QuantumTwo

AngularMomentumandRotations

AngularMomentumandRotations
Introduction

Inclassicalmechanicsthetotalangularmomentum ofanisolatedsystemabout
anyfixedpointisconserved.

Theexistenceofaconservedvector associatedwithsuchasystemisitselfa
consequenceofthefactthattheassociatedHamiltonian(orLagrangian)is
invariantunderrotations.

Inclassicalmechanicsthetotalangularmomentum ofanisolatedsystemabout
anyfixedpointisconserved.

Theexistenceofaconservedvector associatedwithsuchasystemisitselfa
consequenceofthefactthattheassociatedHamiltonian(orLagrangian)is
invariantunderrotations.

Inclassicalmechanicsthetotalangularmomentum ofanisolatedsystemabout
anyfixedpointisconserved.

Theexistenceofaconservedvector associatedwithsuchasystemisitselfa
consequenceofthefactthattheassociatedHamiltonian(orLagrangian)is
invariantunderrotations.

Thatis,ifthecoordinatesandmomentaoftheentiresystemarerotated"rigidly"
aboutsomepoint,theenergyofthesystemisunchangedand,moreimportantly,
itisthesamefunctionofthedynamicalvariablesasitwasbeforetherotation.
Suchacircumstancewouldnotapply,e.g.,toa
systemlyinginanexternallyimposedelectric
orgravitationalfieldpointinginsomespecific
direction.
Thus,theinvarianceofanisolatedsystemunder
rotationsultimatelyarisesfromthefactthat,
intheabsenceofexternalfieldsofthissort,
spaceisisotropic;itbehavesthesameway
inalldirections.
8

Thatis,ifthecoordinatesandmomentaoftheentiresystemarerotated"rigidly"
aboutsomepoint,theenergyofthesystemisunchangedand,moreimportantly,
itisthesamefunctionofthedynamicalvariablesasitwasbeforetherotation.
Suchacircumstancewouldnotapply,e.g.,toa
systemlyinginanexternallyimposedelectric
orgravitationalfieldpointinginsomespecific
direction.
Thus,theinvarianceofanisolatedsystemunder
rotationsultimatelyarisesfromthefactthat,
intheabsenceofexternalfieldsofthissort,
spaceisisotropic;itbehavesthesameway
inalldirections.
9

Thatis,ifthecoordinatesandmomentaoftheentiresystemarerotated"rigidly"
aboutsomepoint,theenergyofthesystemisunchangedand,moreimportantly,
itisthesamefunctionofthedynamicalvariablesasitwasbeforetherotation.
Suchacircumstancewouldnotapply,e.g.,toa
systemlyinginanexternallyimposedelectric
orgravitationalfieldpointinginsomespecific
direction.
Thus,theinvarianceofanisolatedsystemunder
rotationsultimatelyarisesfromthefactthat,
intheabsenceofexternalfieldsofthissort,
spaceisisotropic;itbehavesthesameway
inalldirections.
10

Thatis,ifthecoordinatesandmomentaoftheentiresystemarerotated"rigidly"
aboutsomepoint,theenergyofthesystemisunchangedand,moreimportantly,
itisthesamefunctionofthedynamicalvariablesasitwasbeforetherotation.
Suchacircumstancewouldnotapply,e.g.,toa
systemlyinginanexternallyimposedelectric
orgravitationalfieldpointinginsomespecific
direction.
Thus,theinvarianceofanisolatedsystemunder
rotationsultimatelyarisesfromthefactthat,
intheabsenceofexternalfieldsofthissort,
spaceisisotropic;itbehavesthesameway
inalldirections.

9yearWMAPimageofcosmic
backgroundradiation(2012).

11

Notsurprisingly,therefore,inquantummechanicstheindividualCartesian
components , ,and ofthetotalangularmomentumoperator ofan
isolatedsystemarealsoconstantsofthemotion.
Thedifferentcomponents
observables.

of arenot,however,compatiblequantum

Indeed,aswewillseetheoperatorsrepresentingthecomponentsofangular
momentumalongdifferentdirectionsdonotgenerallycommute withone
another.

Thus,thevectoroperator isnotobservable,since itdoesnothaveacomplete

basisofeigenstates (whichwouldhavetobesimultaneouseigenstatesofallofits
noncommutingcomponents).
12

Notsurprisingly,therefore,inquantummechanicstheindividualCartesian
components , ,and ofthetotalangularmomentumoperator ofan
isolatedsystemarealsoconstantsofthemotion.
Thedifferentcomponents
observables.

of arenot,however,compatiblequantum

Indeed,aswewillseetheoperatorsrepresentingthecomponentsofangular
momentumalongdifferentdirectionsdonotgenerallycommute withone
another.

Thus,thevectoroperator isnotobservable,since itdoesnothaveacomplete

basisofeigenstates (whichwouldhavetobesimultaneouseigenstatesofallofits
noncommutingcomponents).
13

Notsurprisingly,therefore,inquantummechanicstheindividualCartesian
components , ,and ofthetotalangularmomentumoperator ofan
isolatedsystemarealsoconstantsofthemotion.
Thedifferentcomponents
observables.

of arenot,however,compatiblequantum

Indeed,aswewillsee,theoperatorsrepresentingthecomponentsofangular
momentumalongdifferentdirectionsdonotgenerallycommute withone
another.

Thus,thevectoroperator isnotobservable,since itdoesnothaveacomplete

basisofeigenstates (whichwouldhavetobesimultaneouseigenstatesofallofits
noncommutingcomponents).
14

Notsurprisingly,therefore,inquantummechanicstheindividualCartesian
components , ,and ofthetotalangularmomentumoperator ofan
isolatedsystemarealsoconstantsofthemotion.
Thedifferentcomponents
observables.

of arenot,however,compatiblequantum

Indeed,aswewillseetheoperators,representingthecomponentsofangular
momentumalongdifferentdirectionsdonotgenerallycommute withone
another.

Thus,thevectoroperator isnotanobservable,since itdoesnothavea

completebasisofeigenstates (whichwouldhavetobesimultaneouseigenstates
ofallofitsnoncommutingcomponents).
15

Thenoncommutivity ofthesequantumobservablesoftenseems,atfirst
encounter,abitofanuisance,anditseemstobepartofthestrangenessof
quantummechanicsitself.
But,thisisnottrue.
Infact,itintimatelyreflectsthe
underlyingstructureofthethree
dimensionalspace inwhichweare
immersed,andhasitssourceinthe
factthatrotations,evenof
classicalobjects,inthree
dimensionsaboutdifferentaxes
donotcommute withoneanother.
16

Thenoncommutivity ofthesequantumobservablesoftenseems,atfirst
encounter,abitofanuisance,anditseemstobepartofthestrangenessof
quantummechanicsitself.
But,thisisnottrue.
Infact,itintimatelyreflectsthe
underlyingstructureofthethree
dimensionalspace inwhichweare
immersed,andhasitssourceinthe
factthatrotations,evenof
classicalobjects,inthree
dimensionsaboutdifferentaxes
donotcommute withoneanother.
17

Thenoncommutivity ofthesequantumobservablesoftenseems,atfirst
encounter,abitofanuisance,anditseemstobepartofthestrangenessof
quantummechanicsitself.
But,thisisnottrue.
Infact,itintimatelyreflectsthe
underlyingstructureofthethree
dimensionalspace inwhichweare
immersed.
Ithasitssourceinthe
factthatrotations,evenof
classicalobjects,inthree
dimensionsaboutdifferentaxes
donotcommute withoneanother.
18

Thenoncommutivity ofthesequantumobservablesoftenseems,atfirst
encounter,abitofanuisance,anditseemstobepartofthestrangenessof
quantummechanicsitself.
But,thisisnottrue.
Infact,itintimatelyreflectsthe
underlyingstructureofthethree
dimensionalspace inwhichweare
immersed.
Ithasitssourceinthe
factthatrotations,evenof
classicalobjects,inthree
dimensionsaboutdifferentaxes
donotcommute withoneanother.
19

Thenoncommutivity ofthesequantumobservablesoftenseems,atfirst
encounter,abitofanuisance,anditseemstobepartofthestrangenessof
quantummechanicsitself.
But,thisisnottrue.
Infact,itintimatelyreflectsthe
underlyingstructureofthethree
dimensionalspace inwhichweare
immersed.
Ithasitssourceinthe
factthatrotations,evenof
classicalobjects,inthree
dimensionsaboutdifferentaxes
donotcommute withoneanother.
20

Indeed,thisnoncommutivity impartsto
angularmomentumobservablesarich
characteristicstructureandmakesthem
quiteuseful,e.g.,inclassifyingthebound
statesofatomic,molecular,andnuclear
systemscontainingoneormoreparticles

21

Justasimportantly,theexistenceof"spin"degreesoffreedom,i.e.,
intrinsicangularmomenta associated
withtheinternalstructure of
fundamentalparticles,

22

Justasimportantly,theexistenceof"spin"degreesoffreedom,i.e.,
intrinsicangularmomenta associated
withtheinternalstructure of
fundamentalparticles,provides
additionalmotivationforthestudy
ofangularmomentum,andtothegeneral
transformationpropertiesexhibitedby
quantumsystemssubjectedtorotationsin
threedimensions.
Inthenextsegment,therefore,webeginourformalstudyofangularmomentum
observablesbyreviewingthedefinitionandbasicpropertiesoftheangular
momentumofoneormoreparticles.
23

Justasimportantly,theexistenceof"spin"degreesoffreedom,i.e.,
intrinsicangularmomenta associated
withtheinternalstructure of
fundamentalparticles,provides
additionalmotivationforthestudy
ofangularmomentum,andtothegeneral
transformationpropertiesexhibitedby
quantumsystemssubjectedtorotationsin
threedimensions.
Inthenextsegment,therefore,webeginourformalstudyofangularmomentum
observablesbyreviewingthedefinitionandbasicpropertiesoftheangular
momentumofoneormoreparticles.
24

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