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INTERNATIONAL
L SY
SYSTEM OF UNITS (SI):
The modernized metric
tric system
sy using the decimal system as its base is now referred as
SI. It has seven basic quantities.
ities.
S. o. Property
perty Abbreviation Unit Abbrevia
breviation
1. Mass m Kilogram Kg
2. Length L Meter M
3. Time t Second S
4. Electric Current
urrent I Ampere A
5. Temperature T Kelvin K
6. Amount off Subs
Substance n Mole Mol
7. Luminous Intens
Intensity candela cd
Derived Quantities: Th The quantities obtained by the multiplication
n or division
di of SI 1
quantities. Example:
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
BASIC CONCEPTS SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 1
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
UNIT CONVERSIONS:
SI units could be derived by combining prefixes with a root unit. Some basic prefixes are
as follows:
S. o. Prefix Multiple Scientific otation Abbreviation
6
1. Mega- 1,000,000 10 M
2. Kilo- 1,000 103 k
2
3. Hector 100 10 h
1
4. Deka- 10 10 da
-1
5. Deci- 0.1 10 d
-2
6. Centi- 0.01 10 c
-3
7. Milli- 0.001 10 m
-6
8. Micro 0.000,001 10 µ
9. Nano- 0.000,000,001 10-9 n
-12
10. Pico 0.000,000,000,001 10 p
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES: “The reliable digits which are known with certainty.”
Rules:
All non-zero numbers are significant
Zeros placed in between non-zero numbers or after a decimal point are significant.
Zero that locates the decimal point on number less that (1) is non-significant.
Zero that locates the decimal point on number larger than (1) is significant.
BASIC CONCEPTS:
Mole: “Atomic mass of an element, molecular mass of compounds or formula mass of
an ionic substance when expressed in grams.”
Mole =
Avogadro’s number: “The constant number (6.02 x 1023) atoms, molecules or ions
contained by one mole of any substance.”
Atom: the basic building block of an element that retains the properties of that element
and can enter into a chemical reaction.
Molecule: The smallest particle of a substance that retains the physical and chemical
properties of that substance.
Empirical Formula: The simplest formula of a compound which represents the
elements present in a compound and the simplest ratio between them.
Molecular Formula: The formula which represents the elements present and the
exact number of atoms of different elements present in a molecule of that compound.
Molar Concentrations: The molar concentration (M) is the number of moles of the
solute contained in one cubic decimeter (dm3) or litre of solution.
Limiting Reactant: “The reactant which is consumed first of all during the
chemical reaction is called Limiting Reactant.”
O" + QR + SF → T
Step 1 Step 2 Step 3
O" → T QR → T SF → T
Mass of A → Mole of A Mass of B → Mole of B Mass of C → Mole of C
→ Mole of D → Mole of D → Mole of D
The source that yields the least quantity of moles would be the limiting reactant.
SEPARATION TECHNIQUES:
The separated products could differ in chemical properties or some physical property, such as
size, or crystal modification or other separation into different components.
“A separation process is used to transform a mixture of substances into two or more distinct
products.”
TERMINOLOGY:
SOLUBILITY:
TRENDS OF SOLUBILITY:
State Temperature Effect Pressure Effect
Solid Usually increases with Little Effect
temperature increase
Gas Usually decreases with Solubility varies in dirtect
temperature increase proportion to the pressure
applied to it (Henry’s Law1)
4
1
Henry’s Law: “The solubility of a gas (unless the gas is very soluble) is directly proportional to the pressure
applied to the gas”
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICAL TECHNIQUES SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 3
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
PERIODIC DEVELOPMENT:
1. 1817 Germany Law of Triads J. W. Dobereiner
2. 1865 England Law of Octaves A. R. Newland
3. 1864-69 Germany Meyer’s Hypothesis Lothar Meyer
4. 1870 Russia Mendeleev’s Periodic Law Dimitri I. Mendeleev
5. 1911 England Modern Periodic Law Henry Mosely
PERIODIC LAWS:
Law of Triads: “If three elements are arranged in according to their atomic weights,
such that the atomic weight of the middle element is mean of the other two, then they will
exhibit similar properties.”
Law of Octaves: “If elements are arranged according to increasing atomic weights,
a given set of properties recurs at every eighth place, by analogy with the musical scales.”
Meyer’s Hypothesis: “The physical properties of elements are the periodic
function of their atomic weights.”
Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: “The properties of the elements as well as the
formulae and properties of their compounds depend in a periodic manne on the atomic
weight of elements.”
Modern Periodic Law: “The physical and chemical properties of elements are
periodic function of their atomic numbers.” OR “The physical and chemical properties of
the elements are periodic function of their electronic configuration, which vary with
increasing atomic numbers in a periodic manner.”
DOBEREINER’S TRIADS:
Expected Mass Triads with Atomic Masses
7 + 39 Li (7) Na(23) K(39)
= 23
2
35.5 + 127 Cl (35.5) Br(80) I(127)
= 81.25
2
NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES: The properties of every eighth element were
similar to those of first.
Li Be B C O F
7 9 11 12 14 16 19
a Mg Al Si P S Cl
23 24 27 28 31 33 35
K Ca
39 40
LOTHAR MEYER’S CLASSIFICATION: 1
Meyer plotted atomic volume (mass + density) against atomic weight and obtained the curves, in
which elements with similar physical properties occupied similar position in the curve. i.e.:
1 2
H He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C O F e
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
a Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co i Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr b Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 57 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba La Hf Ta W Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg Tl Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 89 104 105 106 107 108 109 110
Fr Ra Ac Ku Ha
Lanthanide 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71
Series Ce Pr d Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Actinide 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103
Series Th Pa U p Pu Am Cm Bk Cf Es Fm Md o Lr
PERIODIC TRENDS:
Atomic Radius: The half of the distance between
two nuclei present in a homo-nuclear diatomic molecule.
It’s measured in Angstrom A°.
Atomic Radius ∝
!"
Atomic Radius ∝ Electron Shell 2
Ionic Radius: The distance between the nucleus of an
Matter
FOR LIQUIDS:
In a liquid, molecules aree fairly randomly arranged.
They consist of clusters in whi
which they are very close together.
Molecules constitute 70 % of tthe total volume.
They have a definite volume
ume bbut do not have any definite shape.
FOR SOLIDS:
In a solid, molecules are closel
closely packed.
The forces of attraction betwee
between them are very strong.
They are arranged in a fixed
ixed pa
pattern, forming a lattice of vibrating masses.
They have a definite shape.
GASES:
GAS LAWS:
Boyle’s Law: “The volume me of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional
ional to
t the pressure
exerted on it provided that tempera
emperature is kept constant.”
Mathematically, V V k PV k
On plotting volume of a gas ag
against the total pressure, a parabolic curve is obtained.
obt
While, on plotting volumee of a gas against the reciprocal of total pressure,
re, a straight
st line is 1
obtained.
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
STATES OF MATTER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 5
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
Charles’s Law: “The volume of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
Temperature, provided that pressure is kept constant.”
Mathematically, V T V k T k
When the volume is plotted against the temperature, a straight line is obtained.
At absolute zero the volume of gases is considered to become zero and all the motion ceases
to exist.
For each Celsius degree rise in temperature, the volume of a gas expands by 1/273 of it’s
volume at 0°C
Avogadro’s Law: “The volume of a gas is directly proportional to the number of molecules
of the gases at constant pressure and temperature.”
Mathematically, (at constant temperature and pressure)
Graham’s Law of Diffusion: “The rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional
to the square root of their densities under same conditions of temperature and pressure.”
Mathematically, r r
√ √
!"#$% &#'( !"#$% )*&(
For Effusion,
!"#$% &#'( !"#$% )*&(
Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure: “The total pressure of a mixture of non-reacting
gases is the sum of the partial pressures of various gases in the mixture.”
Mathematically, P = + + +- + +. + ⋯ + +0
*&#*1 (""!( $ * 2*" $1(" $ &3( 4*"
$&*1 (""!( $&*1 $1("
Gay-Lussac’s Law (Law of Pressures or Law of Combining Volumes):
“At constant volume, the pressure of a given mass of a gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature.”
Mathematically, P T P kT k
Ideal Gas Equation or Equation of
State: PV = nRT. Units of Universal Gas Constant
Value of R When
This equation is called the equation of state because
0.082058 L.atm.mol-1.K-1 P is in atm
when the four variables – pressure, volume,
62.364 L.torr. mol-1.K-1 P is in torr
temperature and number of moles are specified, we
8.3145 J. mol-1.K-1 P is in
can define the state of gas. Pa;V is m3
BEHAVIOUR OF GASES:
Real gases deviate from ideal behavior at low
temperature and high pressure.
Real gases obey the ideal behavior at high temperature and low pressure.
GAS DENSITY:
Gases are less dense than liquids and solids.
2
Gas Density Pressure Gas Density 1CT
Gas Density Molar Masses
PRESSURE:
Pressure is measured by a device named “Manometer”. ∆P,
the difference in barometric pressure Pbar and the pressure of
gas Pgas is given by the difference in mercury levels in open
and closed arms of the device.∆P = ∆h = hopen - hclosed
If Pgas is greater Pbar, Pgas = Pbar + ∆h
If Pgas is less Pbar, Pgas = Pbar – ∆h
P=g.d.h
Where g = 908m/s2;d= density, h= height of column
LIQUIDS:
VISCOSITY (η): The force of internal friction which opposes the displacement of different
layers relative to one another.
The S.I unit of viscosity is (N. sCm- )
Viscosity is an intensive property.
Viscosity Molecular Size
Viscosity Intermolecular Attraction
Viscosity 1CTemperature
Viscosity Molecualr Shape
The grading of motor oil is done on the basis of viscosity, e.g. grade 30 oil is less viscous
than the grade 40 oil.
SURFACE TENSION (γ): The force per unit length or energy per unit area of the surface
of a liquid.
Its units are N/m, J/m2, Dynes/cm, erg/cm2
Surface Tension is an intensive property.
Surface Tension Intermolecular forces
Surface Tension Hydrogen Bonding
Surface Tension 1CTemperature
VAPOUR PRESSURE: The pressure exerted by the vapours when they are in equilibrium
with the liquid phase.
It’s constant at constant temperature.
Vapour pressure depends upon the nature of liquids.
Vapour Pressure Temperature
Vapour Pressure 1CIntermolecular Forces
The vapour pressure of an aqueous solution is always lowered by addition of more solute.
On lowering of vapour pressure, the freezing point is also lowered, while the boiling point is
raised.
3
SOLIDS:
Solids
Crystalline Solids
olids Amorphous Solids
lids
Characteristic Geometrica
etrical Shape Non repeitive 3-D struct
tructure
Sharp Melting Point Melting Point varies
aries
Different phy.prop. in dif. di
directions Same phy. prop. in alll directions
direc
Posses Symmetry
etry Non-symetrical
TYPES OF CRYSTALS:
Crystal Structural Pri Principal Properties Example
Particles Fo
Forces
Ionic Electrostatic Hard, Brittle
Cations and Elect NaCl, CAF2,
Crystals Anions Attractions High M.P
Attr K2S, MgO
Nonconductors as solids but good
ood
conductors as liquids
Indefinite growth of crystal.
Many are soluble in polar solvents.
ents.
Covalent Atoms Cov
Covalent Very hard Graphite,
Crystals Bond High Melting Point or Sublime Diamond, Silica,
Low Density Carborundum,
High Refractive Index SiC, AlN, SiO2
Most are non-conductors of
electricity
Metallic Metallic Bond Lustre, Malleable, Ductile
Cations and Metal Metallic
Crystals delocalized High M.P Crystals
electrons Conductors of Electricity and Heat
Molecular Atoms or non- Disp
Dispersion M.P (Extremely low to moderate, Ice, I2, CO2,
Crystal polar molecules Fo
Forces varying with mol. Wt.)
(#on-polar) Readily sublime in some cases
Soft
Soluble in non-polar solvents
Molecular Polar Dispersion Low Melting Point
Disp HCl, H2S,
Crystal Molecules for
forces & Non-conduction of heat and CHCl2,
(Polar) dipol
dipole dipole electricity (CH3)2O,
attractions Soluble in other polar and some
attra (CH3)2CO
non-polar solvents
Hydrogen Molecules with Hyd Hydrogen M.P (low to moderate) H2O, HF, NH3,
Bonded H bonded to N, Bo
Bonds Soluble in other hydrogen bonded
ded CH3OH,
O or F liquids and some polar liquids. CH3COOH 4
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
STATES OF MATTER SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 5
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
ISOMORPHISM: The phenomenon in which two substances have the same crystal structure.
E.g. CaCO3 & NaNO3 exist in trigonal crystals|ZnSO4 & NiSO4 exist in Orthorhombic Crystal
Properties:
They have different physical and chemical properties.
They have same empirical formula.
Their solutions on mixing form mixed crystals.
POLYMORPHISM: The phenomenon in which the substance can exist in more than one
crystalline form. E.g. CaCO3 occurs in two crystalline forms (i) Calcite (trigonal) (ii) Aragonite
(orthorhombic)
UNIT CELL: The basic structural unity which when separated in three dimensions generates
the crystal structure.
CELL DIMENSIONS:
#ames Sides Angles Examples
Cubic V W X Y Z [ 90 ° NaCl, ZnS
Tetragonal VW≠X Y Z [ 90 ° SnO2
Orthorhombic V ≠ W ≠ X Y Z [ 90 ° FeSO4.7H2O
Trigonal VWX Y Z [ ≠ 90 ° CaCO3, NaNO3
Hexagonal VW≠X Y Z 90 °; [ 120° Graphite, snow flakes
Monoclinic V≠W≠X Y [ 90 °; Z ≠ 90° CuSO4.5H2O
Triclinic V≠W≠X Y ≠ Z ≠ [ ≠ 90 ° K2Cr2O7
CHANGE OF STATE:
Critical Pressure: The minimum pressure to liquefy a gas at its critical temperature.
Triple Point: The only temperature and pressure at which three phase a pure substance can
exist in equilibrium with one another in a system containing only the pure substance.
Boiling Point: the temperature at which the vapour pressure of the liquid equals the outside
pressure.
Boiling Point Pressure
Effect of Concentration on Boiling Point and Freezing Point:
Type Concentrations Boiling Freezing Examples
Point Point
Molecular #on-ionizing 1 100.51°C -1.86°C Sugar, Urea
Molecular Ionizing 2 101.02°C -3.72°C HCl
Ionic dissociated 2 101.02°C -3.72°C NaCl
Ionic dissociated 3 101.53°C -5.58°C CaCl2, Cu(NO3)2
This indicates that in a 1 m solution of molecules that do not dissociate, boiling and 5
freezing point differs with a change of (0.51°C) and (-1.86°C) respectively.
Melting Point: the temperature at which there is equilibrium between solid and liquid phases.
Effect of Pressure on Melting Point:
Condition Situation
Substance Expands on Melting bcdefg +hfe +icjjkic
Substance Contracts on Melting bcdefg +hfe 1C+icjjkic
ATOMIC DEVELOPMENT:
1. England Michael Faraday Indicated the existence of electrons
2. America Robert Millikan Measured the charge on an electron
3. Germany William Crookes Showed the existence of electrons in atoms.
4. Goldstein Showed the existence of protons in atoms.
5. Henry Becquerel Through Radioactivity confirmed the presence of electrons
and protons
6. England James Chadwick Showed the presence of neutrons
RADIOACTIVITY:
“The spontaneous breakdown of an atom by emission of particles and radiations”
Types:
α- particles (doubly charged He2+ nuclei) β- particles
γ- particles (very short wavelength Positron emission
electromagnetic rays) Electron Capture
PROPERTIES OF:
Properties α- Rays β- Rays γ- Rays
4
1. Nature 2He Nucleus Fast moving electrons very short wavelength
electromagnetic rays
2. Charge Positive Negative Neutral
3. Velocity 3 x 10 to 3 x 107 m/s
6 7 7
9 x 10 to 27 x 10 m/s 3 x 108 m/s
4. Penetration Power Very less Intermediate Very high.100 times of β
5. Ionization Energy Very high Very Small Poor ionizers
6. Fluorescence Few substance only Many substance Not possible
X-RAYS:
“The high energetic radiation emitted by metals and glass on bombardment with cathode rays,
that cause fluorescence in a variety of substance is called X-rays or Rontgen Rays ( amed after
the discoverer W. Rontgen).”
Characteristics:
Short Wave Radiations Extremely high penetration power
High Ionization Energy
X rays ∝ ଵ
Electromagnetic in nature
Arise from anode as a result of cathode
1
rays’ bombardment.
SPECTROSCOPY:
“The branch of chemistry which deals with the study of absorption or emission of radiation is
called Spectroscopy.”
QUANTUM NUMBERS:
“The numbers that describe the distribution of electrons in atoms are called Quantum
umbers.”
Quantum Numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of Schrodinger’s equation
for the Hydrogen atom. It has following four types:
Principal Quantum Number Magnetic Quantum Number 2
Azimuthal Quantum Number Spin Quantum Number
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION:
“The arrangement of electrons in an atom is referred as Electronic Configuration”
Electronic configuration of elements is the fundamental property by which they are
placed in the periodic table and exhibit periodic properties.
Electrons are arranged in different energy levels (K, L, M, N) and sub levels (s, p, d, f) according
to their energy state.
n 1 2 3 4
Energy Level K L M N
(2) (2) (6) (2) (6) (10) (2) (6) (10) (14)
Sub Level s s ,p s ,p ,d s ,p ,d ,f
Maximum 2 8 18 32
Electron
Pauli Exclusion Principle: “No two electrons in the same atom can have all the set of
four quantum numbers identical” Or “Only two electrons may occupy the same atomic
orbital and these must have opposite spins.”
Auf Bau or Building-Up Principle: “For any given atom, the electrons are filled to the
orbitals of lowest energy in sequence, two electrons to each orbital”
1s
2s 2p
3s 3p 3d
4s 4p 4d 4f
5s 5p 5d 5f
6s 6p 6d
7s 7p
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 6d 7p
(n+l) Rule: “In building up the electronic configuration of the elements, the orbitals with the
lowest value of (n+l) fills first; when two orbitals have the same value of (n+l), the orbital with
the lower value of n fills first.”
Hund’s Rule: “When several orbitals of the same type are available, the electrons first fill all
the orbitals of same energy singly with parallel spins, before pairing in any one orbital takes
place.” 4
CHEMICAL BOND: “Thee attrattractive force that holds atoms together in a compound
com is
known as Chemical Bond.”
Chemical Bond
Secondary Bondsds
Primary Bonds
onds
(Van der Waal forces)
orces)
A chemical bond:
ifferent atoms as a molecule1, which possesses lower
Holds two identical or differen ower energy
e than the
uncombined atoms.
Is formed with the creation
on of attractive forces which result in the releasee of energy.
en
Is formed due to the interaction
raction of valence electrons of the combining atoms.
oms.
Makes atoms attain greatest
test sta
stability when they acquire an inert gas electronic
tronic configuration
(Octet Rule).
IONIC OR ELECTRO
ROVALENT BOND:
“The chemical bond formed as a result of complete transference of valence electrons
elec from one
atom to the other.”
OR
“The electrostatic ons”
tatic attraction between positive and negative ions
In an ionic bond:
If the difference of Electronega
ronegativity ∆E is
greater than 1.7 between two eelements, then the
bond formed is ionic.
Only a low electronegative
ive ele
element (metal) is
held along with a high electron
lectronegative element
(non-metal) and vice versa.
The atom that loses electrons
trons bbecomes positively
charged (called Cations) and ththe atom that gains
electrons becomes negatively
ively ccharged (called
Anions).
1
1
A molecule is defined as the smallest
llest pa
particle of an element or a compound that retains the characteristics
chara of the
original substance.
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 7
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
CONDITION FOR IONIC BOND FORMATION: For solubility, solvation energy3 must be
greater than the lattice energy.
(∆H5+ ∆H4) > (∆H3+ ∆H2+ ∆H1)
2
“The energy released when one mole of gaseous ions arrange themselves in definite pattern from crystal lattice is 2
referred to as the lattice energy.”
3
“The surrounding of the ions by the solvent molecules for solvation releases the energy which is known as the
solvation energy.”
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 7
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
COVALENT BONDING:
“The chemical bond in which two atoms, who tend to gain electrons may combine with each
other by sharing one or more pairs of electrons.”
In a covalent bond:
If the electronegativity difference between two or more atoms
is zero or not greater than 0.5, then a Non-Polar Covalent
Bond is formed.
If the electronegativity difference is between 0.5 and 1.7,
there will not be an equal sharing of electrons between the
involved atoms. Then a Polar Covalent Bond is formed.
The electrons that are shared between the two atoms are the
bonding electrons.
Bonding electrons spend much of their time
between the nuclei, resulting in the attractive
forces between negative charges of electrons and
positive charges of the two nuclei.
In a polar covalent bonded molecule, the shared
pair of electrons is attracted more towards more
electronegative atom, i.e. a polar bond makes one
part of molecules partially negative(δ-) and the
other partially positive (δ+).
Due to polar bonding, the molecule is observed to
enjoy greater stability than expected.
In polar molecules, electron cloud shifts towards
the more electronegative atom.
3
The group VA, VIA or VIIA form such type of bond.
Once formed, a co-ordinate covalent bond becomes indistinguishable from a covalent bond.
MULTIPLE BONDS:
In multiple covalent bonds
bonds, the attraction force is
much stronger than the single
le cova
covalent bonded molecules
making molecules much more re stab
stable. Due to this fact:
Bond energy is higher in multi
multiple covalent bonds and
Bond lengths in multiple coval
covalent bonds are shorter
Multiple bonded compoundsunds aare much stable than single bonded compounds.
unds.
Bond stability ∝ Bond energy
nergy
Bond stability ∝ Electronn Den
Density
1
Bond stability ∝
Bond length
METALLIC BOND:
Atoms in metallic crystals
ystals are bonded together by electron cloud.
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICA
ICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HAN
ANDOUT 7
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
PROTONIC BRIDGE
GE OR HYDROGEN BONDING:
“An electrostatic attraction betw
between neighboring molecules is setup when the positive
p pole of
one molecule attracts the negativ
gative pole of neighboring molecule. This type of attractive
a force
which involves Hydrogen is referred as Hydrogen Bonding.”
ves H
Hydrogen bonding is the st strongest of the secondary bonds but is stilll weaker
weak than a
normal covalent bond.
Hydrogen bonding:
Affects the physical properties
erties of the compound.
Increases the melting and boilin
boiling point of the
compound.
Reduces the vapor pressure.
Increases the heat of vaporizatio
rization.
Water has higher boiling
iling ppoint than hydrogen
fluoride. The oxygen atoms have ttwo non-bonded
pairs of electrons and there are two polar hydrogen
atoms (Hδ+) present in three dimen
dimensional bonding.
Conditions:
Hydrogen should be bonded ded to a highly
electronegative element such aas N, O, F etc
Hydrogen bonding ∝ ionic ic cha
character
Hydrogen bonding ∝ ∆EN
DIPOLE MOMENT (µ
µ):
“A dipole (polar molecule) tend
tends to become oriented in an electrical field. The extent of this
ency is referred to as the dipole moment.”
tendency
µ=exd
Where,
e = magnitude of charge
d = distance between the charges.
arges.
The S.I Unit is coulomb meter
ter (Cm
(Cm)
Dipole moment ∝ ∆EN
Dipole moment ∝ geometr
ometry of molecule
NATURURE DIPOLE MOMENT EXAMPLEPLES
Diatomic non--polar Zero H2, Cl2, Br2
Diatomic Polar Greater than Zero HF,, HCl
Tri-atomicc Line
Linear Zero CO2, CS2
Tri-atomicc Ang
Tetra Atomic
Angular Greater than Zero
Appreciable
H2O, H2S, CaC
NH3
Ca 2 5
Penta Atomic Zero CH4, CCl4
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PR
ROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECOND
NDARY SCHOOL,
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CHEMICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 7
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
BOND ENERGY:
“The energy required to break a bond between two atoms in a diatomic molecules is known as
the Bond Energy.”
OR
“The energy released in forming a bond from the free atoms (not from the atoms in their
standard states.)”
BONDING ORBITALS:
“A covalent bond is formed as a result of overlapping of atomic orbitals of combining atoms
giving molecular orbitals.”
The overlapping of atomic orbitals is of two types:
Sigma Bond:
“A bond which is formed by the axial overlap of two orbitals belonging to different atoms”
It is formed by the axial overlapping of s-s, p-p, s-p orbitals.
6
Pi Bond:
“A bond which is formed by side ways (parallel) overlapping of atomic orbitals”
NSTC-6 PREPARATION PROGRAMME | AGA KHAN HIGHER SECONDARY SCHOOL,
KARACHI.
CHEMICAL BONDING SYNOPSIS HANDOUT 7
PREPARED BY OSAMA HASAN
Two different theories determine the behavior of electrons in a bonded atom. It is as follows
Valence Bond The bonding electrons occupy the atomic orbitals4 of the
Theory Suggests bonded atoms.
Molecular The bonding electrons occupy molecular orbitals5 which
Orbital Theory belong to the whole molecule.
According to molecular orbital theory, linear combination of atomic orbitals (σ) gives
two molecular orbitals:
σ-Bonding: A molecular orbital with high electron density in the region between two
nuclei having lower energy than either of the parent atomic orbitals from which molecular
orbital is derived.
σ-Anti Bonding: The molecular orbital having high energy and low electron density
between the nuclei, is less stable than either of the parent atomic orbitals from which it is
derived.
HYBRIDIZATION:
“The mixing of various atomic orbitals to produce the same number of equivalent orbitals
having same shape and energy”
Types of Hybridization:
Mixing Orbitals Type of Type of Hybrid Number of
Hybridization Orbitals Hybrid Orbitals
One-s & three-p sp3 sp3 orbitals Four
One-s & two-p sp2 sp2 orbitals Three
One-s & one-p sp sp orbitals Two
7
4
An orbital in which, the electron is influenced by one nucleus (mono-centric)
5
An orbital in which, the electron is influenced by more than one nucleus (poly-centric)
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These orbitals are co-planar and directed towards the corners of an equilateral triangle
(trigonal) at angles of 120° to each other.
Examples: C2H4, C2H6 etc
sp (Diagonal) Hybridization:
Possesses the character of both s- and p- orbitals in the ration of 1:1.
These orbitals are co-linear at an angle of 180°.
Examples: C2H2, BeCl2 etc
MOLECULAR GEOMETRY:
The geometrical shape of a molecule depends upon the repulsion factor among the electrons
pair of an atom.
There are two types of electron pairs surrounding the central atom:
Bond Pair: These are the result of sharing of unpaired electrons of central atom with unpaired
electrons of surrounding atoms.
Lone Pair: These are the paired electrons, which have not taken part in sharing. They are also
called “Non Bonding Pairs”.
The repulsion factor of these active sets of electrons behaves as follows:
Lone Pair – Lone Pair repulsion > Lone pair – Bond Pair repulsion > Bond – Bond Pair repulsion
The shape of an atom could be predicted by the number of electrons groups6 in a molecule. A
general observation is as follows:
Thermochemistry: The bran branch of chemistry which deals with the measurem
surement of heat
evolved or absorbed during a chem
chemical reaction.
Thermodynamics: Thee study based on the principles of conservation off energy.
ener
THERMOCHEMICAL
AL REACTIONS: The chemical reactions
ions which
w are
accompanied by energy changes
nges w
with the material changes.
Thermochemical Reactions
Exothermic
ermic Reaction Endothermic Reaction
ction
Enthalpy H ───>
∆H < 0 [negative
tive] ∆H > 0 [positiv
sitive]
Products Reactants
Extent of Reactio
tion───> Extent of Reacti
action───>
1
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THERMODYNAMIC PROCESSES:
Isothermal Process: “The process in which temperature remains constant.” i.e. dT = 0
Isochoric Process: “The process in which volume remains constant.” i.e. dV = 0
Isobaric Process: “The process in which pressure remains constant.” i.e. dP = 0
Adiabatic Process: “The process in which heat remains constant.” i.e. dH = 0
MEASUREMENT OF HEAT:
Heat Capacity: “The quantity of heat required to change the temperature of system by 1°C
or 1K.”
ܳ
=ܥ
ΔT
Q = C ∆T
Molar Heat Capacity: “The heat capacity of one mole of a substance.”
Specific Heat: “The heat capacity of a one-gram sample.”
ܵ= ݐܽ݁ܪ ݂ܿ݅݅ܿ݁
ݕݐ݅ܿܽܽܥ ݐܽ݁ܪ
=
ܥ 2
ݏݏܽܯ ݉
ܳ
ܵ= ݐܽ݁ܪ ݂ܿ݅݅ܿ݁
݉ × ߂ܶ
TERMINOLOGY:
System: “Any specified real or imaginary part of the universe that is under consideration.”
Types of System:
Open System: “The system that interacts readily with the surroundings, exchanging
matter and energy.”
Closed System: “The system that exchanges energy but not matter with
surroundings.”
Isolated System: “The system that exchanges neither matter nor energy with the
surroundings.”
Homogenous System: “The system which is completely uniform throughout i.e.
consisting only one phase.”
Heterogeneous System: “The system which is not uniform throughout i.e.
consisting of two or more phases.”
Surroundings: “The environment of the system or rest of the universe which may act on
the system is known as Surrounding.”
Interactions: “The exchange of energy and/or matter between a system and
surroundings.”
Heat of Reaction: “The quantity of heat exchanged between a system and its
surroundings for a reaction at constant temperature.”
State: “A system is said to be in a certain state when all its properties are fixed.”
State Function: “The macroscopic properties of a system which has some definite value
for each state and independent of path in which the state is reached.”
Example: Enthalpy, Temperature, etc
Enthalpy: “The sum of internal energy (E) and the pressure-volume product of a system”
Enthalpy is an extensive property.
Enthalpy is a state function.
Enthalpy changes have unique values.
Entropy: “The measure of the disorder of the system.”
Disorder of system increases: d (entropy) = [positive]
Disorder of system decreases: d (entropy) = [negative]
Spontaneous changes always occur with an increase of entropy of the universe.
Entropy of a system as a whole is an irreversible process.
Entropy is expressed in cal/°C or J/K (SI Unit). 3
Gibb’s Free Energy (G): The criterion for spontaneity
∆G = [negative] → Reaction is spontaneous and feasible
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HYDROGEN GAS:
Hydrogen atom is the simplest of all atoms with 1 proton, 1 electron and zero neutrons. The
element has following specifications:
IVESTIGATIOS OBSERVATIOS
1. State Gas (colorless, odourless)
2. Electronic configuration 1s1
3. Atomic Radius 0.37 A°Å
-
4. Ionic Radius (H ) 1.54
5. Ionization Potential (1st) 1312 KJ mol-1
6. Electron Affinity -37 KJ mol-1
7. Electronegativity 2.1
8. Liquefying Point 20.39 K
9. Solidifying Point 13.98 K
ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN:
NAMES FORMULA PROTON ELECTRON NEUTRON ATOMIC MASS %AGE
1
Protium 1 H One One Zero 1 99.98 %
2 2
Deuterium 1 H or 1 D One One One 2 0.02 %
Tritium* 1
3
H One One Two 3 4x10-15 %
*Tritium is a radioactive isotope with the half life of 12.4 years.
POSITION IN PERIODIC TABLE:
Scientists are still unable to predict the most appropriate position for hydrogen in the
Periodic Table. This is mostly because of the fact that hydrogen is the simplest element of all and
resembles more than one families of the periodic table. A summarized account of its placement
in different groups is as follows:
Group I-A(Alkali Metals) Group IV-A(Carbon Family) Group VII-A (Halogens)
Similarities Dissimilarities Similarities Dissimilarities Similarities Dissimilarities
Outermost Orbit Half Filled Valency Orbit Outermost
Electrons Completion Valence Shells Completion Electrons
Electronic State Thermodynamic Valence Orbit Valency Valence Orbit
Configuration Properties
Oxidation Ion Chemical Bond State Diatomic Oxidation
State Formation Formation Molecule State
Reducing Bond Reducing ature Oxide
ature Formation ature Formation
OCCURRENCE:
By mass, hydrogen makes up only 0.9% of Earth’s crust.
In number of atoms in Earth’s crust, hydrogen ranks third (15.1%) after Oxygen
(53.3%) and Silicon (15.9%).
Hydrogen makes up 89% atoms on the sun and 85 to 95% of the atoms in the atmosphere of
outer planets (Jupiter, Uranus, Saturn and Neptune).
1
In universe, as a whole, 90% of the atoms are Hydrogen, and the rest are mainly Helium.
PREPARATION:
ATOMIC HYDROGEN:
“The product obtained as the result of dissociation of molecular hydrogen.”
Preparation:
H2 + 104 K. cal ° > 2 H
H2 >2H
.
Properties:
It’s more reactive than molecular hydrogen. Some of its reactions are as follows:
P + 3 H ──────> PH3
O2 + 2 H ──────> H2O2
S + 2 H ──────> H2S
Cl2 + 2H ──────> 2 HCl
CuO + 2 H ──────> Cu + H2O
AgCl + H ──────> Ag + HCl
Ionic
Hydride
Covalent
Hydride
Complex
Hydride
Metallic
Hydride
Polymeric
Hydride
Borderline
Hydride
2
WATER:
HEAVY WATER: The water molecule having the Deuterium isotope ‘D’ attached with
Oxygen atom in place of Hydrogen (Protium) ‘H’
The formula for Heavy Water is D2O and its molecular mass is 20 a.m.u.
Uses:
Heavy water is used in nuclear reactors as moderators which absorb the neutrons and slow
down the process.
Heavy water is used in analytical experiments for determining the mechanism of reactions.