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7 LAYERED ARCHITECTURE
The Open Systems Interconnection model (OSI model) is a conceptual model that characterizes and
standardizes the communication functions of a telecommunication or computing system without regard to their
underlying internal structure and technology.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by
means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with
protocol-related headers and/or footers.
At each level N, two entities at the communicating devices (layer N peers) exchange protocol data units (PDUs) by
means of a layer N protocol. Each PDU contains a payload, called the service data unit (SDU), along with
protocol-related headers and/or footers.
service data unit (SDU) is a unit of data that has been passed down from an OSI layer to a lower layer and that
has not yet been encapsulated into a protocol data unit (PDU) by the lower layer. It is a set of data that is sent by a
user of the services of a given layer, and is transmitted semantically unchanged to a peer service user.
It differs from a PDU in that the PDU specifies the data that will be sent to the peer protocol layer at the receiving
end, as opposed to being sent to a lower layer.
The SDU at any given layer, layer 'n', is the PDU of the layer above, layer 'n+1'. In effect the SDU is the 'payload' of
a given PDU. That is, the process of changing a SDU to a PDU, consists of an encapsulation process,
performed by the lower layer. All the data contained in the SDU becomes encapsulated within the PDU. The
layer n-1 adds headers or footers, or both, to the SDU, transforming it into a PDU of layer n-1. The
added headers or footers are part of the process used to make it possible to get data from a source to a
destination.
Protocol data unit
Piece of data passed between layers collectively known as PDU (protocol data unit). Layers have different terms to
describe it like (segment in transport layer, packet in network layer, frame at data link layer, and signal at
physical layer.)
PDU include data file and a consistent body of information attached onto data at each successive layer. This
information is called header and footer. It includes instructions on how to restore the file to its original state
when it receives to the target system.
As a PDU passes through the layers, a header (and footer only on data link layer) is added to the packet with
information to the peer layer on the destination system for reconstructing the data on its way back up through the
layers of the destination network.
Data Exchange Process
In data exchange process, participating computers work in reverse mode. Layers on receiving computer
perform the same task in reverse mode.
The receiving device takes delivery of, handles, and translates the data from the sending device at a particular
layer. For example on sending computer presentation layer compress the data, same presentation layer on
receiving computer decompress the data.
On sending computer
On receiving computer
Physical layer receive signals from media and convert them in frames. Frames are forwarded
to the data link layer.
Data link layer check the frame. All tampered frame are dropped here. If frame is correct, data link
layer strip down its header and footer from frame and hand over packet to network layer.
Network layer check the packet with its own implementations. If it's found everything fine with packet, it
strips down its header from packet and hand over segment to transport layer.
Transport layer again do the same job. It verifies the segments with its own protocol rules. Only the
verified segments are processed. Transport layer remove its header from verified segments and
reassemble the segments in data. Data is handed over the session layer.
Session layer keep track of open connection and forwarded the receiving data to presentation layer.
Presentation form the data in such a way that application layer use it.
Application layer on receiving computer find the appropriate application from the computer and open
data within particular application.
In nutshell
At the sending device, each layer breaks the data down into smaller packets and adds its own header.
At the receiving device, each layer strips off the header and builds the data packets into larger packets.
Each protocol layer is blind to the headers of any other protocol layer and cannot process them.
Media Access Control (MAC) layer - responsible for controlling how devices in a network gain access to
medium and permission to transmit it.
Logical Link Control (LLC) layer - responsible for identifying Network layer protocols and then
encapsulating them and controls error checking and frame synchronization.
The Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) is a data link layer that can operate over several different physical layers, such
as synchronous and asynchronous serial lines.
Main functions of data link layer are
MAC Address
MAC address is a 48 bit long layer two address. It is also known as hardware address. This address is burnt with
device by manufacturing company.
The first six hexadecimal digits of a MAC address represent its manufacture company.
MAC addresses only need to be unique in a broadcast domain.
You can have the same MAC address in different broadcast domains.
Frame
Data link layer receive packet from network layer and wrap it with layer two Header that is
known as frame. There are two specifications of Ethernet frame.
1.
2.
Ethernet II
802
Data link layer synchronizes the information which is to be transmitted over the physical layer.
The main function of this layer is to make sure data transfer is error free from one node
to another, over the physical layer.
Transmitting and receiving data frames sequentially is managed by this layer.
4.
5.
This layer sends and expects acknowledgements for frames received and sent respectively. Resending of
non-acknowledgement received frames is also handled by this layer.
This layer establishes a logical layer between two nodes and also manages the Frame traffic control over
the network. It signals the transmitting node to stop, when the frame buffers are full.
Define IP address
Find routes based on IP address to reach its destination
Connect different data link type together like as Token Ring, Serial, FDDI, Ethernet etc.
It routes the signal through different channels from one node to other.
It acts as a network controller. It manages the Subnet traffic.
It decides by which route data should take.
It divides the outgoing messages into packets and assembles the incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.
IP address
IP address a 32 bit long software address which made from two components:
Network component: - Defines network segment of device.
Host component :- Defines the specific device on a particular network segment
Subnet mask is used to distinguish between network component and host component.
IP packet
Network layer receive segment from transport layer and wrap it with IP header that is known as datagram.
Datagram
Datagram is just another name of packet. Network layer use datagram to transfer information between nodes.
Two types of packets are used at the Network layer: data and route updates.
Data packets
Data packets are used to transport the user data across the network. Protocols used by data packets are
known as routed protocol. For example IP and IPv6
Route update packets
These packets are used to update the route information within internetwork. Routers use these packets.
Protocols that send route update packets are called routing protocols; for example RIP, RIPv2, EIGRP, and OSPF
Routing is the process of selecting best paths in a network. In packet switching networks, routing directs packet
forwarding (the transit of logically addressed network packets from their source toward their ultimate
destination) through intermediate nodes. Intermediate nodes are typically network hardware devices such
as routers, bridges, gateways, firewalls, or switches.
A router[a] is a networking device that forwards data packets between computer networks. Routers perform the
traffic directing functions on the Internet. A data packet is typically forwarded from one router to another
through the networks that constitute the internetwork until it reaches its destination node.[2]
A router is connected to two or more data lines from different networks.[b] When a data packet comes in on one of
the lines, the router reads the address information in the packet to determine the ultimate destination. Then,
using information in its routing table or routing policy, it directs the packet to the next network on its journey.
This creates an overlay internetwork.
Layer 4: Transport Layer
The transport layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable-length data
sequences from a source to a destination host via one or more networks, while maintaining the
quality of service functions. The protocols of the layer provide host-to-host communication services for
applications.[1] It provides services such as connection-oriented data stream support, reliability, flow control,
and multiplexing.
An example of a transport-layer protocol in the standard Internet stack is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP),
usually built on top of the Internet Protocol (IP).
The transport layer controls the reliability of a given link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation,
and error control. Some protocols are state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can
keep track of the segments and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the acknowledgement
of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors occurred. The transport layer creates
packets out of the message received from the application layer. Packetizing is a process of dividing the long
message into smaller messages.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI definition of the
transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram Protocol(UDP) of the Internet
Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4 protocols within OSI.
Transport Layer :
1.
2.
3.
4.
Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more efficiently by the
network layer.
Segmentation
Connection management
Reliable and unreliable data delivery
Flow control
Connection multiplexing
Reliability means guaranteed data delivery. To insure delivery of each single segment, connection oriented
method is used. In this approach before sending any segments three way handshake process is done.
Once connection is established data transmission will be initiated. To provide maximum reliability it includes
following functions:-
Flow control
The transport layer implements two flow control methods:
First, the receiver may respond to the sender with a not ready signal only when its buffer fills up. While
this message is on its way to the sender, the sender is still sending segments to the receiver, which the
receiver will have to drop because its buffer space is full.
The second problem with the uses of this method is that once the receiver is ready to receive more
segments, it must first send a ready signal to the sender, which must be received before sender can send
more segments.
Windowing
In windowing a window size is defined between sender and receiver. Sender host will wait for an
acknowledgement signal after sending the segments equal to the window size. If any packet lost in the way,
receiver will respond with acknowledgement for lost packet. Sender will send lost packet again. Window size is
automatically set during the three step handshake process. It can be adjust anytime throughout the lifetime of
connection.
Connection Multiplexing/Application Mapping
Connection multiplexing feature allows multiple applications to connect at a time. For example a server performs
a number of functions like email, FTP, DNS, Web service, file service, data service etc. Suppose server has a single
IP address, how will it perform all these different functions for all the hosts that want to connect with it? To make
this possible transport layer assigns a unique set of numbers for each connection. These numbers are called port
or socket numbers. These port numbers allow multiple applications to send and receive data simultaneously.
Transport layer services are conveyed to an application via a programming interface to the transport layer
protocols. The services may include the following features:
verify correct receipt by sending an ACK or NACK message to the sender. Automatic repeat
request schemes may be used to retransmit lost or corrupted data.
Flow control: The rate of data transmission between two nodes must sometimes be managed to prevent a
fast sender from transmitting more data than can be supported by the receiving data buffer, causing a buffer
overrun. This can also be used to improve efficiency by reducing buffer underrun.
Congestion avoidance: Congestion control can control traffic entry into a telecommunications network, so as
to avoid congestive collapse by attempting to avoid oversubscription of any of the processing
or link capabilities of the intermediate nodes and networks and taking resource reducing steps, such as
reducing the rate of sendingpackets. For example, automatic repeat requests may keep the network in a
congested state; this situation can be avoided by adding congestion avoidance to the flow control,
including slow-start. This keeps the bandwidth consumption at a low level in the beginning of the
transmission, or after packet retransmission.
Multiplexing: Ports can provide multiple endpoints on a single node. For example, the name on a postal
address is a kind of multiplexing, and distinguishes between different recipients of the same location.
Computer applications will each listen for information on their own ports, which enables the use of more than
one network service at the same time. It is part of the transport layer in the TCP/IP model, but of the session
layer in the OSI model.
Session layer manages and synchronize the conversation between two different applications.
Transfer of data from source to destination session layer streams of data are marked and are
resynchronized properly, so that the ends of the messages ar
Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver will understand the
information (data) and will be able to use the data.
While receiving the data, presentation layer transforms the data to be ready for the application layer.
Languages(syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under this condition
presentation layer plays a role of translator.
It perfroms Data compression, Data encryption, Data conversion etc.
Application layer provides platform to send and receive data over the network. All applications and utilities that
communicate with network fall in this layer. For examples
Application Layer :
1.
2.
3.
OSI model distinguishes well between the services, interfaces and protocols.
Protocols of OSI model are very well hidden.
Protocols can be replaced by new protocols as technology changes.
Supports connection oriented services as well as connectionless service.
The Internet application layer includes the OSI application layer, presentation layer, and most of the
session layer.
Its end-to-end transport layer includes the graceful close function of the OSI session layer as well as the
OSI transport layer.
The internetworking layer (Internet layer) is a subset of the OSI network layer.
The link layer includes the OSI data link layer and sometimes the physical layers, as well as some
protocols of the OSI's network layer.
Flow Control: Flow control coordinates that amount of data that can be sent before receiving
acknowledgement.
It is one of the most important duties of the data link layer.
Flow control tells the sender how much data to send.
It makes the sender wait for some sort of an acknowledgment (ACK) before continuing to send more
data.
Flow Control Techniques: Stop-and-wait, and Sliding Window
Error Control: Error control in the data link layer is based on ARQ (automatic repeat request), which is the retransmission
of data.
The term error control refers to methods of error detection and retransmission.
Anytime an error is detected in an exchange, specified frames are retransmitted. This process is called
ARQ.
To ensure reliable communication, there needs to exist flow control (managing the amount of data the sender sends), and
error control (that data arrives at the destination error free).
Flow and error control needs to be done at several layers.
For node-to-node links, flow and error control is carried out in the data-link layer.
For end-point to end-point, flow and error control is carried out in the transport layer.
Flow & Error control:
Error Detection and ARQ (error detection with retransmissions) must be combined with methods that intelligently
limit the number of outstanding (unACKed) frames.
Flow & Error control techniques: Stop-and-Wait ARQ, Go-Back-N ARQ, and Selective Repeat ARQ
For every frame that is sent, there needs to be an acknowledgment, which takes a similar amount of propagation
time
ime to get back to the sender.
Only one frame can be in transmission at a time. This leads to inefficiency if propagation delay is much longer
than the transmission delay
Advantages of Stop and Wait:
Wait
o Its simple and each frame is checked and acknowledged well.
w
Disadvantages of Stop and Wait:
Wait
o Only one frame can be in transmission at a time.
o It is inefficient, if the distance between devices is long. Reason is propagation delay is much longer than
the transmission delay.
o The time spent for waiting acknowledgements
acknowledge
between each frame can add significant amount to the
total transmission time.
This window can hold frames at either end and provides the upper limit on the number of frames that can be
transmitted before requiring an acknowledgement.
For example, if n = 8, the frames are numbered 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 0, 1so on. The size of
the window is (n -1) = 7.
When the receiver sends an ACK, it includes the number of the next frame it expects to receive. When the receiver
sends an ACK containing the number 5, it means all frames upto number 4 have been received.
If the window size is sufficiently large the sender can continuously transmit packets:
packets
o If W >= (2a+1), sender can transmit continuously. (Efficiency =1)
o If W < (2a+1), sender can transmit W frames every (2a+1) time units.
units (Efficiency = W/(1+2a))
Many factors including line noise can alter or wipe out one or more bits of a given data unit.
Reliable systems must have mechanism for detecting and correcting such errors.
Error detection and correction are implemented either at the data link layer or the transport layer of the
OSI model.
Error Detection
Error detection uses the concept of redundancy, which means adding extra bits for detecting errors at
the destination.
Checking function performs the action that the received bit stream passes the checking criteria, the data
portion of the data unit is accepted else rejected.
In this technique, a redundant bit, called parity bit, is appended to every data unit, so that the total
number of 1s in the unit (including the parity bit) becomes even.
Some systems may use odd parity checking, where the number of 1s should be odd. The principle is
the same, the calculation is different.
Checksum
There are two algorithms involved in this process, checksum generator at sender end and checksum
checker at receiver end.
All sections are added together using 1s complement to get the sum.
All sections are added together using 1s complement to get the sum.
If the result is zero, the data are accepted, otherwise they are rejected.
A sequence of redundant bits called CRC or the CRC remainder is appended to the end of a data unit,
so that the resulting data unit becomes exactly divisible by a second, predetermined binary number.
At its destination, the incoming data unit is divided by the same number. If at this step there is no
remainder, the data unit is assumed to be intact and therefore is accepted.
Error Correction:
An error is detected in an exchange, a negative acknowledgement NAK is returned and the specified
frames are retransmitted. This process is called Automatic Repeat Request (ARQ)
(ARQ).
Retransmission of data happens in three Cases: Damaged frame, Lost frame and Lost
acknowledgement.
Include re-transmission
transmission of data in case of lost or damaged
damage framer.
If an error is discovered in a data frame, indicating that it has been corrupted in transit, a NAK frame is
returned. NAK frames, which are numbered, tell the sender to retransmit the last frame sent.
Piggybacking: In bidirectional communications, both parties send & acknowledge data, i.e. both parties
implement flow control. Outstanding ACKs are placed in the header of information frames, piggybacking can save
bandwidth since the overhead from a data frame and an ACK frame (addresses, CRC, etc) can be combined into
just one frame.
To cover retransmission of lost or damaged frames, some features are added to the basic flow control
mechanism of sliding window.
The sending device keeps copies of all transmitted frames, until they have been acknowledged.
In addition to ACK frames, the receiver has the option of returning a NAK frame, if the data have been
received damaged. NAK frame tells the sender to retransmit a damaged frame.
Here, both ACK and NAK frames must be numbered for identification.
NAK frames on the other hand, carry the number of the damaged frame itself.
If the last ACK was numbered 3, an ACK 6 acknowledges the receipt of frames 3, 4 and 5 as well.
If data frames 4 and 5 are received damaged, both NAK 4 and NAK 5 must be returned.
Like stop and wait ARQ, the sending device in sliding window ARQ is equipped with a timer to enable
it to handle lost acknowledgements.
Sliding window ARQ is two types: Go-back-n ARQ, and Selective Reject ARQ.
Selective ACK: The ACK N message acknowledges only the frame with sequence number N
Cumulative ACK: The ACK N message acknowledges all frames with sequence number <= N
everything that came before it, and asks for frame 2 (and subsequent frames) to be resent.
Example: In the following figure, frame 2 has an error, then all subsequent frames are discarded. After timeout
sender sends all frames from frame 2.
Damaged/Error Frame:
o In go-back-n ARQ, The receiver sends the NAK for this frame along with that frame number, that it
expects to be retransmitted.
After sending NAK, the receiver discards all the frames that it receives, after a damaged frame.
The receiver does not send any ACK (acknowledgement) for the discarded frames.
After the sender receives the NAK for the damaged frame, it retransmits all the frames onwards the
frame number referred by NAK.
Lost frame:
o In go-back-n ARQ, Receiver easily detects the loss of a frame as the newly received frame is received
out of sequence.
o The receiver sends the NAK for the lost frame and then the receiver discards all the frames received after
a lost frame.
o The receiver does not send any ACK for that discarded frames.
o After the sender receives the NAK for the lost frame, it retransmits the lost frame referred by NAK and
also retransmits all the frames which it has sent after the lost frame.
Lost Acknowledgement:
o In go-back-n ARQ, If the sender does not receive any ACK or if the ACK is lost or damaged in between
the transmission.
o The sender waits for the time to run out and as the time run outs, the sender retransmits all the frames for
which it has not received the ACK.
o The sender identifies the loss of ACK with the help of a timer.
o The ACK number, like NAK number, shows the number of the frame, that receiver expects to be the
next in sequence.
o The window size of the receiver is 1 as the data link layer only require the frame which it has to send
next to the network layer.
o The sender window size is equal to w. If the error rate is high, a lot of bandwidth is lost wasted.
o
o
Selective Repeat ARQ overcomes the limitations of Go-Back-N by adding two new features:
Receiver window > 1 frame: Out-of-order but error-free frames can be accepted
If a frame is corrupted in transmit, a NAK is returned and the frame is resent out of sequence.
The sender needs to maintain all data that hasnt been aknowledged yet.
The receiving device must be able to sort the frames it has and insert the retransmitted frame into its
proper place in the sequence.
It has advantage that few re-transmissions than go-back-n. But complexity at sender and receiver is involved.
Example: Frame 2 has an error, so receiver maintains buffer to store the next frames.
Damaged frames:
o If a receiver receives a damaged frame, it sends the NAK for the frame in which error or damage is
detected.
The NAK number, like in go-back-n also indicate the acknowledgement of the previously received
frames and error in the current frame.
o The receiver keeps receiving the new frames while waiting for the damaged frame to be replaced.
o The frames that are received after the damaged frame are not be acknowledged until the damaged frame
has been replaced.
Lost Frame:
o As in a selective repeat protocol, a frame can be received out of order and further they are sorted to
maintain a proper sequence of the frames.
o While sorting, if a frame number is skipped, the receiver recognise that a frame is lost and it sends NAK
for that frame to the sender.
o After receiving NAK for the lost frame the sender searches that frame in its window and retransmits that
frame.
o If the last transmitted frame is lost then receiver does not respond and this silence is a negative
acknowledgement for the sender.
Lost Acknowledgement:
o If the sender does not receive any ACK or the ACK is lost or damaged in between the transmission.
o The sender waits for the time to run out and as the time run outs, the sender retransmit all the frames for
which it has not received the ACK.
o The sender identifies the loss of ACK with the help of a timer.
Concept of Layering
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The OSI model is a reference tool for understanding data communication between hosts with help of
seven layers approach in communication process.
Each layer performs specific functions to support the layers above it and uses services of the layers
below it.
Physical Layer:
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to transmit a bit stream over a physical medium.
It deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of interface and transmission medium.
It also defines the procedures and functions that physical devices and interfaces have to perform for
transmission to occur.
Ethernet network interface card performs functions at both the physical layer and the data link lay
layer.
Physical layer defines characteristics of the interface between the devices and the transmission
medium.
It defines the transmission rate (the number of bits sent each second).
1.
Point-to-point configuration: Two devices are connected together through dedicated link.
2.
It defines the direction of transmission called as transmission mode (simplex, half duplex or duplex).
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link.
It makes the physical layer appear error free to the Network layer.
Data Framing: Division of stream of bits received from network layer into manageable data units
called frames. Segmentation of upper layer datagrams (packets) into frames.
Flow Control: It is to manage communication between a high speed transmitter with the low speed
receiver.
Error Control: It provides mechanism to detect and re-transmit damaged or lost frames and to prevent
duplication of frames. To achieve error control, a trailer is added at the end of a frame.
Access Control: Gives mechanism to determine which device has control over the link at any given
time, if two or more devices are connected to the same link.
Physical Addressing: Adding a header to the frame to define the physical address of the sender
(source address) and/or receiver (destination address) of the frame.
Protocol Used: Simplex protocol, stop and wait protocol, sliding window, HDLC (High Level Data
Link Control), SDLC, NDP, ISDN, ARP, PSL, OSPF and NDP.
Network Layer:
Network layer is responsible for source to destination delivery of a packet possibly across multiple
networks (links).
If the two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually no need for a network layer.
If the two systems are attached to different networks (links) with connecting devices between networks,
there is often a need of the network layer to accomplish source to destination delivery.
Logical Addressing: If packet passes the network boundary, we need logical addressing system to
distinguish the source and destination systems.
Routing: Independent networks or links are connected together with the help of routers or gateways.
Routers route the packets to their final destination. Network layer is responsible for providing routing
mechanism.
Protocols Used: IP (Internet, Protocol), NAT (Network Address Translation), ARP (Address
Resolution Protocol), ICMP (Internet control Message Protocol), BGP (Border Gateway Protocol),
RARP (Reverse Address Resolution Protocol), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol),
BOOTP and OSPF.
Transport Layer:
The transport layer is responsible for- source to destination (end-to-end) delivery of the entire message.
Network layer does not recognise any relationship between the packets delivered.
Network layer treats each packet independently, as though each packet belonged to a separate message, whether or
not it does. The transport layer ensures that the whole message arrives intact and in order.
Service Point Addressing: The transport layer header must include a type of address called service
point address (or part address).
Segmentation and Reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, each segment
containing a sequence number.
Flow Control Flow: control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error Control: This layer performs an end to end error control by ensuring that the entire message at
the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss or duplication). Error correction is usually
achieved through retransmission.
Connection Control: Transport layer can deliver the segments using either connection oriented or
connection less approach.
Hardware Used: Transport Gateway
Data Unit: Segments
Protocol Used: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) for connection oriented approach and UDP
(User Datagram Protocol) for connection less approach.
Session Layer:
Dialog Control: Session layer allows the communication between two processes to take place either in
half duplex or full duplex. It allows applications functioning on devices to establish, manage and
terminate a dialog through a network.
Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add check points (synchronization points) into
a stream of data.
Presentation Layer:
It is responsible for how an application formats data to be sent out onto the network.
It basically allows an application to read and understan the message.
Translation: Different systems use different encoding system, so the presentation layer provides interoperability
between these different encoding methods. This layer at the sender end changes the information from sender
dependent format into a common format. The presentation layer at receiver end changes the common format into
its receiver dependent format.
Encryption and Decryption: This layer provides encryption and decryption mechanism to assure privacy to carry
sensitive information. Encryption means sender transforms the original information to another form and at the
receiver end, decryption mechanism reverses the new form of data into its original form.
Compression: This layer uses compression mechanism to reduce the number of bits to be transmitted. Data
compression becomes important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio and video.
Application Layer:
This layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network.
It provides user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer shared
database management and other types of distributed information services.
Examples: Telnet. FTP etc
Network Virtual Terminal: It is a software version of a physical terminal and allows a user to logon to a remote
host. To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a terminal at the remote host.
File Transfer, Access and Management: It allows a user to access files, retrieve files, manage files or control
files in a remote computer.
Mail Services: It provides Electronic messaging (e-mail storage and forwarding).
Directory Services: It provides distributed database sources and access for global information about various
objects and services.
Types of Networks: Mainly three types of network based on their coverage areas: LAN, MAN and WAN.
LAN: It is a local area network typically interconnects hosts that are up to a few or maybe a few tens of
kilo meters apart.
MAN: It is a metropolitan area network typically interconnects devices that are up to a few hundred
kilo meters apart
WAN: It is a wide area network interconnect hosts that can be located anywhere on Earth
LANs can be small, linking as few as three computers, but often link hundreds of computers used by
thousands of people (like in some IT office, etc.)
Examples of LAN technology: Ethernet, Token Ring and Fibber Distributed Data Interconnect
(FDDI).
It may be a single network such as cable TV network by means of connecting a number of LANs into a
larger network.
A MAN can be owned by a private company or it may be a service provided by a public company such
as local telephone company.
company
Telephone companies provide a popular MAN service called (SMDS) Switched Multi
Multi-megabit Data
Services.
A wide area network or WAN spans a large geographical area often a country.
The Internet is a system of linked networks that are world wide in scope and facilitate data
communication services such as remote login, file transfer, electronic mail, World Wide Web and
newsgroups etc.
Characteristics of Networking:
Topology: The geometrical arrangement of the computers or nodes.
Protocols: How they communicate.
mmunicate.
Medium: Through which medium.
Network Topology
Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements of a computer or biological network.
Essentially it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or logically.
Physical topology refers to the placement of the networks various components, inducing device
location and cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network,
Bus Topology: In bus topology, each node is directly connected to a common cable.
In bus topology at the first, the message will go through the bus then one user can communicate with
other.
The drawback of this topology is that if the network cable breaks, the entire network will be down.
Star Topology: In this topology, each node has a dedicated set of wires connecting it to a central network hub.
Since, all traffic passes through the hub, it becomes a central point for isolating network problems and
gathering network statistics.
Ring Topology: A ring topology features a logically closed loop. Data packets travel in a single direction
around the ring from one network device to the next. Each network device acts as a repeater to keep the signal
strong enough as it travels.
Mesh Topology: In mesh topology, each system is connected to all other systems in the network.
In bus topology at the first, the message will go through the bus then one user can communicate with
other.
In star topology, first the message will go to the hub then that message will go to other user.
In mesh topology, any user can directly communicate with other users.
Tree Topology: In this type of network topology, in which a central root is connected to two or more nodes that
are one level lower in hierarchy.
Hardware/Networking Devices: Networking hardware may also be known as network equipment computer
networking devices.
NIC provides a physical connection between the networking cable and the computers internal
bus.
The larger number of bits that can be transferred to NIC, the faster the NIC can transfer data to
network cable.
Repeater:
o
Repeaters are used to connect together two Ethernet segments of any media type.
In larger designs, signal quality begins to deteriorate as segments exceed their maximum
length.
Signal transmission is always attached with energy loss. So, a periodic refreshing of the
signals is required.
required
Hubs:
o
A hub takes any incoming signal and repeats it out all ports.
Bridges:
o
When the size of the LAN is difficult to manage, it is necessary to breakup the network.
Switch:
o
Switches are used to connect multiple devices on the same network within a building or
campus.
Cut through switches examine the packet destination address, only before forwarding it onto
its destination segment, while a store and forward switch accepts and analyzes the entire
packet before forwarding it to its destination.
It takes more time to examine the entire packet, but it allows catching certain packet errors
and keeping them from propagating through the network.
Routers:
o
Router forwards packets from one LAN (or WAN) network to another.
Routers analyze the data being sent over a network, change how it is packaged, and send it to
another network, or over a different type of network.
Gateway:
o
Gateway in organisations is the computer that routes the traffic from a work station to the
outside network that is serving web pages.
ISP (Internet Service Provider) is the gateway for Internet service at homes.
Broadband:
o Broadband internet connections provide high-speed internet that is always on and allows for
more data to be transmitted than the traditional dial-up connections.
o Unlike dial-up services, it does not block phone lines and you do not have to reconnect to the
network each time you log off.
o There are various types of broadband technologies, including digital subscriber line (DSL),
cable modems, fibers, wireless broadband connections, and Satellite connections.
Wi-Fi:
o Wi-Fi is a play on the term Hi-Fi and represents a wireless internet connection.
o More specifically, it is a wireless local area network (WLAN) that allows devices to connect
wirelessly to the internet.
o It utilizes 2.4 GHz and 5.0 GHz radio waves to connect Wi-Fi enabled gadgets (computers,
gaming systems, mobile phones, and even some cameras) to the internet without the need for
cumbersome wires.
WiMAX:
o WiMAX is a more advanced form of wireless internet technology than Wi-Fi.
o It aims to provide the high speeds of broadband connections, the large coverage of phone
networks, and the convenience of Wi-Fi into one package.
o The implementation of WiMAX would allow DSL and cable modem users to ditch their wired
internet connections in favor of a high-speed, wireless alternative.
Data Transfer Modes: There are mainly three modes of data transfer.
Half Duplex: Data transfer in both direction, but not simultaneously e.g., talk back radio.
Full Duplex or Duplex: Data transfer in both directions, simultaneously e.g., telephone
Data representation: Information comes in different forms such as text, numbers, images, audio and video.
Text: Text is represented as a bit pattern. The number of bits in a pattern depends on the number of
symbols in the language.
ASCII: The American National Standards Institute developed a code called the American Standard
code for Information Interchange .This code uses 7 bits for each symbol.
Extended ASCII: To make the size of each pattern 1 byte (8 bits), the ASCII bit patterns are
augmented with an extra 0 at the left.
Unicode: To represent symbols belonging to languages other than English, a code with much greater
capacity is needed. Unicode uses 16 bits and can represent up to 65,536 symbols.
ISO: The international organization for standardization known as ISO has designed a code using a 32bit pattern. This code can represent up to 4,294,967,296 symbols.
Numbers: Numbers are also represented by using bit patterns. ASCII is not used to represent numbers.
The number is directly converted to a binary number.
Images: Images are also represented by bit patterns. An image is divided into a matrix of pixels, where
each pixel is a small dot. Each pixel is assigned a bit pattern. The size and value of the pattern depends
on the image. The size of the pixel depends on what is called the resolution.
Audio: Audio is a representation of sound. Audio is by nature different from text, numbers or images.
It is continuous not discrete
1.
2.
3.
Video: Video can be produced either a continuous entity or it can be a combination of images.