I.

CELL STRUCTURE
A. NUCLEUS
Nucleus

1. Nuclear envelope

2. Nucleoli

3. Chromatin

Structure
its shape conforms the
shape of the cell
most often oval or
spherical
double membrane
barrier
selectively permeable

Function
(nucle = kernal)
headquarters or
control center of cells

Small, dark-staining,
round bodies

loose network of
bumpy threads
scattered throughout
the nucleus

between the two

membranes is fluidfilled moat or space
encloses a jellylike
fluid- nucleoplasm
where other nuclear
elements are
suspended
Sites where ribosomes
are assembled
Ribosome-site of
protein synthesis
in formation of
daughter cells, it coils
and condenses to form
chromosomes
chromosomes-dense,
rod-like bodies

B. PLASMA MEMBRANE (cell membrane)

outermost component of a cell
It encloses the cytoplasm and forms the boundary between materials inside (intracellular)
and outside (extracellular) the cell
It acts as a selective barrier that determines what move in and out of the cell
Phospholipids and proteins makes up the cell membrane
It also contains cholesterol and carbohydrates
They are selectively permeable
C. CYTOPLASM

A thick solution that fills each cell and is enclosed by the cell membrane
Composed of water, salts, and proteins
Contains all organelles and cell parts
Responsible for giving a cell its shape and keeps the organelles in place

Mitochondria
Small organelles with inner and outer membranes separated by a space
The outer membrane have a smooth contour but the inner membrane have numerous
folds called cristae
It is the major sites of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production within cells
Carry out aerobic respiration, a series of chemical reactions that require oxygen to break
down food molecules to produce ATP (main energy source for most chemical reactions
within the cell
Ribosomes
Organelles where proteins are produces
Free ribosomes are not attached to any other organelles in the cytoplasm but other
ribosomes are attached to a network of membranes called the endoplasmic reticulum
Endoplasmic Reticulum
A series of membranes forming sacs and tubules that extends from the outer nuclear
membrane into the cytoplasm
2 Kinds of ER:
o Rough ER - ER with ribosomes attached to it
- a large number of this indicates that it is synthesizing large amounts of protein for
export in the cell
o Smooth ER - ER without ribosomes
Golgi Apparatus
modifies protein structure and packages proteins in sensory vesicles
consists of closely packed stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs
Lysosomes
are membrane-bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus
contain a variety of enzymes that as intracellular digestive systems
Perixisomes
are small, membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes that break down fatty acids,
amino acids, and hydrogen peroxide
Vesicles
small, membrane-bound sac containing material to be transported across the cell
membrane

Cytoskeleton
consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place, and enable the cell to
change the shape
Microtubules
- are hollow structures formed from protein subunits
Microfilaments
- are small fibrils formed from protein subunits that structurally support the
cytoplasm
Intermediate filaments
- are fibrils formed from protein subunits that are smaller in diameter than
microtubules but larger in diameter than microfilaments
Centriole
small organelle that divides and migrates to each pole of the nucleus; spindle fibers
extend from the centromeres to the centrioles during mitosis
site for lipid synthesis and participates in detoxification of chemicals within cells

II. CELL PHYSIOLOGY

A. PASSIVE PROCESS

is the cellular process of moving molecules and other substances across membranes.
Passive transport differs from active transport in that it does not involve any chemical
energy. Rather, passive transport relies on the innate permeability of the cell membrane
and its component proteins and lipids.

1. Diffusion
- solutes such as ions and molecules, tend to move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration of that same solute in solution.
Simple Diffusion
- a substance passes through a membrane without the aid of an intermediary such as a
integral membrane protein. The force that drives the substance from one side of the
membrane to the other is the force of diffusion.
Osmosis
- the spontaneous net movement of solvent molecules through a semi-permeable
membrane into a region of higher solute concentration, in the direction that tends to
equalize the solute concentrations on the two sides.
Facilitated Diffusion
- is a carrier-mediated transport process that moves substances across the cell
membrane from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration
against a concentration of a gradient

2. Filtration
- operations that separate solids from fluids by adding a medium through which only
the fluid can pass.

B. ACTIVE PROCESS
Active Transport
is a carrier-mediated process that moves substances across the cell membrane from
regions of lower concentrations to those of higher concentration against a
concentration gradient.
it processes accumulate substances on one side of the cell membrane at
concentrations many times greater than those on the other side.
it requires energy, in the form of ATP, if ATP is not available, active transport stops.
The malfunction of active transport can lead to serious conditions:
Cystic Fibrosis a genetic disorder that affects the active transport of CI into
cells.
In some cases, the active transport mechanism can exchange one substance for
another. For example, the sodium-potassium pump
Vesicular Transport
- Is a membrane protein which use vehicles to move to the contents of the cell.
Endocytosis and Exocytosis
- Large water-soluble molecules, small pieces of water, and even whole cells can be
transported across cell membranes in membrane-bound sacs called vesicles.
Endocytosis
Is the uptake of material through the cell membrane by the formation of a vesicle.
It usually exhibits specificity. The cell membrane contains specific receptor molecules
that bind specific substances.
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
When a specific substance binds to the receptor molecule, endocytosis is triggered,
and the substance is transported into the cell.
Phagocytosis (cell-eating)
- is often used in endocytosis, when solid particles are ingested.
- is an important means by which white blood cells take up and destroy harmful
substances that have entered the body.
Pinocytosis (cell-drinking)

is distinguished from phagocytosis in that much smaller vesicles are formed,

and they contain liquid rather than particles.

Secretory Vesicles
- accumulate materials for the release from the cell.
Exocytosis
when the secretory vesicles move to the cell membrane, where the membrane of
the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the material in the vesicle is
eliminated from the cells.
It allows the release of materials from cells.

III. CELL DIVISION

the division of a cell into two daughter cells with the same genetic material.
A. INTERPHASE

A non dividing phase, phase of the cell cycle in which a typical cell spends most of its
life. During this phase, the cell copies its DNA in preparation for mitosis.

B. MITOSIS

is nuclear division and produces two identical daughter cells that obtains the same
number and type of chromosomes as parent cell during prophase, metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase

Prophase
- each chromosome consists of two chromatids joined at the centromere
Metaphase
- chromosomes align at the center of the cell
Anaphase
-chromatids separate at the centromere and migrate to opposite poles
Telophase
- the two new nuclei assume their normal structure, and cell division is completed,
producing two new daughter cells

C. CYTOKINESIS

is the physical process of cell division, which divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into
two daughter cells. It occurs concurrently with two types of nuclear division called
mitosis and meiosis, which occur in animal cells.