Lect.

1Introduction

StructuralGeology
Lecture1
Introduction:
Theparametersofstructuralgeology
(constants,conversionfactors,etc)
StructuralgeologyboilsdowntoastudyofNewton'sfamouslawsofmotionas
theypertaintothedeformationofrockswithintheearth.Newton'sfirstlawofmotion
statesthat"Everybodypersistsinitsstateofrestorofuniformmotioninastraightline
unlessitiscompelledtochangethatstatebyforcesimpressedonit".Theverypresence
offaultsandfoldsinthecrustsuggeststhatrocks,seeminglyatrest,wereoncesubjectto
forcesthatchangedtheiroriginalstatebymotionofonepointrelativetoanother.
Structuralgeologyisthestudyofthedeformationofrocks.Initssimplestformthisisa
descriptionofpresentgeometries.Astudyofthemotioncausingthegeometrieswithin
rocksiscalledkinematics.Astudyoftheforcesthatcausethemotioniscalled
dynamics.Themathematicsofstructuralgeologyaredesignedtosimplifythestudyof
kinematicsanddynamics.
Structuralgeologyisthestudyofthegeometry,kinematics,anddynamicsofrock
structures.Geometricanalysisisthedescriptiveorqualitativeportionofstructural
geology.Thisportionofstructuralgeologyisasthenameimplies:Astudyofthesize,
shape,andorientationofstructures.Thisportionwascoveredinclassicalstructural
geologycourses.However,inthissetoflecturenotesthestudyofgeometrywillbe
delayeduntilagoodmathematicalbaseisestablished.Inthemeantime,manyofthelab
exerciseswillbedevotedtogeometricanalysis.Oneofthemostusefultoolsingeometric
analysisisthestereonetwhichisaqualitativetoolthatservesthesamepurposeasvectors
withinacoordinatesystem.
Kinematicanalysisrequiresamathematicalbaseforarigoroustreatment.
Kinematics,asyoulearnedwhentakingelementaryphysics,isamathematicaldescription
ofthemotionofobjects.Inthecaseofstructuralgeologykinematicsisthedescriptionof
thepaththatrockstookduringdeformation.Itisalsothemathematicaldescriptionofthe
relativepositionoftwoinfinitesimalpointsduringthedeformationofrocks.Twopoints
canchangebytranslatingtogether,rotatingaroundeachother,orchangingindistance
relativetooneanother.Weshallcallsuchamathematicaldescriptiondeformation
mapping.
Dynamicsisthestudyoftheforceswhichcausedthedeformationsstudiedduring
kinematicanalysis.Inthecaseofstructuralgeologydynamicsincludesthestudyofhow
rocksreacttostress.Foreverystresstherocksrespondwithafinitestrain.Inasense

Lect.1Introduction

rockstructureswouldnothaveformed,ifrockshadnotbeensubjecttoastress.Astudy
ofdynamicsstartswiththefourthlecture.
Likeanyphysicalscience,structuralgeologycomescompletewithitstableof
numericaldataandsymbolsforphysicalproperties.Physicshasitstableoffundamental
andderivedphysicalconstantswhichincludesthespeedoflight(c=3x108m/sec),
Avogadro'snumber(No=6.02x1023/mole),anduniversalgasconstant(R=8.23
joules/(mole)(K).Acomparabletableinvolvesnumericaldatawhichdependon
circumstancessuchasgeographiclocationandare,therefore,notstrictlyphysical
constants.Anothertableconsistsofalistofcommonphysicalpropertieswhichare
representedbysymbolsincludinglettersoftheGreekalphabet.Thesenumericaldata
andmaterialpropertiesformanimportantcomponentofthelanguageofstructural
geology.

Tableofsymbolsforthestructuralgeologist
Symbol

Name

Units

density

ML3

stress

ML1T2

shearstress

ML1T2

normalstress

ML1T2

strain

dimensionless[LL1]

Young'sModulus

ML1T2

Poisson'sratio

dimensionless

Engineeringshearstrain

dimensionless

Pp

porepressure

ML1T2

porosity

dimensionless

temperature

heatflow

JL2T1

Lect.1Introduction

thermalconductivity

JL1T1C1

depth

Tableofnumericaldataforthestructuralgeologist
Symbol

Name

Magnitude

averagegravityatsealevel

9.8m/sec2

meandensityofthemantle

4.5x103kg/m2(4.5g/cm2)

quartz

densityofquartz

2.65x103kg/m2(2.65g/cm2)

Tableofconventionsforthestructuralgeologist
Name

Convention

Principalstresses

1>2>3
Stressesinthecrust

Maximumhorizontalstress

SH

Minimumhorizontalstress

Sh

Verticalhorizontalstress

Sv

Compressionalnormalstress

positive

Tensilenormalstress

negative

Lect.1Introduction

Tableofconversionfactorsforthestructuralgeologist
Stressandpressure
1atm=14.5psi=1bar=106dynes/cm2=105N/m2=105Pascals(Pa)
1MPa=10bars=106N/m2
pressureappliestoafluid
stressappliestoasolid

Tableofdefinitionsforthestructuralgeologist
Name

Definition

AComponentofPrincipalStress

iiori

AnyComponentofStress

ij

DifferentialStress

d=13

MaximumShearStress
LithostaticStress
HydrostaticPressure

MeanStress

max =

1 3
2

SH=Sh=Sv
Pp=Pp=Pp

m =

1 + 2 + 3
3

DeviatoricStress(3components)

m1,m2,m3

EffectiveStress

iPp

Lect.1Introduction

Tableofequationsforthestructuralgeologist
Stressandpressure
Pp=H2OgzSv=rockgz
ifrock=2.5x103kg/m3,g=9.8m/sec2,z=103m,
thenSv=2.5x105kg/msec2=25MPa/km

Finally,theaveragegeothermalgradient(dT/dz)withinthecrustoftheearthis

about20C/kmwhereTistemperatureandzisdepth.Thisgradientcanvaryfrom
10C/kminaglaucophaneschistterrainto40C/km.Thelowgeothermalgradientscan
occurinthevicinityofcrystallineoverthrustswherecoldcrustisdepressed.High
gradientsoccurinaregionofmagmaticintrusion.Heatflow(q)atthesurfaceisan
indicationofgeothermalgradientprovidedthethermalconductivity(K)ofthecrustis
known
q=K(dT/ ).
dz