e them a ll The sa me
i d e a w hi c h in G u ine a m a ke s it co mm o n for the li v ing t o
s en d me ssage s b y the dy ing t o the d e ad i s d e v el o pe d in
A s h a nti a n d D a h o me int o a m o n s t ro u s sys tem of m assacr e
The King of D a h o me m u s t ente r D e a dla n d w ith a gh os tl y
co u r t o f h u n dr e ds of w i v e s e u n u c h s s inge rs dr u mme rs
a n d so l d ie rs N or i s thi s a ll Ca pt a in B u r t o n th u s d e

scr ibe s the y e ar l y C u s t o m s :

The y pe r i o d i ca ll y s u ppl y
the d ep ar te d m o n arc h w ith fr e s h a tten da nt s in the s h adowy
wor l d F or u nh a ppil y the s e m u rd e ro u s sc ene s ar e a n e x
p r e ss i o n l a ment a bl y mi s t a ken b u t pe rf e c tl y s in c e r e of the
li v elie s t li a l piet y
E v en thi s a nn u a l s l a u ghte r m u s t be
s u pplemente d b y a l mos t da il y m u rd e r
Wh a te v e r ac ti o n
h ow e v e r t r i v i a l i s pe rfor me d b y th e Kin g it m u s t d u ti f u ll y
be r ep or te d t o hi s s i r e in the s h adowy r e a lm A v i c tim
a lm os t a l ways a war ca pti v e i s ch os en ; the me ssage i s d e
li v e r e d t o him a n int ox i ca t i ng dra u ght of r u m fo ll ows it
1
a n d he i s di s p a t c he d t o H ad e s in the be s t o f h u m o u rs
In so u th er n di s t r i c t s o f A fr i ca acco u nt s of the sa me c l ass
begin in Co ng o a n d A ng o l a w ith the r e cord e d s l ay ing of
the d e ad m a n s favo u r ite w i v e s t o li v e w ith him in the o the r
wor l d a p rac ti c e s till in vo g u e a m o ng the C he vas o f the
Z a mbe s i di s t r i c t a n d for me r l y kn ow n a m o ng the M arav i s
w hile the f u ne ra l sacri c e of a tten da nt s w ith a c hie f i s a
.

Burt on , C e n tra l fr

T r Et h S oc
1 8, &c

2 19 , 3 9 4

v
ol i p 1 2 4
vo l ii p 2 5 ; D a h o me vo l ii

vol iii p 4 0 3 ; J L Wi l s o n W A fr pp 20 3
.

S ee l s o H R ow ley
a

M i ss i o n

to

C en tra l A fr ica p

22 9

FUNERAL HUMAN SACRI FIC E

4 63

thing of the p as t a m o ng the B aro t s e as a m o ng the Z u l u s

w h o y et h av e n o t forg o tten the days w hen the c hie f s
s e rva nt s a n d a tten da nt warr i ors w e r e cas t in t o the r e
w hi ch h ad co n s u me d hi s b ody th a t the y might g o w ith him
1
a n d p r ep ar e thing s be for eh a n d a n d get food for him
I f n e w w e t u r n t o the r e cords of A s i a a n d E u ro pe w e
s h a ll n d the sacr i c e of a tten da nt s for the d e ad w i d el y
pr e va lent in b o th co ntinent s in o l d time s w hile in the e as t
it s co u rs e m ay be t rac e d co ntin u i n g o n ward t o o u r ow n day
The t wo M o h a mme da n s w h o t rav elle d in S o u the r n A s i a in
the ninth c ent u ry r el a te th a t o n the acc e ss i o n of c e r t a in
king s a q u a ntit y of r i c e i s p r ep ar e d w hi c h i s e a ten b y so me
ol un
th r ee or fo u r h u n dr e d men w h o p r e s ent them s el v e s v
t arily t o s h ar e it the r eb y u n d e r t a king t o b u r n them s el v e s a t
the m o n arc h s d e a th With thi s corr e s p o n ds M arco P o l o s
thi r teenth c ent u ry acco u nt in S o u the r n In d i a of the king
of Maab ar s g u ard of h ors emen w h o w hen he die s a n d hi s
b ody i s b u r nt th row them s el v e s int o the r e t o d o him
?
s e rv i c e I n the ne x t wor l d In the s e v enteenth c ent u ry the
p rac ti c e i s d e scr ibe d as s till p r e va iling in J a p a n w he r e o n
the d e a th o f a n o blem a n fro m ten t o thi r t y o f hi s s e rva nt s

p u t them s el v e s t o d e a th b y the h ara k ar i or r ipping u p

h av i n g in d ee d eng age d d u r ing hi s li f etime b y the so lemn
co mp ac t of dr inking w ine t o gethe r t o gi v e thei r b od ie s t o
thei r l ord a t hi s d e a th Y et a l r e ady in a n c ient time s s u c h
f u ne ra l sacr i c e s w e r e p ass ing int o s u rv i va l w hen the
s e rva nt s w h o fo ll ow e d thei r m as te r i n d e a th w e r e r epl ac e d
3
b y c l ay im a ge s s et u p a t the t o mb
A m o ng the O ss ete s of
the Ca u cas u s a n i n te r e s ting r eli c of w i dow s acri c e i s s till
kept u p : the d e ad m a n s w i dow a n d hi s sadd le h ors e ar e
le d th r i c e ro u n d the g rav e a n d n o m a n m ay m arry the

C av
az z i , I s t D e scr

de tre R egn i C on g o M a tamba e t A n go l a B ol og n a

W a i tz vol ii pp 4 1 9 2 1 ; C a ll a w ay R el i g i on of Ama

l ib i 2 64 ;
zulu p 2 1 2
1 68 7 ,

b y t wo M o h ammed an T r a v eller s L on d on 1 7 3 3 p
a n d i n P i n kert on
vo l vii p 2 1 5 ; M a r c o P ol o b o ok iii c h a p xx
i n P i n kert on v
ol vii p 1 6 2

C ar on
J a p an i b i d p 6 22 ; S i e b old N i pp on v p 22
2

Re n a u d ot ,

A ce

81
and

ANIMISM

4 64

w i dow or m o u nt the h ors e th u s d e vo te d In C hin a legen d

p r e s e rv e s the mem o ry o f the a n c ie n t f u n e ra l h u m a n sacr i c e
The b ro the r o f C hin Y a ng a d i sciple o f Co n f u ci u s d ie d
a n d hi s w i dow a n d s te ward w i s he d t o b u ry s o me li v ing
pe rso n s w ith him t o s e rv e him in the r egi o n s bel ow
The r e u p o n the sa ge s u gge s te d th a t the p ro pe r v i c tim s
wo u l d be the w i dow a n d s te ward them s el v e s b u t thi s n o t
p r e ci s el y meeting thei r v ie ws the m a tte r dro ppe d a n d the
d e c e as e d was inte rr e d w ith o u t a tten da nt s Thi s s t ory a t
le as t s h ows the r ite t o h av e bee n n o t o nl y kn ow n b u t
u n d e rs t ood in C hin a l o ng a g o
In m od e r n C hin a the
s ui c i d e o f w i dows t o acco mp a n y thei r h u s b a n ds i s a r e co g
n i z e d p rac ti c e so metime s e v en pe rfor me d in p u bli c
M or e
ov e r the c e r em o nie s o f p rov i d ing s e da n be ar e rs an d a n
u mb r ell a be ar e r fo r the d e ad a n d s en d i n g m o u nte d h ors e
men t o a nn o u n c e be for eh a n d hi s arr i va l t o the a u th or itie s
of H ad e s a l th o u gh the s e be ar e rs a n d me ss enge rs ar e o nl y
m ad e o f p a pe r a n d b u r nt s eem t o r ep r e s ent s u rv i va l s o f a
m or e m u rd e ro u s r e a lit y
The A rya n rac e gi v e s s t r iking e xa mple s of the r ite of
f u ne ra l h u m a n sacr i c e i n it s s te rn e s t s h a pe w hethe r in
hi s t ory or in m y th th a t r e cords as t r u l y as hi s t ory the
m a nne rs of o l d days
The epi sod e s of the T roj a n ca p
t iv
e s l a i d w ith the h ors e s a n d h o u n ds o n the f u ne ra l pile of
P a t roklo s a n d of E vad ne th row in g he rs el f int o the f u ne ra l
p i le of he r h u s b a n d a n d P a u sa ni as s n arra ti v e of the s u i c i d e
o f the th r ee M e ss eni a n w i dows ar e a m o ng it s G r eek re pre
In S ca n di n avi a n m y th B a l dr i s b u r nt w ith hi s
se n t a t i v
es
l

Jo ur n I n d
Arch i p n e w s er i e s , v
ol

L egge , C on fu ci u s , p 1 1 9 ; D o ol i ttle ,

ii p 3 7 4
ol i pp 1 0 8 1 7 4 1 92
C h in es e v
T he p r a c ti c e o f tt ck i n g o k i ll i n g ll p er s n s me t b y a fu n er a l p r o c e ss i on
i s p erh p s ge n er lly c on n e c ted wi th fun era l human s ac ri c e ; a n y on e me t
o n the r a d b y the fu n er l
f a M n g o l p r i n c e w s s l i n an d o rdered t o g o
as e s c o rt ; i n the K i mb u n d a c o u n try
a r oy a l fu n er l
eet
s
n
n
w
h
o
m
o
y
S ud
proc ess i o n i s p ut t o de th w i th the o ther vic t ims a t the gr a v e ( M gy a r

Afri k p
s ee al s o M a ri n er T on g I s vol i p 4 03 ; C o ok F i r s t
V oy v
ol i pp 1 4 6 2 3 6 ( T h i t i )

o
J k b G r i mm V er b re nn en der L e ic he n c on tai n s a n I n s tru c tiv e c ol
le c t i on f referen c e s an d ci t t i on s

H omer I l xxi i i 1 7 5 Euri p S u pp l Pau s an i as iv 2

1

a,

FUN ERAL HUMAN SACRIFICE

4 65

dwarf foo t p age hi s h ors e a n d sadd le ; B ry nhil d lie s o n the

pile b y he r bel ov e d S ig u rd a n d men a n d m a i ds fo ll ow af te r
them o n the hell way
The G a u l s i n C ae sar s time b u r n e d
a t the d e ad m a n s s u mpt u o u s f u ne ra l w h a te v e r was d e ar t o
him a n im a l s a l so a n d m u c h l ov e d s l av e s a n d c lie n t s
Old
menti o n s o f S l avo ni c he a then do m d e scr ibe the b u r ning of
the d e ad w ith c l o thin g a n d w e apo n s h ors e s a n d h o u n ds
w ith fa ith f u l s e rva n t s an d a b ov e a ll w ith w i v e s Th u s

S t B o ni fac e says th a t the We n ds keep m a t r im o ni a l l ov e

wi th s o g re a t ze a l th a t the w i f e m ay r e f u s e t o s u rv i v e he r
h u s b a n d a n d S h e i s hel d p ra i s e wor th y a m o ng wo men w h o
s l ays he rs el f w ith he r o wn h a n d th a t s he m ay be b u r nt on
3
Thi s A rya n r ite of w i dow sacr i
on e p yr e w ith he r l ord
c e h as n o t o n l y a n ethn o g ra phi c a n d a ntiq u ar i a n i n te r e s t
b u t e v en a pl ac e in m od e r n p o liti cs I n B ra h m a ni c In d i a
the w i dow o f a H in d u of the B ra hm a n o r the K s h a t r i ya
cas te was b u r nt on the f u n e ra l pile w ith he r h u s b a n d as a

s a te o r
g ood wo m a n w hi c h word h as p ass e d int o E ngli s h
as su ttee M enti o ne d in c l ass i c a n d me d iae va l time s the
p rac ti c e was in f u ll v ig o u r a t the beginning o f the l as t
c ent u ry O f ten o ne d e ad h u s b a n d t oo k m a n y w i v e s w ith
him S o me w ent w illingl y a n d g a il y t o th e ne w li f e m a n y
w e r e dr i v en b y forc e of c u s t o m by f e ar o f d i s g rac e b y
fa mil y pe rs u as i o n by p r ie s tl y th r e a t s a n d p ro mi s e s b y
s hee r v i o len c e When the r ite was s u pp r e ss e d u n d e r m o
d e r n B r iti s h r u le the pr ie s th ood r e s i s te d t o the u tte r m os t
a ppe a ling t o the V e da as sa n c ti o ning the ord in a n c e a n d
d em a n d i n g th a t the for eign r u le rs s h o u l d r e s pe c t it Y et
in fac t as P rof H H Wil so n p rov e d the p r ie s t s h ad
ac t u a ll y fa l s i e d thei r sacr e d V e da in s u pp or t of a r ite
enjo ine d b y l o ng a n d in v ete ra te p r ej u d i c e b u t n o t b y the
t rad iti o n a l s t a n dards o f H in d u fa ith The a n c ient B ra h
-

E dd Gy lfag i nn i g 4 9 B y h i ld q vi t h & c
C ae s r Bell G ll vi 19
S l w M yth p 1
3
H u sc h
45
S tra b xv 1 6 2 ; C i c T sc D i s p v 2 7 7 8 B i d S ic x vii 9 1 x i x

3 3 & c ; G r i mm
V er bre n e p 2 6 1 ; R d t Tw M h mm ed s
p 4 ; n d i n P i kert n vl vii p 1 9 4 S ee Bu c h an a i b i d pp 6 7 5
H i d s vl ii pp 29 8
3 12
6 82 ; W a rd
I 2 H
1

a,

an

o,

n,

oo

a,

ar

e n au

n,

an

ANIMISM

4 66

m a ni c f u ne ra l r ite s h av e bee n mi n u tel y d et a ile d fro m the

S a n s kr it a u th or itie s i n a n e ssay by P rof M ax M ulle r
Thei r d i r e c ti o n s ar e th a t the w i dow i s t o be s e t o n the
f u ne ra l pile w ith he r h u s b a n d s cor p s e a n d i f he be a war
r i or hi s b ow i s to be pl ac e d the r e t o o B u t then a b ro the r
i n l aw o r ado pte d c hil d o r o l d s e rva nt i s t o le ad the w i dow

dow n a g a in a t the s u mm o n s R i s e wo m a n co me t o the

wor l d of li f e ; th o u s leepe s t nigh u nt o him w h os e li f e i s
g o ne Co m e t o u s Th o u h as t th u s f u l lle d th y d u tie s of
a w i f e t o the h u s b a n d w h o o n c e t oo k th y h a n d a n d m ad e
thee a m o the r
The b ow h ow e v e r i s t o be b ro ken a n d
th row n b ac k u p o n the pile a n d the d e ad m a n s sacr i c i a l
in s t r u ment s ar e t o be l a i d w ith him a n d r e a ll y co n s u me d
W hile ad mitting th a t the m od e r n ord in a n c e of S u ttee
b u r ning i s a corr u pt d ep ar t u r e fro m the e ar l y B ra h
m a ni c r it u a l w e m ay ne v e r thele ss n d r e aso n t o co n s i d e r
th e p rac ti c e as n o t a ne w in v enti o n b y the l a te r H in d u
p r i e s th ood b u t as the r e v i va l u n d e r co ngeni a l in u en c e s
of a n a n c ient A rya n r ite bel o nging or igin all y t o a pe r i od
e v en e ar lie r th a n the V e da The a n c ient a u th or ize d c e r e
m o n y l oo k s as th o u gh in a p r imiti v e for m of the r ite
the w i dow h ad been ac t u a ll y s ent w ith the d e ad for
w hi c h r e a l sacr i c e a h u m a ne r l aw s u b s tit u te d a me r e
p r eten c e
Thi s v ie w i s s u pp or te d b y th e e x i s ten c e o f
a n o l d a n d e x p r e ss p ro hibiti o n of the w i f e being sacr i
c e d a p ro hibiti o n s eemingl y d ir e c te d a g a in s t a r e a l c u s

t o fo ll ow the d e ad h u s b a n d i s p ro hibite d so says the

t om
l aw of the B ra hm a n s With r eg ard t o the o the r cas te s thi s
1
l aw for wo men m ay be or m ay n o t b e
T o t r e a t the
H in d u w i dow b u rning as a cas e of s u rvi va l a n d r e v i va l
s eem s t o me m os t in accorda n c e w ith a gene ra l ethn o g ra phi c
v ie w of the s u bj e c t Wi dow sacri ce i s fo u n d in var i o u s
r egi o n s of th e wor l d u n d e r a l ow s t a te of ci vi li z a ti o n a n d
.

Wi l s
H i n du Wi d ows
1

the s u pp o s ed V a i d i k auth or i ty for the Bur n i n g o f

i n J o ur n Roy A s S oc v
ol x vi
( 1 85 4 ) p 2 0 1 ; i n h i s

vol
p 2 7 0 Ma x M uller Tod t en b es t a t t u n g b e i d e n Bra h

i n Z e i t s ch r der D eut s c h M o rge n ] G e s v

ii
ol i x
ol
C hips v

O n

on ,

man e n ,

34

SOULS OF ANIMALS

4 67

thi s t s w ith the h y p o the s i s of it s h av in g bel o nge d t o the

A rya n rac e w hile y et in a n e ar l y a n d b ar b aro u s co n d iti o n
Th u s the p r e va len c e of a r ite of s u ttee like th a t o f m od e r n
In di a a m o ng a n c ient A rya n n a ti o n s s ettle d in E u ro pe
G r eek s S ca n d i n av i a n s G e r m a n s S l av e s m ay be s impl y
acco u nte d for b y d i r e c t inhe r it a n c e fro m the r em o te co mm o n
a ntiq u it y of them a ll I f thi s the ory be so u n d it w ill fo ll ow
th a t a n c ient as the V e d i c ord in a n c e s m ay be th e y r ep r e s ent
in thi s m a tte r a r e for m a n d a r e ac ti o n a g a in s t a y et m or e
a n cient b ar b ar i c r ite o f w i dow sac ri c e w hi c h the y p ro
h ibi t e d in fac t b u t y et kept u p in sy mb o l
The hi s t ory of
r eligi o n d i s pl ays b u t t oo pl a inl y th e p ro nene ss o f m a nkin d
t o r el a p s e in s pite o f r e for m a ti o n int o the l ow e r a n d dar ke r
co n di ti o n of the p as t S t ro nge r a n d m or e ten aci o u s th a n
e v en V e d i c a u th or it y the hi d e o u s c u s t o m of the s u ttee m ay
h av e o u tli v e d a n a ttempt t o s u pp r e ss it in e ar l y B ra hm a ni c
time s a n d the E n gli s h r u le rs in a b o li s hing it m ay h av e
a b o li s he d a r eli c n o t me r el y o f d egene ra te H i n du i s m b u t
of the far m or e r em o tel y a n cient savage ry o u t of w hi ch
the A rya n c i v iliz a ti o n h ad g row n
In n ow p ass ing fro m the co n s i d e ra ti o n of the so u l s of
men t o th a t of the so u l s of the l ow e r an im a l s w e h av e rs t
t o in form o u rs el v e s as t o the sava ge m a n s i d e a w hi c h i s
v e ry di ffe r ent fro m the c i v ilize d m a n s of the n a t u r e of
the s e l ow e r a nim a l s A r em ar k a ble g ro u p o f O b s e rva n c e s
cu s t o m ary a m o ng r u d e t r ibe s w ill b r ing thi s d i s tin c ti o n
S h ar pl y int o V ie w S ava ge s t a lk q u ite s e r i o u s l y t o be as t s
a li v e or d e ad as the y wo u l d t o men a li v e or d e ad o ff e r them
h o m age as k p ardo n w hen it is thei r p ain f u l d u t y t o h u nt
a n d kill them A N or th A me r i ca n In di a n w ill r e aso n w ith
a h ors e as i f ra ti o n a l S o me w ill s p ar e the ra ttle s n a ke
f e ar ing the v enge an c e of it s s pi r it i f s l a in ; o the rs w ill
sa l u te the cr e a t u r e r e v e r entl y bi d it w el co me as a fr ien d
fro m the l a n d of s pi r it s S p r inkle a pin c h of t o b acco o n it s
he ad for a n o ffe r ing ca t c h it b y the t a il a n d d i s p a t c h it
w ith e x t r eme d e x te r it y a n d carry off it s s kin as a t ro ph y
I f a n I n d i a n i s a tt acke d an d t or n b y a be ar it i s th a t the
.

ANIMISM

4 68

be as t f ell u p o n h i m inte n ti o n a ll y in a n ge r pe rh a p s t o
r e v e nge the h u r t d o n e t o a n o the r be ar W he n a be ar i s
kille d the y w ill beg p ard o n o f h i m o r e v en m a ke him c on
d o ne th e o ffe n c e by s m o ki n g the pe ac e pipe w ith hi s i n u r
d e re rs w h o p u t t h e pipe in hi s m o u th a n d bl ow dow n it beg
1
gi n g h i s s pi r it n o t t o t a ke r e v enge
S o in A fr i ca the Ka rs
w ill h u nt th e eleph ant begging him n o t t o t r e ad o n them
a n d kill them an d w hen he i s d e ad the y w ill ass u r e him
th a t the y d i d n o t kill him o n p u r p os e a n d the y w ill b u ry
hi s t r u n k fo r the eleph a nt i s a might y c hie f a n d hi s t r u nk
i s hi s h a n d th a t he m ay h u r t w ith a l The Co ng o pe o ple
w ill e v en av e n ge s u c h a m u rd e r b y a p r eten d e d a tt ack o n
?
the h u nte rs w h o d i d the d ee d
S u c h c u s t o m s ar e co mm o n
a m o ng the l ow e r A s i a ti c t r ibe s The S tien s o f K amb o di a
3
as k p ardo n of the be as t the y h av e kille d ; the A i n o s o f
Y e sso kill the be ar o ff e r o bei sa n c e a n d sa l u t a ti o n t o him
4
a n d c u t u p hi s carcas e The K o ri ak s i f the y h av e s l a i n a
be ar o r wo l f w ill ay h i m dr e ss o ne o f thei r pe o ple in the
s ki n a n d da n c e ro u n d him ch a nting e xcu s e s th a t the y d i d
n o t d o it an d e s pe c i a ll y l ay i ng the bl am e o n a R u ss i a n
B u t i f it i s a fox the y t a ke hi s s kin wra p hi s d e ad b ody i n
h ay a n d s nee r ing tell him t o g o t o hi s ow n pe o ple a n d say
w h a t fa m o u s h os pit a lit y he h as h ad a n d h ow the y g av e him
5
a n e w coa t in s te ad of hi s o ld on e The S a m oy e ds e xcu s e
them s el v e s t o the s l a in be ar telling him it was the R u ss i a n s
6
w h o di d it a n d th a t a R u ss i a n kni f e w ill c u t him u p The

G ol di w ill s et u p the s l a in be ar ca ll him m y l ord a n d

do i ro ni ca l h o m age t o h i m or t a kin g him a li v e w ill fa tten

him in a cage ca ll him so n a n d b ro the r a n d kill

7
a n d e a t him as a sacr i c e a t a so lem n f e s ti va l In B or ne o
,

S c h o l cra ft
p rt i p 5 4 3 ; p ar t iii pp 22 9 5 2 0 ;
n d i n Tr i b e s
W i tz vl iii pp 1 9 1 3

K le mm C l t Ge ch vol iii pp 3 5 5 3 6 4 ; W i tz vol ii p 1 7 8

Mou h o t I n d o C h i n
v
ol i
p 2 52

W o od i n T r E t h S oc vo l iv p 3 6
B s ti n M e n s c h vl iii p 2 6
D Br o ss e s
D i eu x F t ic he s p 6 1

Ra v e n s te i n A mur p 3 82 ; T W A tk i n s n p 4 83
1

ur

a,

SO ULS OF ANIMALS

4 69

the D aya k s w hen the y h av e ca u ght a n a llig a t or w ith a

b a ite d h oo k a n d ro pe addr e ss h i m w ith r e s pe c t a n d soo th
ing till the y h av e hi s leg s fas t a n d then m oc ki n g ca ll him

1
raja h a n d g ra n dfa the r
Th u s w hen the sava ge get s
ov e r hi s f e ars he s till keep s u p in i ro ni ca l me rr ime n t the
r e v e r en c e w hi c h h ad it s or igin i n t r embling s in c e r it y E v en
n ow the N ors e h u nte r w ill say w ith h orror o f a be ar th a t

w ill a tt ac k m an th a t he ca n be n o C h r i s ti an be ar
The s en s e o f an a b so l u te p syc hi ca l d i s tin c ti o n bet w een
man a n d be as t so p r e va lent i n the c i v ilize d wor l d is h ard l y
t o be fo u n d a m o ng the l ow e r rac e s
M en t o w h o m the
cr ie s o f be as t s a n d bi rds s eem like h u m a n l an g u age a n d
thei r ac ti o n s g u i d e d as it w e r e b y h u m a n th o u ght l o gi ca ll y
en o u gh a ll ow the e x i s te n c e of so u l s t o be as t s bi rds a n d
r eptile s as t o men The l o we r p syc h o l o g y ca n n o t b u t re
co gnize i n be as t s the v e ry c h arac te r i s ti cs w hi c h it a tt r ib u te s
t o th e h u m an so u l n a mel y the phe n o m en a o f li f e a n d
d e a th w ill a n d j u d gm e n t a n d the ph a nt o m s ee n in v i s i o n
A s for belie v e rs sava ge o r c i v ilize d in the
or in dr e a m
g r e a t doc t r in e o f m etemp syc h os i s the s e n o t o nl y co n s i d e r
th a t a n a n im a l m ay h av e a so u l b u t th a t thi s so u l m ay h av e
inh a bite d a h u m a n being a n d th u s the cr e a t u r e m ay be in
fac t thei r o w n a n c e s t or or o n c e fa mili ar fr ien d A lin e of
fac t s arrange d as way m ark s a l o ng the co u rs e o f c i v i liz a ti o n
w ill s e rv e t o i n d i ca te the hi s t ory of o pin i o n fro m savage ry
o n ward as t o the so u l s o f an im a l s du r in g li f e a n d af te r
d e a th N or th A me r i ca n In d i a n s hel d e v e ry an i m a l t o h av e
it s s pi r i t a n d the s e s pi r it s thei r f u t u r e li f e ; the so u l of the
Ca n ad i a n d og w e n t t o s e rv e hi s m as te r in the o the r wor l d ;
a m o n g the S i o u x the p r e ro g a ti v e o f h av ing fo u r so u l s was
n o t co n ne d t o man b u t bel o nge d a l so t o the be ar the
?
m os t h u m a n o f a n im a l s
The G r eenl a n d e rs co n s i d e r e d
th a t a s i c k h u m a n so u l m ight be r epl ac e d b y the sorc e r e r
w ith a fr e s h he a lth y so u l of a h ar e a r ein d ee r or a yo u n g
,

S t J oh n F ar E s t vl ii p 2 5 3 ( D y ak s )

N ou v elle F ran c e vol vi p 7 8 S g rd

C h rle v o ix

d a p 4 9 7 S c h ool c r a ft I n d i n T r i b e s p rt ii i p 22 9
.

C an a

H i s t

du

470

A N l MI S M

c hil d M a o r i t a l c telle rs h av e he ard of t h e road by w hi c h

the s pi r it s o f do g s d e sc en d t o B eing e the H ad e s of the
d ep ar te d : the H o vas o f M ada g ascar k n ow th a t the gh os t s
dw ellin g i n a g r e a t m o u n t a in in the
o f be as t s a n d men
so u th ca lle d A mb o n dro mbe co me ou t occas i o n a lly t o wa lk
a m o ng the t o mb s o r e x e c u ti o n pl ac e s o f cr imin a l s The
K a m c h ada l s hel d th a t e v e ry cr e a t u r e e v en the s m a lle s t y
wo u l d li v e a g a i n in the u n d e r wor l d The K u ki s o f A ssa m
think th a t the gh os t o f e v e ry a nim a l a K u ki kill s in the
c h as e or for the f e as t w ill bel o n g t o him in the ne x t li f e
e v en as the enem y he s l ays i n the el d w ill then be co me hi s
s l av e The K ar en s a ppl y the doc t r ine o f th e s pi r it o r
pe rso n a l li f e ph a nt o m w hi c h i s a pt t o wa n d e r fro m the
b ody a n d th u s s u ffe r inj u ry equ a ll y t o men a n d t o a nim a l s
The Z u l u s say the ca ttle the y kill co me t o li f e a g a in a n d
5
f
be co me the p ro pe r t y o the dw elle rs in the wor l d bene a th
The S i a me s e b u t c he r w hen in d e a n c e of the v e ry p r in
c i pl e s o f hi s B u dd hi s m he s l a u ghte rs a n o x be for e he kill s
th e cr e a t u r e h as a t le as t the g rac e t o be s ee c h it s s pi r it t o
6
s eek a h a ppie r a b od e In co n n e x i o n w ith s u c h t ran smi
P
y
th
a
g
or
e
a
n
a
n
d
Pl
a
t
o
ni
c
phil
oso
ph
y
gi
v
e
s
t
o
the
ra t i o n
g
l ow e r a nim a l s u n dy ing so u l s wh i le o t h e r c l ass i c o pini o n
m ay r e co g n ize in be as t s o n l y a n i n f e r i or ord e r of so u l o nl y

the a n im a b u t n o t the h u m a n a n im u s be s i d e s Th u s
1

Juv
e n al :

P r i n c i p i o i n du l si t c om mu n i s c on d i tor illi s
T an t um an i mas n o b i s an i mu m q u oq u e
.

Th ro u gh the mi dd le a ge s co n t rov e rsy as t o the p syc h o l o g y

of b r u te s h as l as te d o n int o o u r ow n time s ra nging bet w een
,

GrOn l a n d , p 2 5 7
C ra n z

T a yl o r , N e w Z e al an d , p 2 7 1
S teller K amt s c h a tk a , p 2 6 9

E ll i s

M a d a g as c a r

vol i p

4 29

S te w rt N o te s on N o rther n C ac h r i n J o urn A s S oc Beng l vol

2
n
l
x x iv p 6 3 ; C r ss K re s c M s on K aren s l o

Z ul u T le s vol i p 3 1 7
C ll w y
ol i p 4 2 6
S ee M e i n er s vl i p 2 20
Low i n J o ur n I n d Arc hi p v
vol ii p 7 9 1
J u v e n al S a t x v 1 4 8
4

a ,

SOULS OF ANIMALS

47 1

t wo e x t r e m e s ; o n the o n e the the ory of D e scar te s w hi c h

r e d u c e d a nim a l s t o me r e m achine s on the o the r w h a t M r

A lge r d e n e s as the fa ith th a t a nim a l s h av e imm a te r i a l

a n d d e a thle ss so u l s A m o ng m od e r n s pe c u l a ti o n s m ay be
in s t a n c e d th a t o f We s le y w h o th o u ght th a t i n the ne x t li f e
a nim a l s w ill be ra i s e d e v en a b ov e thei r b odil y a n d ment a l

s t a te a t the cr e a ti o n the h orr i dne ss of thei r a ppe aran c e

w ill be e xch a nge d for thei r p r im aeva l be a u t y a n d it e v en
m ay be th a t the y w ill be m ad e w h a t men ar e n ow cr e a t u r e s
ca p a ble of r eligi o n A da m C l ar ke s ar g u ment for the f u t u r e
li f e of a nim a l s r e s t s o n a b s t rac t j u s ti c e : w he r e as the y di d
n o t s in b u t y et ar e i n vo l v e d in the s u ffe r ing s of s in f u l man
a n d ca nn o t h av e in the p r e s en t s t a te the h a ppine ss d e s ig n e d
1
for them it i s r e aso n a ble th a t the y m u s t h av e it i n a n o the r
A lth o u gh h ow e v e r the p r imiti v e belie f in the so u l s of
a nim a l s s till s u rvi v e s t o so me e x tent in s e r i o u s phil oso ph y
it i s o b v i o u s th a t the te n d en cy of e d u ca te d o pini o n o n the
q u e s ti o n w hethe r b r u te s h av e so u l as di s ting u i s he d fro m
li f e a n d min d h as for a ge s been in a neg a ti v e a n d sc epti ca l
d i r e c ti o n The doc t r ine h as fa llen fro m it s o n c e high
e s t a te It bel o nge d or igin a ll y t o r e a l th o u gh r u d e sc ien c e
It h as n ow s u nk t o be co me a favo u r ite t o pi c in th a t mil d
s pe cu l a ti v e t a lk w hi c h s till do e s d u t y so l argel y as i n tel
le c t u a l co n v e rsa ti o n a n d e v en then it s p ro p o u n d e rs d e f en d
it w ith a l u r kin g co n sc i o u s ne ss of it s bein g af te r a ll a pie c e
of s e n time n t a l n o n s e n s e
A nim a l s being th u s co n s i d e r e d in the p r imiti v e p syc h o
l o g y t o h av e so u l s like h u m a n being s it fo ll ows as the
s i mple s t m a tte r of co u rs e th a t t r ibe s w h o kill w i v e s a n d
s l av e s t o d i s p a t c h thei r so u l s o n e rra n ds of d u t y w ith
.

F uture Li fe p 6 3 2 n d s ee B i b l i gr p hy pp e n d i x i i ;

W e s ley S er mo o R m viii 1 9 22 A d m C l rke C omme t ry on

s m e te x t T h i s b y the w y i s the c on v er s e vi e w t Bell r mi n e s wh o s o
p t i e tly let the e s b i te h i m s y i g W e s h ll h v e he v e t o re w rd u s
r c re ture s h v e n thi g b ut the e j y me t
fo
ur s uffer i n g s b ut the s e p

the p re s en t l i fe B yle B i og D i c
T he argume n t i Butler s
of
A n a l ogy p rt i oh i p ut s the e vi de n c e for s o ul s f b rute s on mu c h
the s me foo t i n g s th a t for s oul s o f men
1

Alger ,

r o

oo

n o

n a

AN IMISM

472

thei r d ep ar te d l o rds ma y a l s o kil l a n i ma l s in o rd e r th a t

t hei r s pi r it s m ay d o s u c h s e rv i c e as i s p ro pe r t o them
The P aw nee warr i or s h ors e i s s l a in o n hi s g rav e t o be
r e ady for h i m t o m o u n t a g a in a n d the Co m a n che s be s t
h ors e s ar e b u r ie d w ith hi s favo u r ite w e a p o n s a n d hi s
pipe a ll a like t o be u s e d in the d i s t a nt h a pp y h u nting
1
g ro u n ds
In S o u th A me r i ca n o t o nl y do s u c h r ite s
occ u r b u t the y r e ac h a p rac ti ca ll y di sas t ro u s e x t r eme
P a t a g o ni a n t r ibe s says D O rb ig n y belie v e i n a n o the r
li f e w he r e the y ar e t o enj oy pe rf e c t h a ppine ss the r e for e
the y b u ry w ith the d e c e as e d hi s ar m s a n d or n a ment s
a n d e v en kill on hi s t o mb a ll the a nim a l s w hi c h bel o nge d
t o him th a t he m a y n d them in the a b od e o f bli ss ; a n d
thi s o pp os e s a n in s u r m o u nt a ble b arr ie r t o a ll c i v iliz a ti o n
b y p r e v enting them fro m acc u m u l a ting p ro pe r t y an d x i n g
?
thei r h a bit a ti o n s
N o t o nl y do P o pe s n ow h ac kne y e d
l i ne s e x p r e ss a r e a l m o ti v e w ith w hi c h the In d i a n s
do g is b u r ie d w ith him b u t o n the N or th A me r i can co n
t i n e n t the s pi r it of the do g h as a n o the r r em ar k a ble o f c e
t o pe rfor m C e r t a i n E s q u im a u x as Cra nz r el a t e s wo u l d
l ay a do g s he ad in a c h i l d s g rav e th a t the so u l of the do g
w h o i s e v e ryw he r e a t h o me might g u i d e the helple ss in fa nt
I n accorda n c e w ith thi s Ca pt a in
t o the l a n d of so u l s
S cor e s b y in J ame son s L a n d fo u nd a do g s s k u ll in a s m a ll
g rav e p ro b a bl y a ch i l d s A g a in i n the di s t a nt r egi o n o f
the A zte cs o n e of the p r in c ip a l f un e ra l c e r em o nie s was t o
S l a u ghte r a t e ch i c h i or n a ti v e do g ; it was b u r nt o r b u r ie d
w ith the cor p s e w ith a co tt o n th r e ad fas tene d t o it s n e c k
a n d it s of c e was t o co n v e y the d e c e as e d across the d eep
wa te rs of C h i u h n ah u a pan o n the way t o the L a n d of the
3
D e ad
The d e a d B u ra e t s favo u r ite h o rs e le d sadd le d t o
the g rav e kille d a n d un g in m ay s e rv e for a T a t ar
,

'

'

'

I n d i an T r i b e s p art i pp 2 3 7 2 6 2 p a rt ii p 6 8
2
L H omme A m r ic a i n v
i p 1 9 6 ; vol ii pp 2 3 7 8 ;
D O rb i gn y
ol

F a lk n er P a ta go n i a p 1 1 8 ; M u s ters Pa tag on i an s p 1 7 8

3
E gede G reen l an d p 1 5 2 ; C ran z p 3 0 1 ; s ee N i l ss on p 1 4 0 Tor

que mad a M on arqu i a I n d i an a x iii ch 4 7 ; C la vi g ero M e ssic o vol ii

pp 9 4
6
1

S c h l c r ft
oo

FUNERAL AN IMAL S ACRIFIC E

473

e xa mple
In T o nq u in e v en w il d a n im a l s h av e been
c u s t o m aril y drow ne d a t f u ne ra l c e r e m o n ie s of p r in c e s t o be
?
a t the s e rv i c e of the d ep ar te d in the n e x t wor l d A m o ng
S emiti c t r ibe s a n i n s t a n c e of the c u s t o m m ay be fo u n d in
the A ra b sacr i c e of a ca mel o n the g rav e for the d e ad
3
m a n s S pi r it t o r i d e u p o n
A m o ng the n a ti o n s of the
A rya n rac e in E u ro pe the p r e va len c e of s u c h r ite s i s d eep
w i d e a n d f u ll of p u r p os e Th u s warr i ors w e r e p ro v
i d e d in
d e a th w ith h ors e s a n d h o u s ing s w ith h o u n ds a n d fa l co n s
C u s t o m s th u s d e scr ibe d in c h ro n i c le a n d lege n d ar e vo u che d
for in o u r ow n time b y the o pe n ing of o l d b ar b ar i c b u r i a l
pl ac e s H ow c le ar a r eli c of sava ge me a ning lie s he r e m ay
be j u d ge d fro m a L i vo ni a n acco u nt as l a te as th e fo u r teenth
c ent u ry w hi c h r el a te s h ow men a n d wo men s l av e s s heep
a n d ox e n w ith o the r thing s w e r e b u r nt w ith the d e ad w h o
it was belie v e d wo u l d r e ac h so me r egi o n of the li v ing an d
n d the r e w ith the m u ltit u d e of ca ttle a n d s l av e s a co u nt ry
4
of li f e a n d h a ppine ss A s u s u a l the s e r ite s m ay be t rac e d
o n ward in s u rv i va l The M o ng o l s w h o for me r l y s l a u ghte r e d
ca mel s a n d h ors e s a t thei r ow ne r s b u r i a l h av e been in du c e d
t o r epl ac e th e ac t u a l sacr i c e b y a gi f t of the ca ttle t o the
5
L a m as
The H in d u s o ffe r a bl ac k cow t o the B ra hm a n s
in ord e r t o s e c u r e thei r p assa ge across the V ai t aran i the
r i v e r of d e a th a n d w ill of ten die g ras ping the cow s t a il as
i f t o sw im across i n he rds m a n s fas hi o n h o l d ing o n t o a
6
cow It i s me n ti o n e d as a belie f in N or the r n E u ro pe th a t
he w h o h as g i v en a co w t o the p oor w ill n d a cow t o t a ke
?

G e org i R e i s e i m R u ss R vol i p 3 12

B ar n T on qu i n i n P i n kert n vl ix p 7 0 4
3
W G P l gr v e A r b i
M en s c h vol ii p 3 3 4
v
ol i p 1 0 ; B s t i n
W i tz vol ii p 5 1 9 ( G a ll s )

G r imm V er b re n n e n d er L e ic he n A c ur i ou s c orre s p on den c e i n the

fo w l s he d s fun er l r i te i s t o b e n o tic ed m n g
prac t i c e o f c utt i n g o ff
the Y oru b s o f W A fr ic ( Burton W an d W p
C h u w s h es o f

S i b er i (C a s tr em F i n n M yth p
V er bren n en
old R u ss i n s ( G r i mm
p

B s t i an M en s c h vol ii p 3 3 5

6
C ole b r oo ke
E ss y s vl i p 1 7 7 W rd H i n d oo s v
pp 6 2
ol ii
1

a,

28 4 , 3 3 1

ANIMISM

4 74

him o v e r the b r i d ge o f the d e ad a n d a c u s t o m o f le ad i n g a

cow i n th e f u n e ra l p roc e ss i o n i s sa i d t o h av e been kept u p
?
t o m od e r n ti m e s
A ll t he s e r ite s p ro b a bl y bel o n g t o gethe r
as co nne c te d w ith a n c ient f u n e ra l sacr i c e a n d the s u rv i va l
o f the c u s t o m of sacr i c ing the warr i or s h ors e a t hi s t o mb
i s y e t m o r e s t riki n g S a in t F o i x l o ng a g o p u t the F r en c h
e v i d en c e v e ry forc ibl y M enti o ning the h ors e le d a t the
f u ne ra l o f C h ar le s V I w ith the fo u r val e t S d e pie d in bl ac k
a n d b ar ehe ad e d
h o l d i n g the cor ne rs of it s ca p ar i so n he
r e ca ll s the h ors e s an d s e rva nt s kille d a n d b u r ie d w ith p r ae
C h r i s ti a n king s A n d th a t hi s r e ad e rs m ay n o t thin k thi s
a n e x t raord i n ary i d e a he b r ing s forward the r e cords o f
p ro pe r t y a n d h ors e s being p r e s ente d a t the o ffe r t ory in
P ar i s in 1 3 2 9 o f E dward I II p r e s enting h ors e s a t King
J o hn s f u ne ra l in L o n do n a n d of the f u ne ra l s e rv i c e fo r
Be r t ra n d D u g u e s clin a t S t D eni s in 1 3 8 9 w hen h ors e s
w e r e off e r e d the Bi s h o p of A u x e rr e l a i d h i s h a n d o n thei r
?
he ads a n d the y w e r e af te rwards co m p o u n d e d for G e r m a n y
r et a i ne d the ac t u a l sacr i c e w ithin the mem ory of li vi ng
men A cava l ry gene ra l Co u nt F r ie dr i c h K as imi r Boos
vo n W a l d e c k was b u r ie d a t T r e v e s in 1 7 8 1 according t o
the for m s of the Te u t o ni c O rd e r ; h i s h ors e was le d in the
p roc e ss i o n a n d the co f n h aving been l ow e r e d i n t o the g rav e
3
the h ors e was kille d a n d th ro wn in u p o n i t
Thi s was
pe r h a p s the l as t occas i o n w hen s u c h a sacr i c e was co n
s u m m a te d in so lemn for m in E u ro pe B u t th a t p a theti c
i n ci d ent of a so l die r s f u ne ra l the le a d ing of the sadd le d a n d
b r i d le d c h ar ge r i n the m o u r n f u l p roc e ss i o n keep s u p t o thi s
day a lin ge r ing r emini sc en c e o f the g r im r eligi o u s r ite n ow
p ass e d away
Pl a nt s p ar t a kin g w ith a nim a l s the phen o men a of li f e a n d
d e a th he a lth a n d s i ckn e ss n o t u nn a t u ra ll y h av e so me kin d
of so u l ascr ibe d t o them In fac t the n o ti o n of a v eget a ble
,

'

GOtte rw e lt

M an n h ardt
der D eut s chen & c vol i p 3 1 9

2
S a i n t F oi x CEu v
res
M a es tr ic ht 1 7 7 8 vol iv p 1 5 0

3
o n S tr a mb erg
R he i n i s c her An t i q u ari u s 1 vol
Ch r v

J M K em b le H or ae F era le s p 6 6
1 85 1 p 2 0 3
1

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C ob le n

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SOULS OF PLANTS

475

so u l co mm o n t o pl a nt s a n d t o the highe r org a ni s m s p oss e ss

ing a n a nim a l so u l in add iti o n was fa mili ar t o me d i aeva l
phil oso ph y a n d i s n o t y et forg o tten b y n a t u ra li s t s B u t in
the l ow e r ra nge s of c u lt u r e a t le as t w ithin o n e w i d e di s t r i c t
of the wor l d the so u l s of pl a nt s ar e m u c h m or e f u ll y
i d en ti e d w ith the so u l s of a nim a l s The S oc iet y I s l a n d e rs

s eem t o h av e a tt r ib u te d var n a i e s u rv i v ing so u l or

s pi r it n o t t o m e n o nl y b u t t o a nim a l s a n d pl a nt s The
D aya k s o f B or ne o n o t o n l y co n s i d e r men a n d a nim a l s t o
h av e a s pi r it or li v ing p r in c iple w h os e d ep ar t u r e fro m the
b ody ca u s e s s i ck n e ss a n d e v ent u a ll y d e a th b u t the y a l so

gi v e t o th e r i c e it s saman g at p ad i or s pi r it o f the
p addy a n d the y h o l d f e as t s t o r et a in thi s so u l s e c u r el y
le s t the cro p s h o u l d d e cay
The K ar e n s say th a t pl a n t s as

w ell as men a n d a nim a l s h av e thei r la

an d
the S pi r it of s i ckl y r i c e i s he r e a l so ca lle d b ac k like a h u m a n
s pi r it co n s i d e r e d t o h av e le f t the b ody Thei r for m u l as for
the p u r p os e h av e e v en been wr itte n down an d thi s i s p ar t
of o n e
co me r i c e kel a h co me Co me t o the el d
Co me t o the r i c e
Co me fro m the We s t Co me
fro m the E as t F ro m the th roa t o f the bi rd fro m the m aw
of the a pe fro m the th roa t of the eleph a nt
3
F ro m a ll g ra n ar ie s co me 0 r i c e kel a h co me t o the r i c e
The r e is r e aso n t o think th a t the doc t r ine of the s pi r it s of
pl a nt s l ay d eep in the intelle c t u a l hi s t ory of S o u th E as t
A s i a b u t was in g r e a t me as u r e s u pe rs e d e d u n d e r B u dd hi s t
in u en c e The B u dd hi s t b oo k s S h ow th a t in the e ar l y days
of thei r r eligi o n it was m a tte r of co nt rov e rsy w hethe r t r ee s
h ad so u l s a n d the r e for e w hethe r the y might l awf u ll y be
inj u r e d
O r th odox B u dd hi s m d e c i d e d a g a in s t the t r ee
so u l s a n d co n s eq u entl y a g a in s t the scr u ple t o h ar m them
d e c l ar ing t r ee s t o h av e n o min d n or s entient p r in c iple
,

A u x I le s d G r n d O c n vl i p 4 3 0
St J h
F
E s t vl i p 1 8 7
M s n K ren s i n J ur n A s S Ben g l 1 8 6 5 p rt ii p

J ur A mer O ri en t l S c vl iv p 3 0 9 S ee c mp r i s n
i

n d M l y i de s ; L w i n
J ur n I n d A h i p vl i p 3 4 0
1

Moeren h ou t

a o

n,

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ar

n.

a a

oc .

rc

20 2
of

C r o ss

S i am e s e

ANIMISM

4 76

th o u gh ad mitti n g th a t c e r t a in d e was o r s pi r it s do r e s i d e in
the b o dy o f t r ee s a n d s pe a k fro m w ithin the m B u dd hi s t s
a l s o r el a te th a t a hete rodox s e c t kept u p th e e ar l y doc t r i n e
of the ac t u a l a n i ma te li f e o f t ree s i n c o n ne x i o n w ith w hi c h
m ay be r eme m be r e d M arco P o l o s so me w h a t do u bt f ul s t a te
me n t as t o c e r t a in a u s te r e I n d i a n s o bj e c ting t o g r een he r b s
for s u c h a r e aso n a n d so m e o the r p assa ge s fro m l a te r
wr ite rs The s u bj e c t o f the s pi r it s o f pl a nt s i s a n o b scu r e
w hethe r fro m the l ow e r rac e s n o t h av ing d e nite
on e
?
o pi n i o n s
o r fro m o u r n o t n d ing it e asy t o t rac e them
The e vi d en c e fro m f u ne ra l sacr i c e s so va l u a ble as t o m os t
d ep ar tment s of e ar l y p sych o l o g y fail s u s he r e fro m pl a nt s
n o t being th o u gh t s u it a ble t o s e n d for the s e rv i c e o f the
?
d e ad Y et as w e s h a ll s ee m or e f u ll y el s e w he r e the r e ar e
t w o t o pi cs w hi c h be ar c l os el y o n the m a tte r
O n the o n e
h a n d the doc t r i n e o f t ra n s mig ra ti o n w i d el y a n d c le ar l y re
co gni s e s the i d e a of t r ee s o r s m a lle r pl a n t s being anim a te d
b y h um a n so u l s ; o n the o the r the belie f in t r ee s pi r it s a n d
the p rac ti c e o f t r ee wors hip i n vo l v e n o ti o n s m or e o r le ss
c l os el y co in c i di ng w ith th a t o f t r ee so u l s as w hen th e
c l ass i c h a m adryad di e s w ith he r t r ee o r w h en the Ta le i n
of S o u th E as t A s i a co n s i d e r ing e v e ry t r ee t o h av e a d em o n
o r s pi r it o ffe rs p ray e rs be for e he c u t s o n e dow n
Th u s far the d et a il s o f the l ow e r a nimi s ti c phil oso ph y
ar e n ot v e ry u n fa m ili ar t o m od e rn s t u d ent s Th e p r imiti v e
V i e w o f the so u l s o f men a n d be as t s as ass e r te d o r ac te d o n
i n the l ow e r a n d mi ddl e le v el s of c u lt u r e s o far bel o n g s t o
c u rr en t c i vi lize d th o u ght th a t th os e w h o h o l d the doc t r i n e
t o be fa l s e a n d the p rac ti c e s b as e d u p o n it f u t i le ca n
ne v e r thele ss u n d e rs t a n d a n d sy m p a thi s e w ith the l ow e r
n a ti o n s t o w h o m th e y ar e m a tte rs o f th e m os t so be r a n d
s e r i o u s co n v i c ti o n N o r is e v e n the n o ti o n o f a s ep ara ble
s pi r it o r so u l as the ca u s e of li f e i n pl a n t s t oo i n co n g r u o u s
ol
H rdy M u l o f Bu dhi sm pp 2 9 1 4 4 3 B s t i
O es tl A s i e n v
ii p 1 8 4 ; M r c P o l o b k
c h x xii (c omp re v ar i u s readi n gs ) ;
M e i er s vol i p 2 1 5 ; vl ii p 7 9 9
M l y e vi de c e h as s i n c e b ee
t ic ed b y Wi lken H et An i mi s me b ij
an d en I n d i s c he n A r c h i p el
p 1 0 4 [N ot e t o 3 rd ed i ti on ]
d en V lke v
.

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S O ULS OF OBJECTS

477

w ith ord in ary i d e as t o be r e adi l y a pp r e c i a ble B u t the

the ory of so u l s i n the l ow e r c u lt u r e s t r et c he s be yo n d thi s
li mit t o t a ke in a co n c epti o n m u c h s t ra n ge r t o m od e r n
th o u ght C e r t a in high sava ge rac e s d i s tin c tl y h o l d a n d a
l ar ge p ro p or ti o n o f o the r sava ge a n d b ar b ar i a n rac e s m a ke
a m or e o r le ss c l os e a pp roac h t o a the ory o f s ep ara ble a n d
s u rv i v i n g so u l s o r s pi r it s bel o ngin g t o s t ock s an d s t o ne s
w e a p o n s b oa t s food c l o the s or n a me n t s a n d o the r o bj e c t s
w hi c h t o u s ar e n o t m e r el y so u lle ss b u t li f ele ss
Y et s t ran ge as s u c h a n o ti o n m ay s eem t o u s a t rs t
s ight i f w e pl ac e o u rs el v e s b y an e ffo r t i n th e intelle c t u a l
p os iti o n of a n u n cu lt u r e d t r ibe a n d e xa mine the the ory of
o bj e c t so u l s fro m thei r p o int of V ie w w e s h a ll h ard l y p ro
n o u n c e it i rra ti o n a l In d i sc u ss ing the or igin o f m y th
so me acco u nt h as been a l r e ady gi v en o f the p r imiti v e s t age
of th o u ght in w hi c h pe rso n a lit y a n d li f e ar e ascr ibe d n o t t o
m e n a n d be as t s o n l y b u t t o thing s
It h as been s h ow n h ow
w h a t w e ca ll in an im a te o bj e c t s r i v e rs s t o ne s t r ee s w e a p o n s
a n d so for th ar e t r e a te d as li v ing intelligent bei n g s t a lke d
t o p ro piti a te d p u ni s he d fo r the h ar m the y do H u me

w h os e N a t u ra l H i s t ory o f R eligi o n i s pe r h a p s m or e th a n
a n y o the r wor k the so u rc e o f m od e r n O pin i on s as t o the
d e v el o pment o f r eligi o n co mment s o n the i n u en c e of th is

pe rso ni fy i n g s t a ge of th o u ght
The r e i s a n u n i v e rsa l
te n d e n cy a m o n g m an kin d t o co n c ei v e a ll bein g s like the m
s el v e s a n d t o t ran sf e r t o e v e ry o bj e c t th os e q u a litie s w ith
w hi c h the y ar e fa mili ar l y ac q u a in te d a n d of w hi c h the y
ar e intim a tel y co n sci o u s
The u n kn own ca u ses
w hi c h co ntin u a ll y empl oy thei r th o u ght a ppe ar in g a l ways
in the sa me as pe c t ar e a ll a pp r ehen d e d t o be o f th e sa me
kin d or s pe c ie s N or i s it l o ng be for e w e ascr ibe t o them
th o u gh t a n d r e aso n a n d p ass i o n an d so metime s e v en the
limb s a n d g u r e s of men in ord e r t o b r ing them ne ar e r t o a
r e s embl a n c e w ith o u rs el v e s A u g u s te Co mte h as v ent u r e d
t o b r ing s u c h a s t a te of th o u ght u n d e r te r m s o f s t r i c t de n i
ti o n i n hi s co n c epti o n o f the p r im ary ment a l co n d iti o n o f

m an kin d a s t a te of p u r e f eti s hi s m co n s t an tl y c h arac te r

.

ANI MISM

478

by the fr ee a n d d i r e c t e x e rc i s e o f o u r p r imiti v e ten d

e n cy t o c o n c ei v e a ll e x te r n a l b od ie s so e v e r n a tu ra l o r
ar ti c i a l as a n im a te d by a li f e e ss enti a ll y a n a l o g o u s t o o u r
o w n w ith me r e d i ff e r e n c e s o f i n ten s it y 1
O u r c o mpre h e n
s i o n o f the l ow e r s t a ge s o f me n t a l c u lt u r e d epen ds mu c h o n
the th oro u gh n e ss w ith w hi c h w e ca n a pp r e c i a te thi s p r imi
ti v e c hil d like co n c epti o n a n d in thi s o u r be s t g u i d e m ay
be the mem ory of o u r ow n c hil d i s h days H e w h o re c o l
le c t s w he n the r e was s till pe rso n a lit y t o him in p os t s a n d
s ti c k s c h a i rs a n d t oys m ay w ell u n d e rs t a n d h ow the in fan t
phil oso ph y of m a nkin d co u l d e x ten d the n o ti o n o f v it a lit y
t o w h a t m od e r n sc ien c e o nl y r e co gni s e s as li fele ss thing s ;
th u s on e m a in p ar t of the l ow e r a ni m i s ti c doc t r ine as t o so u l s
o f o bj e c t s i s acco u nte d for
The doc t r in e r eq u i r e s for it s f u ll
co n c epti o n o f a so u l n o t o nl y li f e b u t a l so a ph an t o m or
a pp ar iti o n a l s pi r it ; thi s d e v el o pment h ow e v e r fo ll ows w ith
o u t di f c u lt y for the e v i d en c e of dr e a m s a n d v i s i o n s a pplie s
t o the s pi r it s of o bj e c t s in m u c h the sa me m a nne r as t o
h u m a n gh os t s E v e ryo ne w h o h as s een v i s i o n s w hile light
he ad e d in f e v e r e v e ryo ne w h o h as e v e r dr e a mt a dr e a m h as
s een the ph a nt o m s o f o bj e c t s as w ell as of pe rso n s H ow the n
ca n w e c h arge th e sava ge w ith far f et che d a b s u rd it y for
t a kin g i nt o hi s phil oso ph y a n d r e ligi o n a n o pini o n w hi c h
r e s t s o n the v e ry e v i d en c e of hi s s en s e s ? The n o ti o n is i m
pl i c i t ly r e co g n i s e d in hi s acco u nt s of gh os t s w hi c h do n o t
co me n a ke d b u t c l o the d a n d e v en ar me d ; of co u rs e the r e
m u s t be S pi r it s of g ar ment s a n d w e a p o n s s eeing th a t the
S pi r it s of men co me be ar i n g them It w il l in d ee d pl ac e
savage phil oso ph y i n n o u n favo u ra ble light i f w e co mp ar e
thi s e x t r eme a nimi s ti c d e v el o pment of it w ith the p o p u l ar
O pini o n s ti ll s u rv i v i ng in c i v ilize d co u nt r ie s as t o gh os t s
a n d the n a t u r e of th e h u m an so u l as co nne c te d w ith them
Wh en the gh os t of H a mlet s fa the r a ppe ar e d ar me d ca p a pe
iz ed

S u c h w as

t h e v e r y a r mou r h e h ad on
W h e n h e t h e a mb i t i o u s N o r w ay c o mb a t e d
1

H u me

30

N at

H is t

of

R el s e c ii

C om te ,

P h i l os o p h i e P os i ti ve vol v

SO ULS OF OBJECTS

479

th u s it i s a h a bit u a l f e a t u r e of the gh os t s t or ie s o f the

c iv ilize d as o f the savage wor l d th a t the gh os t co me s
dr e ss e d a n d e v e n dr e ss e d in w ell kn ow n c l o thin g wor n in
li f e H e ar ing as w ell as s igh t te s ti e s t o the ph a nt o m s o f
o bj e c t s : the c l a nking o f gh os tl y c h a in s a n d the r u s tlin g of
gh os tl y dr e ss e s ar e d e scr ibe d in the lite ra t u r e of a pp ar i
ti o n s N ow b y the sava ge the ory accord ing t o w hi c h the
gh os t a n d hi s c l o the s ar e a like r e a l a n d o bj e c ti v e a n d b y
the m od e r n sc ienti c the ory accord ing t o w hi c h b o th gh os t
a n d g ar ment ar e a like im agin ary a n d s u bj e c ti v e the fac t s of
a pp ar iti o n s ar e ra ti o n a ll y met B u t the m od e r n v u lg ar w h o
ign or e or r ep u di a te the n o ti o n of gh os t s of thing s w hile
r et a in ing the n o ti o n of gh os t s of pe rso n s h av e fa llen int o a
h y b r i d s t a te of o pini o n w hi c h h as neithe r the l o gi c of the
savage n or of the c i v ilize d phil oso phe r
A m o ng the l ow e r rac e s o f m a nkin d th r ee h av e been o h
s e rv e d t o h o l d m os t e x pli c itl y an d d i s tin c tl y the doc t r ine of
o bj e c t so u l s The s e ar e the A lg o nq u in t r ibe s e x ten d in g
ov e r a g r e a t d i s t r i c t of N or th A me r i ca the i s l a n d e rs
of the F ij i a n g ro u p a n d the K ar en s of B u r m a A m o ng
the In di a n s of N or th A me r i ca F a the r C h ar le vo i x wro te so u l s
ar e as it w e r e the s h adows a n d the a nim a te d im a ge s of
the b ody a n d it i s b y a co n s eq u en c e of thi s p r in ciple th a t
the y belie v e e v e ry thing t o be an i m a te i n the u ni v e rs e Thi s
mi ss i o n ary was e s pe c i a ll y co n v e rsa nt w ith the A lg o n q u in s
a n d it was a m o ng o ne of thei r t r ibe s the Oj ib was th a t
Ke a ti n g n o ti c e d the o pi n i o n th a t n o t o nl y me n a n d be as t s
h av e so u l s b u t in org a ni c thing s s u c h as kettle s & c h av e
in them a s imil ar e ss en c e In the sa me d i s t r i c t F a the r L e
J e u ne h ad d e scr ibe d in the s e v enteenth c ent u ry the belie f
th a t the so u l s n o t o nl y o f men a n d a nim a l s b u t of h a t c het s
a n d kettle s h ad t o cross the wa te r t o the G r e a t V ill a ge ou t
?
w he r e the su n s et s In inte r e s ting corr e s p o n d en c e w ith
An d

L on g s

C h a rle vo i x vol vi p 7 4 ; K e a t i n g
E x p vol ii p 1 5 4 ; L e

J eu n e N ou v elle F r a n c e p 5 9 ; al s o Wa i tz vol iii p 1 9 9 G regg

C omm er c e o f P r a i r i e s
v
ol
ii p 2 4 4 ; s ee A dd i s on s N o 5 6 o f t h e
S p e c ta tor
1

ANIMISM

4 80

thi s q u a i n t th o u gh t i s M ar ine r s d e scr ipti o n o f the F ij i d o c

l f a n a n im a l or a pl a nt d ie it s so u l i mm e d i a tel y
t r ine
g o e s t o B o lo t o o ; i f a s t o n e or a n y o the r s u b s t a n c e i s
b ro ken imm or t a lit y i s eq u a ll y it s r e ward ; n ay ar ti c i a l
b od ie s h av e eq u a l g ood l u c k w ith men a n d h o g s an d ya m s
I f a n ax e o r a c hi s el i s wor n o u t or b ro ken u p away ie s it s
so u l for the s e rv i c e of the g ods I f a h o u s e i s t a ken dow n
or a n y way d e s t roy e d it s imm or t a l p ar t w ill n d a s it u a ti o n
o n the pl a in s of B ol o t oo ; a n d t o c o n rn thi s doc t rine
the F ij i pe o ple ca n S h ow yo u a sor t of n a t u ra l w ell or d eep
h o l e in the g ro u n d a t o ne of thei r i s l a n ds across the b o tt o m
o f w hi c h r u n s a s t r e a m of wa te r in w hi c h yo u m ay c le ar l y
pe rcei v e the so u l s of men a n d wo men be as t s a n d pl a nt s of
s t ock s a n d s t o ne s ca n o e s a n d h o u s e s a n d of a ll the b ro ken
u ten s il s o f thi s fra il wor l d sw imming o r ra the r t u mbling
a l o ng on e ov e r the o the r pell mell int o the r egi o n s o f i m
m or t a lit y
A f u ll gene ra ti o n l a te r the R e v Th o m as
Willi a m s w hile r em ar king th a t the e sca pe o f b r u te s a n d
lif ele ss s u b s t a n c e s t o the S pi r it l a n d of M b u l u do e s n o t re
e u ni v e rsa l cr e di t a m o ng the F ij i an s ne v e r thele ss co n
c ei v
r m s the o l d e r acco u nt of it
Th os e w h o p rof e ss t o h av e
s een the so u l s of ca n o e s h o u s e s pl a nt s p o t s or a n y a rt i
c i al b od ie s sw imming w ith o the r r eli cs of thi s fra il wor l d
o n the s t r e a m of th e K au van dra w ell w hi c h be ars the m
in t o the r egi o n s of imm or t a lit y belie v e thi s doc t r in e as a
e s ee n the foo t
m a tte r of co u rs e ; a n d s o do th os e w h o h av
m ar k s le f t a b o u t the sa me w ell b y the gh os t s of do g s pig s
1
The the ory a m o ng the K ar en s i s s t a te d b y the R e v
&c
E B Cross as fo ll ows
E v e ry o bj e c t i s s u pp os e d t o

h av e it s kel a h
A x e s a n d kni v e s as w ell as t r ee s a n d
pl a n t s ar e s u pp os e d t o h av e thei r s ep ara te ke lah s
The
K ar en w ith hi s ax e a n d c le av e r m ay b u il d hi s h o u s e c u t
2
hi s r i c e a n d co n d u c t hi s a ff a i rs af te r d e a th as be for e
'

'

M ar i n er
o n ga I s
vol ii p 1 29 ; Wi ll i ams F ij i vol i p 2 4 2
S imil a r i de a s in Ta h i ti C o o k s 3 rd V oy vol ii p 1 6 6
2
ol i
C om p a re M e i n er s v
C r o ss l o pp 3 0 9 3 1 3 ; M a s on l o p 2 0 2

p 1 4 4 C a st r n F i n n M yth pp 1 6 1
3
1

'

FUN ERA L OBJ ECT S AC RI FI C E

481

A s so m a n y rac e s pe rfor m f u ne ra l sacr i c e s of men a n d

anim a l s in ord e r t o d i s p a t c h thei r so u l s for the s e rv i c e of
the so u l of the d e c e as e d so t r ibe s w h o h o l d thi s doc t r ine of
o bj e c t so u l s v e ry ra ti o n a ll y sacr i c e o bj e c t s i n ord e r t o
t ra n s mit the s e so u l s A m o ng the A lg o nq u in t r ibe s the
sacr i c e of o bj e c t s for the d e ad was a h a bit u a l r ite as w hen
w e r e ad of a warr i or s cor p s e being b u r ie d w ith m u s ket a n d
war c l u b ca l u met a n d war p a int a n d a p u bli c addr e ss being
m ad e t o the b ody a t b u r i a l co n c e r ning hi s f u t u r e p a th ;
w hile in like m a nne r a wo m a n wo u l d be b u r ie d w ith he r
p addl e a n d kettle a n d the carry ing
s t ra p for the e v e r l as ting
b u rd en of h e r he av il y l ad en li f e Th a t the p u r p os e of s u c h
o ff e r ing s i s the t ra n s mi ss i o n of the o bj e c t s S pi r it or ph a nt o m
t o the p oss e ss i o n of the m a n s i s e x pli c itl y s t a te d as e ar l y
as 1 623 b y F a the r Lall e man t ; w hen the In d i a n s b u r ie d
kettle s f u rs & c w ith the d e ad the y sa i d th a t the b od ie s
of the thing s r em a ine d b u t thei r so u l s w ent t o the d e ad w h o
u s e d them The w h o le i d e a i s g ra phi ca ll y ill u s t ra te d in
the fo ll ow ing Oj ib wa t rad iti o n or m y th G i t c h i G au z i n i
was a c hie f w h o li v e d on the s h or e s of L a ke S u pe r i or a n d
o n c e af te r a f e w days ill n e ss he s eeme d t o d ie H e h ad
been a s kil f u l h u n te r a n d h ad d e s i r e d th a t a ne g u n w hi c h
he p oss e ss e d s h o u l d be b u r ie d w ith him w hen he d ie d B u t
so me of hi s fr ien ds n o t thinkin g him r e a ll y d e ad his b ody
was n o t b u r ie d ; hi s w i dow wa t c he d him for fo u r days he
ca me b ack t o li f e a n d t o l d hi s s t ory A f te r d e a th he sai d
hi s gh os t t rav elle d o n the b road road of the d e ad t oward
the h a pp y l a n d p ass ing ov e r g r e a t pl a in s of l u x u r i a nt
he r b a ge s eeing be a u ti f u l g rov e s a n d he ar ing the so ng s of
inn u me ra ble bi rds till a t l as t fro m the s u mmit of a hill he
ca u ght s ight of the di s t a nt c it y of the d e ad far across an
inte rm e d i a te s p ac e p ar tl y v eile d i n mi s t a n d s p a ngle d w ith
li
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s t a tel y d ee r a n d m oos e a n d o the r g a me w hi c h w ith li ttle
f e ar wa lke d ne ar his p a th B u t he h ad n o g u n a n d re
me mb e ri n g h ow he h ad r eq u e s te d hi s fr ie n ds t o p u t hi s g u n
he t u r ne d b ac k t o g o a n d f et c h it Then he
I n hi s g rav e
,

2 I

AN IMIS M

4 82

me t fac e t o fac e the t rain o f men wo men a n d c hil dr en w h o

w e r e t rav elling t oward the c ity of the d e ad The y w e r e
he av il y l ad en w ith g u n s pipe s kettle s me a t s a n d o the r
ar ti c le s ; wo men w e r e carry ing bas ket wor k a n d p a inte d
p add le s a n d little b oys h ad thei r or n a mente d c l u b s a n d
thei r b ows a n d arrows the p r e s ent s of thei r fr ien ds R e
f u s ing a g u n w hi c h a n ov e r b u rd ene d t rav elle r offe r e d him
the gh os t of Gi t ch i Gau z i n i t rav elle d b ac k in q u e s t of hi s
own
a n d a t l as t r e ache d the pl ac e w he r e he h ad die d
The r e h e co u l d s ee o nl y a g r e a t fi r e be for e a n d aro u n d him
a n d n ding the a me s b arr ing h is p assage o n e v e ry s i d e he
m ad e a d e s pe ra te le a p th ro u gh a n d awo ke fro m hi s t ra n c e
H av ing co n c l u d e d hi s s t ory h e g av e hi s a u di t ors thi s
co u n s el th a t the y s h o u l d n o l o nge r d ep os it so m a n y
b u rd en so me thing s w ith th e d e ad d el ay i ng them o n thei r
j o u r ne y t o the pl ac e o f r ep os e so th a t a lm os t e v e ryo ne he
met co mpl a ine d bitte r l y It wo u l d be w i s e r he sa i d o nl y
t o p u t s u c h thing s in the g rav e as the d e c e as e d was p ar
t i c u la rly a tt ac he d t o or m ad e a for m a l r eq u e s t t o h av e
1
d ep os ite d w ith h im
With p u r p os e n o le ss di s tin c t w hen a d e ad F ij i a n c hie f
i s l a i d o u t o ile d a n d p a i nte d a n d dr e ss ed as in li f e a he avy
c l u b i s pl ac e d r e ady ne ar hi s r ight h a n d w hi c h h o l ds o ne

or m or e of the m u c h p r ize d carv e d w h a le s t oo th or n a

ment s
The c l u b i s t o s e rv e for d e f en c e a g a in s t the
adv e rsar ie s w h o awa it hi s so u l o n the ro ad t o M b u l u s eek
ing t o s l ay a n d e a t him We he ar o f a F ij i a n t a ki ng a
c l u b fro m a co mp a ni o n s g rav e a n d r em ar king in e x pl a n a

ti o n t o a mi ss i o n ary w h o s t ood b y The gh os t of the c l u b

h as g o ne w ith him
The p u rp os e of the w h a le s t oo th i s
thi s ; on the road t o the l a n d of the d e ad ne ar the so lit ary
hill o f Taki v
e le y a w a the r e s t a n ds a gh os tl y p a n da n u s t r ee
a n d the s pi r it of the d e ad man i s t o th row the s pi ri t of the
w h a le s t oo th a t thi s t r ee h aving s t r u ck w hi c h he i s t o
asc en d the hill a n d awa it the co ming of the s pi r it s of hi s
,

Lall ema n t i n

A lgic

T ri b e s p art ii p 6 8 ;
R es vl
R el de s J s u i te s d n s l N u v elle F r n c e 1 6 2 6 p

S c h ol c r ft
o

I n d i a n

1 28 ;

FUNERA L OBJ ECT S A CRIFIC E

4 83

s t ra ngle d w i v e s The f u ne ra l r ite s of the K ar en s co mplete

the p r e s ent g ro u p The y kept u p w h a t s ee m s a c le ar s u r
v
iv
a l fro m ac t u a l h u m a n a n d a nim a l sacr i c e fas tening u p
ne ar a n imp or t a nt pe rso n s g rav e a s l av e a n d a p o n y ; the s e
in var i a bl y r ele as e d them s el v e s an d the s l av e be ca me hen c e
for th a fr ee man M or e ov e r the p rac ti c e of pl aci n g food
i mplement s a n d u te n s il s a n d va l u a ble s o f g o l d an d S il v e r
ne ar the r em a in s o f the d e c e as e d was gene ra l a m o ng them
N o w the sacr i c e o f p ro pe r t y for the d e ad i s o ne o f the
g r e a t r eligi o u s r ite s o f the wor l d ; ar e w e then j u s ti e d in
ass e r ting th a t a ll men w h o a b a n do n or d e s t roy p ro pe r t y as
a f u ne ra l c e r em o n y belie v e the ar ti cle s t o h av e S pi r it s w hi c h
s pi r it s ar e t ra n s mitte d t o the d e c e as e d ? N o t so ; it i s
n o t or i o u s th a t the r e ar e pe o ple w h o r e co gnize n o s u c h the ory
b u t w h o n e v e r thele ss d ep os it o ffe r ing s w ith the d e ad A ffe c
t i o n a t e fa n cy o r sy mb o li s m a h orror of the assoc i a ti o n of
d e a th le ad ing the s u rv i vors t o get r i d of a n y thin g th a t e v en
s u gge s t s the dr e adf u l th o u ght a d e s i r e t o a b a n do n the d e ad
m a n s p ro pe r t y a n i d e a th a t the h ov e r i n g gh os t m ay t a ke
ple as u r e in or m a ke u s e of the gi f t s le f t fo r him a ll the s e
3
ar e or m ay be e f c ient m o ti v e s Y et h av i n g m ad e f u ll
?

Wi ll i ms F ij i vol i pp 1 8 8 2 4 3 2 4 6 ; A lger p 82 ; S eeman n

V i ti p 22 9
2
J our n I n d A c h i p n w s er i e s vl ii p 4 2 1
3
F or s o me c as e s i n w h ic h h o rr o r or b n eg a t i on a e a ss i g n ed s mo t iv e s f
b an d n m e n t f the de d m n s p r o p erty s ee H u mb oldt n d B n p l n d
v
ol v p
62 6 ; D lt o n i n
J urn A s S oc Be n g l 1 8 66 p rt ii p 1 9 1 & ;

P pu n s p 1 0 8 ; C ll w y R el o f A ma zulu p 1 3 Egede G ree n

Ea rl

l n d p 1 5 1 ; C r n z p 3 0 1 ; Lo ki el I n d N A p rt i p 6 4 b ut s ee
p 7 6 Th e de s tru c t i on or b n d on me n t o f the w h ole p r o p erty o f the de d
m y p l u s i b ly w hether j u s tly
n o t b e e x p l a i n ed b y h o rr r
b n eg t i on
b ut the s e m o t iv e s d o n ot ge n er ally app ly t o c as e s w here n ly p art o f the
p r op erty i s s c r i c ed o n ew obj e c ts are p r o vi ded e x p re ss ly n d here the
s er vic e o f the de d s eems the re s n b le m o t iv e T hu s t the fu n er l f
G r o g i rl e rthe n v e ss el s w ere b r oke n as they w ere thr own i n ab ov e the
b ur i ed a s he s
T hey s ai d the s p i r i t f the g i rl w o uld n ot b e n e t b y the m
i f they w ere g iv en u n b r ke n b ut for her the fr g men t s w ould u n i te g i n

T he m ere f c t f b re k
( D a lt on D e s c r i p t iv e E th n ol ogy o f Be n g l p
i n g or d e s tru c t i o n o f o bj e c t s t fu n er l s d e s n ot c rry i t s o w n e x p l n a t i n
for i t i s equ a lly pp l ic b le t o s e n t i m e n t l a b n d n m e n t a n d t o p r a c t ic l
tr n s mi ss i on o f the s pi r i t o f the bj e c t s man i s k i lled t l i b er te h i s sou l
1

or

c.

or

or a

a o

ANIMISM

484

a ll o wa n c e fo r a ll thi s w e s h a ll fi n d g o od r e aso n t o j u dge th a t

ma n y t he r pe o ple s th u gh the y ma y ne v e r h av e s t a te d the
t he ry o f o bj e c t s o u l s i n the sa me e x pli c it way as the
A lg nq u i n s F ij i a n s a n d K ar e n s h av e r e co gnize d it w ith
m or e o r le ss d i s ti n c t n e ss I t h as gi v e n me the m or e c o n
d e n c e i n thi s o pi n i o n t o n d it hel d u n d e r p ro pe r r e s e rva
ti o n by M r W R A lge r a n A me r i ca n in v e s tig a t or w h o

in a t r e a ti s e e n title d A Cr iti ca l H i s t ory o f the D oc t r ine o f

a F u t u r e L i f e h as d i scu ss e d the ethn o g ra ph y o f hi s s u b

j c et w ith r em ark a ble le ar ning a n d sa g ac it y

The b ar b ar i a n

b ra i n he wr ite s s eem s t o h av e been gene ra ll y imp r eg

ma te d w ith the f eeling th a t e v e ry thing el s e h as a gh os t as
w ell as ma n
The c u s t o m of b u r ning or b u ry ing thing s
w ith the d e ad p ro b a bl y aros e in so m e cas e s a t le as t fro m
the s u pp os iti o n th a t e v e ry o bj e c t h as it s ma n es
It w ill
be d e s i ra ble b r ie y t o e xa mine f u r the r the s u bj e c t o f f u ne ra l
o ff e r ing s as be ar ing o n thi s inte r e s ting q u e s ti o n of e ar l y
p syc h o l o g y
A w i d e s u rv e y o f f u ne ra l sacr i c e s ov e r the wor l d w ill
pl a i n l y s h ow o ne of thei r m os t u s u a l m o ti v e s t o be a m or e
,

g oo d c as e s o f the b re ak i n g o f v e ss el s a n d ute n s i l s giv e n t o the de a d s ee

J our n I n d A rc h i

2
i p 3 5 ( Mi n ti ra ) ; G rey A u s tra l i a vo l i
ol
p v
p 3 2 2 ; G F M o ore V o ca b W A u s tr a l i a p 1 3 ( A u s tr a l i a n s ) ; M arkh am

i n T r E th S o c v
o l iii p
1 8 8 (T ic u na s ) ; S t J o h n v
o l i p 6 8 ( D a y ak s ) ;

E ll i s
M a d aga s c ar vol i p 2 5 4 ; S c h ool c r a ft I n d i an T r i b e s p art i
p 8 4 (A ppal ach i c ol a ) : D Wi l s on P reh i s t or ic Ma n vol ii p 1 9 6 ( N A I
a n d a n ci e n t gr a v e s i n E n g l a n d )
C a s e s o f for ma l s a cr i c e w here o bj e c t s
a r e o ff ered t o the de a d a n d t a ke n a w a y a g a i n a re ge n er a lly d ou b tful a s t o
p 3 83 M a rt i u s vol i p 4 8 5 ( Br a z i l i an
mot iv e ; s ee S p ix a n d Mar t i ns v
ol i

T r i b e s ) Mo at S A fr ic a p 3 08 ( Be c hu an a s ) ; J o ur n I n d Arch i p vol
iii p 1 4 9 ( K ay an s )
A lger F uture Li fe p 8 1 H e tre a t s h o w e v er (p
a s i te n t i on ally
s y mb o li c the r i te o f the Wi nn e b ago s w h o l i gh t re s on the gr v e t o pro
vi de n i ght a fter n i ght c amp res for the s oul on i t s far j our n ey ( S c h o o l cra ft
o l iv p 5 5 ; the i de a i s i n tr o du c ed i n L on gfell o w s
H i a wa th a
I d Tr v

I a gree w i th D r Br i n to n ( M yth s o f N e w W orld p 2 4 1 ) th at t o

l o ok for re c on d i te s ymb ol ic m e an i n g i n the s e s im p le c h i ld i s h r i te s i s u n
re s on a b le T here w as a s i mi l a r A zte c r i te ( C la v
ii p
T he
i g ero v
ol
Mi n t ir a l i ght re s on the gr a v e for the s p i r i t t o w a rm i t s elf a t J our n I nd
A rc h i p v
ol i p
So
s ee p 2 7 1 a n d c ompa re M rt i ns vol i p
A u s tr al i an s w i ll l ight a re n ea r the i r c mp a t n i ght for the gh o s t f s ome
l a tely de a d rel a t iv e t o s i t by ( M i llett A u s tral i a n P a r s on age p
F or

FUN ERA L OBJ ECT SA CRIFI CE

4 85

or le ss d e ne d n o ti o n of bene ting the d e c e as e d w hethe r

o u t of kin dn e ss t o h i m or fro m f e ar of hi s d i s ple as u r e H ow
s u c h a n in tenti o n m ay h av e t a ken thi s p rac ti ca l S h a pe w e ca n
pe r h a p s va g u el y g u e ss fa mili ar as w e ar e w ith a s t a te of min d
o u t of w hi c h f u ne ra l sacr i c e s co u l d n a t u ra ll y h av e s p r u n g
The m a n i s d e ad b u t it 1 8 s till p oss ible t o fa n cy him a li v e
t o t a ke hi s co l d h a n d t o S pe a k t o him t o pl ac e hi s c h a i r a t
the t a ble t o b u ry s u gge s ti v e mement o e s in hi s co f n t o
th row ow e rs int o hi s g rav e t o h a ng wr e a th s o f e v e r l as ting s
o n hi s t o m b The C i d m ay be s et o n B a bie ca w ith hi s
sword Tiz o n a in hi s h a n d a n d carr ie d o u t t o do b a ttle as of
o l d a g a in s t the u nbelie v e r ; the d e ad king s me a l m ay be
carr ie d in t o him in s t a te a lth o u gh the c h a mbe r l a in m u s t
a nn o u n c e th a t the king do e s n o t d ine t o day S u c h chil d
like ign or ing o f d e a th s u c h c hil d like m a ke belie v e th a t the
d e ad ca n s till do as he r et ofor e m a y w ell h av e le d the sava ge
t o b u ry w ith hi s kin s m a n the w e a p o n s c l o the s a n d or n a
m ent s th a t he u s e d in li f e t o t ry t o f ee d the cor p s e t o p u t
a c ig ar in the m o u th o f the s k u ll be for e it s n a l b u r i a l t o
l ay pl ay thing s i n the in fa nt s g rav e B u t on e th o u ght b e
yo n d wo u l d carry thi s di m bli n d fa n cy in t o the ra nge o f
l o gi ca l r e aso ning G ra nte d th a t the m a n i s d e ad a n d hi s
so u l g o ne ou t o f h i m then the way t o p rov i d e th a t d ep ar te d
so u l w ith food or c l o the s or w e a p o n s i s t o b u ry or b u r n them
w ith th e b ody fo r w h a te v e r h a ppen s t o th e m a n m ay be
t a ken t o h a ppen t o the o bj e c t s th a t lie be s i d e him a n d s h ar e
hi s fa te w hile the p r e c i s e way in w hi c h the t ra n s mi ss i o n
t a ke s pl ac e m ay be le f t u n d e c i d e d It i s p oss ible th a t the
f u ne ra l sacr i c e cu s t o m ary a m o n g m a nkin d m ay h av e r e s te d
a t rs t a n d m ay t o so me e x tent s till r e s t o n va g u e th o u ght s
a n d im agin a ti o n s like the s e as y et tte d int o n o m or e
d e nite a n d e la b ora te phil oso phi c the ory
The r e ar e h ow e v e r t w o g r e a t g ro u p s o f cas e s o f f u ne ra l
sacr i c e w hi ch s o l o gi ca ll y le ad u p t o o r in vo l v e the n o ti o n
of so u l s o r s pi r it s of o bj e c t s th a t the s ac ri c e r him s el f
co u l d h ard l y a n sw e r o the rw i s e a p o int bl a nk q u e s ti o n as t o
thei r me a ning The rs t g ro u p i s th a t in w hi c h th o s e w h o
,

ANIMI SM

486

sacri c e me n an d be as t s w ith the intent i o n of co n v e y ing

thei r s o u l s t o the o the r wor l d a l s o sacr i c e li f ele ss thing s
in d iscri min a tel y w ith them The s e co n d g ro u p i s th a t in
w hi c h the ph a nt o m s o f the o bj e c t s sacr i c e d ar e t rac e d d i s
t i n c t ly i n t o the p oss e ss i o n o f the h u m a n ph a nt o m
The Car ib s h o l d ing th a t af te r d e c e as e m a n s so u l fo u n d
it s w a y t o the l a n d o f the d e ad sacr i c e d s l av e s o n a c hie f s
g rav e t o s e rv e him in the ne w li f e a n d for th e sa me p u r p os e
b u r ie d do g s w i th him a n d a l so w e a p o n s
Th e G u ine a
neg ro e s a t the f u ne ra l o f a g r e a t m a n kille d s e v e ra l w i v e s
a n d s l av e s t o s e rv e h i m in the o the r wor l d a n d p u t ne
cl o the s g o l d f eti s he s cora l be ads a n d o the r va l u able s int o
the co f n t o be u s e d the r e t oo
Whe n the N e w Z e a l a n d
c hie f h ad s l av e s kille d a t hi s d e a th for his s e rv i c e a n d the
m o u r ning fa mil y g av e his c hie f w i dow a ro pe t o h a ng he r
3
s el f w ith i n the woods a n d so r ej o in he r h u s b a n d it i s n o t
e asy t o d i sc e r n he r e a m o ti v e d i ffe r ent fro m th a t w hi c h
in d u c e d them a t the sa me time t o p rov i d e the d e ad m a n a l so
w ith hi s w e a p o n s N o r ca n a n intelle c t u a l line w ell be
draw n bet w een th e intenti o n s w ith w hi c h the T u ng u z h as
b u r ie d w ith him hi s h ors e hi s b ow a n d arrows hi s s m o kin g
a pp ara t u s a n d kettle In the t y pi ca l d e scr ipti o n w hi c h
H e rodo t u s gi v e s of the f u ne ra l o f the a n c ient S cy thi a n
c hie fs th e mi scell a ne o u s co ntent s of the b u r i a l m o u n d
the s t ran gle d w i f e a n d h o u s eh o l d s e rva nt s the h ors e s the
c h o i c e ar t i c le s o f p ro pe r t y the g o l d en v e ss e ls fa i r l y r ep r e s ent
the in di scr imin a te p u r p os e w hi c h ac t u a te d the b ar b ar i c
sacr i c e o f cr e a t u r e s a n d thi n g s S o in o l d E u ro pe the
warr i or w ith hi s sword a n d s pe ar the h ors e w ith hi s sadd le
the h u nte r s h o u n d a n d h aw k a n d hi s b ow a n d arrow the
w i f e w ith he r g ay c l o the s a n d j e w el s li e t o gethe r in the
b u r i a l m o u n d Thei r co mm o n p u r p os e h as be co me o ne of
the m os t u n di s p u te d in f e r en c e s of A rc h ae o l o g y
,

J G M uller
U rrel i g p 22 2 s ee 4 2 0

B o s m n G u i n e a i n P i n kerto n vol xvi p 4 3 0

P ol a c k M o f N e w Z e al an der s vol ii pp 6 6 7 8 1 1 6 1 2 7

G e o rg i R u ss R vol i p 2 6 6 ; H er o d o t iv 7 1 s ee n o te i n
.

,
.

s o n s Tr

A mer

&c

&c

Ra w l i n

FUN ERAL OBJECT SACRIFICE

4 87

A S for w h a t be co me s of the o bj e c t s sacr i c e d for the d e ad

the r e ar e o n r e cord the m os t di s tin c t s t a tement s t a ken fro m
the sa cri ce rs them s el v e s A lth o u gh t h e o bj e c t s ro t in the
g rav e or ar e co n s u me d o n the pile the y ne v e r thele ss co me
in so me way in t o the p oss e ss i o n of the d i s emb od ie d so u l s
the y ar e inte n d e d for N o t the m a te r i a l thing s them s el v e s
b u t ph a nt as m a l s h a pe s corr e s p o n d ing t o them ar e carr ie d
b y the so u l s of the d e ad o n thei r far jo u r ne y be yo n d the
g rav e or ar e u s e d in the wor l d o f s pi r it s ; w hile so metime s
the ph a nt o m s of the d e ad a ppe ar t o the liv ing be ar in g
p ro pe r ty w hi c h the y h av e r e c ei v e d b y sacr i c e or d em a n d
ing so mething th a t h as been w ithhel d The A u s t ra li a n
?
w ill t a ke hi s w e a p o n s w ith him t o hi s p aradi s e A T as
m a ni a n as ke d the r e aso n o f a s pe ar being d ep os ite d in a

2
n a ti v e s g rav e r eplie d T o ght w ith w hen he i s as leep
M a n y G r eenl a n d e rs th o u ght th a t the k aya k a n d arrows
a n d t oo l s l a i d b y a m a n s g rav e the k n i f e a n d s e w in g
implement s l a i d b y a wo m a n s wo u l d be u s e d in the n e x t
3
wor l d The in s t r u ment s b u r ie d w ith the S i o u x ar e for
him t o m a ke a li v ing w ith he r e af te r ; the p a int s p rov i d e d
for the d e ad I ro q u o i s w e r e t o en a ble him t o a ppe ar d e c entl y
4
in the o the r wor l d
The A zte c s wa te r b o ttle was t o s e rv e
him o n the jo u rn e y t o Mi c t lan the l a n d of the d e ad ; the
b o n r e of g ar ment s a n d b as ket s a n d s p o il s of war was
inten d e d t o s en d them w ith him a n d so meh ow t o p ro te c t
him a g a in s t the bitte r w in d ; the o ffe r i n g s t o the warr i or s
5
m a ne s o n e ar th wo u l d r e ac h him on the he av enl y pl a in s
A m o ng the ol d Pe r u v i a n s a d e ad p r in c e s w i v e s wo u l d
h a ng them s el v e s in ord e r t o co ntin u e in hi s s e rv i c e a n d
m a n y o f hi s a tte n da nt s wo u l d be b u r ie d in hi s el ds or
pl ac e s of favo u r ite r e sor t in ord e r th a t hi s so u l p ass ing
.

'

ol
Old eld i n T r E th S oc v

B o n wi c k , Ta s man i an s , p 9 7
.

iii pp
.

2 28 , 24 5

pp 2 63 3 0 1

4
S c h ool c ra ft I n d i a n T r i b e s pa rt iv pp 5 5 6 5 ; J G M uller A mer
U rrel pp 8 8 28 7

"
1
S a h agun b o o k iii A pp i n K i ng s b or ough A n t i qu i ti e s o f M e xic o vol
vii C l avi g ero vol ii p 9 4 ; Bra ss eur vol i ii pp 4 9 7 5 6 9
3

C r an z ,

ANIMISM

4 88

th ro u gh th os e pl ac e s migh t t a ke thei r so u l s a l o ng w i th
him fo r f u t u r e s e rv i c e I n pe rf e c t co n s i s ten cy w ith the s e
s t ro n g a nimi s ti c n o ti o n s the Pe r u v i a n s d e c l ar e d th a t thei r
r e aso n for sacri c e of p ro pe r ty t o the d e ad was th a t the y

h av e s een o r th o u gh t the y saw th os e w h o h av e l o ng been

d e ad w a lki n adorne d w ith the thing s th a t w e r e b u r ie d
w ith them a n d acco mp a nie d by thei r w i v e s w h o h ad been
1
b u r ie d a li v e
A s d e nite a n impli ca ti o n of the s pi r it o r ph a nt o m of a n
o bj e c t a ppe ars i n a r e c ent acco u nt fro m M adag ascar w he r e
thing s ar e b u r ie d t o be co me in so me way u s e f u l t o the d e ad
When King B ada m a d ie d i t was r ep or te d a n d r ml y b e
li ev
e d th a t hi s gh os t was s een o ne night in the g ard en of
hi s co u nt ry s e a t dr e ss e d in on e of the u ni for m s w hi c h h ad
been b u r ie d w ith him a n d r i d ing o ne of the be s t h ors e s
2
kille d o pp os ite hi s t o mb
T u ra ni a n t r ibe s of N or th A s i a
avow th a t the m o ti v e of thei r f u ne ra l o ff e r ing s of h ors e s a n d
s l e dge s c l o the s a n d ax e s a n d kettle s in t a n d s teel a n d
tin d e r me a t a n d b u tte r i s t o p rov i d e the d e ad for hi s
j o u r ne y t o the l a n d of so u l s a n d for hi s li f e the r e 3 A m o ng
the E s t h s o f N or the r n E u ro pe the d e ad s t ar t s p ro pe r l y
eq u ippe d on hi s gh os tl y j o u r ne y w ith nee d le a n d th r e ad
h a i r b r u s h a n d soa p b r e ad a n d b ra n dy a n d co in ; a t oy i f it
i s a c hil d A n d so f u ll a co n sc i o u sne ss of p rac ti ca l me a ning
s u rv i v e d till l a tel y th a t n ow a n d then a so u l wo u l d co me b ac k
a t night t o r ep roac h it s r el a ti o n s w ith n o t h av ing p rov i d e d
4
p ro pe r l y for it b u t le f t it in d i s t r e ss
T o t u r n fro m the s e
n e w E u ro pe a nize d T a t ars t o a r u d e rac e of the E as te r n
A rc hipel a g o a m o ng the O ra ng Bin u a of S a mb awa the r e
p r e va il s thi s c u r i o u s l aw of inhe r it a n c e ; n o t o nl y do e s e ac h
s u rv i v ing r el a ti v e fa the r m o the r so n b ro the r a n d so for th
,

or

i ez de L e
a

pp 1 8 6 , 2 0 0

2
E ll i s H i s t
.

Fi

C a s tr em,
S am i e d i a
o

s ee
p 4 84
.

161 ;

R iv er o

an

d Tsc h u d i ,

P eru vi a n

A n t i qu i t i e s

on,

of

nn

in

M a d ag a s c a r vol i pp 2 5 4 4 2 9 s ee F l a c o urt p 6 0
M yth p 1 1 8 J B i ll i ng s E x p t o N R u ss i a p 1 2 9
P i n kerto n vol i p 5 3 2 a nd Lee ms La p l a n d i b i d

B o ec l er,

Eh s t e n Ge b ra ii c h e ,

69

FUN ERAL OBJECT SACRIFICE

4 89

t a ke hi s o r he r p ro pe r s h ar e b u t the d e c e as e d inhe r it s o ne
s h ar e fro m h im s el f w hi c h i s d e vo te d t o hi s u s e b y e a t i ng the
a nim a l s a t the f u ne ra l f e as t b u r ning e v e ry thin g el s e th a t w ill
?
b u r n a n d b u ry ing the r em a in d e r
In Coc hin C hin a the
co mm o n pe o ple o bj e c t t o c eleb ra ting thei r f e as t of th e d e ad
o n the sa me day w ith the u ppe r c l ass e s for thi s e xc ellent
r e aso n th a t the ar i s t ocra ti c so u l s might m a ke the s e r
va nt so u l s carry h o me thei r p r e s ent s for them The s e
pe o ple empl oy a ll the r e so u rc e s of thei r c i v iliz a ti o n t o pe r
for m w ith the m or e l av i s h e x t rava g a n c e t h e sava ge f un e ra l
sacr i c e s H e r e ar e d et a il s fro m a n acco u nt p u bli s he d in

When
1 8 4 9 of the f u ne ra l of a l a te king of Coc h i n C hin a
th e cor p s e of Thie n T r i was d ep os ite d in the cof n the r e
w e r e a l so d ep os ite d in it m a n y thi n g s for the u s e o f the
d e c e as e d in th e o the r wor l d s u c h as hi s crow n t u r b a n s
c l o the s o f a ll d e scr ipti o n s g o l d s i l v e r a n d o the r p r e ci o u s
ar ti cle s r i c e a n d o the r p rov i s i o n s M e a l s w e r e s et ou t ne ar
the cof n a n d the r e was a fra me d pie c e of da m as k w ith
woo llen c h arac te rs the a b od e of o ne of the so u l s of the
d e f u n c t In the t o mb a n en cl os e d e d i c e of s t o ne the
c hil d le ss w i v e s of the d e c e as e d w e r e t o be pe r pet u a ll y s h u t

u p t o g u ard the s ep u l c h r e a n d p r ep ar e da il y the food a n d

o the r thing s of w hi ch the y think the d e c e as e d h as nee d in
the o the r li f e
A t the time of the d ep os it of the cof n
in a cav e r n behin d the t o mb b u il d ing the r e w e r e b u r nt
the r e g r e a t pile s o f b oa t s s t a ge s a n d e v e ry thin g u s e d in

the f u ne ra l a n d m or e ov e r of a ll the o bj e c t s w hi c h h ad
been in u s e b y the king d u r ing hi s li f etime of c he ss m en
m u s i ca l in s t r u ment s fa n s b ox e s p araso l s m a t s llet s
carr i a ge s & c & c a n d like w i s e a h ors e a n d a n eleph a nt of

wood a n d p as teb oard

S o me m o nth s af te r the f u ne ra l a t
t wo d iffe r ent ti m e s the r e w e r e co n s t r u c te d in a for e s t ne ar
a p a g oda t w o m a gni cent p a l ac e s of wood w ith r i c h f u r ni s h
ing s in a ll thing s s imil ar t o the p a l ac e w hi c h the d e f u n c t
m o n arch h ad inh a bite d E ac h p a l ac e was co mp os e d of
t w ent y roo m s a n d the m os t scr u p u l o u s a tte nti o n was giv en
J ur
I d A c h i p vl ii p 6 9 1 ; s ee vl i pp 2 9 7 3 4 9
,

n.

490

ANIMISM

in ord e r th a t n o thing migh t be awa ntin g ne c e ssary for a

p a l ac e a n d the s e p a l ac e s w e r e b u r ne d w ith g r e a t p o mp a n d
it i s th u s th a t immen s e r i c he s h av e been gi v en t o the a me s
fro m the foo li s h belie f th a t i t wo u l d s e rv e the d e ad i n the
1
o the r wor l d
Th o u gh the c u s t o m i s fo u n d a m o ng the Be d u in s of array
ing the d e ad w ith t u r b a n gi rd le a n d sword y et f u ne ra l
off e r ing s for the s e rv i c e of the d e ad ar e by n o me a n s co n
s pi c u o u s a m o ng S emiti c n a ti o n s
The menti o n of the r ite
b y E zekiel w hile s h ow ing a f u ll s en s e of it s me a n in g

c h arac te r ize s i t as n o t I sra elite b u t G enti le : The might y

fa llen of the u n c i rc u m ci s e d w hi ch ar e g o ne dow n t o H ad e s
w ith w e a p o n s of war a n d the y h av e l a i d the i r swords u n d e r
2
thei r he ads
A m o ng the A rya n n a ti o n s o n the co nt rary
s u c h f u ne ra l o ffe r ing s ar e kn ow n t o h av e p r e va ile d w i d el y
an d of o ld w hile for pi c t u r e s q u ene ss of r ite a n d de n i t e
ne ss of p u r p os e the y ca n scarc el y be s u r p ass e d e v en a m o ng
sava ge s Wh y the B ra hm a n s sacr i ci a l i n s t r u ment s ar e
t o be b u r nt w ith him o n the f u ne ra l pile a ppe ars fro m thi s

l i ne of the V e da r e cite d a t the c e r em o n y : Y adag ach ch at y a

at i
When he
s u n i t i me t am a t h a
de v
an am v
a sa n i rb h a v
co meth u nt o th a t l if e fa ith f u ll y wi ll h e do the s e rv i c e of
3
the g ods
L u c i a n is sarcas ti c b u t scarc el y u n fa i r in
hi s co mment s o n the G r eek f u ne ra l r ite s s pe a king of
th os e w h o s le w h ors e s a n d s l av e gi r l s a n d c u pbe ar e rs a n d
b u r ne d o r b u r ie d c l o the s a n d or n a ment s as for u s e a n d
s e rv i c e in the wor l d bel ow ; of the me a t a n d dr ink o ff e r ing s
o n the t o mb s w hi c h s e rv e t o f ee d the b od ile ss s h ad e s in
H ad e s ; of th e s plen d i d g ar ment s a n d th e g ar l a n ds of the
d e ad th a t the y might n o t s u ffe r co l d u p o n the road n or
be s een n a ke d b y Ke r be ros F or Ke r be ros was inten d e d
th e h o ne y ca ke d ep os ite d w ith the d e ad ; a n d the o b o l u s
,

B a s ti an P s y c h o l ogi e p 8 9 ; Journ I n d Arc h i p vol iii p 3 3 7 F or

o ther i n s ta n c e s s ee B a s t i a n
M e n s c h vol ii p 3 3 2 & c A lger F uture
Li fe p a rt ii

2
K le mm C G vol i v p 1 5 9 ; Exek xx xii 2 7

2
ol i x
Ma x M uller Tod t enb es t a tt u n g der Br a h ma n e n i n D M Z v
pp vi i
x iv

FUNERAL OBJECT SACRIFICE

491

pl ac e d in the m o u th was the t o ll for C h aro n sav e a t

H e r mi o n e in A r g o li s w he r e men th o u ght the r e was a
S h or t d e sc ent t o H ad e s a n d the r e for e p rov i d e d the d e ad
w ith n o co in for the g r i m f e rry m a n H ow s u c h i d e as co u l d
be r e a lize d m ay be s een in the s t ory of E u k ra t e s w h os e
d e ad w i f e a ppe ar e d t o him t o d em a n d o ne of he r g o l d en
sa n da l s w hi c h h ad been dro ppe d u n d e r ne a th the che s t a n d
so n o t b u rn t for h e r w ith the r e s t of he r wardro be ; o r in
the s t ory of Pe r i a n d e r w h os e d e ad w i f e M e li ssa r e f u s e d t o
gi v e him a n orac u l ar r e s p o n s e for s he was s hi v e r ing a n d
n a ke d be ca u s e the g ar ment s b u r ie d w ith he r h ad n o t been
b u r nt a n d so w e r e o f n o u s e w he r e for e Pe r i a n d e r pl u n d e r e d
the Cor inthi a n wo men of thei r be s t c l o the s w hi c h he b u rn e d
?
in a g r e a t t r en c h w ith p ray e r a n d n ow o bt a in e d hi s a n sw e r
The a n c ient G a u l s w e r e le d b y thei r belie f i n a n o the r li f e
t o b u r n a n d b u ry w ith the d e ad thing s s u ite d t o th e li v ing ;
n or i s the r e cord imp ro b a ble th a t the y t ra n sf e rr e d t o the
wor l d bel ow the r ep ay ment of l oa n s for e v en in m od e r n
c ent u r ie s the J a p a ne s e wo u l d b orrow m o ne y in thi s li f e t o
?
be r ep a i d w ith he avy inte r e s t in the ne x t The so u l s of the
N ors e d e ad t oo k w ith them fro m thei r e ar thl y h o me s e rva nt s
a n d h ors e s b oa t s a n d f e rry m o ne y c l o the s a n d w e a p o n s
Th u s in d e a th as in li f e the y j o u r ne y e d fo ll ow ing the l o ng

dar k hell way (h e lve gr) The hell s h oo n (h e lskO)

w e r e b o u n d u p o n the d e ad m a n s f eet for the t o il so me
j o u r ne y ; a n d w hen King H ara l d was s l a in in the b a ttle of
B rav
a lla the y d ro v
e h i s war c h ar i o t w ith the cor p s e u p o n it
int o the g r e a t b u r i a l m o u n d a n d the r e the y kille d the h ors e
a n d King H r ing g av e hi s ow n sadd le be s i d e th a t the fa llen
3
c hie f might r i d e o r dr i v e t o W a lh a ll a as it ple as e d him
L as tl y in the L ith u a ni a n a n d O l d P r u ss i a n d i s t r i c t w he r e
A rya n he a then do m hel d it s pl ac e in E u ro pe so r ml y a n d so
,

Lu ci n D Luc t u 9 &
P h i l ps u d es 2 7 ; S tr b o viii 6 1 2 H er o
d o t v 9 2 S mi th s D i c G r
n d Ro m A n t
rt
f nu

2
M
a
V ler
ii ; M el iii 2 F roi ns (1 5 6 5 ) i n M a ff e i H i t or I n
d i c arum l i b iv

3
G r i mm V er b re n n e n der L e ic hen pp 23 2 & c 2 4 7 & c
D eut s ch e
M yth pp 7 95 8 0 0
1

c.

ax

s.

492

ANIMISM

l a t e acco u n t s o f f u ne ra l sacr i c e o f me n a n d be as t s a n d
thi n g s da te o n e v en be yo n d the mi dd le a ge s E v en as the y
th o u gh t th a t men wo u l d l iv e a g a in in the r e s u rr e c ti o n r i c h

o r p oor
n o ble or pe asa nt
as o n e ar th so the y belie v e d
th a t the thi n g s b u r ne d wo u l d r i s e a g a in w ith them a n d s e rv e
them as be for e A m o ng the s e pe o ple li v e d the K ri w e K r i
w eit o the g r e a t p r ie s t w h os e h o u s e was o n the high s teep
m o u nt a in A n a e la s
A ll the so u l s of thei r d e ad m u s t
cl a mbe r u p thi s m o u nt a in w he r e for e the y b u r ne d w ith them
c l aws of be ars a n d ly n x e s for thei r help A ll the so u l s
m u s t p ass th ro u gh the K ri we s h o u s e a n d he co u l d d e scr ibe
t o the s u rv i v ing r el a ti v e s of e ac h the c l o the s a n d h ors e a n d
w e a p o n s he h ad s een him co me w ith a n d e v en s h ow for
g r e a te r c e r t a int y so me m ar k m ad e w ith l a n c e o r o the r
?
in s t r u men t b y the p ass ing so u l
S u c h e xa mple s of f u ne ra l
r ite s S h ow a co mm o n c e r em o n y a n d t o a g r e a t d eg r ee a
co mm o n p u r p os e o bt a ining fro m sava ge ry th ro u gh b ar
b a ri s m a n d e v en int o the highe r c i v iliz a ti o n
N ow co u l d
w e h av e r eq u i r e d fro m a ll the s e rac e s a d i s tin c t a n sw e r t o
the q u e s ti o n w hethe r the y belie v e d in S pi r it s of a ll thing s
fro m men a n d be as t s dow n t o s pe ars a n d c l oa k s s ti ck s
a n d s t o ne s it i s likel y th a t w e might h av e of ten r e c ei v e d
the sa me ackn ow le d gment of f u ll y d e v el o pe d a nimi s m
w hi ch s t a n ds o n r e cord in N or th A me r i ca P o l y ne s i a a n d
B u r m a F a iling s u c h d i r e c t te s tim o n y it i s a t le as t j u s ti
ab l e t o say th a t the l ow e r c u lt u r e b y p rac ti ca ll y d e a ling
w ith o bj e c t so u l s g o e s far t owards ackn ow le d ging thei r
e x i s ten c e
B e for e q u itting the d i sc u ss i o n of f u ne ra l offe rin g s for
t ra n s mi ss i o n t o the d e ad the c u s t o m m u s t be t rac e d t o it s
n a l d e cay It i s a pt n o t t o d ie o u t s u dd e n l y b u t t o le av e
s u rv i v in g r emn a nt s m or e or le ss dw in d le d in for m a n d
ch a nge d in me a ning The K an ow i t s of B or ne o t a lk of
,

D us b urg , C hr on ic o n P ru ss i as , iii 0 v
S l a w M yth pp
H a n usc h ,
8 9 8 , 4 1 5 (A n a e la s i s the g l a ss moun t a i n o f S l a v o n ic a n d G er m a n myth ,

s ee G r i mm , D M p
C o mp a re s t a te m e n t i n S t C l a i r a n d Br o p hy ,
Bulga r i a , p 6 1 a s t o fo o d tra n s mi tted t o de a d i n o ther w o rld , w i th more
p r o b a b le e x p l a n a t i o n , p 7 7

FUN ERA L OBJ ECT S ACRI FI C E

493

s ettin g a m a n s p ro pe r t y adr i f t for u s e in the ne x t wor l d

a n d e v en g o so far as t o l ay ou t hi s va l u a ble s b y the bie r
b u t in fac t the y o n l y co mmit t o the fra il ca n o e a f e w o l d
thing s n o t wor th pl u n d e r ing
S o in N or th A me r i ca the
f u ne ra l sacr i c e of the Winneb a g os h as co me dow n t o
b u ry ing a pipe a n d t o b acco w ith the d e ad a n d so metime s a
c l u b in a warr i or s g rav e w hile th e g oods b ro u ght a n d h u ng
u p a t the b u r i a l pl ac e ar e n o l o nge r le f t the r e b u t the s u r
vi vors g a mble for them ? The S a nt a l s of B eng a l p u t t wo
v e ss el s on e for r i c e a n d the o the r for wa te r o n the d e ad
m a n s co u ch w ith a f e w r u pee s t o en a ble him t o a ppe as e
the d em o n s o n the th r e s h o l d of the s h adowy wor l d b u t
3
w hen the f u ne ra l pile i s r e ady the s e thing s ar e r em ov e d
The fa n ci f u l ar t o f r epl acing cos tl y o ffe r ing s b y wor thle ss
imit a ti o n s i s a t thi s day wor ke d ou t int o the q u a inte s t
d e v i c e s in C hi n a A s the men a n d h ors e s d i s p a t c he d b y
r e for the s e rv i c e of the d e ad ar e b u t p a pe r g u r e s so
offe r ing s o f c l o the s a n d m o ne y m ay be r ep r e s ente d like w i s e
The imit a ti o n s of S p a ni s h pill ar do ll ars in p as teb oard
cov e r e d w ith tin fo il the S heet s of tin fo il p a pe r w hi c h s t an d
for s il v e r m o ne y a n d i f co l o u r e d y ell ow fo r g o l d ar e co n
s u me d in s u c h q u a ntitie s th a t the s h a m be co me s a s e r i o u s
r e a lit y for the m an u fac t u r e of m oc k m o ne y i s the t rad e of
th o u sa n ds o f wo men a n d c hil dr en in a C h i ne s e c it y In a
S imil ar way t r u n k s f u ll of p ro pe r t y ar e forward e d in the
car e of the ne w l y d e c e as e d t o fr ien ds w h o ar e g o ne be for e

P r ett y p a pe r h o u s e s r eplete w ith e v e ry l u x u ry as o u r

a u c ti o n ee rs say ar e b u r nt for the d e ad C hin a m a n t o li v e in
he r e af te r a n d the p a pe r ke ys ar e b u r nt a l so th a t he m ay
u n fas ten th e p a pe r l oc k s o f the p a pe r c he s t s th a t h o l d the
ing o t s o f g o l d p a pe r a n d s il v e r p a pe r w hi c h ar e t o be r e a l
i s e d as cu rr ent g o l d a n d s il v e r in the o the r wor l d a n i d e a
w hi ch h ow e v e r do e s n o t p r e v ent the car e f u l s u rv i vors fro m

F a r

S t J hn
E s t vl i pp 5 4 68
P i nkert n vol xvi p 4 3 0

S c h o l c r ft I n d i n T r i b e s p rt i v p
H u n ter R ur a l Be n g l p 2 1 0
1

C o mp a re

54

B o s ma n G u i n e a
,

in

ANIMISM

4 94

c o lle c ting the as he s t o re e x t rac t the tin fro m them in thi s ?

A g a in w hen the m od e r n I l i n d u o ffe rs t o hi s d e ad p ar ent
f u ne ra l ca ke s w ith fl ow e rs a n d betel he p r e s ent s a woo llen
yar n w hi c h he l ays across the ca ke a n d n a ming the d e c e as e d

says M ay thi s a pp ar el m ad e o f woo llen yarn be acc ept

a ble t o thee
S u c h fac t s as the s e s u gge s t a sy mb o li c
me a nin g i n the p rac ti ca ll y u s ele ss offe r i n g s w hi c h S i r J o hn
Lu bb oc k g ro u p s t o gethe r t h e little m od el s of k aya k s a n d
s pe ars i n E s q u im a u x g rav e s the m od el s of o bj e c t s in
E g y pti a n t o mb s a n d the im sy u n s e rv i c e a ble j e w el ry
b u r ie d w ith the E t r u sca n d e ad
J u s t as pe o ple in B or ne o af te r the y h ad be co me M o h a m
me da n s s till kept u p the r ite of b u ry i n g p rov i s i o n s for the
d e ad m a n s j o u r ne y as a m ar k of r e s pe c t so the r i te o f
inte rr ing f u ne ra l o ffe r i n g s s u rv i v e d in C h r i s ti a n E u ro pe
The a n c ient G r eek b u r i a l o f the d e ad w ith the o b o l u s in hi s
m o u th for C h aro n s t o ll i s r ep r e s ente d in the m od e r n G r eek
wor l d w he r e C h aro n a n d the f u ne ra l co i n ar e b o th fa mili ar
A s the o l d P r u ss i a n s f u r ni s he d the d e ad w ith s pen d ing
m o ne y t o b u y r e fr e s hment o n his w e ary j o u r ne y so t o thi s
day G e r m a n pe asa nt s bu ry a cor p s e w ith m o ne y in hi s m o u th
or h a n d a fo u r penn y pie c e or so S imil ar little f u ne ra l
o ffe r ing s of co in ar e r e cord e d in the fo lk l or e b oo k s el s e
w he r e in E u ro pe C h r i s tian f u ne ra l offe r ing s of thi s kin d
ar e m os tl y t r iing in va l u e a n d do u bt f u l as t o the me a ning
w ith w hi ch the y w e r e kept u p The e ar l y C h r i s ti a n s re
t a i n e d the he a then c u s t o m o f pl ac ing in the t o mb s u c h
thing s as ar ti cle s of the t o ilette a n d c hil dr en s pl ay thing s ;
m od e r n G r eek s wo u l d pl ac e c a rs o n a s hipm a n s g rav e a n d
-

"

D a vi s C h i n e s e vol i p 2 7 6 D oo l i ttle vol i p 1 9 3 vol ii p 2 7 5

B a s ta i n M e n s c h vol ii p 3 3 4 s ee M ar c o P ol o b oo k ii c h l xviii

2
E ss a y s v
o l i pp 1 6 1 1 6 9
C o le b r o o ke

3
Lu bb oc k P reh i s t or ic T i me s p 1 4 2 Wi lk i n s on A n ci e n t Eg vol ii
p 319
o l xi p
110
B e ec k man n
V oy t o B o r n e o i n P i n kert o n v
P o l i t i s N e oh ell en My t h ol og i a vol i p art i p 2 6 6 H artk n oc h A lt

p a rt i p 1 8 1 G r i mm D M pp 7 9 1 5 ; W u t t k e
u n d N eue s P reu ss e n
D eut s c he V o lk s a b ergl a u b e

p 2 1 2 R o c hh o lz D eut s c her G l a u b e & c

ol i
p 1 87 & c M aury M ag i e & c p 1 5 8 ( F r a n c e )
v

FUN ERAL OBJECT SACRIFI C E

495

o the r s u c h t o ken s for o the r craf t s ; the be a u ti f u l cl ass i c r ite

of sca tte r ing ow e rs ov e r the d e ad s till h o l ds it s pl ac e in
W h a te v e r m ay h av e been the th o u ght s w hi c h
E u ro pe
rs t p ro mpte d the s e kin d l y c e r em o nie s the y w e r e th o u ght s
bel o nging t o far p r es C h r i s ti a n a ge s The c h a nge o f sacr i
e e fro m it s e ar l y s igni ca n c e i s s h ow n a m o ng the H in d u s
w h o h av e t u r ne d it t o acco u nt for p u r p os e s of p r ie s t craf t :
he w h o gi v e s wa te r o r S h o e s t o a B ra hm a n w ill n d wa te r
t o r e fr e s h him a n d s h o e s t o w e ar o n the j o u r ne y t o the
ne x t wor l d w hile the gi f t of a p r e s ent h o u s e w ill s e c u r e him
a f u t u r e p a l ac e In inte r e s ting corr e s p o n d en c e w ith thi s
i s a t ra n s iti o n fro m p a g a n t o C h r i s ti a n fo lkl or e in o u r ow n
l a n d The L y ke W a ke D i r ge the n o t y et for g o tten f u ne ra l
c h a nt of the N or th Co u nt ry tell s like so me sava ge or
b ar b ar i c legen d o f the p assa ge ov e r the B r i dge of D e a th
a n d the dr e adf u l jo u r ne y t o the o the r wor l d B u t th o u gh
the gh os tl y t rav elle r s f eet ar e s till sh o d w ith the o l d N ors e
m a n s hell s h oo n he g a in s them n o l o nge r b y f u ne ra l
o ff e r ing b u t b y hi s ow n c h ar it y in li f e
?

Thi s

thi s

a n i gh t e,

E very

a n i gh t e

i g h t an d a ll e
F i r e an d e et a n d c an d l e li g h t
A n d C h r i s t e r e c e i v e t hy sa u l e
n

Wh e n t h o u f r om h e n c e a w a y are p a s t e
E v e r y n ig h t a n d a ll e
To W hi n n y m oo r t h e n c om e s a t l a s te ,
-

A n d C h r i s te

re c e i v e t hy s a u l e

e v e r t h e n gav e e i th er h o s e n o r s h oon
E v er y n i g h t a n d a ll e
S i t t h e e d o w n an d p ut t h e m on
A n d C h r i s te r e c e i v e t hy s au l e
If

i f h os e n n or S h oon t h o u n e v er g a v e n eean
E v e r y n i g h t a n d all e
Th e W h i n n es s h all p r i c k t h e e t o t h e b a r e b e c an
A n d C h r i s t e r e c e i v e t hy sa u l e
Bu t

C hur c h i n

M a i tl a n d
the C a t a c omb s p
p 5 0 2 ; M e i n er s vo l ii p 7 5 0 ; Br an d Pep

W a rd H i nd oos vol ii p 2 8 4
1

F rb e s L e sl i e vl ii

o
137 ;

An t v
ol
.

ii p
.

307

ANIMISM

496

Fr

m W hi n n y moo re w h e n t h o u may
E v e r y n i g h t an d all e

To B r i g o D re a d th o u c o m e s a t l a s te ,
A nd C h r i s te re c e i v e t hy s a u l e
o

p a ss e

Fr

B r i g 0 D re a d wh e n th o u a re pas te
E v e r y n i gh t a n d all e
To P u rg a t o r y F i re t h o u c om e s a t l a s te
A n d C h r i s te re c e i v e thy s a u l e
o

I f e v e r t h o u ga v e e i th e r milk e
E v e ry

d ri nk

or

i gh t a n d all e
Th e re s h all n e v e r ma k e th e e sh ri n k e
A n d C h r i s te re c e i v e t hy s au l e

B u t i f milk n or d r i n k th o u n e v e r gav
e n ee an
E v er y n i g h t an d a ll e
Th e re s h all b ur n t h e e t o th e b are b e c an
A n d C h r i s te re c e i v e t hy sa u l e 1

Wh a t r e ad e r u n ac q u a inte d w ith the o l d doc t r ine of offe r

ing s for the d e ad co u l d r e a liz e the me a ning of i t s r emn a nt s
th u s linge r ing in pe asa nt s min ds ? The s u rv i va l s fro m
a n c ient f u ne ra l c e r em o n y m ay he r e ag a in s e rv e as war ning s
a g a in s t a ttempti n g t o e x pl a in r e l i cs of intelle c t u a l e u
t i q u i t y b y v ie w ing them fro m the c h ange d le v el of m od e r n
O pi n i o n
H av in g th u s s u rv e y e d a t l ar ge the the ory of S pi r it s or
so u l s of o bj e c t s i t r em a in s t o p o int o ut w h a t t o gene ra l
s t u d ent s m ay s eem the m os t imp or t a nt co n s i d e ra ti o n b e
l o nging t o it n a mel y it s c l os e r el a ti o n t o o ne of the m os t
,

F r om the c oll ted n d a n o ta ted te x t i n J C A tk i n s o G l oss ary of

p 5 9 5 (a o n e n eean n o n e b ee n b o e ) O ther
C le v el n d D i le c t
v er s i on s i n S c o tt M i s trel s y o f the S c otti s h B order vl ii p 3 6 7 K elly

I n d o E ur o p e an F olk l o re p 1 1 5
vol ii p 27 5
Po p A n t
; Br a n d
J C A
Two v er s e s h v e p erh p s b ee l s t bet w ee n the fth n d s ix th

rea d s m e te i n vv 7 an d 8 ; the u s u a l read i n g mi lke i s ret ai n ed here

T he s en s e o f the s e two v er s e s may b e th a t the l i qu o r s c r i c ed i l i fe w i ll
que c h th e re n i de p r llel t o th t k n ow n t o folkl o re th t he wh o
g v e b re d i h i s l i fet ime w i ll d i t a fter dea th re dy for h i m t o c as t
i n t the hellh ou d s j aws ( M n n h rdt Gbt t rwel t der D eut s c he n d
N rd i s c he n V olker p
a so p t o C er b eru s
1

n,

a a

'

an

DEVELOPM ENT

SOUL

or

ID EA

To

497

in u enti a l doc t r ine s of c i v ilize d phil oso ph y Th e sava ge

thinke r th o u gh occ u p y ing him s el f so m u c h w ith the phen o
men a of li f e s leep d i s e as e a n d d e a th s eem s t o h av e t a ken
for g ra nte d as a m a tte r of co u rs e the ord in ary o pe ra ti o n s of
hi s ow n min d It h ard l y occu rr e d t o him t o think a b o u t th e
m ac hine ry of thinking M et a ph ys i cs i s a s t u dy w hi c h rs t
ass u me s cle ar s h a pe a t a co mp ara ti v el y high le v el of i n t e l le c
t u a l c u lt u r e The met a ph ys i ca l phil oso ph y of th o u ght t a u gh t
in o u r m od e r n E u ro pe a n le c t u r e roo m s i s hi s t or i ca ll y t rac e d
b ack t o the S pe c u l a ti v e p syc h o l o g y of c l ass i c G r ee c e N ow
o ne doc t r ine w hi c h the r e co me s int o v ie w i s e s pe c i a ll y asso
c i a t e d w ith the n a me of D em ocr it u s
the phil oso phe r of
A b d e ra in the f th c ent u ry B C When D em ocr it u s p ro

p o u n d e d the g r e a t p ro blem of met a ph ys i cs H ow d o w e

pe rc ei v e e x te r n a l thing s ? th u s m a king as L e w e s says
a n e ra in the hi s t ory of phil oso ph y h e p u t for th in
a n sw e r t o the q u e s ti o n a the ory o f th o u ght H e e x pl a i n e d
the fac t of pe rc epti o n b y d e c l ar ing th a t thing s ar e a l ways
th row ing o ff im a ge s ( ei dwh a ) of them s el v e s w hi c h im a ge s
ass imil a ting t o them s el v e s the s u rro u n d ing a i r ente r a re
c i pi e n t so u l a n d ar e th u s pe rc ei v e d
N ow s u pp os ing D em o
c ri t u s t o h av e been r e a ll y the or igin a t or of thi s fa me d the ory
of i d e as h ow far i s he t o be co n s i d e r e d it s in v ent or ?
W r ite rs o n the hi s t ory o f phil oso ph y ar e acc u s t o me d t o
t r e a t the doc t r ine as ac t u a ll y m ad e b y the phil oso phi ca l
sc h oo l w hi c h t a u ght it Y et the e v i d en c e he r e b ro u ght for
ward s h ows i t t o be r e a ll y the savage doc t r ine o f o bj e c t
so u l s t u r ne d t o a ne w p u r p os e a s a meth od of e x pl a i n ing
the phen o men a of th o u ght N or i s the corr e s p o n d en c e a
me r e co in c i d en c e for a t thi s p o int of j u n c ti o n bet w een
c l ass i c r eligi o n a n d c l ass i c phil oso ph y the t rac e s o f hi s t o
To say th a t D e
ri c a l co nti n u it y m ay be s till d i sc e r n e d
mocri t u s was a n a n c ient G r eek i s t o say th a t fr o m hi s
c hil d h ood he h ad l oo ke d o n a t the f une ra l c e r em o nie s of hi s
co u nt ry beh o l d ing the f u ne ra l sacr i c e s of g ar ment s a n d
j e w el s a n d m o ne y a n d food a n d dr ink r ite s w hi c h hi s
m o the r a n d hi s n u rs e co u l d tell him w e r e pe rfor me d in
.

ANIMISM

498

ord e r th a t the ph a nt as m a l im age s o f the s e o bj e c t s migh t

p ass int o the p oss e ss i o n of for m s s h adowy l ike them s el v e s
the so u l s of d e ad men Th u s D em ocr i t u s s eeking a so l u
ti o n of hi s g r e a t p ro blem of the n a t u r e of th o ugh t fo u n d
it b y s impl y d e ca nting int o hi s met a ph ys i cs a s u rv i v in g
doc t r ine of p r imiti v e sava ge a nimi s m Thi s th o u ght of
the ph a nt o m s o r so u l s o f thing s i f S impl y m od i e d t o for m
a phil oso phi ca l the ory of pe rc epti o n wo u l d then a n d the r e
be co me hi s doc t r ine of I d e as N or do e s e v en thi s f u ll y
r ep r e s ent the cl os ene ss of u ni o n w hi c h co nne c t s the sava ge
doc t r ine o f itting o bj e c t so u l s w ith the E pi cu r e a n phil o
so ph y L u cr eti u s ac t u a ll y m a ke s the the ory of lm like
im a ge s of thing s ( s im u l acra memb ran es ) acco u nt b o th for
the a pp ar iti o n s w hi c h co me t o men in dr e a m s a n d the
im a ge s w hi c h imp r e ss thei r min ds in thinking S o u n
b ro ken i s the co ntin u it y o f phil oso phi c s pe c u l a ti o n fro m
sava ge t o c u lt u r e d th o u ght S u c h ar e the d ebt s w hi ch c i v i
li z e d ph il oso ph y ow e s t o p r imiti v e a n imi s m
The doc t r ine of i d e as th u s d e v el o pe d in the c l ass i c wor l d
h as in d ee d b y n o me a n s hel d it s co u rs e then c e for th u n
c h a n ge d th ro u g h met a ph ys i cs b u t h as u n d e rg o ne t ra n s iti o n
so me w h a t like th a t of the doc t r ine of the so u l it s el f I d e as
ne d dow n t o the a b s t rac t for m s or s pe c ie s of m a te r i a l ob
j e c ts a n d a pplie d t o o the r th a n v i s ible q u a litie s h av e a t
l as t co me m e r el y t o d en o te s u bj e c t s of th o u ght Y et t o
thi s day the o l d the ory h as n o t u tte r l y d ie d o u t a n d the

r etenti o n of the s igni ca nt te r m i d e a

v i s ible
for m ) i s acco mp a nie d b y a s imil ar r etenti o n of or igin a l
me a n i ng I t i s s till o n e of the t as k s of the met a ph ys i c i a n
t o d i s pl ay a n d r e f u te the o l d n o ti o n of i d e as as bein g r e a l
i m a ge s a n d t o r epl ac e it b y m or e a b s t rac t co n c epti o n s It
i s a s t r ikin g in s t a n c e th a t D u g a l d S te war t ca n c ite fro m the
work s o f S i r I saac N e w t o n the fo ll ow ing di s tin c t r e co gni ti o n

of
s en s ibl e s pe cie s : I s n o t the s en sor i u m of a nim a l s
the pl ac e w he r e the s entient s u b s t a n c e i s p r e s ent ; a n d t o
w hi c h the s en s ible s pe c ie s of thing s ar e b ro u ght th ro ugh
the ne rv e s a n d b ra i n th a t the r e the y m ay be pe rc ei v e d by the
,

DEVELOPM ENT OF SO U L TO ID EA

499

min d p r e s ent i n th a t pl ac e ? A g a in D r R ei d s t a te s the

or igin a l the ory of i d e as w hile d e c l ar ing th a t he co n c ei v e s

it t o h av e n o so li d fo u n da ti o n th o u gh it h as been ado pte d

v e ry gene ra ll y b y phil oso phe rs
Thi s n o ti o n of ou r
pe rc ei v ing e x te r n a l o bj e c t s n o t i m me d i a tel y b u t in c e r t a in
im a ge s or s pe c ie s of them co n v e y e d b y the s e n s e s s eem s
t o be th e m os t a n c ient phil oso phi ca l h y p o the s i s w e h av e o n
the s u bj e c t o f pe rc epti o n a n d t o h av e w ith s m a ll var i a
ti o n s r et a ine d it s a u th or ity t o thi s day
G ra nte d th a t
D r R ei d e xagge ra te d the e x tent t o w hi c h m et a ph ys i c i a n s
h av e kept u p the n o ti o n of i d e as as r e a l i m a ge s of thing s
f e w w ill d en y th a t it does linge r m u c h in m od e r n min ds
a n d th a t pe o ple w h o t a lk o f i d e as d o of ten in so me h a z y
?
met a ph or i ca l way think of s en s ible im a ge s
O ne o f the
S h r e wd e s t thing s e v e r s a id a b o u t eithe r i d e as o r gh os t s was
Bi s h o p Be r kele y s r et or t u p o n H a lle y w h o b a nte r e d him
a b o u t hi s i d e a li s m The bi s h o p c l a ime d the m a the m a ti c i a n

as a n i d e a li s t a l so hi s u ltim a te ra ti os being gh os t s o f
d ep ar te d q u a ntitie s a ppe ar ing w hen the te rm s th a t pro
du ce d them va ni s h e d
It r em a in s t o s u m u p in f e w words the doc t r ine o f so u l s
i n the var i o u s ph as e s it h as ass u me d fro m rs t t o l as t a m o ng
m a nkin d I n the a ttempt t o t rac e it s m a in co u rs e th ro u gh
the s u cc e ss i v e g rad e s o f m a n s intelle c t u a l hi s t ory the e v i
d en c e s eem s t o accord be s t w ith a the ory o f it s d e v el o pment
so me w h a t t o the fo ll ow ing e ffe c t A t the l ow e s t le v el s of
c u lt u r e of w hi c h w e h av e c le ar kn ow le dge the n o ti o n of a
gh os t so u l a nim a ting m a n w hile in the b ody a n d a ppe ar i n g
in dr e a m a n d V i s i o n o u t of the b ody i s fo u n d d eepl y i n
g ra ine d The r e i s n o r e aso n t o think th a t thi s belie f was
le ar nt b y sava ge t r ibe s fro m co nt ac t w ith highe r rac e s n o r
th a t it i s a r eli c of highe r c u lt u r e fro m w hi c h the savage
t r ibe s h av e d egene ra te d ; fo r w h a t i s he r e t r e a te d as the

B i o gr a p h ic a l

L ewes
H i s to ry o f P h i l os p hy D e mo cr i tu s ( n d s ee h i s

re m rk s o n R e i d ) ; L u c ret i u s l i b iv ; E rly H i s t f M n k i n d p 8 ;

n
2
S te wa rt P h i l s phy o f H uman M i d vol i c h p i s e ; R e i d E ss y s
ii c h p s iv x iv s ee T h os Brow n e P h i l s op hy o f the M i n d le c t 2 7
1

o o

ANIMISM

500

p r imiti v e a nimi s ti c doc t r ine i s th oro u ghl y a t h o me a m o ng

sava ge s w h o a ppe ar t o h o l d it o n the v e ry e v i d en c e o f thei r
s en s e s inte r p r e te d o n the bi o l o gi ca l p r in c iple w hi c h s eem s
t o them m os t r e aso n a ble We m ay n ow a n d t h en he ar the
sava ge doc t r ine s a n d p rac ti c e s co n c e rning so u l s c l a ime d as
r eli cs o f a high r eligi o n s c u lt u r e pe rvad ing the p r im aeva l
rac e o f m a n The y ar e sa i d t o be t rac e s o f r em o te a n c e s t ra l
r eligi o n kep t u p i n scan t y a n d pe rv e r te d mem ory b y t r ibe s
d eg rad e d fro m a n o ble r s t a te It i s e asy t o s ee th a t s u c h
a n e x pl a n a ti o n o f so me f e w fac t s s u n d e r e d fro m th ei r co n
n e x i on w ith the gene ra l array m ay s eem pl a u s ible t o c e r t a in
min ds B u t a l ar ge V ie w of the s u bj e c t ca n h ard l y le av e
s u c h arg u ment in p oss e ss i o n The a nimi s m of savage s
s t a n ds for a n d b y it s el f ; it e x pl a in s it s ow n or igin The
a nimi s m o f c i v ilize d men w hile m or e a pp ro p r i a te t o a d
v e n c e d kn ow le dge i s in g r e a t me as u r e o nl y e x pli ca ble as a
d e v el o pe d p rod u c t o f the o l d e r a n d r u d e r sys tem I t i s the
doc t r ine s a n d r ite s of the l ow e r rac e s w hi c h ar e accord ing
t o thei r phil oso ph y r e s u lt s of p o int bl a nk n a t u ra l e v i d en c e
a n d ac t s of s t ra ight forward p rac ti ca l p u r p os e It i s the
doc t r ine s a n d r ite s of the highe r rac e s w hi c h s h ow s u rv i va l
of the o l d i n the mi ds t of the ne w m o di ca ti o n of the o l d
t o b r ing it int o co n for mit y w ith the ne w a b a n do nment of
the o l d be ca u s e it i s n o l o nge r comp a tible w ith the ne w
L et u s s ee a t a gl a n c e in w h a t gene ra l r el a ti o n the doc t r ine
of so u l s a m o ng sava ge t r ibe s s t a n ds t o t h e d o ct ri n e of so u l s
a m o ng b ar b ar i c a n d c u lt u r e d n a ti o n s A m o ng rac e s w ithin
the limit s of sava ge ry th e gene ra l doc t r ine of so u l s i s fo u n d
wor ke d o u t w ith r em ar k a ble b r e ad th a n d co n s i s ten cy The
so u l s of a ni ma l s ar e r e co gnize d b y a n a t u ra l e x ten s i o n fro m
the the ory of h u m a n so u l s ; the so u l s of t r ee s a n d pl a nt s
fo ll ow in so me va g u e p ar ti a l way ; a n d the so u l s of in a ni
m a te o bj e c t s e x p a n d the gene ra l ca teg ory t o it s e x t r eme s t
b o u n dary
Then c e for th as w e e x pl or e h u m a n th o u ght
o n ward fro m savage int o b ar b ar i a n a n d c i v ilize d li f e w e
n d a s t a te o f the ory m or e co n for me d t o p os iti v e sc ien c e
b u t in it s el f le ss co m plete a n d co n s i s tent
F ar o n int o
,

DOCTRINE

SOUL

0 F

501

c i v iliz a ti o n men s till ac t as th o u gh i n so me h a l f me a nt way

the y bel i e v e d in so u l s or gh os t s of o bj e c t s w hile n e v
e rt h e
le ss thei r kn ow le d ge o f ph ys i ca l sc ien c e i s be yo n d so cr u d e
a phil oso ph y A s t o the doc t r i ne of so u l s of pl a nt s frag
ment ary e v i d en c e of the hi s t ory of it s b r e a king dow n in
A s i a h as r e ac he d u s In o u r ow n day a n d co unt ry the
n o ti o n of so u l s of be as t s is t o be s een dy ing o u t A nimi s m
in d ee d s eem s t o be draw ing in it s o u tp os t s a n d co neen
t rat in g it s el f o n it s rs t a n d m a in p os iti o n th e doc t r ine of
the h u m a n so u l
Thi s doc t r ine h as u n d e r g o ne e x t r eme
m odi ca ti o n in the co u rs e of c u lt u r e It h as o u tli v e d the
a lm os t t o t a l l oss of o ne g r e a t arg u ment a tt ac he d t o i t the
o bj e c ti v e r e a lit y of a pp ar iti o n a l so u l s or gh os t s s een in
dr e a m s a n d v i s i o n s Th e so u l h as gi v en u p it s ethe r e a l

s u b s t a n c e a n d be co me a n imm a te r i a l entit y the S h adow

of a S h ad e It s the ory i s be co ming s ep ara te d fro m the
in v e s tig a ti o n s of bi o l o g y a n d ment a l sc ien c e w hi c h n ow
d i scu ss the phen o men a of li f e a n d th o u ght the s en s e s a n d
the intelle c t the em o ti o n s a n d the w ill o n a g ro u n d wor k of
p u r e e x pe r ien c e The r e h as ar i s en a n intelle c t u a l p rod u c t
w h os e v e ry e x i s ten c e i s of the d eepe s t S igni ca n c e a

p syc h o l o g y w hi c h h as n o l o nge r a n y thing t o do w ith

so u l The so u l s pl ac e in m od e r n th o u ght i s in the

met a ph ys i cs of r eligi o n a n d it s e s pe c i a l of c e the r e is th a t
o f f u r ni s hing a n intelle c t u a l s i d e t o the r eligi o u s doc t r ine
o f the f u t u r e li f e
S u c h ar e the a lte ra ti o n s w hi c h h av e
d i ffe r en c e d the f u n da ment a l a nimi s ti c belie f in it s co u rs e
th ro u gh s u cc e ss i v e pe r i ods of the wor l d s c u lt u r e Y e t it i s
e v i d ent th a t n o t w ith s t a n d ing a ll this p rofo u n d c h a nge the
co n c epti o n of the h u m a n so u l i s as t o it s m os t e ss enti a l
n a t u r e co ntin u o u s fro m the phil oso ph y of the sava ge
thinke r t o th a t of the m od e r n p rof e ssor of the o l o g y It s
d e niti o n h as r em a ine d fro m the rs t th a t o f a n a nim a ting
s ep ara ble s u rv i v ing entit y the v ehi cle of in d i v i d u a l pe r
so n a l e x i s ten c e The the ory of the so u l i s o ne p r in c ip a l
p ar t of a sys tem of r eligi o u s phil oso ph y w hi c h u nite s in
a n u nb ro ken line of ment a l co nne x i o n the sava ge f eti s h
-

502

ANIMISM

wors hippe r an d the c i v ilize d C h r i s ti a n The di v i s i o n s w hi c h

h av e s ep ara te d the g r e a t r eligi o n s o f the wor l d i nt o
int o le ra nt a n d h os tile s e c t s ar e for the m os t p ar t s u pe r c i a l
in co mp ar i so n w ith the d eepe s t of a ll r eligi o u s sc hi s m s
th a t w hi c h d i v i d e s A nimi s m fro m M a te r i a li s m
.

EN D

OF

VOL I
.