ABSTRACT

High-speed train traction power supply system causes serious negative current problem.
Railway power conditioner (RPC) is efficient in negative sequence compensation. A novel
power quality collaboration compensation system and strategy based on RPC is proposed in
this paper. The minimum capacity conducted is 1/3 smaller than traditional single station
compensation. Simulation results have confirmed that the collaboration compensation system
proposed can achieve a good performance at the negative sequence compensation with
capacity and cost efficient.

CONTENTS
1. INTODUCTION
2. RAILWAY ELECRIFICATION DESIGN SYSTEM
2.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTIC TRACTION
2.2 ADVANTAGES & DIS-ADVANTAGES
2.2.1 SUMMARY

2.3 ENERGY EFFICIENCY

2.4 EXTERNAL COST
2.5 RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT

3. HARMONICS
3.1 HARMONICS
3.2 WHY WORRY ABOUT THEM
3.3 WHER THEY COME FROM
3.4 WHERE TO LOOK FOR THEM
3.5 HOW DO YOU FIND THEM
3.6 WHEN ARE THEY A PROBLEM
3.7 HOW DO YOU GET RID THEM
3.8 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTROTION

4. RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER

4.1 INTODUCTION
4.2 STRUCTUER OF RPC
4.3 HARMONIC COMPENSATION
4.3.1REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION
4.4 DC LINK VOLTAGE REGULATION
4.5 OVER ALL RPQC CONTROLLER

5. SEMI CONDUCTER DEVICES

5.1 INTEGRATED BIPOLAR TRANSISTER
5.1.1 BASIC STRUCTURE
5.2 N-CHANNEL IGBT CROSS SECTION
5.2.1EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT
5.2.2 WORKING
5.3 IGBT CHARACTERISTICS
5.3.1 SWITCHING CHARACTERISTICS
5.4 APPLICATIONS OF IGBT
5.5 INVERTER
5.6 SINGLE PHASE VOLTAGE
5.6.1TYPES OF VSI
5.6.2HALF BRIDGE VSI
5.6.3 FULL BRIDGE VSI
5.7 CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER
5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL

6. MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

6.1 PRINCIPLE OF COLLABRATION COMPENSATION

7. MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION

With the rapid development of high-speed railway in China, power quality has
become a major concern for traction supply system. Compared with normal electrification
railway locomotive load, high-speed locomotive load has some characteristics, such as big
instantaneous power, high power factor, low harmonic components and high negative
sequence component. A large amount of negative current is injected into grid, which causes
serious adverse impact on power system, such as increasing motor vibration and additional
loss, reducing output ability of transformers and causing relay protection misoperation. These
adverse impacts threaten the safety of high-speed railway traction supply system and power
system. Therefore, its necessary to take measures to suppress negative current.
Many methods and power quality compensators are studied in order to solve the issue
of power quality. The traditional methods adopted to suppress negative current are as follows:
(1) Connect unbalanced load to different supply terminals;(2) Adopt phase sequence rotation
to make unbalanced load distributed to each sequence reasonably;(3) Connect unbalanced
load to higher voltage level supply terminals; (4) Use balanced transformers such as Scott
transformer and impedance balance transformer. These methods have some effects on
reducing unbalance degree, but they are lack of flexibility and can't adjust dynamically.
Recent years, high-voltage, large-capacity Static Var Compensator (SVC), Active
Power *Filter (APF) and Static Compensator (STATCOM) have become focus on power
quality compensation of electrified railway. However, these methods all need high-voltage
transformers which increase cost. APF is effective in suppressing harmonic currents in
electrified railway but rarely used in negative sequence compensation. An active power
quality compensator (APQC) with a impedance-matching balance transformer or a Scott
transformer is proposed to compensate negative-sequence current, harmonics and reactive
current. Reference put forward a proposal of Railway Power Conditioner (RPC), RPC can
make comprehensive compensation of negative sequence components, harmonics and
reactive power. Reference carries a dual-loop control strategy in order to improve the control
effect and performance of RPC. Taken into account the disturbance and variation of
electrified railway environment, a recursive proportional-integral control based on
fuzzyalgorithm is adopted to realize a fast and smooth tracking to reference current.
Reference raises a method of setting up two groups of thyristor control reactors (TCR) and
two groups of thyristor control 3rd harmonic wave filter besides RPC. The RPC is used to
transfer active power; the reactive power is supplied by the TCR and the filter. These works
prove that RPC is a effective way to solve the power quality problems in railway system. But
the compensator capacity is still too big to make RPC into practice.

To reduce the high compensator capacity, this paper puts forward a new railway
negative unbalance compensation system based on the thought of multiple RPC collaboration
compensation. This method realizes a minimum compensation capacity which is strictly
proved, which reduces 1/3 capacity compared with traditional single station RPC
compensation method. The simulation results have verified the correctness of the method
proposed in this paper.

CHAPTER 2
RAILWAY ELECTRIFICATION SYSTEM
A railway electrification system supplies electrical energy to railway locomotives and
multiple units so that they can operate without having an on-board prime mover. There are
several different electrification systems in use throughout the world. Railway electrification
has many advantages but requires significant capital expenditure for installation.

Fig: 2(a) Electric locomotives under the wires in Sweden

Fig: 2(b) Overhead wire and centenary in Bridgeport, Connecticut, United states

2.1 Characteristics of electric traction

The main advantage of electric traction is a higher power-to-weight ratio than traction
systems such as diesel or steam that generate power on board. Electricity enables
faster acceleration and higher tractive effort on steep gradients. On locomotives equipped
with regenerative brakes, descending gradients require very little use of air brakes as the
locomotive's traction motors become generators sending current back into the supply system
and/or on-board resistors, which convert the excess energy to heat.
Other advantages include the lack of exhaust fumes at point of use, less noise and
lower maintenance requirements of the traction units. Given sufficient traffic density, electric
trains produce fewer carbon emissions than diesel trains, especially in countries where
electricity comes primarily from non-fossil sources.
A fully electrified railway has no need to switch between methods of traction thereby
making operations more efficient. Two countries that approach this ideal are Switzerland and
Hong Kong, but both use more than one system, so unless multi-system locomotives or other
rolling stock is used, a switch of traction method may still be required.
The main disadvantages are the capital cost of the electrification equipment, most
significantly for long distance lines which do not generate heavy traffic. Suburban railways
with closely-spaced stations and high traffic density are the most likely to be electrified and
main lines carrying heavy and frequent traffic are also electrified in many countries. Also, if
the overhead wiring breaks down in some way, all trains can be brought to a standstill.
Electrification systems are classified by three main parameters:

Voltage

Current

Direct current (DC)

Alternating current (AC)

Frequency

Contact System

third rail overhead line (catenary)

2.2 Advantages and disadvantages

Advantages
Advantages include:

lower running cost of locomotives and multiple units

lower maintenance cost of locomotives and multiple units
higher power-to-weight ratio, resulting in
fewer locomotives
faster acceleration
higher practical limit of power
higher limit of speed
less noise pollution (quieter operation)
reduced power loss at higher altitudes (for power loss see Diesel engine)
lack of dependence on crude oil as fuel
less environmental pollution, even if electricity is produced by fossil fuels

Disadvantages
Disadvantages include:

upgrading brings significant cost,

especially where tunnels and bridges and other obstructions have to be altered
forclearance
alterations or upgrades will be needed on the railway signalling to take advantage of

the new traffic characteristics

Maintenance costs of the lines may be increased, but many systems claim lower costs
due to reduced wear-and-tear from lighter rolling stock.[7] There are additional
maintenance costs associated with the electrical equipment but, if there is sufficient
traffic, reduced track and engine maintenance costs can exceed the costs of this
maintenance.
Network effects are a large factor with electrification. When converting lines to
electric, the connections with other lines must be considered. Some electrifications
have eventually been removed because of the through traffic to non-electrified lines.
If through traffic is to have any benefit, time consuming engine switches must occur
to make such connections or expensive dual mode engines must be used. This is

mostly an issue for long distance trips, but many lines come to be dominated by
through traffic from long-haul freight trains (usually running coal, ore, or containers
to or from ports). In theory, these trains could enjoy dramatic savings through
electrification, but it can be too costly to extend electrification to isolated areas, and
unless an entire network is electrified, companies often find that they need to continue
use of diesel trains even if sections are electrified. The increasing demand for
container traffic which is more efficient when utilizing the double-stack car also has
network effect issues with existing electrifications due to insufficient clearance of
overhead electrical lines for these trains, but electrification can be built or modified to
have sufficient clearance, at additional cost.
Additionally, there are issues of connections between different electrical services,
particularly connecting intercity lines with sections electrified for commuter traffic,
but also between commuter lines built to different standards. This can cause
electrification of certain connections to be very expensive simply because of the
implications on the sections it is connecting. Many lines have come to be overlaid
with multiple electrification standards for different trains to avoid having to replace
the existing rolling stock on those lines. Obviously, this requires that the economics of
a particular connection must be more compelling and this has prevented complete
electrification of many lines. In a few cases, there are diesel trains running along
completely electrified routes and this can be due to incompatibility of electrification
standards along the route.

2.2.1Summary
Summary of advantages and disadvantages:
Lines with low frequency of traffic may not be feasible for electrification (especially
using regenerative braking), because lower running cost of trains may be overcome by
the higher costs of maintenance. Therefore most long-distance lines in North America
and many developing countries are not electrified due to relatively low frequency of
trains.
Electric locomotives may easily be constructed with greater power output than most
diesel locomotives. For passenger operation it is possible to provide enough power
with diesel engines (see e.g. 'ICE TD') but, at higher speeds, this proves costly and
impractical. Therefore, almost all high speed trains are electric.

 The high power of electric locomotives gives them the ability to pull freight at higher
speed over gradients; in mixed traffic conditions this increases capacity when the time
between trains can be decreased. The higher power of electric locomotives and an
electrification can also be a cheaper alternative to a new and less steep railway if
trains weights are to be increased on a system.
2.3 Energy efficiency
There is a significant amount of published material that concludes that electric trains are more
energy efficient than diesel-powered trains and, with suitable energy production, can have a
smaller carbon dioxide footprint. Some of the reasons include:
electric trains are generally lighter than self powered versions (e.g. diesel traction);
they do not have to carry the weight of prime movers, transmission and fuel.
this is partially offset, however, by the weight of electrical control equipment, and in
the case with high-voltage AC by the weight of traction transformers, which may be
particularly heavy with low frequency AC (e.g. 16.7 Hz.).
the electricity may be generated from various energy sources which are more efficient
than a diesel engine, as well as lessening reliance on petroleum products and reducing
carbon dioxide emissions, including;
nuclear power,
renewable resources (e.g. hydroelectricity, wind generation, etc.),
large fossil fuel using power stations with greater efficiency (although they may still
have a relatively large carbon footprint).
under certain conditions, some suitably equipped electric trains can use regenerative
braking to return power to the electrification system so that it may be used elsewhere;
by other vehicles within the network section;
often implemented in tram networks, where there is a high density of vehicles in each
fairly short powered section,
on high voltage mainlines where there may be several trains within each long section,
on mountainous lines where trains may be scheduled such that one is ascending whilst
another descends;
in some form of energy storage, such as flywheel energy storage so that it may be
used later (e.g. to accelerate a train from a station at which it has recently stopped)

2.4 External cost

The external cost of railway is lower than other modes of transport but the electrification
brings it down further if it is sustainable.
Also, the lower cost of energy from well to wheel and the ability to reduce pollution and
greenhouse gas in the atmosphere according to the Kyoto Protocol is an advantage.

2.5 Research and development

Another result of electrification is the effect on locomotive and wagon productivity and it is
going to be more effective by more railway researching this field. The trend of technology in
railway electrification is very important to adopt the efforts for better results, for example the
trend from GTO (Gate turn-off thyristor) to IGBT (Insulated-gate bipolar transistor) for more
powerful locomotives with higher reliability is one of the elements of Technology roadmap
(TRM) and the loop to have a mature system as in Maturity road mapping with the
Technology transfer provision.

CHAPTER 3

HARMONICS
3.1 HARMONICS
The typical definition for a harmonic is a sinusoidal component of a periodic wave
or\ quantity having a frequency that is an integral multiple of the fundamental frequency.

[1]. Some references refer to clean or pure power as those without any harmonics. But
such clean waveforms typically only exist in a laboratory. Harmonics have been around for a
long time and will continue to do so. In fact, musicians have been aware of such since the
invention of the first string or woodwind instrument. Harmonics (called overtones in
music) are responsible for what makes a trumpet sound like a trumpet, and a clarinet like a
clarinet.
Electrical generators try to produce electric power where the voltage waveform has
only one frequency associated with it, the fundamental frequency. In the North America, this
frequency is 60 Hz, or cycles per second. In European countries and other parts of the world,
this frequency is usually 50 Hz. Aircraft often uses 400 Hz as the fundamental frequency. At
60 Hz, this means that sixty times a second, the voltage waveform increases to a maximum
positive value, then decreases to zero, further decreasing to a maximum negative value, and
then back to zero. The rate at which these changes occur is the trigometric function called a
sine wave, as shown in figure 1. This function occurs in many natural phenomena, such as the
speed of a pendulum as it swings back and forth, or the way a string on a voilin vibrates when
plucked.

Fig: 3(a). Sine wave

The frequency of the harmonics is different, depending on the fundamental frequency.
For example, the 2nd harmonic on a 60 Hz system is 2*60 or 120 Hz. At 50Hz, the second
harmonic is 2* 50 or 100Hz.
300Hz is the 5th harmonic in a 60 Hz system, or the 6th harmonic in a 50 Hz system.
Figure 2 shows how a signal with two harmonics would appear on an oscilloscope-type
display, which some power quality analyzers provide.

Fig: 3(b) Fundamental with two harmonics

In order to be able to analyze complex signals that have many different frequencies
present, a number of mathematical methods were developed. One of the more popular is
called the Fourier Transform. However, duplicating the mathematical steps required in a
microprocessor or computer-based instrument is quite difficult. So more compatible
processes, called the FFT for Fast Fourier transform, or DFT for Discrete Fourier Transform,
are used.
These methods only work properly if the signal is composed of only the fundamental
and harmonic frequencies in a certain frequency range (called the Nyquist frequency, which
is one-half of the sampling frequency). The frequency values must not change during the
measurement period. Failure of these rules to be maintained can result in mis-information.
For example, if a voltage waveform is comprised of 60 Hz and 200 Hz signals, the FFT
cannot directly see the 200 Hz. It only knows 60, 120, 180, 240,..., which are often called
bins.
The result would be that the energy of the 200 Hz signal would appear partially in the 180Hz
bin, and partially in the 240 Hz bin. An FFT-based processer could show a voltage value of
115V at 60 Hz, 18 V at the 3rd harmonic, and 12 V at the 4th harmonic, when it really should
have been 30 V at 200 Hz.
These in-between frequencies are called inter harmonics. There is also a special
category of inter harmonics, which are frequency values less than the fundamental frequency
value, called sub-harmonics. For example, the process of melting metal in an electric arc
furnace can result large currents that are comprised of the fundamental , inter harmonic, and

sub harmonic frequencies being drawn from the electric power grid. These levels can be quite
high during the melt-down phase, and usually effect the voltage waveform.
3.2 Why Worry About Them
The presence of harmonics does not mean that the factory or office cannot run
properly. Like other power quality phenomena, it depends on the stiffness of the power
distribution system and the susceptibility of the equipment. As shown below, there are a
number of different types of equipment that can have mis operations or failures due to high
harmonic voltage and/or current levels. In addition, one factory may be the source of high
harmonics but able to run properly. This harmonic pollution is often carried back onto the
electric utility distribution system, and may effect facilities on the same system which are
more susceptible.
Some typical types of equipment susceptible to harmonic pollution include: Excessive neutral current, resulting in overheated neutrals. The odd triplen harmonics in three
phase wye circuits are actually additive in the neutral. This is because the harmonic number
multiplied by the 120 degree phase shift between phases is a integer multiple of 360 degrees.
This puts the harmonics from each of the three phase legs in-phase with each other in the
neutral, as shown in Figure 3.

Fig: 3.2. Additive Third Harmonics

- Incorrect reading meters, including induction disc W-hr meters and averaging type current
meters.
- Reduced true PF, where PF= Watts/VA.
- Overheated transformers, especially delta windings where triplen harmonics generated on
the load side of a delta-wye transformer will circulate in the primary side. Some type of
losses go up as the square of harmonic value (such as skin effect and eddy current losses).
This is also true for solenoid coils and lighting ballasts.
- Zero, negative sequence voltages on motors and generators. In a balanced system, voltage
harmonics can either be positive (fundamental, 4th, 7th,...), negative (2nd, 5th, 8th...) or zero
(3rd, 6th, 9th,...) sequencing values. This means that the voltage at that particular frequency
tries to rotate the motor forward, backward, or neither (just heats up the motor), respectively.
There is also heating from increased losses as in a transformer.

Table1. Harmonic Sequencing Values in Balanced Systems

- Nuisance operation of protective devices, including false tripping of relays and failure of a
UPS to transfer properly, especially if controls incorporate zero-crossing sensing circuits.
- Bearing failure from shaft currents through un insulated bearings of electric motors.
- Blown-fuses on PF correction caps, due to high voltage and currents from resonance with
line impedance.
- Mis-operation or failure of electronic equipment
- If there are voltage sub harmonics in the range of 1-30Hz, the effect on lighting is called
flicker. This is especially true at 8.8Hz, where the human eye is most sensitive, and just 0.5%
variation in the voltage is noticeable with some types of lighting. [2]
3.3Where They Come From
How this electricity is used by the different type of loads can have an effect on
purity of the voltage waveform. Some loads cause the voltage and current waveforms to
lose this pure sine wave appearance and become distorted. This distortion may consist of
predominately harmonics, depending on the type of load and system impedances.
Since this article is about harmonics, we will concentrate on those types of sources.
The main sources of harmonic current are at present the phase angle controlled rectifiers and
inverters. [3] These are often called static power converters. These devices take AC power
and convert it to another form, sometimes back to AC power at the same or different
frequency, based on the firing scheme. The firing scheme refers to the controlling mechanism

that determines how and when current is conducted. One major variation is the phase angle at
which conduction begins and ends.
A typical such converter is the switching-type power supplies found in most personal
computers and peripheral equipment, such as printers. While they offer many benefits in size,
weight and cost, the large increase of this type of equipment over the past fifteen years is
largely responsible for the increased attention to harmonics.
Figure shows below how a switching-type power supply works. The AC voltage is
converted into a DC voltage, which is further converted into other voltages that the
equipment needs to run. The rectifier consists of semi-conductor devices (such as diodes) that
only conduct current in one direction. In order to do so, the voltage on the one end must be
greater than the other end. These devices feed current into a capacitor, where the voltage
value on the cap at any time depends on how much energy is being taken out by the rest of
the power supply.
When the input voltage value is higher than voltage on the capacitor, the diode will conduct
current through it. This results in a current waveform as shown in Figure 5, and harmonic
spectrum in Figure 6. Obviously, this is not a pure sinusoidal waveform with only a 60 Hz
frequency component.

Figure 3.3(a) Current Waveform

Fig: 3.3 (b) Harmonic Spectrum of Current Waveform

If the rectifier had only been a half wave rectifier, the waveform would only have
every other current pulse, and the harmonic spectrum would be different, as shown in Figure .
Fluorescent lights can be the source of harmonics, as the ballasts are non-linear
inductors. The third harmonic is the predominate harmonic in this case. (See Table 3) As
previously mentioned, the third harmonic current from each phase in a four-wire wye or star
system will be additive in the neutral, instead of cancelling out Some of the newer electronic
ballasts have very significant harmonic problems, as they operate somewhat like a switching
power supply, but can result in current harmonic distortion levels over 30%.

Table2. Sample of Harmonic Values for Fluorescent lighting

Low power, AC voltage regulators for light dimmers and small induction motors
adjust the phase angle or point on the wave where conduction occurs. Medium power
converters are used for motor control in manufacturing and railroad applications, and include
such equipment as ASDs (adjustable speed drives) and VFDs (variable frequency drives).
Metal reduction operations, like electric arc furnaces, and high voltage DC transmission
employ large power converters, in the 2-20MVA rating.
This type of 3-phase equipment may also cause other types of power quality
problems.
When the semiconductor device is suppose to turn-off, it does not do so abruptly. This
happens under naturally commutated conditions, where the voltage that was larger on the
anode side compared to the cathode is now the opposite. This occurs each cycle as the voltage
waveform goes through the sine waveform. It also happens under forced commutation
conditions, where the semi-conductor device has a gate-type control mechanism built in to
it. This commutation period is a time when two semiconductor devices are both conducting
current at the same time, effectively shorting one phase to the other and resulting in large
current transients.

When transformers are first energized, the current drawn is different from the steady
state condition. This is caused by the inrush of the magnetizing current. The harmonics
during this period varies over time. Some harmonics have zero value for part of the time, and
then increase for a while before returning to zero. An unbalanced transformer (where either
the output current, winding impedance or input voltage on each leg are not equal) will cause
harmonics, as will overvoltage saturation of a transformer.
3.4 Where to look for them
Wherever the aforementioned equipment is used, one can suspect that harmonics are
present. The amount of voltage harmonics will often depend on the amount of harmonic
currents being drawn by the load, and the source impedance, which includes all of the wiring
and transformers back to the source of the electricity. Ohms Law says that Voltage equals
Current multipled by Impedance. This is true for harmonic values as well. If the source
harmonic impedance is very low (often referred to as a stiff system) then the harmonic
currents will result in lower harmonic voltages than if the source impedance were high (such
as found with some types of isolation transformers).
Like any power quality investigation, the search can begin at the equipment effected
by the problem or at the point-of-common-coupling (PCC), where the utility service meets
the building distribution system. If only one piece of equipment is effected (or suspected), it
is often easier to start the monitoring process there. If the source is suspected to be from the
utility service side (such is the case when there is a neighboring factory that is known to
generate high harmonics), then monitoring usually begins at the PCC.
The phase voltages and currents, as well as the neutral-to-ground voltage and neutral
current should be monitored, where possible. This will aid in pinpointing problems, or
detecting marginal systems. Monitoring the neutral will often show a high 3rd harmonic
value, indicating the presence of non-linear loads in the facility.
3.5 How do you find them
Hand-held harmonic meters can be useful tools for making spot checks for known
harmonic problems. However, harmonic values will often change during the day, as different

loads are turned on and off within the facility or in other facilities on the same electric utility
distribution system. This requires the use of a harmonic monitor or power quality monitor
with harmonic capabilities (such as shown in Figure 8), which can record the harmonic
values over a period of time.

Fig: 3.5 Power Quality Monitor with Harmonic Analysis

Typically, monitoring will last for one business cycle. A business cycle is how long it
takes for the normal operation of the plant to repeat itself. For example, if a plant runs three
identical shifts, seven days a week, then a business cycle would be eight hours. More
typically, a business cycle is one week, as different operations take place on a Monday, when
the plant equipment is restarted after being off over the weekend, then on a Wednesday, or a
Saturday, when only a Skelton crew may be working.
Certain types of loads also generate typical harmonic spectrum signatures that can
point the investigator towards the source. This is related to the number of pulses, or paths of

conduction. The general equation is h = ( n * p ) +/- 1, where h is the harmonic number, n is

any integer (1,2,3,..) and p is the number of pulses in the circuit, and the magnitude decreases
as the ration of 1/h (1/3, 1/5, 1/7, 1/9,...). Table 4 shows examples of such.

Table3. Typical Harmonics Found for Different Converters.

3.6 When are they a problem?
Most electrical loads (except half-wave rectifiers) produce symmetrical current
waveforms, which mean that the positive half of the waveform looks like a mirror image of
the negative half. This results in only odd harmonic values being present. Even harmonics
will disrupt this half-wave symmetry. The presence of these even harmonics should cause the
investigator to suspect there is a half-wave rectifier on the circuit. This also results from a full
wave rectifier when one side of the rectifier has blown or damaged components. Early
detection of this condition in a UPS system can prevent a complete failure when the load is
switched onto back-up power.
To determine what is normal or acceptable levels, a number of standards have been
developed by various organizations. ANSI/IEEE C57.110 Recommended Practice for
Establishing Transformer Compatibility When Supplying No sinusoidal Load Currents is a
useful document for determining how much a transformer should be derated from its
nameplate rating when operating in the presence of harmonics. There are two parameters
typically used, called K-factor and TDF (transformer dereading factor). Some power quality
harmonic monitors will automatically calculate these values.
IEEE 519-1992 Recommended Practices and Requirements for Harmonic Control in
Electrical Power Systems provides guidelines from determining what acceptable limits are.
The harmonic limits for current depend on the ratio of Short Circuit Current (SCC) at PCC

(or how stiff it is) to average Load Current of maximum demand over 1 year, as illustrated in
Table 5. Note how the limit decreases at the higher harmonic values, and increases with larger
ratios.

Table4. Current Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992

For voltage harmonics, the voltage level of the system is used to determine the limits,
as shown in Table 6. At the higher voltages, more customers will be effective, hence, the
lower limits.

Table5. Voltage Harmonic Limits as per IEEE 519-1992

The European Community has also developed susceptibility and emission limits for\
harmonics. Formerly known as the 555-2 standard for appliances of less than 16 A, a more
encompassing set of standards under IEC 1000-4-7 are now in effect.

3.7 How do you get rid of them?

Care should be undertaken to make sure that the corrective action taken to minimize
the harmonic problems dont actually make the system worse. This can be the result of
resonance between harmonic filters, PF correcting capacitors and the system impedance.
Isolating harmonic pollution devices on separate circuits with or without the use of
harmonic filters are typical ways of mitigating the effects of such. Loads can be relocated to
try to balance the system better. Neutral conductors should be properly sized according to the
latest NEC-1996 requirements covering such. Whereas the neutral may have been undersized
in the past, it may now be necessary to run a second neutral wire that is the same size as the
phase conductors. This is particularly important with some modular office partition-type
walls, which can exhibit high impedance values. The operating limits of transformers and
motors should be derated, in accordance with industry standards from IEEE, ANSI and
NEMA on such. Use of higher pulse converters, such as 24-pulse rectifiers, can eliminate
lower harmonic values, but at the expense of creating higher harmonic values.

3.8 TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION

Harmonic problems are almost always introduced by the consumers equipment and
installation practices. Harmonic distortion is caused by the high use of non-linear load
equipment such as computer power supplies, electronic ballasts, compact fluorescent lamps
and variable speed drives etc, which create high current flow with harmonic frequency
components. The limiting rating for most electrical circuit elements is determined by the
amount of heat that can be dissipated to avoid overheating of bus bars, circuit breakers,
neutral conductors, transformer windings or generator alternators.
Definition
THD is defined as the RMS value of the waveform remaining when the fundamental is
removed. A perfect sine wave is 100%, the fundamental is the system frequency of 50 or
60Hz. Harmonic distortion is caused by the introduction of waveforms at frequencies in

multiplies of the fundamental ie: 3rd harmonic is 3x the fundamental frequency / 150Hz.
Total harmonic distortion is a easurement of the sum value of the waveform that is distorted.

Power Measurement
Despite the use of good quality test meter instrumentation, high current flow can often remain
undetected or under estimated by as much 40%. This severe underestimation causes overly
high running temperatures of equipment and nuisance tripping. This is simply because the
average reading test meters commonly used by maintenance technicians, are not designed to
accurately measure distorted currents, and can only provide indication of the condition of the
supply at the time of checking. Power quality conditions change continuously, and only
instruments offering true RMS measurement of distorted waveforms and neutral currents can
provide the correct measurements to accurately determine the ratings of cables, bus bars and
circuit breakers.

Neutral Currents
High harmonic environments can produce unexpected and dangerous neutral currents. In a
balanced system, the fundamental currents will cancel out, but, triple- Ns will add, so
harmonic currents at the 3rd, 9th, 15th etc. will flow in the neutral. Traditional 3 phase system
meters are only able to calculate the vector of line to neutral current measurements, which
may not register the true reading. Integra 1530, 1560 and 1580 offer a 3 phase 4 wire version
with a neutral 4th CT allowing true neutral current measurement and protection in high
harmonic environments.
Harmonic Profiles

There is much discussion over the practical harmonic range of a measurement instrument,
however study of the harmonic profiles of typically installed equipment can guide the system
designer to the practical solution. A typical harmonic profile graph will show a logarithmic
decay as the harmonic frequency increases. It is necessary to establish the upper level at
which the harmonic content is negligible.
For Example:
A laptop switch mode power supply causes approximately 25% of 3rd harmonic, 19% of 5th
harmonic, 10% of 7th harmonic and 5% of 9th harmonic etc. Therefore it can be seen that
almost all the harmonic content in an IT dominated load will be below the 15th harmonic. In
a 3 phase load incorporating 6 pulse bridge technology as is common in many variable speed
drives, UPS systems and DC converters, similar profiles will be observed but extending to the
25th and 27th harmonic. It can therefore be deduced
that in the majority of industrial and commercial applications an instrument measuring up to
the 31st harmonic is ideal.

CHAPTER 4
RAILWAY POWER QUALITY CONDITIONER

4.1 INTRODUCTION
The AC electrified railway systems have the power quality problems such as the
reactive power consumption and the load imbalance due to their inherent electrical
characteristics of single-phase and nonlinear moving loads. Also the power electronics
equipments in the AC electrified railway systems produce the large amount of harmonic
currents. These power quality problems in the AC electrified railway systems have a bad
effect on themselves as well as other electric systems connected together. Therefore a power
quality compensator is required to maintain the proper power quality in the AC electrified
railway systems. There are many researches on the power quality compensator for improving
power quality in the AC electrified railway applications. Especially, a single-phase active
power filter and a single-phase hybrid active power filter, being composed of a passive power
filter and an active power filter, have been studied [1]. Most of the active power filters are
connected in parallel with M-phase and T-phase secondary outputs of Scott transformer
respectively. Although they can compensate the harmonic currents and the reactive power, the
load imbalance cannot be compensated. A three-phase active power filter for power quality
compensation has been proposed [2]. However, the three-phase active power filter installed at
the three-phase mains requires the high-voltage rating. Another active power quality
compensator, being composed of a three-phase inverter and a Scott transformer, has been
studied [3]. An active power quality compensator with two single-phase inverters connected
back-to-back (that is called the RPQC in this paper) has been proposed [4]. The RPQC
requires no additional Scott transformer and can be operated at lower voltage level than the
three-phase active power filter. In spite of these merits, there are few researches on the
control of RPQC. A novel control algorithm based on SRF for the RPQC is proposed. The
proposed RPQC control algorithm can properly compensate the harmonic currents, the
reactive power, and the load imbalance. The effectiveness and the validity of the proposed
control algorithm are demonstrated through the simulations.

4.2 Structure of the RPQC

Fig. 4.2: Configuration of RPQC

Fig. 4.2 shows an AC electrified railway system adopting the RPQC. The RPQC
consists of two single-phase inverters sharing a DC-link capacitor. Each of the single phase
inverters is connected with M-phase and T-phase feeder of the Scott transformer.
The RPQC controller is shown in Fig. 2 The DC-link voltage for the DC-link voltage
regulation, the inverter currents for the current control, and the load currents for the harmonic
extraction are required as the controller inputs. The RPQC can compensate not only the
harmonic currents and reactive power, but also the load imbalance by exchanging the active
power deviation between M-phase and T-phase feeders through the DC-link capacitor. shows
an AC electrified railway system adopting the RPQC. The RPQC consists of two single-phase
inverters sharing a DC-link capacitor. Each of the single phase inverters is connected with M-

phase and T-phase feeder of the Scott transformer. The RPQC controller is shown in Fig.
4.2.1 The DC-link voltage for the DC-link voltage regulation, the inverter currents for the
current control, and the load currents for the harmonic extraction are required as the
controller inputs. The RPQC can compensate not only the harmonic currents and reactive
power, but also the load imbalance by exchanging the active power deviation between Mphase and T-phase feeders through the DC-link capacitor.

Fig. 4.2.1. RPQC control

4.3 Harmonic compensation
The load current of the M-phase feeder that means the current flowing into the locomotives is
expressed as follows
............... .. (1)
After transforming the load current in equation (1) into the SRF coordinate, the respective d-q
components can be expressed as the following equations (2) and (3).
................. ... .(2)
....................... (3)
where, M Ld I and M Lq I are the DC values of the load current on the SRF. The DC
values of the d-q axis are obtained by using the low pass filters. M Ld I % and M Lq I %
are the AC values of the load current on the SRF, which means the harmonic contents of the
load current. Therefore, when the d-q DC values are subtracted from the d-q load currents,
the d-q harmonic currents to be compensated are obtained. Fig. 3 shows the method to extract
the harmonic components from the load current.

Fig 4.3: harmonic current extraction

4.3.1 Reactive power compensation

The M-phase voltage is represented as follows
.................. (4)
Through substituting equations (2) and (3) into equation (1), equation (5) can be derived as
follows

............. (5)
Therefore, the single-phase instantaneous active power and reactive power can be described
as equations (6) and (7).

.................. (6)

....................... (7)
where, VMLrms and IMLrms denote the RMS value of vML and vML, respectively. It is shown that
the single phase instantaneous active power depends on the d-axis current value, while the

instantaneous reactive power depends on the q-axis current value. The source current, iM s is
made by the load current of M-phase, iM L and the inverter current, iMinv, as in equation (8)
........................................ (8)
If the q-axis value of the source current becomes zero through the compensation of the q-axis
current, the corresponding reactive power can be compensated. Fig. 4 shows the control
blocks of reactive power compensation algorithm.

Fig: 4.3.1. Reactive power compensation algorithm.

4.3.2 Load imbalance compensation

It is shown in equation (6) that the single-phase instantaneous active power can be properly
controlled by controlling the d-axis current. If the harmonic currents and the reactive power
have been compensated by the proposed compensation algorithm, the load imbalance is
provoked by a deviation between the active power load of the M-phase and that of the Tphase. For example, the load current of the M-phase is larger than the T-phase when the load
of the Mphase is larger than T-phase, then the load imbalance problem is occurred. This
results into that the d-axis current of the M-phase is larger than that of the T-phase. The d-axis
values of the M-phase and the T-phase are equal to each other when three-phase balancing
condition is considered. This load imbalance compensation can be achieved if the difference
between the d-axis source currents of the Mphase and the T-phase is controlled to be zero.
Fig. 5 shows the control blocks of load imbalance compensation algorithm.

Fig: 4.3.2. Load imbalance compensation algorithm.

4.4 DC-link voltage regulation
The DC-link voltage regulator has a role in compensating power losses of the RPQC as well
as the voltage regulation. Fig. 6 shows the control blocks of DC-link voltage regulation
algorithm.

Fig: 4.4. DC-link voltage regulation algorithm.

4.5 Overall RPQC controller
Fig. 7 shows the structure of overall RPQC control scheme. M-phase controller and T-phase
controller are fundamentally on the same structure together. However, in this paper, the Tphase controller involves the DC-link voltage regulation loop, and the sign of load imbalance
compensation loop of the M-phase and the T-phase controller is opposite because the
reference direction of power flow is on the T-phase. The DC-link voltage regulation and the
load imbalance compensation are achieved on the d-axis and the reactive power
compensation is performed on the q-axis. The harmonic currents compensation is performed
on both of the d-q axis. Hysteresis current control is employed for the inverter current
control.

Fig. 4.5. Control block diagram of overall RPQC controller.

CHAPTER 5
SEMI CONDUCTOR DEVICES

5.1 INTEGRATED BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

IGBT has been developed by combining into it the best qualities of both BJT and
PMOSFET. Thus an IGBT possesses high input impedance like a PMOSFET and has low onstate power loss as in a BJT. Further, IGBT is free from second breakdown problem present
in BJT. All these merits have made IGBT very popular amongst power-electronics engineers.
IGBT is also known as metal oxide insulated gate transistor (MOSIGT), conductivelymodulated field effect transistor (COMFET) or gain-modulated FET(GEMFET). It was also
initially called insulated gate transistor (IGT).
The insulated-gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power
semiconductor device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches electric power
in many modern appliances: electric cars, variable speed refrigerators, air-conditioners, and
even stereo systems with digital amplifiers. Since it is designed to rapidly turn on and off,
amplifiers that use it often synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width modulation and
low-pass filters.
The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive characteristics of the MOSFETs with
the high-current and lowsaturation-voltage capability of bipolar transistors by combining an
isolated-gate FET for the control input, and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single
device. The IGBT is used in medium- to high-power applications such as switched-mode
power supply, traction motor control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically
consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high current handling capabilities in the
order of hundreds of amps with blocking voltages of 6,000 V.
The IGBT is a fairly recent invention. The first-generation devices of the 1980s
and early 1990s were relatively slow in switching, and prone to failure through such modes as
latch up and secondary breakdown. Second-generation devices were much improved, and the
current third-generation ones are even better, with speed rivaling MOSFETs, and excellent
ruggedness and tolerance of over loads [1].

5.1.1 Basic Structure

Fig illustrates the basic structure of an IGBT. It is constructed virtually in the same manner as
a power MOSFET. There is , however , a major difference in the substrate. The n+ layer
substrate at the drain in a PMOSFET is now substituted in the IGBT by a p+ layer substrate
called collector C. Like a power MOSFET, an IGBT has also thousands of basic structure cell
connected approximately on a single chip of silicon.
In IGBT, p+ substrate is called injection layer because it injects holes into n layer. The n- layer is called drift region. As in other semiconductor devices, thickness of n layer determines the voltage blocking capability of IGBT. The p layer is called body of
IGBT.The n- layer in between p+ and p regions serves to accommodate the depletion layer of
pn- junction , i.e. junction J2.

Fig: 5.1 IGBT STRUCTER

5.2 N-Channel IGBT Cross Section

5.2.1 Equivalent Circuit
An examination of reveals that if we move vertically up from
collector to emitter. We come across p+, n- , p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as the
combination of MOSFET and p+ n- p layer s. Thus, IGBT can be thought of as the
combination of MOSFET and p+ n- p transistor Q1 .Here Rd is resistance offered by n drift
region. Approximate equivalent circuit of an IGBT.

Fig: 5.2 Exact equivalent circuit

The existence of another path from collector to emitter, this path is collector, p +, n-, p (nchannel), n+ and emitter. There is, thus, another inherent transistor Q2 as n- pn+ in the
structure of IGBT. The interconnection between two transistors Q1 and Q2.This gives the
complete equivalent circuit of an IGBT. Here R by is the existence offered by p region to flow
of hole current Ih .
The two transistor equivalent circuit illustrates that an IGBT structure has a
parasitic thyristor in it. Parasitic thyristor is shown in line.

5.2.2 Working
When collector is made positive with respect to emitter, IGBT gets forward
biased. With no voltage between gate and emitter, two junctions between n- region and p
region (i.e. junction J2) are reversed biased; so no current flows from collector to emitter
When gate is made positive with respect to emitter by voltage V G, with gateemitter voltage more than the threshold voltage VGET of IGBT, an n-channel or inversion
layer, is formed in the upper part of p region just beneath the gate, as in PMOSFET . This nchannel short circuits the n- region with n+ emitter regions. Electrons from the n+ emitter
begin to flow to n- drift region through n-channel. As IGBT is forward biased with collector
positive and emitter negative, p+ collector region injects holes into n- drift region .In short; ndrift region is flooded with electrons from p-body region and holes from p+ collector region.
With this, the injection carrier density in n- drift region increases considerably and as a result,
conductivity of n- region enhances significantly. Therefore, IGBT gets turned on and begins
to conducts forward current IC.
Current Ic , or Ie of two current components:

Holes current Ih due to injected holes flowing from collector ,p+ n- p transistor Q1, pbody region resistance Rby and emitter .

Electronic current Ie due to injected electrons flowing from collector, or load, current
IC=emitter current Ie=Ih+Ie.

Major component of collector current is electronic current Ie, i.e. main current path for
collector, or load, current is through p+, n -, drift resistance Rd and n-channel resistance Rch.
Therefore, the voltage drop in IGBT in its on-state is
Vc e . o n = I c . R c h + I c . Rd + V j i
=voltage drop [in n - channel] + across drift in n- region + across forward
biased p+ n- junction J1.
Here Vji is usually 0.7 to 1v as in a p-n diode. The voltage drop Ic. Rch is due to n-channel
resistance, almost the same as in a PMOSFET. The voltage drop Vdf = Ic.Rd in UGBT is
much less than that in PMOSFET. It is due to substantial increase in the conductivity caused
by injection of electrons and holes in n- drift region. The conductivity increase is the main
reason for the low on-state voltage drop in IGBT than that it is in PMOSFET.

5.3 IGBT Characteristics

The circuit shows the various parameters pertaining to IGBT characteristics.
Static I-V or output characteristics of an IGBT (n-channel type) show the plot of collector
current Ic versus collector-emitter voltage Vce for various values of gate-emitter voltages
VGE1, VGE2 etc .These characteristics are shown below .In the forward direction, the shape
of the output characteristics is similar to that of BJT . But here the controlling parameter is
gate-emitter voltage VGE because IGBT is a voltage controlled device. When the device is
off, junctionJ2 blocks forward voltage and in case reverse voltage appears across collector
and emitter, junction J1 blocks it. Vrm is the maximum reverse breakdown voltage.
The transfer characteristic of an IGBT is a plot of collector current Ic versus gateemitter voltage VGE .This characteristics is identical to that of power MOSFET. When VGE
is less than the threshold voltage VGET, IGBT is in the off state.

Fig: 5.3 Static V-I characteristics

5.3.1 Switching Characteristics

Switching characteristics of an IGBT during turn-on and turn-off are
sketched. The turn-on time is defined as the time between by instance of forward blocking to
forward on-state. Turn-on time is composed of delay time tdn and rise time tr ,i.e. ton=tdn+tr.
The delay time is defined as the time for the collector-emitter voltage to fall from Vce to 0.9
Vce. Here Vce is the initial collector-emitter voltage.Time tdn may also be defined as the
time for the collector current to rise from its initial leakage current Ice to 0.1 Ic. Here Ic is the
final value of the collector current .
The rise time tr is the time during which collector-emitter falls from 0.9VCE
to 0.1VCE. IT is also defined as the time for the collector current to rise from 0.1Ic to its final
value Ic.After time ton, the collector current Ic and the collector-emitter voltage falls to small
value called conduction drop=VCES where subscript s denotes saturated value.
The turn-off time is somewhat complex . It consists of three intervals

Delay time tdf

Initial fall time tf1

Final time tf2

i.e. toff=tdf+tf1+tf2
The delay time is the time during which gate voltage falls from VGE to threshold voltage
VGET.As VGE falls to VGET during tdf, the collector current falls from Ic to 0.9 Ic. At the
end of the tdf, collector-emitter voltage begins to rise. The first fall time Tf1 is defined as the
time during which collector current falls from 90 to 20 % of its initial value Ic, or the time
during which collector-emitter voltage rises from Vces to 0.1 Vce.
The final fall time tf2 is the time during which collector current falls from 20
to 10% of Ic, or the time during which collector-emitter voltage rises from 0.1 VCE to final
value VCE.

5.4 Applications of IGBTs

IGBTs are widely used in medium power applications such as AC and DC
motor drives, UPS systems, power supplies and drives for solenoids, relays and contactors.
Though IGBTs are somewhat more expensive than BJTs, yet they are becoming popular
because of lower gate-drive requirement, lower switching losses and smaller snubber circuit
requirements. IGBT converter are more efficient with less size as well as cost, as compared to
converters based on BJTs. Recently, IGBT inverter induction-motor drives using 15-20KHZ.
Switching frequency favour where audio-noise is objectionable. In most applications, IGBTs
will eventually push out BJTs. At present , the state of the art IGBTs of 1200vots, 500 Amps
ratings , 0.25-20 s turn off time with operating frequency are available.

5.5 INVERTER
Types of inverters:
Generally inverters are of Two Types:
1. VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTER (VSI)
2. CURRENT SOURCE INVERTER (CSI)

5.6 SINGLE-PHASE VOLTAGE SOURCE INVERTERS (VSI):

Single-phase voltage source inverters (VSIs) can be found as half-bridge and fullbridge topologies. Although the power range they cover is the low one, they are widely used
in power supplies, single-phase UPSs, and currently to form elaborate high-power static
power topologies, such as for instance, the multi cell configurations that are reviewed. The
main features of both approaches are reviewed and presented in the following.
5.6.1TYPES OF VSI:
5.6.2 HALF-BRIDGE VSI:
The power topology of a half-bridge VSI, where two large capacitors are required to
provide a neutral point N, such that each capacitor maintains a constant voltage=2. Because
the current harmonics injected by the operation of the inverter are low-order harmonics, a set
of large capacitors (C. and C) is required. It is clear that both switches S. and S cannot be
on simultaneously because short circuit across the dc link voltage source vi would be
produced. There are two defined (states 1 and 2) and one undefined (state 3) switch state as
shown. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac output
voltage condition, the modulating technique should always ensure that at any instant either
the top or the bottom switch of the inverter leg is on.

Shows the ideal waveforms associated with the half-bridge inverter shown in Fig.
14.2. The states for the switches S. and S are defined by the modulating technique, which in
this case is a carrier-based PWM.
5.6.3 FULL-BRIDGE VSI:
The power topology of a full-bridge VSI. This inverter is similar to the half-bridge
inverter; however, a second leg provides the neutral point to the load. As expected, both

switches S1. and S1 (or S2. and S2) cannot be on simultaneously because a short circuit
across the dc link voltage source vi would be produced. There are four defined and one
undefined
The undefined condition should be avoided so as to be always capable of defining the
ac output voltage. In order to avoid the short circuit across the dc bus and the undefined ac
output voltage condition, the modulating technique should ensure that either the top or the
bottom switch of each leg is on at any instant. It can be observed that the ac output voltage
can take values up to the dc link value vi , which is twice that obtained with half-bridge VSI
topologies. Several modulating techniques have been developed that are applicable to fullbridge VSIs. Among them are the PWM (bipolar and unipolar) techniques.

5.7 CURRENT SOURCE INVERTERS (CSI):

The main objective of these static power converters is tom produce ac output current
waveforms from a dc current power supply. For sinusoidal ac outputs, its magnitude,
frequency, and phase should be controllable. Due to the fact that the ac line currents ioa, iob,
and ioc (Fig. 14.23) feature high di=dt, a capacitive filter should be connected at the ac
terminals in inductive load applications (such as ASDs).
Thus, nearly sinusoidal load voltages are generated that justifies the use of these
topologies in medium-voltage industrial applications, where high-quality voltage waveforms
are required.

Should be closed at any time; the dc bus is of the current-source type and thus it
cannot be opened; therefore, there must be at least one top switch and one bottom switch
(closed at all times. Note that both constraints can be summarized by stating that at any time,
only one top switch and one bottom switch must be closed.
There are nine valid states in three-phase CSIs. produce zero ac line currents. In this
case, the dc link current freewheels through either the switches S1 and S4, switches S3 and
S6, or switches S5 and S2.
The remaining states produce nonzero ac output line currents. In order to generate a
given set of ac line current waveforms, the inverter must move from one state to another.
Thus, the resulting line currents consist of discrete values of current, which are ii , 0, and ii .
The selection of the states in order to generate the given waveforms is done by the
modulating technique that should ensure the use of only the valid states.

5.8 PULSE WIDTH MODULATION CONTROL

The fundamental magnitude of the output voltage from an inverter can be controlled
to be constant by exercising control within the inverter itself that is no external control is
required. The most efficient method of doing this is by Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
control used within the inverter. In this scheme the inverter is fed by a fixed input voltage
and a controlled ac voltage is obtained by adjusting the on and the off periods of the inverter
components. The advantages of the PWM control scheme are:
a) The output voltage control can be obtained without addition of any external
components.

b) PWM minimizes the lower order harmonics, while the higher order harmonics can
be eliminated using a filter.
The disadvantage possessed by this scheme is that the switching devices used in the
inverter are expensive as they must possess low turn on and turn off times, nevertheless
PWM operated are very popular in all industrial equipments. PWM techniques are
characterized by constant amplitude pulses with different duty cycles for each period. The
width of these pulses are modulated to obtain inverter output voltage control and to reduce its
harmonic content. There are different PWM techniques which essentially differ in the
harmonic content of their respective output voltages, thus the choice of a particular PWM
technique depends on the permissible harmonic content in the inverter output voltage.
5.8.1 Sinusoidal-Pulse Width Modulation (SPWM)
The sinusoidal PWM (SPWM) method also known as the triangulation, sub harmonic,
or sub oscillation method, is very popular in industrial applications and is extensively
reviewed in the literature [1-2]. The SPWM is explained with reference to Figure 2.2, which
is the half-bridge circuit topology for a single-phase inverter.

Figure 5.8.1: Schematic diagram for Half-Bridge PWM inverter.

For realizing SPWM, a high-frequency triangular carrier wave is compared with a
sinusoidal reference of the desired frequency. The intersection of and waves determines the
switching instants and commutation of the modulated pulse. The PWM scheme is illustrated
in Figure 2.3 a, in which v is the peak value of triangular carrier wave and v that of the
reference, or modulating signal. The figure shows the triangle and modulation signal with

some arbitrary frequency and magnitude. In the inverter of Figure 2.2 the switches and are
controlled based on the comparison of control signal and the triangular wave which are mixed
in a comparator. When sinusoidal wave has magnitude higher than the triangular wave the
comparator output is high, otherwise it is low.

................... (5.1)
And

.................... (5.2)

(a)

(b)
Figure 5.8.1.1: SPWM illustration (a) Sine-Triangle Comparison (b) Switching Pulses after
comparison.
The comparator output is processes in a trigger pulse generator in such a manner that
the output voltage wave of the inverter has a pulse width in agreement with the comparator
output pulse width. The magnitude ratio of v r/vc is called the modulation index (mi) and it
controls the harmonic content of the output voltage waveform. The magnitude of fundamental
component of output voltage is proportional to m i. The amplitude vc of the triangular wave is
generally kept constant. The frequencymodulation ratio mf is defined as

................. (5.3)
To satisfy the Kirchoffs Voltage law (KVL) constraint, the switches on the same leg are not
turned on at the same time, which gives the condition
................... (5.4)
for each leg of the inverter. This enables the output voltage to fluctuate between V d/2 and
Vd/2as shown in Figure 2.4 for a dc voltage of 200 V.

Figure 5.8.1.2: Output voltage of the Half-Bridge inverter.

CHAPTER 6
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY
RPC STRUCTURE AND ANALYSIS OF COMPENSATION PRINCIPLE:
The structure of RPC is shown in Fig.6.0. Three phase 220kV voltage is stepped down
into two single-phase power supply voltage at the rank of 27.5kV by V/V transformer. RPC is
made of back-to-back voltage source converters and a common dc capacitor, which can
provide stable dc-link voltage. Two converters are connected to secondary arms of V/V
transformer by step down transformer. Two converters can transfer active power from one
power supply arm to another, supply reactive power and suppressing harmonic currents.

Figure: 6.0. Traction power system with a three-phase V/V transformer and a RPC
The right feeder section in Fig.1 is denoted as a-phase power arm, while that the left
side is b-phase power arm. The corresponding phases on the primary side are denoted as
Phase A and Phase B, respectively. Since using four-quadrant pulse rectifiers to feed electrical
locomotives, the power factor of high speed electrical locomotive is close to 1. Set U A as the
reference value. Assume that the fundamental current vector of a-phase power arm isaL and
the fundamental current vector of b-phase power arm is bL . aL and bL are shown as follows :

................. (6.0)
The turns ratio of V/V transformer is K, so the three currents of the high-voltage side are
shown as follows:

.............. (6.1)

Before RPC compensation, a-phase power arm has load current aL and the b-phase power arm
has load current bL. Assume that

, the three phase current is shown in Fig.6.0.1

Figure: 6.0.1. Three-phase current phase diagram without compensation

It is obvious that three phase current is unbalance before compensation. Use RPC to shift (I aL
IbL) from a-phase to b-phase. Then, the current of two power arms are compensated to and
, and they have an equal amplitude of (IaL + IbL) and an angle difference of /3 . The
unbalance level is 50% now.
On the basis of active power transfer, RPC should compensate a certain quantity of
capacitive reactive current Icaq on the power arm a and a certain quantity of inductive reactive
current Icbq on the power arm b, which can make the current of a-phase power arm lead the
corresponding voltage /6 . At this point, the reactive current should be calculated as
follows:

.................. (6.3)

Figure: 6.0.2. Three-phase current phase diagram after adjusting active and reactive power by
RPC
After the compensation, the currents IA and IB have the same amplitude, as shown in Fig.3,
and their angle difference is 2/3 . The C phase current IC can be obtained as IC = IA IB .
The primary side of traction transformer has a balance three-phase current after active power
shift and reactive power compensation. It is similar when IaL < IbL. The common expression of
RPC compensation current is:
................. (6.4)

, --the equivalent current of RPC converters of a-phase arm and b-phase arm at the voltage
of 27.5 kV
ca cb

6.1 PRINCIPLE OF COLLABORATION COMPENSATION:

Since phase sequence rotation is widely adopted in traction power supply system, 3
stations collaboration compensation is mainly discussed in this paper. The structure of 3
stations collaboration compensation is shown in Fig.4.

Figure 6.1. Schematic diagram of collaboration compensation of three stations

The capacity in phase CA, AB and BC is x,y,z , which has a relationship of x>y>z. The
network of x,y,z can be divided into two parts, the one is a balanced network of z,z,z , the

other is an unbalanced network of x-z, y-z, 0. Assume that X = x z ,Y = y z , the original

network is simplified as X,Y,0 . Set X/2 as the reference value, the p.u. value of the simplified
network is 2,Y ,0. Y is varying from 0 to 2. The extreme case is Y =0. The optimize
compensation strategy is shown below:
A. Single RPC compensation:
Based on the compensation strategy of RPC, when there is a maximum capacity in
one of the traction feeder arms, RPC transfers active power from one traction feeder arm to
another. And then compensates reactive power to both traction feeder arms based on
Steinmetz theory. So the compensation capacity of single RPC is:

................. (6.1)
B. Three stations collaboration compensation:
The simple model of 3 stations structure is shown in Fig.6.1.1. Since RPC could
transfer a quantity of active power and compensate reactive power, a triangle is applied to
illustrate the principle of collaboration compensation: apexes of the triangle are regarded as
active load in Phase-AC, Phase-BC and Phase- AB, and edges of the triangle are regarded as
three railway power conditioners. The arrows mean the delivery of active power (real part)
and compensation of reactive power (imaginary part) . There are three steps to compensate.
Firstly, transfer a quantity of active power. Secondly, separate the network into two parts: a
balanced network and an unbalanced network. And last, make compensation to the
unbalanced network based on the Steinmetz theory.

(a)Active power delivery

(b)Three phase power after active power delivery

(c) Reactive power compensation based on Steinmetz theory

Figure 6.1.1 . Compensation strategy under the condition of 2,0,0
According to the Steinmetz theory, fully compensation should satisfy the relationship
of

. The capacity of three RPC is

, separately. The

installed capacity will be the maximum of the three RPC capacities above. So we can obtain
the minimum installed capacity when

The results can be conducted a= , b = and the minimum capacity is

This is a fully compensation but the station where RPC2 installed is capacitive. To avoid this
condition, RPC1 supply inductive reactive power with the value of b, and RPC2 supply
capacitive reactive power with the value of b, too. So the capacitive condition is avoided and
the system keeps balance at the same time.
Working condition of three stations is shown in Fig.6.1.2 The ellipses stand for
different traction feeder arms, the squares stand for RPC which connect to traction feeder
arms. The arrows stand for active power transfer and reactive power compensation.

Figure: 6.1.2. Working condition of three stations which supply active power and reactive
power
Three stations collaboration compensation minimum capacity is:

....................... (6.1.1)
Which is 2/3 of the capacity of single RPC compensation? Tab.1 shows the compensation
capacity

of

the

two

strategies.

TABLE I. COMPARISON OF TWO COMPENSATION METHOD

It can be proved that this installed capacity (0.1925X) can satisfy any condition when Y'
varying from 0 to 2.
If there is N stations connect to one 220kV bus, N may be 3n, 3n+1 or 3n+2
(n=0,1,2). When N=3n, it means there are n sets of 3-stations compensation. When
N=3n+1, it means there are n sets of 3-stations compensation and a single station
compensation. When N=3n+2, it means there are n sets of 3- stations compensation and 2
single station compensation.

CHAPTER 7
MATLAB DESIGN OF CASE STUDY AND RESULTS
CONCLUSION
This paper proposes a new power quality compensation system which is composed of
several railway power conditioners. The proposed system can be used to compensate negative
sequence current in high speed electrified railway. A minimum installed capacity is conducted
which is 2/3 of the traditional single station compensation capacity. A new compensation
strategy is raised Simulation results show that the proposed collaboration compensation of
railway power conditioners is effective. It can reduce compensation capacity and has a good
performance at negative sequence current compensation.