Ubiquitous Computing and Communication Journal

(ISSN 1992-8424)

MOBILITY AWARE ROUTING WITH PARTIAL ROUTE

PRESERVATION IN WIRELESS SENSOR NETWORKS
Sanat Sarangi, Subrat Kar
Bharti School of Telecommunication Technology
And Management, IIT Delhi
New Delhi 110016 India
sanat.sarangi@gmail.com, subrat@ee.iitd.ac.in

ABSTRACT
We propose a novel reactive routing algorithm called PARTROUTE which achieves
energy efficient routing in sensor networks with stationary and mobile nodes.
PARTROUTE uses coarse mobility awareness in each node to reduce the overheads of
reactive routing by intelligently re-using parts of the created on-demand routes beyond
their standard lifetime. We show that the responsiveness of the network improves while
the overall network traffic is reduced. The effectiveness of PARTROUTE with a large
percentage of mobile nodes is also shown.
Keywords: wireless sensor network, routing protocol, PARTROUTE, mobility
aware, AODV, AODVjr

INTRODUCTION

A typical sensor network has a single gateway

and a set of connected nodes that participate in
sensing and forwarding application defined events to
the gateway. Some of the key driving factors in
designing routing algorithms for sensor networks are
(a) size of the network (the number of nodes), (b)
limited node energy, (c) deployment topology and
(d) provision for node mobility. Traditionally, there
have been two approaches to routing proactive and
reactive. In proactive routing, routes can be
computed and updated beforehand so that data is sent
through the best possible route. In reactive routing,
routes are created on-demand. The diversity of
sensor network applications have driven the
evolution of classes of application appropriate
routing algorithms which can be cluster-based [1],
hierarchical [2], robust [3], energy-aware [4],
geographic [5], query based [6] or swarm-behaviourbased [7].
When some nodes in the network are mobile,
reactive routing becomes necessary. Dynamic Source
Routing (DSR) [8] and Ad-hoc On-demand Distance
Vector Routing (AODV) [9] are popular reactive
algorithms developed for mobile ad-hoc networks
(MANETs).
2

MOTIVATION

Most reactive algorithms assume that the nodes

in the network are mobile. However, mobile nodes
are not explicitly aware of their own mobility.

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

Recently, in [10], PH-MA-AODV and Agg-AODV

have been proposed that use mobility awareness to
improve the performance of reactive algorithms with
high-speed MANETs. In PH-MA-AODV a highly
mobile node discards a route-request to prevent itself
from participating in route formation. In Agg-AODV
the route-request accumulates the degree of mobility
of each intermediate node and the destination
chooses the route with minimum mobility. However,
both the algorithms assume that the intermediate
nodes can precisely measure their speed of
movement. In [11], prediction of broken links is used
to trigger routing updates before links break.
Mobility requirements in most sensor networks
are different from those of MANETs. The emphasis
in sensor networks is on minimizing energy
consumption with provision for (often low) mobility
within a stationary mesh of nodes where all nodes
talk to a central gateway. We propose a routing
algorithm PARTROUTE for memory-constrained
and energy-sensitive sensor networks with stationary
and mobile nodes where each node is explicitly
aware of its mobility status at any point of time and
this knowledge is used to intelligently preserve
part(s) of the route(s) formed during reactive routing
beyond the standard route lifetime. PARTROUTE
dynamically adapts itself to changing network
conditions and helps improve event delivery while
reducing both (a) the overall network traffic and (b)
latency of route formation (which is critical) for
mobile nodes.
With rapid strides in Micro Electro-Mechanical
Systems (MEMS), coarse mobility (moving or
stationary) awareness can now be easily added to

848

sensor nodes with the help of low-cost

accelerometers. Accelerometers have been used to
detect gait postures like walking, standing, lying [12]
[13]. Such information in the context of the
behavioural pattern of the subject can be used to
know whether a node is (and to predict if is likely to
remain) stationary or mobile. In a sensor network
containing such semi-mobile nodes, any semi-mobile
node that finds itself stationary could temporarily
behave like any other (always) stationary node.
PARTROUTE is designed to effectively use this
behavior to significantly improve routing
performance in such networks.
The rest of the paper is divided into four sections.
Section III describes the algorithm. In Section IV we
evaluate the performance of PARTROUTE
analytically and compare it with the simulation
results given in Section V. PARTROUTE is also
compared with AODVjr [14] to show the improved
performance under different conditions.
3

THE
PARTROUTE
ALGORITHM

ROUTING

In PARTROUTE, we consider a sensor network

with N nodes v1..vN having a set of stationary nodes
VS and a set of mobile nodes VM. |VS| + |VM| = N and
VS VM = N. Any node vi belongs to only one of the
sets and adheres to the policies laid out for that set.
L(vi, vj) is a link between vi and vj, i j. In
PARTROUTE we have two kinds of links static
and dynamic. If two nodes vi, vj VS, they are
permitted to form a static or a dynamic link. In all
other cases the link is dynamic. Links are created and
updated only on reception of packets and a table is
used to maintain link information. A route between
vi and vj with intermediate node vk is denoted by
P(vi, vk, vj), i j k. A dynamic link has a lifetime of
lifetimeDYNAMIC and for a static link it is lifetimeSTATIC
with lifetimeDYNAMIC < lifetimeSTATIC. The value for
lifetimeSTATIC is application specific and is further
discussed in Sections 4 and 5. It depends on factors
like deployment area, number of nodes, mobility
behaviour of nodes and their event generation rates.
AODV is an established reactive routing
algorithm for MANETs and AODVjr is a successor
to AODV which achieves performance comparable
to AODV without overheads such as sequence
numbers, gratuitous RREP, hop count, hello
messages, RERR and precursor lists from AODV.
AODVjr is therefore more suitable for memory and
energy constrained sensor networks. We compare
PARTROUTE with AODVjr.
PARTROUTE uses two kinds of route-requests:
M-ROUTE-REQUEST and S-ROUTE-REQUEST
for route creation as discussed in Section 3.4 and
Section 3.5 respectively. M-ROUTE-REQUEST is
processed by vi, vj VS VM whereas S-ROUTEREQUEST is processed by vi if vj VS and

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

discarded if vj VM. A mobile node uses only MROUTE-REQUEST to create a route to the gateway.
All stationary nodes in the network except the
gateway use S-ROUTE-REQUEST to reach the
gateway. The gateway uses M-ROUTE-REQUEST
to find a stationary or mobile node in the network
since M-ROUTE-REQUEST is accepted and
processed by all nodes. We assume that the network
has a single gateway and each node in the network is
aware of this gateway. The principle can be extended
to multiple gateways, without loss of generality.
In PARTROUTE stationary nodes are allowed to
behave like mobile nodes under certain conditions. If
the duration for which mobile nodes rest (i.e. become
stationary) is large when compared to the duration
for which they move, they can be allowed to
temporarily function as stationary nodes during the
stationary phase. The target application determines
(a) the use of this role-switching feature and (b) the
duration of rest. Role-switching is discussed in
Section 3.3.
3.1

Reactive Route Discovery

We use Expanding Ring Search based route
discovery [15], an energy efficient method to
discover a route to a destination node. The source
sends a route-request message with TTL set to 1 and
simultaneously starts a timer that expires after twice
the node-traversal time. If the destination is one hop
away it sends a route-reply message which reaches
the source before the timer expires. If a route-reply is
not received, the source increases the TTL value,
proportionately increases the timeout and repeats the
process till either the destination is reached or the
source gives up. This limits the propagation extent of
the flooded route-request thereby saving energy. The
destination sends the route-reply back to the source
along the route taken by the first route-request it
receives. When a node with a valid route to the
destination sends a route-reply on behalf of the
destination, the reply is called gratuitous [15].
3.2

Partial Route Preservation

Partial route preservation implies retaining a part
of a reactively created route, for a period longer than
the standard lifetime for the route. The partial route
is called a trace. Each node on a trace is called a
representative. A stationary or mobile node which is
not a representative is called a non-representative.
The gateway is considered to be a representative of
itself. In PARTROUTE there can be two kinds of
route-replies to a route-request: (a) intermediatenode route-reply that can only be generated by a
representative, (b) destination-node route-reply that
only the gateway can generate. Henceforth, a node
that is allowed to send a route-reply for a routerequest is called a reply-node. It may be noted that an
intermediate-node route-reply is different from a
gratuitous route-reply [15] which is generated by any

849

node witth a route to

t the destinnation based on
sequence number infoormation alreaady present with
w
t route-requuest.
the node and that recceived with the
Sequencee numbers are usedd by neiither
PARTRO
OUTE nor AO
ODVjr. Moreeover, unlike the
gratuitous route-reply, a representative does not send
s
mmunication to the gateeway about the
any com
intermediiate-node routte-reply that itt generates.

Figure 1: Trace formatioon in PARTROU

UTE

Fig. 1 illustrates trrace formationn in the preseence

of stationnary (black) annd mobile (whhite) nodes whhere
mobile node
n
6 sendss a route-reqquest (RREQ)) to
which thee gateway repplies. Each staationary node that
the route--reply (RREP
P) encounters on its return path
p
till it reaaches a mobbile node (noode 4 in Fig. 1)
becomes a representative candidatte. Representaative
w
candidatees are conveerted to reprresentatives with
create-traace messages discussed in Section
S
3.3.
Statioonary nodes (nnode 5 in Fig. 1) that occur in a
route afteer a mobile node
n
(node 4)
4 cannot becoome
representtatives. The mobile
m
node (node
(
4) upddates
the routee-reply with this
t
informatiion to notify the
stationaryy nodes that process
p
the rooute-reply afteer it
about it. Any subsequuent request for
f a route to the
gateway by a mobile node can bee serviced by the
representtatives which are closer to the event souurce
than thee gateway crreating moree traces on the
stationaryy nodes. Thiis helps serviice future roouterequests even
e
faster.
Hencceforth, we usse SR and SU to denote thee set
of
reppresentatives
and
noon-representattives
respectively. A repressentative is deenoted by Ri and
non-repreesentative by Ui, i I+, wheere I+ denotess the
set of poositive integeers. SR SU = N (numberr of
nodes in the
t network).
M
Crreate-trace Messages
A rooute-reply creeates a set off potential noodes
called reppresentative candidates whiich could becoome
3.3

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

presentative noodes (Section 3.2). The lasst of these

rep
rep
presentative caandidates form
med by a routee-reply (i.e.
nod
de 3 in Fig. 1) sends a crreate-trace (C
CT) to the
gateway and recceives an acknnowledgemen
nt (CA) to
beccome a reprresentative. S
Since a reprresentative
can
ndidate does not
n know whetther it is the laast one on
the path of the rooute-reply, the first mobile node that
gets the route-reeply after a sseries of reprresentative
ndidates sendss a special m
message called
d a createcan
tracce-request (CTR) to the preevious node (the
(
last of
the representativve candidatess) asking it to
t send a
n
the
create-trace. Witth no intermeddiate mobile nodes,
ute request oriiginator sendss the create-traace if it is
rou
the last representtative candidaate. Create-traace request
n used here.. The gatewayy on receiving
g a createis not
tracce acknowledges its recceipt by sen
nding an
ack
knowledgemennt to the create-trace originator.
A create-tracce message annd its acknowlledgement
con
nvert all dynam
mic links on thhe path betweeen createtracce originator and the gatew
way into staticc links by
upd
dating their link lifetimes to lifetimeSTTATIC. The
create-trace origginator makess a suitable number
n
of
c
iff it does not receive
r
an
retrries to send create-trace
ack
knowledgemennt
beforre
giving
g
up.
Ack
knowledgemeents may not be received either
e
due
to (a) lossy linnks or (b) role-switching where an
inteermediate stattionary node on the path of createtracce (or its ackknowledgemeent) message suddenly
beccomes mobile and voluntariily drops the message.
m
Traansmission of
o a create-trace messag
ge by a
rep
presentative for
f
every inttermediate-no
ode routerep
ply that it gennerates can siggnificantly increase the
eneergy consumpption level of the network. We limit
thiss behaviour by
b defined a vvariable CTPEERIOD such
thatt every time a representativve sends a creeate-trace,
it does
d
not send a create-tracee for any even
nt received
witthin the next (lifetimeSTATIIC - CTPERIOD) seconds,
0 CTPERIOD
lifetimeSTATIC to reduce the
oveerheads due too create-trace.. Create-trace messages
can
n also becom
me carriers of the nod
de ids of
inteermediate reppresentative caandidates to notify the
gateway about thheir presence.
Route Foormation An
nd Route Repair for
Stationarry Nodes
Stationary nodes onlly use S-ROUTES
EQUESTs to create routees to the gatteway. SRE
RO
OUTE-REQUE
ESTs only suupport destinaation-node
mode operation. So, gateway is the only reeply-node.
a S-ROUTE--REQUEST iis received by
y a mobile
If an
nod
de, it is simplyy discarded. S
So a route creaated to the
gateway with S-R
ROUTE-REQ
QUEST is guaaranteed to
ve only statioonary nodes iimplying that the trace
hav
created in the prrocess is the same as the route.
r
If a
f
to form a route, it perfforms role
stattionary node fails
swiitching (Section 3.6) and behaves like a mobile
nod
de (Section 3.55).
3.4

850

3.5

Rooute Formattion and Rooute Repair for

Mobile Nodes
Mobiile nodes usse M-ROUTE
E-REQUESTss to
form rouutes to the gateway.
g
A mobile
m
node can
indicate either
e
intermeediate-node orr destination-nnode
mode off operation inn the M-ROU
UTE-REQUE
EST.
The interrmediate-nodee mode is useed by default and
destinatioon-node modde is used under speecial
circumstaances as discuussed below.

Figure 2: M-ROUTE-RE
EQUEST from mobile
m
node 100
extends traace L(1, 2) to P(1,2,6)
P

In
the
interm
mediate-node
mode,
any
representtative can be a reply-node and send thee MROUTE-REPLY to an
a M-ROUTE
E-REQUEST
T. A
n
successfuully created rooute between the mobile node
and a reppresentative coould extend the
t previous trrace
terminatinng at the repreesentative by adding new sttatic
links beyond it or create a neew trace if the
a shown in Fiig. 1.
representtative is the gaateway itself as
Even duuring trace extension, the create-trrace
message acknowledgement is geenerated by the
gateway instead of thhe intermediatte node. Exissting
traces get extended byy the recursivvely applying this
principle.. In Fig. 2 an M-ROUTE-R
REPLY generated
from nodde (representaative) 2 in ressponse to the MROUTE-REQUEST frrom node 10 forms
f
a route P(1,
way and adds static
s
link L(22, 6)
2, 6, 10) to the gatew
to extendd the trace L(1, 2) to P(1, 2, 6).
After creating a route in the intermediate-n
i
node
n
discoverrs that it did not
mode, if the mobile node
a acknowleddgement from the gatewayy for
receive an
an appliccation level event, it staarts sending MROUTE-REQUESTs in
i destination-node mode after
a
NTa certainn number off retries (givven by EVEN
RETRY-COUNT) usinng the intermeediate-node mode
m
mined by thhe target appplication. Since
as determ
gateway is the reply-nnode for this mode, a routte is
b
the mobile
m
node and the gatew
way
created between
possibly creating anothher trace in thhe process. Once
O
munication ressumes, the moobile
applicatioon level comm
nodes sw
witches back too using interm
mediate-modee MROUTE-REQUESTs for
f creating suubsequent routtes.
Sincee M-ROUTE-REQUESTs are processedd by
all nodess they may form shorterr traces thann S-

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

RO
OUTE-REQUE
ESTs. This iss acceptable to mobile
nod
des since theyy would anywaay change their location.
How
wever, repressentatives on tthe trace creaated in the
pro
ocess would help
h
provide faaster responsees to other
nod
des generatingg M-ROUTE-R
REQUESTs.
3.6

Role Swittching
A stationaryy node that is uunable to find a route to
n
by
the gateway thhrough other stationary nodes
nsmitting a S-ROUTE-RE
S
EQUEST is allowed
a
to
tran
beh
have like a moobile node (Seection 3.5). Th
his allows
stattionary nodees that havve been iso
olated by
dep
ployment or have becoome isolated
d during
opeeration possiibly due too non-availaability of
neighbouring staationary nodees to be ablee to route
eveents through VS VM insteaad of only VS. Similarly,
a mobile
m
node could become stationary if it remains
idlee and the target appllication justiifies this
con
nversion afterr consideringg the dynamics of the
mobile node as discussed
d
in Section 2.
We now expplain using Figg. 3 how role--switching
by a node particiipating in rouute formation affects
a
the
beh
haviour of PA
ARTROUTE aafter the route is created.
Fou
ur cases aree used to analyze the different
circcumstances encountered
e
bby a mobile node M
when it createss a route too the gateway G. A
mbination of these cases m
may be used to
t explain
com
how
w PARTRO
OUTE handlles other situations.
Wh
herever appliccable, the conncerned nodee switches
its role immediattely after proccessing the M-ROUTEM
EQUEST. Rolle-switching does not ex
xempt the
RE
nod
de from its responsibilityy to processs the MRO
OUTE-REPLY
Y it receives for this M-ROUTEM
RE
EQUEST.

Fiigure 3: Refereence diagram foor role-switching

g analysis

Case 1: Let us assum

me a station
nary nonrep
presentative Uk lies on P(M
M, U1, U2, , UP,
P R1, R2, ,
RQ,, G). If Uk sw
witches its rolle immediately after it
pro
ocesses M-RO
OUTE-REQU
UEST, it forregoes its
chaance to becom
me a representtative after th
he route is
form
med if K = P or all nodes between Uk and
a R1 are
stattionary.
diate-node
Case 2: If R1 that sent the intermed
resp
ponse to thee M-ROUTE
E-REQUEST becomes
mobile then {M
M, U1, U2, , UP, R1} SU an
nd {R2, ,
diate-node
RQ,, G} SR. R1 cannot ssend intermed
rou
ute-replies to subsequent M-ROUTE-R
REQUEST
pacckets since it is not a represeentative any more.
m
o of the othher representaatives Ri, i
Case 3: If one
1 switches its role, its effe
fect is not im
mmediately
parent since M-ROUTE-R
M
REQUESTs arre fielded
app
by R1 which com
mes before Ri. However, now {M, U1,
U2, , UP, Ri} SU. If Ri, now a mobile node
betw
ween represenntatives Ri-1 aand Ri+1 generrates a M-

851

ROUTE-REQUEST, Ri-1 could givve a intermediiatenode respponse withoutt realizing thaat its route too the
gateway passes throuugh Ri, thus creating a cyycle
between Ri and Ri-1. When mobille (or stationnary)
nodes thhat use routes with L (Ri-1, Ri) as an
intermediiate link fail to receive accknowledgem
ments
for eventts they sends to the gatewaay, they perceive
this as a broken link problem andd use destinattionM
EQUESTs (or S-ROU
UTEnode M-ROUTE-RE
REQUES
STs) to find new routes to the gatew
way
breaking the above cyycle in the prrocess unless the
t nodes in thhe cycle. If noodes
new routees do not use the
in the cyycle are not ussed, the cyclee disappears after
a
link liffetimes expire due to absence of
communiication througgh the links.
Thereefore, rapid roole-switching by
b a mobile node
n
could advversely affect performance of PARTROU
UTE.
So we coonstrain fidgetty mobile noddes to always stay
mobile to minimizee the overhheads due such
s
conditionns.
Case 4: If a mobilee node UK swiitches its role and
becomes stationary just after proocessing the Mit
either
a
ROUTE-REQUEST
becomes
representtative provided K = P (sincce UP is adjacent
to R1) or all nodes betw
ween UK and R1 are stationnary.
Else, UK remains a stattionary non-reepresentative.
4

RFORMANCE
E
PER
PAR
RTROUTE

EVALU
UATION

OF

A large delay
d
in routee formation iss a bottleneckk for
reactive algorithms
a
duee to their on-ddemand naturee. In
the earlieer sections, we
w have seenn how traces can
successfuully help reducce this delay for
f mobile noodes.
In this Seection we builld an analytical model in order
to characcterize PART
TROUTEs performance
p
w
with
respect too delay in rooute formatioon. The modeel is
used to analyze
a
the simulation ressults presentedd in
Section 5.
5
4.1 Asssumptions
The noddes are idenntical with an
a ideal circcular
transmisssion range of
o radius L. The analysiss is
carried ouut with respecct events sent to the gatewaay G
by a mobbile node M moving
m
withinn a circular reggion
CK with radius
r
K as shown
s
in Fig.4. The changge in
position of M in thee interval bettween sendinng a
route-reqquest and geetting back its responsee is
negligiblee. All transm
mission, channnel and recepption
conditionns are ideal soo a route-respponse is receiived
for everyy route-requesst. Radio proppagation delaay is
negligiblee when comppared to the trransmission delay
at the meessage sourcee. So, the Hopp Traversal Time
T
(denoted by , 0) for
fo a message to be receivedd by
o the messsage
any nodde within a radius L of
transmitteer is essentiaally the same.. Mean queueeing
and proceessing delays are consideredd to be a part of
since theyy are applicabble to every noode. We assum
me a

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

nse uniform deployment

d
oof sensor nod
des in CK
den
succh that an eveent transmitteed by M can reach the
gateway in x/L hops throughh (x/L1) inttermediate
des on a linearr path betweenn M and G.
nod

Figure 4: A circullar sensor netwoork deploymentt for

anaalysis

4.2

Estimatin
ng Route F
Formation Response
Time
Suppose at a given instannt T, the mobille node M
a a distance x from the G and does not
n have a
is at
rou
ute to the gatew
way. It generaates a route-reequest and
exp
pects a route-rresponse. Delaay (D ) experrienced by
M at
a a distance x is the duratiion between the
t time at
which it originattes the route-rrequest and th
he time at
c
which it receives the route-reeply. So the cumulative
delay experienceed by M for alll its positionss on a ring
d
x andd (infinitesim
mal) width dx from G is
at distance
D . 2xdx. Hencee, for a given algorithm A, the mean
Ressponse Time (RTA) experieenced by M positioned
p
any
ywhere in CK is obtainned by averaaging the
cum
mulative delayy over all posiitions at distan
nce x, 0
x K in CK. Thiis is given as
K

RT
TA

D .
K

With the asssumptions in Section 4.1, the route

req
quest from M is received aat the same tiime by all
nod
des within a circle
c
of radiuus L around M. These
nod
des again broaadcast the rouute-request to repeat the
pro
ocess. In AOD
DVjr only G iss allowed to respond
r
to
the route requestt. So, the routee request wou
uld need at
leasst x/L hops to reach G. This is also the worst
casse situation foor PARTROU
UTE since thee gateway
wou
uld have to fiield all route-requests in th
he absence
of traces.
t
For this case Dx 2 x/L .
OUTE, the route-reply may
y be given
For PARTRO
by an intermediate node if itt is a represen
ntative. A
presentative coould be encouuntered at n ho
ops where
rep

852

1 n x/L
x . Mobilityy pattern of M is random, trrace
lifetimes are configguration speccific and trrace
formationn depends on earlier route formaation
attempts and percenntage of sttationary noodes.
w
Assumingg n takes eacch value withhin its range with
equal proobability, the mean value of
o Dx is givenn by
/L
Dx 2
1 .
n / x/L x//L
a route-requeests are fieldeed at
In thee best case, all
the first hop.
h So Dx 2
2.
Loweer the Respponse Time, lesser is the
possibilitty of the gateway and nodes near it gettting
choked with
w route-requuest packets thhat could degrrade
performaance in a livee scenario. Also,
A
decreasee in
Responsee Time imprroves perform
mance for high
h
speed moobile nodes (further discuussed in Secction
5.2.2). We
W also definee a figure of merit
m
Trace Inndex
(TI) whicch is used to compare thee effectiveness of
PARTRO
OUTE when compared
c
to AODVjr.
A
Smaaller
the valuue of TI, better
b
the reesponsiveness of
PARTRO
OUTE.
RTPARTROUTE
P

TI

RT
TAODV

o the same evvent instead of

o the next
retrransmission of
eveent. A single gateway, a sset (R) of 30 randomly
dep
ployed non-evvent- generatinng nodes (con
nfigured to
be static or mobbile as per reequirement) an
nd one or
more event-generating mobiile nodes aree used to
TROUTE.
chaaracterize thee performancce of PART
Mo
ovement of mobile nodes iss random way
ypoint [8].
Nodes randomlyy choose a loocation and a velocity
betw
ween 1.0m/ss to 2.0m/s. After movin
ng to the
location with thhe chosen veloocity the nex
xt location
d velocity aree chosen. It may be notted that a
and
stattionary nodee may be eeither (a) an
n always
stattionary node or (b) a role--switching sem
mi-mobile
nod
de (discussed in Section 2) which is stattionary for
the duration of siimulation.

ple Event Sou

urces
Efffect of Multip
The performance
p
of PARTROU
UTE improvees as
the numbber of event soources increase since (a) more
m
traces arre created and
a
(b) exissting traces are
preservedd for longer duurations. More traces help give
g
faster ressponses to rouute-requests frrom mobile noodes
thereby controlling
c
thhe flooding of routing conntrol
packets. If
I a node in the
t network has
h a trace too the
gateway, for this traace to persisst for the enntire
i is
lifetime of the netwoork it is impportant that it
t
refreshedd with eventts at intervaals smaller than
lifetimeSTTATIC.
Deplooyment param
meters especiially size of the
area and the mean ratee of event genneration shouldd be
used to estimate a suittable value forr lifetimeSTATIIC in
h
effective traces.
order to have

4.3

ULATION
SIMU

Discrete event simulaation with sim

mulation runs for
t evaluate thhe performancce of
1000 secoonds is used to
PARTRO
OUTE. The efffect of multipple event souurces
on PART
TROUTE is analyzed.
a
Thee results obtaiined
for PARTROUTE aree compared against
a
AOD
DVjr.
T
Index diiscussed in Seection 4 is useed as
Finally, Trace
a measurre of the Respponse Time of the networkk for
PARTRO
OUTE.
Coonditions
An ideal
i
circular radio modell is used forr all
nodes. There
T
are no packet lossees and nodes are
always awake.
a
For every eventt that the node
n
transmits, it receives an
a acknowleddgement from
m the
gateway. Non-receipt of acknowleddgement leadds to
5.1

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

Figure 5: A quarteer-circular regioon with random

mly
dep
ployed nodes annd a gateway

Nodes are deployed in a quarter-circu

ular region
QK (a quarter of CK in Sectionn 4.1) with rad
dius 300m
(Fig
g. 5). QK is divided
d
into 3 sectors with
h 10 noneveent-generatingg nodes in eacch sector. Thee range of
eacch node (L) is 75m. From
m Section 4.1,, an event
gen
nerated by a node farthestt (i.e. 300m) from the
gateway needs 3 intermediatee nodes separrated from
eacch other by 755m to reach tthe gateway. However,
we use 10 nodees in each seector to (a) su
ufficiently
d
of nnodes, (b) keep the
incrrease the density
disttribution of nodes acrosss the deploym
ment area
hom
mogeneous evven with mobbility and (c)) create a
netw
work of reassonable size ffor analysis. It can be
sho
own that Trace Index for CK (in Section
n 4.2) also
hollds for each of
o its four com
mponent quarrter circles
(cen
ntered at G with
w radius K)) and hence for
fo QK. QK
also
o serves as
a
a referrence for analyzing
PA
ARTROUTEs performancee in topologiies where
the gateway is at
a a corner raather than the centre of
the network.
nodess
when
Each
nonn-event-generaating
con
nfigured to bee mobile movves only withiin its own
secctor. Event-generating nodee(s) move in the whole
dep
ployment areaa. The range oof each node is kept at

853

75m to have
h
sufficientt overlap betw
ween transmission
range off nodes. Paacket size iss kept consttant,
lifetimeDYYNAMIC is keptt at 15s, CTPEERIOD is set to 30s
and EVE
ENT-RETRY
Y-COUNT is set to 3. The
estimatedd Hop Traverrsal Time is 0.1 seconds. An
event transmission is
i attempted by an evventgeneratinng mobile nodde every 6 secconds. If a moobile
node in PARTROUTE
P
E fails to delivver an event after
a
the retriees defined byy EVENT-RETRY-COUNT
T, it
uses
d
destination-no
ode
M-RO
OUTE-REQUE
EST
(Section 3.5) till it suuccessfully delivers
d
an evvent.
Henceforrth we use PARTROUTE-x to referr to
PARTRO
OUTE with thee value of lifeetimeSTATIC ass x.
We use
u the term Total Packet Count to dennote
the total number
n
of (daata and routingg control) pacckets
transmitteed by all nodees. Event Packet Count is used
u
to denotee the total num
mber event paackets transmiitted
by all noodes. Event Count
C
refers to
t the numbeer of
events seent by an evennt source for which it receeives
an acknow
wledgement. So, the total number
n
of pacckets
transmitteed for everyy event (TP
PE) successffully
transferreed to the gatew
way is given by
b
T

TPE

P
E

C
C

perrcentage of thhe stationary nnodes from R are made

mobile and the performance
p
oof both the alg
gorithms is
mpared by vaarying this perrcentage from
m 0 to 80.
com
Fig
gs 7, 8 and 9 show
s
variationn of the Respo
onse Time,
Tottal Packet Count andd Event Count
C
for
PA
ARTROUTE-150 and AODV
Vjr for 0-80%
% mobility.
It is observeed from Fig.. 7 that for stationary
nod
des, Responsee Time for PA
ARTROUTE-1
150 is less
than
n half of thatt of AODVjr i.e. PARTRO
OUTE-150
is almost twicee as responssive as AOD
DVjr. The
Ressponse Time remains signiificantly smalller (60%)
eveen when up to 40% nodes arre mobile. As expected,
when almost all nodes (80% nodes) are mobile,
m
the
o algorithm
ms have ssimilar perrformance.
two

5.2 Reesults
5.2.1 Effect
E
of multiiple event souurces
From
m Fig. 6 it is cllear that multiiple event souurces
reduce thhe Response Time
T
of the neetwork as perr the
discussion in Section 4.3. Also, forr a given num
mber
s
once the
t created traaces get refresshed
of event sources
periodicaally, any furtther increase in the valuee of
lifetimeSTTATIC does not signifiicantly imprrove
performaance e.g. forr a single event
e
source no
significannt improvement in responsee time is obserrved
by increaasing lifetimeSTATIC
from 1500 to 200.
S

Figure 7: Variatioon of Response Time (in secon

nds) for
AO
ODVjr and PAR
RTROUTE-150 for different nu
umbers of
mob
bile nodes (0%: all nodes stationary)

For 0% mobility, eventss in PARTRO

OUTE-150
are sent over (thhe long) tracees created a priori
p
over
DVjr, the
the stationary nodes whereeas in AOD
insttantaneously created routees to the gatteway are
typically shorterr. So, marginally higher TPE
T
levels
for PARTROUT
TE-150 when compared to
o AODVjr
g 8) are duee to PARTRO
OUTE-150s relatively
(Fig
hig
gher Event Paccket Count. H
However, as discussed in
Secction 4.2, wheen the event-ggenerating mo
obile node
moves at a (rellatively higheer) speed off 4-5 m/s,
ARTROUTE-150 outperfforms AOD
DVjr by
PA
delivering 3% more
m
events wiith 21% lowerr TPE due
i significantlly lower Response Time.
to its

Figure 6: Variation of Reesponse Time (in

( seconds) witth
lifetimeSTAATIC (lifetimeSTTATIC takes values 50, 100, 1500,
200 seconds)

5.2.2 Comparison
C
off PARTROUT
TE with AODV
Vjr
Respponse Time foor PARTROU
UTE for a sinngle
mobile evvent source dooes not vary significantly
s
a
after
150s as shown in Figg. 6 So, PAR
RTROUTE-150 is
DVjr. A cerrtain
used forr comparisonn with AOD

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

Figure 8: TPE forr AODVjr and P

PARTROUTE-150

854

T
With mobility, lenngths of tracess shorten so TPE
mobiliity,
TPE
for
decreasess. For 400%
PARTRO
OUTE-150 is
i 74% off AODVjr an
improvem
ment of 26%. With 80% mobility, duee to
lack of sufficient
s
stattionary nodess PARTROU
UTE150 and AODVjr havve similar TP
PE levels. Evvent
DVjr
Count forr PARTROUTE-150 is moore than AOD
for all caases except with
w
0% mobbility where it
i is
almost saame. PARTRO
OUTE-150 deelivers up to 15%
1
more eveents than AOD
DVjr with 40%
% mobility.
To seee the effectss of semi-mobbility (Sectionn 2)
with a larrge stationaryy period withiin the durationn of
the simullation we connfigure each node
n
in R to keep
k
switchingg its status beetween mobille and stationnary.
The duraation for beinng mobile annd stationary are
given byy two normallly distributed variables with
w
mean vallues of 450s and
a 50s respecctively, each with
w
a standarrd deviation of 10s. Thiis prevents roler
switchingg from happenning synchronnously. Each node
n
is initiallly mobile. PA
ARTROUTE--150 delivers 5%
more eveents, has a 17%
% lower respoonse time andd 8%
lower TP
PE compared to AODVjr.

Figure 10: A grid deployment off nodes

5.2.3
5
Variationn in Trace Inddex
From Sectioon 4.2, theorretical values of Trace
Ind
dex with L=755 and K=300 aare given as 1, 0.66 and
0.32 for worst, mean and bbest case resspectively.
g.11 shows hoow the simullation results for Trace
Fig
Ind
dex for PART
TROUTE-1500 compare ag
gainst the
theoretical worsst, mean and best case leevels. The
west value of 0.44
0
is observed for Trace Index
I
with
low
stattionary nodess. With 40% mobility, the observed
Traace Index is 0..6 which is beetter than meaan value of
0.66.

EFigure 9: Event Count foor AODVjr andd PARTROUTE

150

A toopology in Fig. 5 withh random node

n
deploymeent has been used
u
to characcterize the genneral
behaviouur of PARTR
ROUTE. How
wever, a typpical
commonlly used configuration wouuld look like Fig.
10 wheree 50% of the stationary noodes in R (i.e. 15
nodes annd the gatew
way) form a connected grid
through which
w
events can be easily routed and the
remainingg 50% move throughout thhe grid usingg the
random-w
waypoint mobbility model discussed
d
earrlier.
There is one evennt-generating mobile noode.
s
as earrlier.
Remaininng conditionss are the same
Transmisssion range of nodes annd the distaance
between adjacent nodees on a row or column is 75m.
7
OUTE-150 delivers 12% more
m
events when
w
PARTRO
comparedd to AODVjr at a 20% low
wer response time
t
and 20% lower TPE. With
W appropriiate adjustmennt of
h
node trannsmission rangge, the configuuration also helps
in carryinng out localizaation [16] [17]].

UbiCC Journal, Volume 6: Issue 2

I
Analysis
Figure 11: Trace Index

CONCLUSIION

Wee have shown how logicallly dividing the network

into
o stationary and
a mobile noodes with parrtial route
(traace) preservattion over stattionary nodess can help
incrrease the efffectiveness oof reactive routing
r
in
mobility awaree sensor nnetworks wh
here the
portance of energy-efficciency is paramount.
imp
Perrformance of PARTROU
UTE under different
con
nditions has been show
wn to illusstrate its
app
plicability too different situations. Mobility
chaaracteristics of
o the nodes comprising the
t sensor
netw
work, naturee of event traffic and
d typical
dep
ployment topoologies couldd be used to configure
PA
ARTROUTE
to
bring
significant
s
about

855

improvements on all routing performance parameters.

PARTROUTE can also find significant application
with Body Sensor Networks where the mobility
pattern of nodes can be determined with sensors like
accelerometers.
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