Formative years

Vikram Sarabhai, first chairman of INCOSPAR, which would later be called ISRO

Modern space research in India is most visibly traced to the 1920s, when the scientist S. K.
Mitra conducted a series of experiments leading to the sounding of the ionosphere by
application of ground based radio methods in Calcutta.[10] Later, Indian scientists like C.V.
Raman and Meghnad Saha contributed to scientific principles applicable in space sciences.[10]
However, it was the period after 1945 which saw important developments being made in
coordinated space research in India.[10] Organised space research in India was spearheaded by
two scientists: Vikram Sarabhaifounder of the Physical Research Laboratory at
Ahmedabadand Homi Bhabha, who established the Tata Institute of Fundamental Research
in 1945.[10] Initial experiments in space sciences included the study of cosmic radiation, high
altitude and airborne testing of instruments, deep underground experimentation at the Kolar
minesone of the deepest mining sites in the world and studies of the upper atmosphere.[11]
Studies were carried out at research laboratories, universities, and independent
locations.[11][12]
In 1950, the Department of Atomic Energy was founded with Homi Bhabha as its
secretary.[12] The Department provided funding for space research throughout India.[13]
During this time, tests continued on aspects of meteorology and the Earth's magnetic field, a
topic which was being studied in India since the establishment of the observatory at Colaba in
1823. In 1954, the Uttar Pradesh state observatory was established at the foothills of the
Himalayas.[12] The Rangpur Observatory was set up in 1957 at Osmania University,
Hyderabad. Space research was further encouraged by the technically inclined Prime Minister
of India, Jawaharlal Nehru.[13] In 1957, the Soviet Union successfully launched Sputnik and
opened up possibilities for the rest of the world to conduct a space launch.[13]
The Indian National Committee for Space Research (INCOSPAR) was set up in 1962 by
Jawaharlal Nehru, India's first Prime Minister.[14] It had Vikram Sarabhai as its chairman. The
first rocket launch into space from Indian soil took place on 21 November 1963 under the
leadership of project scientist Praful Bhavsar. INCOSPAR eventually grew into ISRO in
1969.[14]

Goals and objectives

The prime objective of ISRO is to develop space technology and its application to various
national tasks.[1] The Indian space programme was driven by the vision of Vikram Sarabhai,
considered the father of the Indian Space Programme.[15] As he said in 1969:

There are some who question the relevance of space activities in a developing nation. To
us, there is no ambiguity of purpose. We do not have the fantasy of competing with the
economically advanced nations in the exploration of the Moon or the planets or manned
space-flight. But we are convinced that if we are to play a meaningful role nationally, and
in the community of nations, we must be second to none in the application of advanced
technologies to the real problems of man and society.[1]

The former Indian President A. P. J. Abdul Kalam said:

Many individuals with myopic vision questioned the relevance of space activities in a newly
independent nation, which was finding it difficult to feed its population. Their vision was
clear if Indians were to play meaningful role in the community of nations, they must be
second to none in the application of advanced technologies to their real-life problems. They
had no intention of using it as a means of displaying our might.[16]

India's economic progress has made its space programme more visible and active as the
country aims for greater self-reliance in space technology.[17] In 2008 India launched as many
as 11 satellites, including nine from other countries and went on to become the first nation to
launch 10 satellites on one rocket."[17] ISRO has successfully put into operation two major
satellite systems: Indian National Satellites (INSAT) for communication services and Indian
Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites for management of natural resources.
In July 2012, the former President, A. P. J. Abdul Kalam said that research was being done
by ISRO and DRDO for developing cost reduction technologies for access to space.[18]

Organisation structure and facilities

The Structure of the Department of Space of the Government of India

ISRO is managed by the Department of Space (DoS) of the Government of India. DoS itself
falls under the authority of the Prime Minister and the Space Commission, and manages the
following agencies and institutes:[19]

Indian Space Research Organisation

o Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre (LPSC), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC-SHAR), Sriharikota.
o ISRO Propulsion Complex (IPRC), Mahendragiri.
o ISRO Satellite Centre (ISAC), Bangalore.
o Space Applications Centre (SAC), Ahmedabad.
o National Remote Sensing Centre (NRSC), Hyderabad.
o ISRO Inertial Systems Unit (IISU), Thiruvananthapuram.
o Development and Educational Communication Unit (DECU), Ahmedabad.
o Master Control Facility (MCF), Hassan, Karnataka.
o ISRO Telemetry, Tracking and Command Network (ISTRAC), Bangalore.
o Laboratory for Electro-Optics Systems (LEOS), Bangalore.
o Indian Institute of Remote Sensing (IIRS), Dehradun.
Antrix Corporation - The marketing arm of ISRO, Bangalore.
Physical Research Laboratory (PRL), Ahmedabad.
National Atmospheric Research Laboratory (NARL), Gadanki, Andhra pradesh.
North-Eastern Space Applications Centre[20] (NE-SAC), Umiam.
Semi-Conductor Laboratory (SCL), Mohali.
Indian Institute of Space Science and Technology (IIST), Thiruvananthapuram - India's space
university.

Research facilities

Facility

Location

Description

Vikram Sarabhai
Space Centre

The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO, /sro/), is the space agency of the
Indian government headquartered in the city of Bangalore. Its vision is to "harness space
technology for national development", while pursuing space science research and planetary
exploration.[1]
Formed in 1969, ISRO superseded the erstwhile Indian National Committee for Space
Research (INCOSPAR) established in 1962 by the efforts of independent India's first Prime
Minister, Jawaharlal Nehru, and his close aide and scientist Vikram Sarabhai. The
establishment of ISRO thus institutionalised space activities in India.[2] It is managed by the
Department of Space, which reports to the Prime Minister of India.
ISRO built India's first satellite, Aryabhata, which was launched by the Soviet Union on 19
April 1975. In 1980, Rohini became the first satellite to be placed in orbit by an Indian-made
launch vehicle, SLV-3. ISRO subsequently developed two other rockets: the Polar Satellite
Launch Vehicle (PSLV) for launching satellites into polar orbits and the Geosynchronous
Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV) for placing satellites into geostationary orbits. These
rockets have launched numerous communications satellites and earth observation satellites.
Satellite navigation systems like GAGAN and IRNSS have been deployed. In January 2014,
ISRO successfully used an indigenous cryogenic engine in a GSLV-D5 launch of the GSAT14.[3][4]
ISRO sent one lunar orbiter, Chandrayaan-1, on 22 October 2008 and one Mars orbiter, Mars
Orbiter Mission, which successfully entered Mars orbit on 24 September 2014, making India
the first nation to succeed on its first attempt, and ISRO the fourth space agency in the world
as well as the first space agency in Asia to successfully reach Mars orbit.[5] Future plans
include development of GSLV Mk III,(for launch of heavier satellites), ULV, development of
a reusable launch vehicle, human spaceflight, further lunar exploration, interplanetary probes,
a solar spacecraft mission, etc.[6] As of 24 June 2016, ISRO has launched 131 satellites using
indigenously developed launch vehicles out of which 74 are foreign. Also, 29 Indian satellites
have been launched by foreign launch vehicles.[7] As of October 2015, ISRO has agreed to
launch 23 foreign satellites of nine different nations including Algeria, Canada, Germany,
Indonesia, Japan, Singapore and the US.[8] On 18 June 2016 India successfully set a record
with launch of 20 satellites in a single payload, one being a satellite from Google.[9]

Contents
There are many undecomposed rock and mineral fragments which on weathering liberate
sodium, magnesium and calcium salts and sulphurous acid. Some of the salts are transported
in solution by the rivers, which percolate in the sub-soils of the plains.
In canal irrigated areas and in areas of high sub-soil water table, the injurious salts are
transferred from below to the top soil by the capillary action as a result of evaporation in dry

season. The accumulation of these salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
agriculture.
It has been estimated that about 1.25 million hectares of land in Uttar Pradesh and 1.21
million hectares in Punjab has been affected by usar. In Gujarat, the area round the Gulf of
Khambhat is affected by the sea tides carrying salt-laden deposits. Vast areas comprising the
estuaries of the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi and the Sabarmati have thus become infertile.

8. Peaty and Marshy Soils:

Peaty soils originate in humid regions as a result of accumulation of large amounts of organic
matter in the soils. These soils contain considerable amount of soluble salts and 10-40 per
cent of organic matter. Soils belonging to this group are found in Kottayam and Alappuzha
districts of Kerala where it is called kari.
There is, therefore, great possibility of reclaiming these soils if proper irrigation facilities are
available. The changes in the cropping pattern in the Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area are
a living example of the utility of the desert soils. However, in large areas of desert soils, only
the drought resistant and salt tolerant crops such as barley, rape, cotton, wheat, millets, maize
and pulses are grown. Consequently, these soils support a low density of population.

7. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

These soils are found in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka. In the drier parts of Bihar, Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra, there are salt-impregnated or alkaline
soils occupying 68,000 sq km of area. These soils are liable to saline and alkaline
efflorescences and are known by different names such as reh, kallar, usar, thur, rakar, karl
and chopan.

7. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

By and large, the red soils are poor in lime, magnesia, phosphates, nitrogen and humus, but
are fairly rich in potash. In their chemical composition they are mainly siliceous and
aluminous; with free quartz as sand the alkali content is fair, some parts being quite rich in
potassium.
The texture of these soils varies from sand to clay, the majority being loams. On the uplands,
the red soils are thin, poor and gravelly, sandy or stoney and porous, but in the lower areas
they are rich, deep dark and fertile.
The red soils respond well to the proper use of fertilizers and irrigation and give